Santa Anna in Life and Legend
Description The Benson Latin American Collection holds the handwritten memoirs of Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna. It also holds various other primary sources that add voices to Santa Anna’s questionable account of Mexico’s history. "Santa Anna in Life and Legend" presents a curated digital collection of such items. The exhibit includes a narrative that highlights a few of these collection items, in the context of four themes that recur in scholarship on Santa Anna. It also poses questions that invite viewers to contemplate his legacy, using the highlighted primary sources as a springboard for analysis. Through an interactive map component, viewers can browse all collection items in a temporal-geospatial context. The map presents each item at a relevant location and in connection to periods of Santa Anna's life.
Date Range(s): 1808-1900 Country(ies): Mexico; United States of America; Cuba; Jamaica; Colombia Course Subject(s): Borderland Studies; Digital Scholarship; Latin American Studies; Mexican American & U.S. Latinx Studies; U.S. History: pre-1877; World Geography Studies; World History Studies Topic(s): Santa Anna, Antonio Lopé z de, 1794-1876; Mexican War of Independence (1810-1821); Texas Revolution (1835-1836); Mexican-American War (1846-1848); Pastry War (1838-1839) Document Type(s): Lithographs; Photographs; Maps; Drawings; Memoirs; Circulars; Letters; Juvenile Literature Language(s): English, Spanish Rights Statement Creator(s): Vanessa Garcia Hutchins, Digital Scholarship and Special Collections Intern (Fall 2020), LLILAS Benson Latin American Studies and Collections Date Created: 2020-12-04 Physical Repository: Benson Latin American Collection, University of Texas at Austin
The highlighted primary sources are in the public domain. Access to these materials is provided for educational and research use only.
The exhibition text is under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International Public License ("Public License"). This license lets others share, remix, tweak, and build upon the work non-commercially, as long as they credit the creators and license their new creations under the identical terms. Introduction
Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna (1794-1876) is a colossal figure in Mexico’s history. Mexicans remember him as a “vendepatria” (sellout) who lost over half of their nation’s territory to the United States.1 They condemned him after he became a brutally repressive dictator in the 1850s. 2 However, historians have noted that Santa Anna had a mixed reputation during a majority of his lifetime, and that he was “neither a diabolical dictator nor a benign selfless patriotic patriarch.”3 While scholarship on Santa Anna sheds light on his character in hindsight, what did his contemporaries make of him?
Retrato Fotográfico de Antonio López de Santa Anna, Portrait Drawing of Antonio López de Santa Anna, circa 1840s. circa 1855.
Santa Anna was arguably odd, and his public reception was multilayered.4 For example, he once held an extravagant funeral for his amputated leg. The ceremony reveals his eccentric character and also highlights how the public viewed him at different times in his career.5 Santa Anna lost his left leg when he put himself at the forefront of battle to defend Mexico against French intervention. Because of his military service and victories, several Mexicans admired him as a
1 Will Fowler, “Santa Anna and His Legacy,” Oxford Research Encyclopedia, Latin American History, (New York, NY: Oxford University Press USA, 2015): 1. 2 Samuel Manickam, “‘El Seductor De La Patria’: A Dialogic Response To The Historic Santa Anna,” Chasqui 39, no. 2 (November 1, 2010): 17-18. 3 Will Fowler, Santa Anna of Mexico, (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2007), xxvi 4 Ibid 39. 5 Ibid 224. valorous patriot.6 However, at the time of the leg’s funeral, he had cult followers called “santanistas” that sycophantically humored him.7 His santanista following hints at Santa Anna’s corrupt, rather than valorous, nature; several Mexicans knew him “to repay those that backed him.”8
"Historical Vignettes of General Santa Anna. Part 2", Hesiquio Iriarte (lithographer), circa 1857.
This print, entitled "Historical Vignettes of General Santa Anna. Part 2,” includes 20 scenes that illustrate a selection of events from Santa Anna’s life, including the 1842 ceremonial burial of his leg. The captions for each scene present declarative sentences or titles for the events. In what ways might this lithograph reveal the artist’s perspective on Santa Anna, in addition to facts?
6 Manickam, “‘El Seductor De La Patria’,” 17-18. 7 John Lynch, Caudillos in Spanish America, 1800-1850, (Oxford, England: Clarendon Press, 1992), 331. Fowler, Santa Anna of Mexico, 224. 8 Lynch, Caudillos in Spanish America, 331. Scholars argue that Santa Anna “was a puzzle to his contemporaries.”9 His legacy speaks to the timeless challenge of gauging our leaders’ intentions as we watch history in the making. This exhibit includes records that vary from praise to warnings about Santa Anna’s character, preceding the dictatorship that led almost all Mexicans to denounce him. It also addresses the complex history of Mexico’s first decades as an independent nation, which shapes how we understand Santa Anna today. Through a juxtaposition of primary sources and historical perspective, “Santa Anna in Life and Legend” invites the viewer to consider how the contexts of a given time can impact our perception of politics.
9 Ibid 335. Opportunism: Mexico’s Post-Colonial Politics
Historians have argued that Santa Anna was loyal to himself above any political cause.10 During his lifetime, liberals sought egalitarianism,11 and recognition of Mexico’s indigenous past, while conservatives clinged to the classist legacy of Spanish rule. Yet there were more than two predominant ideologies within the chaotic first decades of Mexico’s independence. The nation faced a power vacuum once it was free of colonial leadership, and various factions emerged as Mexicans struggled to form a new governing system. Depending on which party was gaining power, Santa Anna was at different times a royalist, insurgent, monarchist, republican, federalist, centralist, liberal or conservative. He led six successful coups d'etat in the span of only 30 years, taking advantage of the reformist conflicts in his day.12
Mexico faced the challenge of developing a new order of power when it became free from Spanish colonial rule, after the War of Independence (1810-1821). Conflict over political systems would continue to present a challenge to Mexico for decades.13 This lithograph depicts one instance of domestic revolt from the year 1840. In opposition of centralism, Federalists occupied Mexico’s National Palace. Take a closer look at the groupings of soldiers and civilians in different areas of the palace. How does the scene show signs of chaos or control? What activities do you notice throughout the illustration?
"Interior View of the National Palace of Mexico Occupied by the Federalists”, circa 1840s.
Mexico’s War of Independence set the stage for Santa Anna’s “first step in his long odyssey of opportunism.”14 The war began shortly after a teenaged Santa Anna joined the royalist army in 1810. Having had little schooling and limited options, he became interested in military service
10 Lynch, Caudillos in Spanish America, 334. Manickam, “‘El Seductor De La Patria’,” 18. Joshua Simon, The Ideology of Creole Revolution: Imperialism and Independence in American and Latin American Political Thought, (Cambridge University Press, 2017), 148. 11Egalitarianism “favors equality of some sort: People should get the same, or be treated the same, or be treated as equals, in some respect.” “Egalitarianism,” Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, last modified Aprirl 24, 2013, https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/egalitarianism/ https://www.google.com/policies/privacy/. 12Will Fowler, “Dreams of Stability: Mexican Political Thought During the ‘Forgotten Years’. An Analysis of the Beliefs of the Creole Intelligentsia (1821-1853),” Bulletin of Latin American Research 14, no. 3 (September 1, 1995): 289-92. Simon, The Ideology of Creole Revolution, 148. 13 Ibid. 14 Lynch, Caudillos in Spanish America, 123. and rejected the commercial career that his parents wanted for him.15 Santa Anna was a criollo (Mexican-born Spaniard) and initially fought on the side of Spain against insurgents, who advocated for the welfare of indigenous peoples, mestizos, and other lower classes in Mexico.16 Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla, the insurgency leader, met opposition from a majority of criollos who feared his movement would delegitimize their wealth and status as land-owners. But Santa Anna and several other criollos switched sides in 1821, due to how Spain reinstated an absolute (rather than constitutional) monarchy that threatened their privileges.17
"Death of Priest Hidalgo and other Mexican Heroes in Chihuahua on July 3, 1811", Julio Michaud (lithographer) and Antoine Jean-Baptiste Thomas (lithographer), circa 1830s.
This lithograph depicts the Spanish royalist army executing Miguel Hidalgo y Castillo, priest of the small town of Dolores and instigator of the independence movement, after capturing him at the Battle of Puente Calderon (1811).18 Several criollos served in the royalist army at the time and fought to quell the insurgents’ call for egalitarianism, in defense of their higher status and power.19
15 Ibid 316. 16 Fowler, Santa Anna of Mexico, 20-21. 17 Ibid 372. See also Simon, The Ideology of Creole Revolution, 129, 137. 18 Fowler, Santa Anna of Mexico, 370. 19 Simon, The Ideology of Creole Revolution, 26, 129. Like several criollos who felt the Spanish cause was over, Santa Anna left the royalist army to follow the leadership of fellow turncoat Agustín de Iturbide.20 Revolutionaries, such as Vicente Guerrero, were then carrying on Hidalgo’s movement in the fight for independence. Iturbide unified insurgents and turncoats against their shared enemy in order to gain victory. By the time Iturbide joined forces with Guerrero, the ideals that gave rise to the insurgent movement had turned more conservative and less threatening to criollos.21
The scene on this print shows soldiers on horseback surrounded by civilians throwing flowers at them. Notice the appearance of the crowd. What details might signify their social class?
The title above the scene, “Las Garantías” (“The Guarantees”), likely refers to the Army of the Three Guarantees and the Plan of Iguala (1821). In this plan, Iturbide proclaimed three terms: (1) independence from Spain; (2) Roman Catholicism as the only religion of Mexico; and, (3) unity in status between Spaniards and criollos.22 Guerrero agreed to join Iturbide because the plan endorsed independence from Spain. However, it did not offer rights to mestizos, like Guerrero.23
"The Guarantees", circa 1820s.
An opportunist himself, Iturbide exploited Mexico’s unstable political footing at the onset of its independence and proclaimed himself emperor.24 Although Santa Anna initially offered himself as a “most faithful defender” of Iturbide’s empire, he eventually turned on it.25 The emperor antagonized Santa Anna when he impinged on his military standing in Veracruz. For example, Iturbide attempted to move Santa Anna away from his power base, fearing that his Veracruzano
20 Lynch, Caudillos in Spanish America, 122-3. 21 Fowler, Santa Anna of Mexico, 371-2. Fowler, “Dreams of Stability,” 288. See also Simon, The Ideology of Creole Revolution, 141-2. 22 Simon, The Ideology of Creole Revolution, 137. Fowler, Santa Anna of Mexico, 43. 23 Fowler, Santa Anna of Mexico, 42-3. David M. Quinlan, “The Constituent Congress,” in Mexico in the age of democratic revolutions: 1750-1850, ed. Jamie E. Rodríguez, (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 1994), 178. 24 Quinlan, “The Constituent Congress,” 178. 25 Letter to Iturbide from Santa Anna, quoted in Lynch, Caudillos in Spanish America, 316. forces gave him too much clout.26 After his “majesty” went on to dissolve Congress, Santa Anna took advantage of the anti-Iturbide movement to lead a revolt.27
After Iturbide’s abdication, Guadalupe Victoria became the first elected president of Mexico. In this letter, he warns the citizens of the threat Santa Anna represents for the Republic. He states, "It is sufficient just to mention the circumstances of [Santa Anna's] activities to form a very positive idea of his criminal character."
Santa Anna’s “activities” that year included a secret pact he made with Vicente Guerrero. Santa Anna promised to lead a revolt against president-elect Gomez Pedraza. In exchange for securing Guerrero's presidency, he asked for a promotion to Minister of War.28
Communication about the "Criminal Character" of Santa Anna, page 1 ,Guadalupe Victoria (author), Imprenta del Águila (publisher), 1828-09-17.
Santa Anna’s anti-Iturbide revolt successfully overthrew a corrupt empire, and he gained credentials when his Plan of Casa Mata (1823) established Mexico’s republic.29 However, he soon earned a reputation of practicing quid pro quo politics for personal gain. Over the next thirty years, he became increasingly notorious for his acts of embezzlement, insubordination, and vanity.30 While always justifying his actions as an effort to correct political wrongdoings, he held “flexible political convictions” throughout what historians call the “era of Santa Anna's revolutions.”31
26 Ibid. Will Fowler, “Santa Anna and His Legacy,” 3. 27 Lynch, Caudillos in Spanish America, 316-317. Letter to Iturbide from Santa Anna quoted on p. 316. 28 Fowler, Santa Anna of Mexico, 110-111. 29 Ibid 66, 110-11. The Plan of Casa Mata was a decree with federalist connotations as it addressed the sovereignty of provinces under a national government; it “specifically recognized the political power of the provinces by creating a Junta of Provinces.” Quinlan, “The Constituent Congress,”179. 30 Simon, The Ideology of Creole Revolution, 148, 151. Fowler, Santa Anna of Mexico, 359. 31 Lucas Alamán, Historia de Méjico, 5th edition, Vol.5 (Mexico City : Editorial Jus , 1968), 434. Quoted in Simon, The Ideology of Creole Revolution, 148. Caudillo of Veracruz
Caudillo politics are a defining characteristic of Santa Anna’s career, and of nineteenth century Latin America at large. Spanish colonists originally used the word “caudillo” to refer to a “leader.” After the War of Independence, the term became a more specific label for land-owning, military leaders whose victories proved valuable to their nation. Caudillo politics emerged in post-colonial societies that had not established a governmental order of succession. When political turmoil presented gaps in leadership, caudillos, like Santa Anna, used their fame, following, and military force to take power.32
Several Mexicans hailed Santa Anna as a hero after his 1835 victory against Federalist rebels of Zacatecas.33 At the time, the political tide was turning to centralism and popular opinion was that federalism, a system that allowed for state sovereignty, failed to bring stability to Mexico.34
Through this decree, acting president Miguel Barragán pardons the Zacatecan rebels from capital punishment, after their defeat. However, the rebellion cost Zacatecas the territory of Aguascalientes, as the city separated to become its own state.35
Santa Anna’s defeat of the Zacatecan uprising is one example of how he gained credibility as a criollo. After the battle, the people of Aguascalientes and several other Mexicans hailed him as the “Hero of the mother country.”36 Presidential Pardon of the Zacatecas Federalist Civic Militia, Miguel Barragán (contributor) and José María Tornel y Mendívil (contributor), May 23, 1835.
Achievements of historic proportions established Santa Anna’s prestige as a caudillo. For example, he played a large part in facilitating the Treaty of Córdoba (1821), in which a Spanish official agreed to terms for ending the Mexican War of Independence.37 At the legendary Battle of Tampico
32 Lynch, Caudillos in Spanish America, 3-4, 125. 33 Fowler, Santa Anna of Mexico, 160. 34 Michael Costeloe, The Central Republic in Mexico, 1835-1846 : Hombres de Bien in the Age of Santa Anna, (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 185. 35 Mariana Terán Fuentes, “Por un beso a Santa Anna. La separación de Aguascalientes del estado de Zacatecas, 1835-1846,” Estudios de Historia Moderna y Contemporánea de México 56 (julio-diciembre 2018), 78, 95. 36 Fowler, Santa Anna of Mexico, 378. 37 Ibid 50-51. (1829), Santa Anna stifled Spain’s attempt to reconquer Mexico, and attained one of the most celebrated Mexican victories of the early nineteenth century.38 Historians have noted that Santa Anna’s ambition to distinguish himself from other caudillos resulted in a military record “so outstanding that, when the occasion arose, there was no alternative to his bid for power.”39
"Battle of Tampico, Waged against the Spanish by General Santa-Anna, September 10, 1829", C. Aiyon (editor), circa 1840s.
This scene shows several fallen soldiers at the legendary battle of Tampico (1829). Notice the soldiers at the bottom right. To who or what are they pointing to? What figures in the scene might represent Santa Anna, and why?
A month into Spain’s invasion of Tampico, Santa Anna defeated them. During that time, the Spanish army faced disease and a lack of food. Both sides navigated a hurricane, but it proved most devastating against the already weakened Spanish army. Santa Anna ordered a victorious assault after the storm, which resulted in the surrender of Brigadier Isidro Barradas, the leader of the Spain’s reconquest expedition. 40
38 Ruth R.Olivera and Liliane Crété, Life in Mexico Under Santa Anna, 1822-1855 (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991), 123. Lynch, Caudillos in Spanish America, 318-19. 39 Lynch, Caudillos in Spanish America, 317. 40 Fowler, Santa Anna of Mexico, 122. It is noteworthy that many of Santa Anna’s victories took place in his home province of Veracruz. In the culture of his time, a power base was essential to caudillo status.41 Santa Anna’s base was particularly advantageous, as the port of Veracruz allowed him to control customs to finance his uprisings and withhold goods from the national government.42 The trade economy also financed the development of two major roads from Veracruz to Mexico City; this path between Mexico’s coast and interior presented a strategic military advantage against foreign invaders.43 Furthermore, as a veracruzano, Santa Anna had developed an immunity to Yellow Fever, whereas foreigners were at a high risk of catching the disease when stationed in his province.44
This 1821 lithograph includes an index that assigns numbers to buildings at the Port of Veracruz. “Castle of San Juan de Ulúa,” labeled no. 1, is a fortress that has famously defended Mexico against Spanish, French, and American invasions. Citing the role of this fortress in four decisive victories, a variety of Mexican decrees have assigned the epithet of “Cuatro Veces Heroica” to Veracruz.45
View of the City of Veracruz, D. José Martorell y Alsina (lithographer), 1821.
Although Santa Anna’s career included notorious defeats, he persistently rebounded from them. For example, he had a comeback victory at the Battle of Veracruz during the “French-Pastry” war, shortly after a shameful campaign in the Texas Revolution. Santa Anna lost his leg in battle when defending the port of Veracruz against French invasion (1838), a sacrifice and victory that returned valor to his reputation.46 By retaining his caudillo status, Santa Anna was a contender for political leadership in the many instances when Mexico’s government fell in disarray during its early national period.47
41 Lynch, Caudillos in Spanish America, 125. 42 Fowler, Santa Anna of Mexico, 11. 43 Lynch, Caudillos in Spanish America, 125. 44 Fowler, Santa Anna of Mexico, 9. 45 These four victories include Spain’s attempt to reconquer Mexico in 1829, the French Pastry War in 1836, US intervention in 1847, and the US occupation of Veracruz in 1914. José Peña Fentanes, Veracruz cuatro veces heroica (México: Editorial Citlaltépetl, 1970), 3-6. Margarita De Orellana, “Porque Es Cuatro Veces Heroica La Ciudad De Veracruz,” Artes de México Veracruz 450 Aniversario, No. 116 (1969): 29-30. 46 Fowler, Santa Anna of Mexico, xxii. 47 Lynch, Caudillos in Spanish America, 4. "The victory of Tampico and the martyr of Cuilapa," cover, "The War of Texas and Heroic Veracruz", cover, Heriberto Heriberto Frías (author), José Guadalupe Posada (illustrator / Frías (author), José Guadalupe Posada (illustrator / ilustrador), and Maucci Hermanos (publisher), 1900. ilustrador), and Maucci Hermanos (publisher), 1900.
“La Biblioteca del Niño Mexicano” is a series of educational booklets for children about Mexico’s history. In these two booklets, dating to 1900, the author represents Santa Anna with hindsight into his place in history.
Both book covers highlight epic battles led by Santa Anna. The cover on the left illustrates the Battle of Tampico, while the one on the right shows Santa Anna during the Texas Revolution. How does each cover visually describe Santa Anna’s opponents? What similarities and differences do you notice between the two illustrations?
Notice that the booklet on the right is titled “The War of Texas,” with the subtitle “The Heroic Veracruz.” In the background, masts of ships peek behind the main scene, representing an incoming French fleet. What two battles do you think the author juxtaposes within this one booklet? Why would the booklet address the battles together instead of separately? Legacy in Loss: The Shrinking of Mexico’s Territory
Although he rebounded after defeats throughout his military career, today Santa Anna is “mainly remembered for his loss of Texas and other northern Mexican territories to the U.S.”48 His charge at the Alamo during the Texas Revolution is a famous Mexican victory, but his defeat at San Jacinto ultimately led to the state’s independence (1836).49 Twelve years later, Santa Anna’s failed campaign in the Mexican-American War caused Mexico to cede half of its territory. 50 He lost even more land to the U.S. in the 1853 Treaty of La Mesilla, a sale he personally benefited from while he was dictator.51
“Mexico, Guatemala, and the West Indies”, T. G. Bradford (cartographer), Boston, MA: William D. Ticknor (publisher), 1830.
48 Manickam, “‘El Seductor De La Patria’,” 17. 49 Fowler, Santa Anna of Mexico, 164. 50 Mexicans blamed Santa Anna’s failed campaigns for the government’s devastating acceptance of the Rio Grande as the US-Mexican border. They ceded upper California, upper New Mexico, and northeastern Mexico as far south as the Sierra Madre range. Paul Foos, Short, Offhand, Killing Affair: Soldiers and Social Conflict During the Mexican-American War (Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 2002), 6. 51 Alexander S. Dawson, Latin America Since Independence: A History with Primary Sources (New York : Routledge, 2015), 46. Fowler, “Santa Anna and His Legacy,” 14. In this map, the top edge of the colored area reveals the Mexico-US border in the year 1830. The difference in Mexico’s northern boundary between then and today reveals all that was lost during Santa Anna’s career, as a result of: Texan independence (Treaty of Velasco, 1836), the Mexican-American War (Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, 1848), and the Treaty of Mesilla (also known as the Gadsden Purchase, 1853).
Through the image viewer above, you can adjust the transparency of the 1830 map to compare it to the current Mexico-US boundary. The viewer aligns the map to present-day geographic information through rectification, a process of applying image measurements to plane measurements.52
When Texans rebelled in 1835, Santa Anna was quick to organize an expedition against them in defense of centralism.53 Texan colonists wanted to uphold federalism, a system that allowed for state sovereignty and enabled them to preserve slavery while Mexico at large enforced emancipation legislation.54 Santa Anna and several other Mexicans at the time advocated that a centralist government would better serve to unify their nation, after years of instability under federalism. A centralized authority could also sustain national privileges for the church and military, two interest groups that backed Santa Anna.55
The Texan federalists became victors soon after they captured Santa Anna, and it was popular opinion in Mexico that he selfishly exchanged Texas for his freedom.56 Yet even his triumphs during the war dishonored his reputation. He was bloodthirsty and cruel in his victories. At the Battle of the Alamo, he took no prisoners and slaughtered every rebel. Two weeks later, he captured and executed over 400 Texans at Goliad.57 When Texans at last defeated Santa Anna’s forces, they did so to chants of “Remember the Alamo! Remember Goliad!”58
52 “Rectification,” GIS Dictionary, Esri, accessed November 16, 2020, https://support.esri.com/en/other-resources/gis-dictionary /term/a41310ac-0268-40f6-8a6e-bab98c081baa. 53 Fowler, Santa Anna of Mexico, 164. Michael Costeloe, “Federalism to Centralism in Mexico: The Conservative Case for Change, 1834-1835.” The Americas (Washington. 1944) 45, no. 2 (October 1988), 173-185. 54 Andrew J. Torget, Seeds of Empire: Cotton, Slavery, and the Transformation of the Texas Borderlands, 1800-1850 (University of North Carolina Press, 2015), 155. 55 Costeloe, ““Federalism to Centralism in Mexico,” 173-185. 56 James Presley, “Santa Anna in Texas: A Mexican Viewpoint,” Southwestern Historical Quarterly 62, no. 4 (April 1, 1959): 508-9. Manickam, “‘El Seductor De La Patria’,” 18. 57 Torget, Seeds of Empire, 168. 58 Fowler, Santa Anna of Mexico, 172. This document, which dates to 1844, exemplifies how several Mexicans reviled Santa Anna after his violent acts and defeat of the Texas Revolution. It states:
“[Santa Anna] highly compromised the good Mexican name in Texas...coldly and horribly murdering four hundred prisoners who had surrendered under the guarantee of life, after a Mexican general gave them his word. Made prisoner for inconceivable fault and carelessness as a soldier, he did not know how to preserve in disgrace the dignity that should be expected of an honorable man, and he vehemently issued orders for the Mexican army to withdraw….”
"Death to the Tyrant!," page 1, 1844-10-12.
Despite Santa Anna’s shame after the Texas Revolution, both Mexican and US politicians discretely met with him for his backing at the onset of the Mexican-American War (1846-1848). The US annexed Texas in 1845 and argued that the state’s territory extended to the Rio Grande, while Mexico claimed it ended at the Nueces River.59 A commission of Mexican Federalists invited Santa Anna to lead the military defense over the border dispute, at a time when politicians had their hands full with domestic turmoil. Meanwhile, American President James Polk hoped that Santa Anna could help negotiate Mexico’s cession of territory.60
59 Foos, Short, Offhand, Killing Affair, 17. 60 Ibid 132-133, 137. Fowler, “Santa Anna and His Legacy,” 12-13. Fowler, Santa Anna of Mexico, 382. "La Profesa, No.1: Collection of views taken in the revolution, call of los Polkos, in Mexico in the year of 1847”, A. López (lithographer), 1847.
Santa Anna lost several battles during the Mexican-American War. Meanwhile, Mexican politicians bickered and used anti-American rhetoric to win over public appeal. But they had no substantial plans for national reform.61
This print depicts “The Revolt of Los Polkos,” a revolt against Mexican President Valentín Gómez Farías, that added bloodshed and destruction to the American war. Mexicans called the rebels “Los Polkos,” after US President Polk, because they believed the rebels approved of the American cause. However, this was a civil dispute that did not involve American forces.62
Considering this domestic context, what circumstances or individuals do you think are most accountable for Mexico’s loss of the American War? Why?
When the Mexican government signed the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (1848) in defeat of the Mexican-American War, it blamed Santa Anna’s series of lost battles. The Mexican public eventually became aware of Santa Anna’s meetings with US politicians, and were suspicious that he accepted bribes to throw the war.63 Santa Anna was more undeniably accountable when, five years later, he sold away additional Mexican territory to the US. He and his corrupt comrades
61 Fowler, “Santa Anna and His Legacy,” 12. 62 Fowler “Santa Anna of Mexico,” 263-64. 63 Ibid 278-281. Fowler, “Santa Anna and His Legacy,” 12-13. pocketed the $10 million payment that came with the Treaty of La Mesilla (Gadsden Purchase of 1853), which allowed him to financially sustain a dictatorship.64
This map depicts the march of American and Mexican forces at the Battle of Cerro Gordo, from which Mexicans fled in defeat. American troops pursued the fleeing soldiers and captured a booty that included Santa Anna's wooden prosthetic leg.65 The US currently displays the wooden leg at the state capitol of Illinois.66
How might the Americans’ capture of Santa Anna’s wooden leg act as a metaphor for Mexico’s territorial history? “Plan of the Mexican and United States positions in the battle field of Cerro-gordo the 18th April of 1847", Herman vander Linden (contributor) and José Severo Rocha (lithographer), circa 1890s.
64 Lynch, Caudillos in Spanish America, 354. Fowler, “Santa Anna and His Legacy,” 14. 65 K. Jack Bauer, The Mexican War, 1846-1848 (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1994), 267-68. 66 Ibid. His Serene Highness and the Absentee President
Reflecting the caudillo politics of nineteenth century Latin America, Mexico called on Santa Anna to lead as president time and again.67 “The Hero of Tampico” was overwhelmingly elected for the first time in 1833, and at different times he was popular over the next two decades.68 Santa Anna was president a total of eleven times, but held the office so intermittently that his terms altogether lasted about six years. His last term (1853-1855) was a repressive dictatorship that became a conspicuous part of his legacy. But it was markedly different from his other presidencies, in which he had a major reputation of being absent from office.69
This infographic highlights the instances in which Santa Anna served as president, and interims in which he entrusted the country to acting presidents. For example, Mexicans first elected him as president on April 1, 1833, but he immediately handed his presidential responsibilities to his Vice President, Valentín Gómez Farías.
67 Lynch, Caudillos in Spanish America, 236. Dawson, Latin America Since Independence, 46. 68 Fowler, “Santa Anna and His Legacy,” 5. 69 Ibid 1, 5 -6. Dawson, Latin America Since Independence, 46. 70 At the top left of the infographic, an icon with the label of “Gómez Farías” represents this first instance in which Santa Anna chose to leave the capital rather than serve in his elected role. The icons with Santa Anna’s portrait represent when he actually served as president at the capital. In addition to Gómez Farías, he handed the office to Miguel Barragán, his Minister of War, and José Justo Corro, his Minister of Justice and Ecclesiastical Affairs.71
Historians have argued that Santa Anna disliked governing, and that he was more ambitious for glory than for political power.72 In his memoirs, he wrote, “I preferred the hazards of war to the seductive and sought after life of the palace.”73 In the 1830s he handed over the country to acting presidents on five different occasions, which allowed him to personally lead troops into battle rather than rule at the capital.74 He also excused himself from governing for several reasons outside of battle, most often claiming the need to “recuperate” at his haciendas.75
In this letter, Santa Anna writes from Manga de Clavo, one of the four haciendas he purchased throughout his lifetime.76 He spent long periods of time retreating here during his presidencies, enjoying a simple rural life and practicing a “health regime.”77
Santa Anna purchased Manga de Clavo in 1825. In this letter, which dates to 1830, he describes the recuperation of his health thanks to the quantity of milk he drinks, and how he is enjoying "extraordinary tranquility." He also states that he would not exchange this kind of life "for any title in the world." The absentee president often expressed this sentiment after he took office, particularly during his terms of the 1830s.78
Letter to Sebastián Camacho, page 1, Antonio López de Santa Anna (author), 1830-06-17.
70 Fowler, Santa Anna of Mexico, 377. 71 Ibid 157-58, 377-78. 72 Fowler, “Santa Anna and His Legacy,” 6. Fowler, Santa Anna of Mexico, xii, 163. 73Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna, Mis memorias: escritas de mi puño y letra sin ayuda de nadie en mi último destierro, manuscript, OCLC 29948821, The Nettie Lee Benson Latin American Collection, Antonio López de Santa Anna Collection, 1821-1878, 19. Quoted in Fowler, Santa Anna of Mexico, 163. 74 Fowler, Santa Anna of Mexico, 369-389. 75 Fowler, “Santa Anna and His Legacy,” 6, 15. Lynch, Caudillos in Spanish America, 328. 76 Santa Anna had three haciendas in Veracruz (Manga de Clavo, El Encero, and Paso de Varas) and one in Turbaco, Colombia. Lynch, Caudillos in Spanish America, 327-8. 77 Ibid 327-8. 78 Ibid. Although he was more popularly known for his absenteeism, reformist conflicts of the time also characterized Santa Anna’s presidencies.79 By withdrawing to rural life and leaving governing to others, such as his Vice President or Minister of War, he allowed “interest groups to reveal their hand [and] overreach themselves” under their rule.80 He would then return to office as “an arbitrator of conflicts...with greater leverage than before.”81 Every time Mexicans called him back to rule, Santa Anna eagerly returned to build his reputation as a national savior.82
This edict, from the Chapter of the Metropolitan Cathedral of Mexico City, describes Santa Anna as a “brilliant star” that delivered them from politico-religious turmoil. It dates to 1834, the year that he became a dictator for the first time. Following a decree called “The Plan of Cuernavaca,” he took on dictatorship to reverse liberal reforms that threatened fueros (privileges) of the Church and military.83
Historians have stated that Santa Anna did not intend a tyrannical or perpetual dictatorship in this instance, unlike in his last term. In his first two dictatorships he temporarily filled a gap in leadership while Congress drafted a new constitution.84 What intentions might Santa Anna have had when he became dictator for the first time? What groups or individuals could have benefited from his rule?
Pastoral edict establishing a triduum of gratitude to Santa Anna, José Nicolás Maniau y Torquemada (author), Juan Bautista de Arechederreta y Escalada(author), José María Bucheli (author), Manuel Mendiola (author), and Juan Manuel Irisarri y Peralta (contributor), 1834-06-28.
79 Fowler, “Santa Anna and His Legacy,” 6. 80 Lynch, Caudillos in Spanish America, 364. 81 Ibid. 82 Dawson, Latin America Since Independence, 46. 83 Anne Staples, “Clerics as Politicians,” in Mexico in the age of democratic revolutions : 1750-1850, ed. Jamie E. Rodríguez, (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 1994), 239. 84 Fowler, Santa Anna of Mexico, xx. See also Manickam, “‘El Seductor De La Patria’,” 18. In between his presidencies, Santa Anna dramatically rose and fell from power.85 Before his final and long-lasting dictatorship, he went into exile twice and was a dictator at brief intervals. Congress first sent him into exile in 1844 “on the grounds that he had attempted to subvert the constitution.”86 In 1848 he went into exile again after the shameful defeat of the Mexican-American War.87 Despite his record of despotism and disgrace, many Mexicans believed that “the absence of Santa Anna deprived them of their only protector” when they invited him back to rule for the last time.88
"Memories of December 6, 1844", Ortega (artist) and José Severo Rocha (lithographer), circa 1845.
In 1841, “The Bases de Tacubaya” decree awarded Santa Anna “almost absolute power” after the centralist government toppled and Mexico needed new rule. At this time Santa Anna had several interest groups and sycophantic followers called santanistas.89
This lithograph states that Santa Anna engaged in “scandalous tyranny” during the 1841-1844 regime, his second to last term as Mexico’s ruler. The scene depicts “The Revolution of Three Hours” of 1844, in which the public massively rebelled against Santa Anna. During this memorable revolt, an angry mob disinterred his leg from its funerary monument and carried it on the streets to the cry of “Long live Congress!”90
In the lithograph, a character in the foreground has broken chains at her feet, and stands at the edge of a
85 Dawson, Latin America Since Independence, 46. Lynch, Caudillos in Spanish America, 345. 86 Lynch, Caudillos in Spanish America, 345, 831. In June of 1845 he was at exile in Cuba. 87 Fowler, “Santa Anna and His Legacy,” 1, 12. In 1848-1850 he was at exile in Jamaica, and in 1850-1853 he was at exile in Turbaco, Colombia. 88 Lynch, Caudillos in Spanish America, 234. 89 John Lynch, Caudillos in Spanish America, 341-45. Fowler, Santa Anna of Mexico, 380. 90 Fowler, Santa Anna of Mexico, 239. demon-filled hole. Notice that three other characters hold her back. What people, ideals, or concepts might these four characters represent?
As historian William Fowler has noted, “It is [Santa Anna’s] last dictatorship, characterized by its extravagance and brutal repression, that most people remember.”91 Two months into the term, Santa Anna's long-time advisor Lucas Aláman died, and without his guidance, the president began to abuse power.92 Santa Anna had himself called “His Serene Highness” and set out to be a perpetual dictator.93 He censored newspapers that opposed him and burned down villages of Indigenous people that rebelled against him.94 The tyrant alienated practically all Mexicans when he sold the nation’s territory to finance his dictatorship, and an increasingly strong liberal rebellion drove him out into a final exile.95
This portrait depicts Juan Alvarez, a caudillo who launched a revolt against His Serene Highness in 1854.96 Alvarez was a politician of Spanish Galician and Afro-Mexican heritage, and had support from a mix of criollo, mestizo, and indigenous communities from Guerrero.97 He, Ignacio Comonfort, and other southern caudillos put together “The Plan of Ayutla” for driving out Santa Anna and preparing a new congress.98
Santa Anna never ruled Mexico again. Alvarez and Comonfort, both liberals, served presidential terms in the late 1850s, the onset of a historical period now known as Mexico’s “mid-century reform.”99 Imagine that you lived in Mexico at this time. How might you expect your country’s political landscape to evolve after the “era of Santa Anna’s revolutions”? What circumstances would you predict to change or stay the same?
Portrait of Juan Álvarez, circa 1855.
91 Ibid xxi. 92 Ibid. Olivera and Crété, Life in Mexico Under Santa Anna, 15-16. 93 Fowler, Santa Anna of Mexico, xxi, 300. 94 Olivera and Crété, Life in Mexico Under Santa Anna, 15-16. 95 Ibid. Fowler, “Santa Anna and His Legacy,” 14. Lynch 358-61. 96 Olivera and Crété, Life in Mexico Under Santa Anna, 16. 97 Lynch, Caudillos in Spanish America, 81, 128, 332. 98 Ibid 358-61. 99 Fowler, “Santa Anna of Mexico,” 317.
Conclusion
Despite Santa Anna’s several comebacks throughout his career, Mexicans at large rejected him after he fled from the 1855 revolt against his last dictatorship. When he attempted to return to Mexico in 1867, his former compatriots captured, court-martialed, and sent him back to exile. Santa Anna made several pleas to return to his homeland from the start of this 19-year exile. He was 80 years old, nearly blind, and in poor health when President Sebastian Lerdo de Tejada finally allowed him to come home in 1874.100
Mis memorias: escritas de mi puño y letra sin ayuda de nadie en mi último destierro, manuscript, page 89, Antonio López de Santa Anna (author), 1874-02-12.
In the conclusion of his memoirs, Santa Anna writes, "Short, very short is the life of man; imperfect, his works; insufficient his power...sure, his suffering."101 He describes the cruelty of his enemies, and expresses that he will forgive all offenses once the Mexican people have their own country, religion, and law. He writes
100 Fowler, "Santa Anna of Mexico," 21, 231, 300, 344-345, 355, 388. 101 Santa Anna, Mis memorias, 89. that Mexico's history is not yet truly known, as foreigners have written a corrupt account of it. He articulates that he is confident that he deserves his country's gratitude, and that he has "greater confidence that posterity will do [him] full justice."102
During his last seven years of exile, Santa Anna wrote memoirs in an attempt to justify his actions, call out his critics, and glorify his career.103 In its prologue, he states, “My only desire is to leave to my country...a faithful account of my public acts.”104 Historians have noted that Santa Anna’s memoirs, entitled Mi historia militar y política (1810-1874), solicit vindication and are representative of Latin American autobiographical writing.105 Samuel Manickam, a scholar who focuses on Latin American narratives, argues that Santa Anna creates “silences” in his memoirs in order to exalt himself.106
Santa Anna’s memoirs demonstrate how narratives can construct rather than evidence history. They reveal why we must think critically about a creator’s purpose, authenticity, and authority when we evaluate sources of information. While Santa Anna may have been a “puzzle to his contemporaries,”107 multiple perspectives from the past can help us reconstruct a more holistic view of his legacy. From historical to current-day accounts, we can make better sense of narratives when we consider them in social, political, cultural, and other broad contexts.
102 Ibid 92. 103 Manickam, “‘El Seductor De La Patria’,” 1, 18. 104 Santa Anna, Mis memorias, 2. 105 Manickam, “‘El Seductor De La Patria’,” 18. See also Silvia Molloy, At Face Value: Autobiographical Writing in Spanish America (Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1991), 6-8. 106 Ibid. 107 Lynch, Caudillos in Spanish America, 335. Bibliography
Alamán, Lucas. Historia de Méjico, 5th edition, 5 Vols. Mexico City: Editorial Jus , 1968.
Bauer, K. Jack. The Mexican War, 1846-1848. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1994.
Costeloe, Michael. The Central Republic in Mexico, 1835-1846: Hombres de Bien in the Age of
Santa Anna. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993.
Costeloe, Michael. “Federalism to Centralism in Mexico: The Conservative Case for Change,
1834-1835.” The Americas (Washington. 1944) 45, no. 2 (October 1988): 173–185.
Dawson, Alexander S. Latin America Since Independence: A History with Primary Sources. New
York: Routledge, 2015.
De Orellana, Margarita. “Porque Es Cuatro Veces Heroica La Ciudad De Veracruz,” Artes de
México Veracruz 450 Aniversario, No. 116 (1969): 28-73.
Esri. “Rectification.” GIS Dictionary. Accessed November 16, 2020.
https://support.esri.com/en/other-resources/gis-dictionary/term/a41310ac-0268-40f6-8
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Fentanes, José Peña. Veracruz cuatro veces heroica. México: Editorial Citlaltépetl, 1970.
Fuentes, Mariana Terán. “Por un beso a Santa Anna. La separación de Aguascalientes del estado
de Zacatecas, 1835-1846.” Estudios de Historia Moderna y Contemporánea de México 56
(julio-diciembre 2018): 77-112.
Foos, Paul. Short, Offhand, Killing Affair: Soldiers and Social Conflict During the
Mexican-American War. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 2002). Fowler, Will. “Dreams of Stability: Mexican Political Thought During the ‘Forgotten Years’. An
Analysis of the Beliefs of the Creole Intelligentsia (1821-1853).” Bulletin of Latin American
Research 14, no. 3 (September 1, 1995): 287–312.
Fowler, Will. “Santa Anna and His Legacy.” In Oxford Research Encyclopedia, Latin American
History. New York, NY: Oxford University Press USA, 2015.
Fowler, Will. Santa Anna of Mexico. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 2007.
Lynch, John. Caudillos in Spanish America, 1800-1850. Oxford, England: Clarendon Press, 1992.
Manickam, Samuel. “‘El Seductor De La Patria’: A Dialogic Response to the Historic Santa Anna.”
Chasqui 39, no. 2 (November 1, 2010): 17–27.
Molloy, Silvia. At Face Value: Autobiographical Writing in Spanish America. Cambridge:
Cambridge UP, 1991.
Olivera, Ruth R., and Liliane Crété. Life in Mexico Under Santa Anna, 1822-1855. 1st ed. Norman:
University of Oklahoma Press, 1991.
Presley, James. “Santa Anna in Texas: A Mexican Viewpoint,” Southwestern Historical Quarterly
62, no. 4 (April 1, 1959): 489-512
Quinlan, David M. “The Constituent Congress.” In Mexico in the age of democratic revolutions:
1750-1850, edited by Jamie E. Rodríguez. Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 1994.
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mi último destierro. Manuscript. OCLC 29948821. The Nettie Lee Benson Latin American
Collection. Antonio López de Santa Anna Collection, 1821-1878. Simon, Joshua. The Ideology of Creole Revolution: Imperialism and Independence in American
and Latin American Political Thought. The Ideology of Creole Revolution. Cambridge
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Staples, Anne. “Clerics as Politicians.” In Mexico in the age of democratic revolutions: 1750-1850,
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Torget, Andrew J. Seeds of Empire: Cotton, Slavery, and the Transformation of the Texas
Borderlands, 1800-1850. University of North Carolina Press, 2015. Pedagogical Exercises
Investigate Absent Histories
“Research is iterative and depends upon asking increasingly complex or new questions whose answers in turn develop additional questions or lines of inquiry in any field.”
While this exhibit presents four predominant themes from scholarship on Santa Anna, it is only a snapshot of the state of research on his history. Responsible information consumers identify gaps, issues, or questions surrounding a topic. Considering that this exhibit repeats dominant themes about Santa Anna, how might it represent the perspective of dominant social groups?
For example, the exhibit briefly and incompletely addresses indigenous peoples, mestizos, Afro-Mexicans, and enslaved people from Santa Anna’s lifetime in relation to his history. What parts of the exhibits discuss minority social groups, and what gaps do you notice?
Noticing gaps can lead to socially responsible research questions, such as: ● What was Santa Anna’s perspective on slavery and Mexicans of lower status than him? Why or how did he develop this perspective? ● Who are women that relate to the history that this exhibit discusses? How do they relate to Santa Anna’s life and career?
Prompt:
Begin with one of the two questions above, or form your own question, to further research Santa Anna’s legacy and consider perspectives that supplement or present an alternative to this exhibit’s narrative.
Approaching your search as strategic exploration, use the CRAAP test to find at least one resource (from a library or library databases) that satisfies your information needs.
As you navigate your search results, consider their currency, relevance, authority, accuracy, and purpose to evaluate their quality and decide which source best addresses your question.
Teacher Resources: ● “Dominant Narratives,” University of Michigan Inclusive Pedagogies subcommittee: Inclusive Teaching Project ● “Evaluate Sources” University of Texas Libraries ● “CRAAP Test”, Modesto Junior College
TEKS:
§110.36. English Language Arts and Reading, English I. (c) Knowledge and skills. (11) Inquiry and research: listening, speaking, reading, writing, and thinking using multiple texts. The student engages in both short-term and sustained recursive inquiry processes for a variety of purposes. The student is expected to: (A) develop questions for formal and informal inquiry; (B) critique the research process at each step to implement changes as needs occur and are identifed; (C) develop and revise a plan; (D) modify the major research question as necessary to refocus the research plan; (E) locate relevant sources; (F) synthesize information from a variety of sources; (G) examine sources for: (i) credibility and bias, including omission; and (ii) faulty reasoning such as ad hominem, loaded language, and slippery slope.
§113.46. Sociology. (c) Knowledge and skills. (11) Social inequality. The student understands the impact of race and ethnicity on society. The student is expected to: (A) define race and ethnicity and differentiate among the distinguishing characteristics of minority groups; (B) contrast the terms discrimination, prejudice, and bias; (C) discuss the ramifications of stereotyping; (D) analyze the varying treatment patterns of minority groups such as African American, Asian American, Hispanic American, and American Indian; and (E) explain instances of institutional racism in American society.
§113.48. Social Studies Research Methods. (c) Knowledge and skills. (3) Social studies skills. If doing qualitative research, the student employs the processes of critical social science inquiry to understand an issue, topic, or area of interest using a variety of sources, checking their credibility, validating and weighing evidence for claims, and searching for causality. The student is expected to: (A) interpret the historiography of the research topic; (B) apply key social science concepts such as time, chronology, causality, change, conflict, and complexity to explain, analyze, and show connections among patterns of historical change and continuity; (C) investigate, interpret, and analyze multiple historical and contemporary viewpoints within and across cultures; (D) relate important events, recurring dilemmas, and persistent issues to topic; and (E) employ empathy, skepticism, and critical judgment to analysis of topic.
Find a Story, Curate a Timeline The interactive map of this exhibit offers a look at collection highlights in both a temporal and spatial context. On its legend, and in its side panel, you will find categories based on time periods of Santa Anna’s life, from “Criollo Beginnings” to “Home at Last.” When you click on a map icon, the pop-ups show item descriptions and exhibit notes that can further contextualize how each item relates to a sequence of events.
The map presents 39 collection items. How might a smaller selection of resources tell a story that unfolds over time? Considering the exhibit’s greater narrative, how can you break down the breadth of Santa Anna’s career? The 5Ws and H (Who, What, Where, When, Why, and How?) can lead viewers to discover alternate topics or subtopics compared to the map categories. Viewers may also determine essential resources within the larger collection that summarize Santa Anna’s career. When you navigate the map with a particular idea in mind, the primary sources can take on a new meaning.
Prompt:
Using the map and exhibit narrative for context, choose 5-10 primary sources from the collection to create a timeline related to Santa Anna. What events are most important to highlight for your project scope? What items will best illustrate your story?
To present a timeline with context, use images of your primary sources along with captions or narratives. There are many ways to approach this task. You could:
● Choose a specific topic within the broader narrative ● Synthesize the broader narrative into smaller parts ● Group or tag events based on your opinion (e.g. most harmful or helpful to citizens, level of impact on history) ● Create a historical fiction by imagining a different ending based on real events. What could cause a different outcome?
When it comes to constructing a timeline, be creative, and find an approach that works best for you. For example, does a timeline need to be a straight line? There are several ways to build one, such as using a folded accordian format, hanging cards on strings, arranging post-it notes on a board, or building a collage. You could also think of your timeline as an art museum, and print out images of your chosen collection items to hang on a wall. If you’re interested in graphic design, Canva. com is a free and user-friendly resource that offers templates for timelines and storyboards. Timetoast is another easy tool that, like Canva, allows you to collaborate with others on a timeline.
Teacher Resources ● “Ways to Narrow Down a Topic” [including the 5Ws & H), Lumen Learning ● “To Boost Higher Order Thinking, Try Curation,” Cult of Pedagogy ● “History Teaching Style: Thematic or Chronological,” Grand Canyon University
TEKS:
§113.42. World History Studies: (c) Knowledge and skills. (28) Social studies skills. The student understands how historians use historiography to interpret the past and applies critical-thinking skills to organize and use information acquired from a variety of valid sources, including technology. The student is expected to: (A) identify methods used by archaeologists, anthropologists, historians, and geographers to analyze evidence; (B) explain how historians analyze sources for frame of reference, historical context, and point of view to interpret historical events; (C) analyze primary and secondary sources to determine frame of reference, historical context, and point of view; (D) evaluate the validity of a source based on bias, corroboration with other sources, and information about the author; (E) analyze information by sequencing, categorizing, identifying cause-and-effect relationships, comparing, contrasting, finding the main idea, summarizing, making generalizations and predictions, drawing inferences and conclusions, and developing connections between historical events over time; and (F) construct a thesis on a social studies issue or event supported by evidence.
§113.50. Ethnic Studies: Mexican American Studies. (c) Knowledge and skills (3) History. The student understands developments related to Mexican independence and Mexico's relationship with the United States from 1800-1930. The student is expected to: (A) explain the significance of the following events as turning points relevant to Mexican American history: the Grito de Dolores, Mexico's acquisition of independence, Texas's declaration of independence from Mexico, Mexican-American War, Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, Mexican Revolution, creation of the U.S. Border Patrol, and Mexican repatriation of the 1930s; and (B) examine the contributions of significant individuals from this period such as Father Miguel Hidalgo, José María Morelos, Augustín de Iturbide, Emiliano Zapata, Francisco (Pancho) Villa, Francisco I. Madero, Porfirio Díaz, and Álvaro Obregón. Evaluate Primary Sources from Today
“Authority is constructed and contextual. Information resources reflect their creators’ expertise and credibility.... Authority is constructed in that various communities may recognize different types of authority. It is contextual in that information needs may help to determine the level of authority required.”
This exhibit demonstrates how primary sources can offer historical perspective, evidence, or misinformation. As mentioned in the conclusion, Santa Anna’s memoirs reveal why we must critically evaluate sources of information. How can we consider primary sources in context, to evaluate them today? How can we discern the creator’s intention and credibility?
Prompt:
Primary sources are those created soon after the event of phenomenon it describes. Identify a primary source — such as a news report, political cartoon, editorial article, medical forum, letter, artwork, song, blog post, food review, or podcast — that was created within the last six months and provides information on a chosen topic. Compare that source to other primary sources that give accounts of the same topic, and use lateral reading strategies to investigate the source’s origins. Respond to the following questions:
● What does the information source claim? ● What is factual or subjective about it? ● What evidence or context led me to determine what is factual? ● If the source presents subjective information, what can it still tell me about current events or society?
Digital technology and the internet have transformed the boundaries of traditional primary sources. It can be a challenge to evaluate accuracy of sources in the information landscape of the 21st century. How can our reception of primary sources affect our daily lives? Choose a source by considering how the information we encounter today can relate to medical, political, ethical, financial, or recreational choices. With effective fact-checking and research strategies, you can build habits that prevent you from daily life consequences of misinformation.
Teacher Resources: ● The Power of Context ● “What ‘reading Laterally’ Means”, Web Literacy for Student Fact-Checkers ● Why research skills matter more than ever ● “Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Sources,” University of Minnesota Crookston
TEKS: §110.36. English Language Arts and Reading, English I (c) Knowledge and skills. (5) Response skills: listening, speaking, reading, writing, and thinking using multiple texts. The student responds to an increasingly challenging variety of sources that are read, heard, or viewed. The student is expected to: (A) describe personal connections to a variety of sources, including self-selected texts; (B) write responses that demonstrate understanding of texts, including comparing texts within and across genres; (C) use text evidence and original commentary to support a comprehensive response; (D) paraphrase and summarize texts in ways that maintain meaning and logical order; (E) interact with sources in meaningful ways such as notetaking, annotating, freewriting, or illustrating; (F) respond using acquired content and academic vocabulary as appropriate; (G) discuss and write about the explicit or implicit meanings of text; (H) respond orally or in writing with appropriate register, vocabulary, tone, and voice; (I) reflect on and adjust responses when valid evidence warrants; and (J) defend or challenge the authors' claims using relevant text evidence.
§113.48. Social Studies Research Methods. (c) Knowledge and skills. (2) Social studies skills. The student applies a process approach to a research topic, applying the ideas, theories, and modes of inquiry drawn from the social sciences in the examination of persistent issues and social questions. The student is expected to: (C) collect information from a variety of sources (primary, secondary, written, and oral) using techniques such as questionnaires, interviews, and library research; (D) use current technology such as library topic catalogues, networks, online information systems, academic journals, primary sources on the Internet, email interviews, and video interviews to collect information about the selected topic; (F) differentiate between primary and secondary sources and use each appropriately to conduct research and construct arguments.
10.47. Reading I, II, III. (b) Knowledge and skills. (6) The student reads critically to evaluate texts in order to determine the credibility of the sources. The student is expected to: (A) identify and analyze the audience, purpose, and message of the text; (B) evaluate the credibility and relevance of informational sources; (C) analyze the presentation of information and the strength of quality of the evidence used by the author; and (D) evaluate the author's motivation, stance, or position and its effect on the validity of the text.