UNIT 1 MAJOR CUT FLOWERS Major Cut Flower

Structure 1.0 Objectives 1.1 Important Cut Flower Crops - Carnation, Chrysanthemum, Gerbera, Statics and Rose 1.2 Carnation 1.2.1 Introduction 1.2.2 Climate 1.2.3 Soil 1.2.4 Propagation 1.2.5 Planting 1.2.6 Season and cycle 1.2.7 Carnation growing period 1.2.8 Irrigation 1.2.9 Fertilization 1.2.10 Support nets 1.2.11 Pinching and Disbudding 1.2.12 Harvesting and Post harvest handling of cut flower 1.2.13 Propagation 1.2.14 Insect, Pest, Disease and Physiological disorders 1.3 Chrysanthemum 1.3.1 Taxonomy 1.3.2 History 1.3.3 Use of Chrysanthemum 1.3.4 Classification of Chrysanthemum 1.3.5 Cultivars for land and pot Culture 1.3.6 Soil Preparation 1.3.7 Essential Environmental factors 1.3.8 Planting and month wise operations 1.3.9 Irrigation 1.3.10 Nutrition 1.3.11 Propagation 1.3.12 Growth Substance 1.3.13 Harvesting and Storage of Flowers 1.3.14 Plant Protection 1.4 Gerbera 1.4.1 Growing environment 1.4.2 Commercial varieties 1.4.3 Soil and growing medium 1.4.4 Disinfection or sterilization of soil 1.4.5 Transplanting 1.4.6 Watering or Irrigation of Gerbera 1.4.7 Nutritional requirement 5 Cut Flowers 1.4.8 Propagation of Gerbera 1.4.9 Harvesting of Flowers 1.4.10 Yield of cut flowers 1.4.11 Plant Protection 1.5 Statice 1.5.1 Species 1.5.2 Soil and climate 1.5.3 Seed sowing and planting 1.5.4 Varieties 1.5.5 Irrigation 1.5.6 Propagation 1.5.7 Fertilizer 1.5.8 Plant Protection 1.5.9 Harvesting of flowers 1.6 Rose 1.6.1 Botanical description 1.6.2 Propagation 1.6.3 Varieties 1.6.4 Soil 1.6.5 Essential Environmental Factors 1.6.6 Production Factors 1.6.7 Pruning, Bending, development of bush, Disbudding and De-shooting 1.6.8 Manuring, Fertilization and Irrigation 1.6.9 Harvesting and Post Harvest Management of Flower 1.6.10 Plant Protection 1.7 Let Us Sum Up 1.8 Key Words 1.9 Further References 1.10 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises 1.0 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you will be in a position to: explain the purpose and utility of growing cut flowers, to assess the different growing components, explain the production techniques for cut flower, post harvest management of cut flowers, and marketing strategy of cut flower crops. 1.1 IMPORTANT CUT FLOWER CROPS – CARNATION, CHRYSANTHEMUM, GERBERA, STATICS AND ROSE

Flowers have been associated with the human life since the time immemorial. 6 These are symbol of peace and love. Their uses on various occasions i.e. festivals, social and family functions and religious ceremonies are known since generations. Major Cut Flower Cut flowers provide aesthetic environment indoor. In the modern stressful life, importance of cut flowers is further increased as these help in releasing stress by creating natural and energetic environment. These five flowers are very important cut flowers out of ten cut flower crops and have long self vase life under water.

Frequent changes of water and re-cutting the stem ends will ensure a good steady flow of water up the stem. If flower foods are not used one should change the water and re-cut the stems every two days. In case of use of flower foods re- cutting every five days is enough. Watering the foam daily is required if arrangement is in foam, as it dries out quickly. Now you will study each cut flower crop one by one in detail as follow:

1.2 CARNATION

Carnation (Dianthus caryophyllus L.) is a herbaceous perennial flowering plant, belonging to the family Caryophyllaceae. It has been under cultivation by man for over 2000 years.

There are about 250-300 species of Dianthus comprises annuals and evergreen perennials but only a few are cultivated. The most common cultivated species are D. caryophyllus, D. barbatus and D. chinensis.

The D. chinensis (Annual Carnation) is commonly known as Indian pink, Chinensis or Japanese pink.

The species D. barbatus (Biennial Carnation) is commonly known as Sweet William, grows mostly from seeds and prefers warm climate. The stems are glabrous; leaves are opposite, broad and flat. The flowers are solitary.

The present day perpetual Carnation was developed from cross between D. caryophyllus (female parent) and D. chinensis (male parent). They are grouped into standard and spray types on the basis of flower size. The standard type produces large single flowers on a longer sturdy stem. They suffer from diseases when grown under warm humid climates. The spray or miniature types produce many flowers of a smaller size on a short stem and are suitable to warm climates. The most common varieties of carnation are: Arthur Sim, Sunrise, Lemon drop, Pink Dona, Master, Liberty, Tempo, Lavender, Searia, Santiago, Granda, Raggio di sole etc. 1.2.1 Introduction Nearby your area you might have seen, Carnation, Chrysanthemum, Gerbera, Statice and Roses. The cut flowers stands the use of flowers after detachment. These are the common top ten cut flowers worldwide. Cut flowers means the flowers which have large strength and long was life more than seven days, after flower harvesting. Flowers of these crops are valued for its keeping quality, wide array of colours and forms and ability to rehyderate after long transportation. These qualities form the basis of many floral arrangements and mixed bouquets. Carnations have many characteristics which suit today’s consumers and markets, including larger blooms, pleasant clove-scented fragrance and a long vase life. 7 Cut Flowers Carnation flowers are also used for bedding, pots, rock gardens, window boxes and edging. Owing to its ever increasing demand in the world market, high quality Carnations are also being cultivated in India. The major production centers are located around Pune and Bangalore. Carnations are now being commercially grown in Solan, Shimla, Mandi, Kullu, Chamba and Bilaspur districts in Himachal Pradesh, perls of Punjab, Uttarakhand, southern states. Chrysanthemums, often called ‘mums’, are a genus Chrysanthemum of about 30 species of perennial flowering plants in the family Asteraceae, native to Asia and northeastern Europe. Now, botanically it belongs to Dendranthema grandiflora. Gerbera (Gerbera jamesonii) is commonly known as Transvaal Daisy, Berbrton Daisy or African daisy, produces very attractive long stalk cut flowers. Its flowers are of various colours and forms, suitable for different flower arrangements. Its cut blooms have 7-12 day vase life. Apart from upcoming huge domestic consumption it has got great potential in export also. Several species of statice are popular garden flowers; they are generally known to gardeners as statices. They are grown both for their flowers, and for the appearance of the calyx, which remains on the plant after the true flowers have fallen, and are known as “everlasting flowers”. The rose is one of the oldest flowers having been grown for over 7000 years. It is the most favourite gift on special occasions, like Birth Days, X-MAS, Day, Happy New Year, and Valentine’s Day. World consumption of roses has crossed 40 billion marks today and the Western Europe consumes more than half of this quantity. Holland is the biggest auction center (Alsmeer with 750000 M2 floor areas). In India too, the commercial floriculture has come a long way. Starting from a few units in Pune and Bangalore, the industry now boasts of over 200 units opting for export. 1.2.2 Climate There are three climatic major factors essential for carnation growth. i) Light : Carnations perform best in relatively cool climate. It is a long day plant requires approximately 21.5 K lux sunshine for at least 8 hours a day. High light intensity is detrimental to a young crop and may cause leaf burning and weak foliage. It leads to infection of parasites such as red spider mites. ii) Temperature : Temperature is a major factor that influences the growth and flowering, colour, grade and the quality of cut flowers. The location having a day temperature of 10°C is good for high quality Carnations. The optimum temperature for production of standard Carnation is 18-23°C. High temperature produce inferior quality flowers. iii) Humidity: The optimum humidity for growing Carnation is between 50-65 %. When humidity is higher; plants become susceptible to fungal diseases like Alternaria and Botrytis. Very low humidity is detrimental to a young crop and may cause leaf burning and weak foliage and infection of parasites such as red spider mites. 1.2.3 Soil Selection of site is very important for successful Carnation cultivation. Since roots of Carnation are highly susceptible to poor drainage conditions, it needs 8 well drained and aerated soil. The growth of roots in heavy soil is very much Major Cut Flower restricted and adversely affects the growth of plants and quality of flowers.

A rich sandy loam or loam soil is ideal for its cultivation. Soils having higher silt or clay content should be amended by incorporating organic matter or compost. The pH 6-7 and EC 0.8-1.6 ms/cm at 25°C is ideal. Both higher and lower pH has been found to show adverse effects on flower production. The site selected for plantation should be free from weeds, nematodes or soil borne pathogens. Pre-plant sterilization with stem, sun or 5 % formalin is beneficial. Reused soils may contain many pathogens especially Fusarium, which makes some beds unsuitable for Carnation cultivation even after disinfection. 1.2.4 Propagation The carnations are propagated through seed and by cutting.

Perpetual flowering Carnations are multiplied vegetatively by means of soft terminal cuttings while seed propagation is normally practiced for the purpose of hybridization. Terminal cuttings are harvested with 4-5 pairs of leaves. Rooting of cutting varied according to planting time but root formation was always better during cooler month with or without mist. The most suitable time for collecting cuttings in during early summer or autumn. Treatment of cutting with NAA (500- 1000 ppm) for half-an-hour improves rooting the main propagating season of carnations extend from November to March. For successful cut flower production, choose Carnations with well developed roots having minimum four leaves and not developed any flower bud. Cuttings should be of about 10-15 cm long for standard cultivars and 8-10 cm long for spray types, disease free and of best commercial variety. Leaves should be free from any fungal spot. Carnations are also multiplied through micro-propagation through shoot tips. i) Propagation by Seed : Commonly grown chaubad and Marquerite carnation are propagated by seed. The nursery of these spray type carnations raised in well prepared 15 cm high raised bed of 2 x 10 ft. The 1 cm deep row of sterilized beds are sown with seeds from 15th August to 15th September in the northern plains and August - October and March - April in the Hills. October - December has been found to be the best time for South India. Seedling usually get ready for transplanting in the beds after 8 weeks of sowing. Normally it takes, 5-6 months to flower after transplanting. ii) Propagation by cutting : The standard or Sim’s carnation are commercially propagated by cutting. A terminal vegetative cutting 10-15 cm long having four to five pair to leaves are broken from the stock plant by hand. Use of knife is likely to spread disease through the wounded edge. Cutting are prepared for rooting plantation by removing the basal pair of leaves. Sterilized sand has been found to be very useful for rooting medium. Along with sand, other available material like well roston and sterilized leaf mold, shredded coconut fiber or sphagnum moss may also be used. The medium must be kept moist with misting of water but rooting beds with frequent misting will be very harmful and induce rooting of cuttings. Carnation cuttings may stand dryness but not over watering. Raised rooting beds should be located under airy and shady place.

Application of root promoting hormone is beneficial in hastening rooting of carnation giving more and firm root. A quick dip of basal end up to 2 cm in 9 Cut Flowers 500 ppm of NAA (Napthalene acetic acid) is recommended. Rootex or Seradix No.1 and 2 has also given vary satisfactory results when basal wet end upto 2 cm dip in this powder before planting of cuttings. These rooting hormones should be used very carefully, when used at too high concentrations can damage the cuttings. Rooting bed should be drenched with 0.2 % saluting of fungicide namely Bavistin or Benlate or Captan before planting the cutting. The cuttings should be removed from propagation beds when the roots are about 2 cm long. There is no advantage in leaving them to develop a large mass of roots which can be damaged at the time of planting. The optimal temperature for rooting of cutting are around 23-25°C. It was observed that in northern India, the best period of rooting of cutting lies between October - February.

The optimum planting time of rooted cutting in the beds for getting is August- September to get production of flower in the winter and spring. In view of this arrangements of planting material (rooted cutting) are required to be made at that time. Cuttings taken in March-April from the stock plants and wrapped in plastic bags stored well under cold storage (4-6°C) for three months, and could be rooted easily in late July for planting in August - September. Arrangement can also be made to obtain planting material from areas specially developed for this purposed at 6,000 to 7,000 ft. above sea level in suitable location in Himalayas.

1.2.5 Planting

Soft terminal cuttings from healthy mother plant having vigorous root should be planted at shallow depth. Deep planting of cuttings may cause root and stem rot. During planting keep the base of the cutting above the soil level as they were in the rooting medium to ensure rapid development. To obtain the maximum no. of flowers, planting time and plant density are very important. When planted for commercial scale, raised beds of 30 cm height, 1.05 m width and convenient length are preferred. A planting density of around 25-32 plants/m2 (15 x 20 cm to 20 x 20 cm spacing) is generally recommended for 2 years production. When it is planted in pots, a single plant can be planted in 7.5 cm pots containing a potting mixture of equal parts of soil & well rotten F.Y.M. and half part of sand. 1.2.6 Season and Cycle Planting schedule is important to produce the maximum number of excellent quality cut flowers. Carnation produces heavy flush of flowers during a short period of time, which is not desirable for commercial production. Therefore it is regulated through planting time, planting density and method of pinching of plants. In Northern plains of India planting is done during mid September - November, which produces flower during February - April. In hilly areas where there is no snowfall, October - February planting is suitable to obtain flowers during mid - April to mid July and in hilly areas having seasonal snowfall, planting is done during February - April to get flowers from August - October. In protected conditions, Carnations can be planted round the year. 1.2.7 Carnation Growing Period Carnation flowers take approx. 150-180 days from planting to flower under open conditions and 120-150 days under protected conditions depending upon the season. Perpetual Carnations are mostly planted on a 2 years cycle after which 10 their yield decreases. A basal dose of Super phosphate (200 g/m2), Muriatic of Major Cut Flower Potash (150 g/m2), magnesium sulphate (50 g/m2) and Borax (2 g/m2) is applied. 1.2.8 Irrigation Rooted cuttings should be watered immediately after planting. Spraying of water through misting has been found to be more effective than the surface watering for early establishment of the cuttings. After three weeks of planting, drip irrigation has to be adopted. Frequency of watering depends on the weather conditions and the soil type. Stagnation of water should be avoided to minimize the incidence of diseases. 1.2.9 Fertilization Carnation plants need regular supply of nutrients for continuous production of flowers. Therefore, the application of nutrients in smaller doses but at regular interval favours better growth and yield. Low level of nitrogen and boron may cause calyx splitting. In the first three weeks after planting, no chemical fertilizers are applied. A total nutrition of 5-10 kg of FYM/m2 (basal), 30 gm N/m2, 20 gm 2 P2O5 and 10 gm K/m (monthly interval) is applied for standard Carnation while same dose is applied for spray types except the Nitrogen @ 40 gm/ m2. Spray of

0.1 % urea and potassium nitrate (KNO3) and 1 ppm Boron at 10 days interval till flowering produces good quality flowers.

Some micronutrients like Fe, Zn, Mn, Mo and B may also be required depending upon the soil type, mineral content of irrigation water and leaf analysis of plant sample. 1.2.10 Support Nets In order to obtain straight stems and to prevent lodging of plants, Carnation needs supporting nets of 4-5 layers. These plants are planted within the net of mesh size 7.5 x 7.5 cm. Nets are gradually raised with plant growth. For every 2.5 to 3.0 m, the metal wires or nylon rope should be supported with poles. The first net should be fixed at 12.0 cm above the bed. The remaining nets, whose squares should be 12.5 x 12.5 cm or 15 x 15 cm are placed over the first net. These nets are placed at 15 cm apart. 1.2.11 Pinching and Disbudding These are very important operation to produce quality blooms. i) Pinching : For successful production of top quality Carnations, pinching is an important operation. During pinching, the tip of the stem is removed to encourage the growth of the standard or Sim Carnations. Only 4-6 well grown lateral shoots will be allowed to grow. Pinching is done after 30-35 days of planting leaving only 6 pairs of basal leaves. If too many leaf pairs remain, stem and flower quality may be reduced considerably. Similarly, production will decrease if few leaf pairs will be left. There are three types of pinching methods generally followed.

Single pinching : In single pinch, apical portion measuring 5-7 cm is pinched off to give about 4-5 lateral shoots, which produces flower. This is done for early crop.

11 Cut Flowers Pinch and-a-half : This method involves single pinching of the main stem to give 4-5 side shoots. Only half of total numbers of lateral shoots are pinched when they are about 5 cm long. This method reduces the load of first crop and provides a steady supply of flowers throughout the year.

Double pinch : In this method all the lateral shoots arising from the first pinch are again pinched when they are 8-10 cm in length at 2-3 nodes. It is done approximately 5-6 weeks after first pinch. This is generally done for late harvesting or delaying the flowering period. Approximately 8-10 shoots are retained. This method produces large number of flower bearing shoots and poor quality flowers hence not preferred.

ii) Disbudding : Disbudding is the removal of unwanted buds. It is practiced in Carnation to obtain good quality flowers. Buds are taken away before they get too big, as they will considerably reduce the flower size. In case of standard Carnation, the lateral flower buds are removed leaving only the terminal or main flower bud. In spray or miniature Carnation, the terminal or main flower buds are removed, to encourage lateral flower buds. Disbudding help to produce quality bloom in standard carnation. 1.2.12 Harvesting and Post Harvesting Handling of Cut Flower Harvesting of Carnation flowers depend on the size of bud and growth of petals. Standard Carnations are harvested when they are half open and the first petal lays horizontally or at paint brush stage. Spray types are harvested when at least two flowers have opened and remaining buds are showing colour.

Flowers are best harvested during the morning hours when they are turgid. Keep the flowers in fresh, clean water or preservative solution for about 4-6 hours and then place in cold store at 4-6°C. Do not cut the flowers too deeply as this may adversely affect production during the next season.

Grading of flowers is based on stem length; flower diameter and physical conditions like stem sturdiness, freedom from pest, diseases and physiological abnormality. They are grouped in bundles of 20 and kept at 0-2°C for 12-14 hours and then packed in corrugated cardboard boxes.

Vase life and storability of flowers can be increased by placing flowers in 10 % sucrose + 1 mm STS for 8-10 hours. Carnation flowers are very sensitive to ethylene gas. Now day’s anti-ethylene compound 1-MCP (1-methyl cyclopropene) is being used as floral preservative. 1.2.13 Propagation The carnation is propagated using the seeds of the plant. Nursery raising is preferred before the transplanting. 1.2.14 Insect-pests, Diseases and Physiological Disorders a) Insect-pests : The most common insects attacking the Carnation are aphids, thrips and red spider mite.

i) Aphids (Myzus persicae) suck the sap from new shoots and leaves. They leave sticky substances on leaves and flower buds. Foliar spray of Rogor (2 ml / litre) or 0.25 % demeton-methyl found to be effective. 12 ii) Thrips (Thrips tabaci) also suck the sap of leaves and turn them yellow Major Cut Flower and patchy. Under severe attack they also cause streaks and spots on flowers and stems. Pink and red cultivars are more susceptible. Malathion or Rogor (dimethoate) or dichlorovos, all at 0.1-0.2 % gave the best control of Carnation thrips.

iii) Red spider mite (Tetranychus urticae) is the most serious pest of Carnation. They are very small red coloured insects mostly feeding on the lower sides of leaf and suck the sap. Leaves become yellow with dusty coating and fine webs on their surface.

The most effective chemical against mite is vertimec (0.4 ml/l) or Thiovat (2 g/l), which is effective against adults, eggs and larvae. b) Diseases : Carnations are attacked by a number of diseases like Fusarium, Alternaria, Bacterial wilt, Rust, Rhizoctonia, and stem rot.

i) Fusarium wilt caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. Sp. dianthi, also known as vascular wilt, is one of the most serious diseases of Carnation. It is soil born, invades the plant through roots and damages stem tissues resulting in wilting and death of plant. Soil fumigation and treating the beds with Bavistin (0.1 %) and Dithan M-45 (0.1 %) at regular interval is effective.

ii) Leaf spot caused by Alternaria dianthi is another serious air-born disease. It is characterized by grayish-brown spots on leaf and stem. High temperature and humidity favours the disease spread. Removal of infected leaves and foliar spray of Mancozeb (Dithan M-45) @ 0.2 % or Bavistin 0.1 % controls this disease.

iii) Bacterial wilt (Pseudomonas caryophylli) is prevalent at high temperatures. It is soil born disease attacking older plants. Production of grayish green foliage, rotting of roots and deep longitudinal cracks on internodes are the major symptoms. Soil sterilization, treating the plant material with 0.01 % streptocycline and using disease free plants helps in reducing the incidence. c) Sleepiness : It causes huge loss in cut carnation and could be temporary (reversible), or permanent (irreversible). It is caused because of exposure of flower to ethylene or water stress. The storage of flowers for long or exposure to high temperature increases the incidence.

Check Your Progress Exercise 1 Note : a) Space is given below for answers. b) Compare your answer with that given at the end of the unit. 1) What are the propagation methods of carnation ? ...... 13 Cut Flowers 2) Why the staking is important in greenhouse production of carnation ? ...... 3) Discuss the importance of pinching and disbudding...... 4) What are major disease problems of carnation ? ......

1.3 CHRYSANTHEMUM

The species of Chrysanthemum are herbaceous perennial plants growing to 50- 150 cm tall, with deeply lobed leaves and large flower heads, white, yellow or pink in the wild species. 1.3.1 Taxonomy The genus once included many more species, but was split several decades ago into several genera; the naming of the genera has been contentious, but a ruling of the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN) in 1999 resulted in the defining species of the genus being changed to Chrysanthemum indicum, thereby restoring the economically important florist’s chrysanthemum to the genus Chrysanthemum. These species were after the splitting of the genus but before the ICBN ruling, commonly treated under the genus name Dendranthema. 1.3.2 History Cultivated chrysanthemum can be yellow, white, or even bright red and many other Historical painting of Chrysanthemums from the New International Encyclopedia 1902. Chrysanthemums were cultivated in China as a flowering herb as early as the 15th century BC. The flower was introduced into Japan probably in the 8th century AD, and the Emperor adopted the flower as his official seal. There is a “Festival of Happiness” in Japan that celebrates the flower. The 14 flower was brought to Europe in the 17th century. 1.3.3 Uses of Chrysanthemum Major Cut Flower i) Ornamental uses of Chrysanthemum : Modern chrysanthemums are more showy than their wild relatives. The flowers occur in various forms, and can be daisy-like, decorative, pompons or buttons. This genus contains many hybrids and thousands of cultivars developed for horticultural purposes. In addition to the traditional yellow, other colours are available, such as white, purple, and red. The most important hybrid is Chrysanthemum x morifolium (syn. C. x grandiflorum), derived primarily from Chrysanthemum indicum but also involving other species.

Chrysanthemums are divided into two basic groups, Garden Hardy types and Exhibition types. Garden hardy mums are perennials capable of being wintered over in the ground in most northern latitudes. Exhibition varieties are not usually as sturdy. Garden verities hardies are defined by their ability to produce an abundance of small blooms which grow without staking or little staking and exhibition varieties on the other hand require staking.

The Exhibition varieties can be used to create many amazing plant forms; Large disbudded blooms, spray forms, as well as many artistically trained forms, such as: Thousand Bloom, Standard (trees), Fans, Hanging Baskets, Topiary, Bonsai, and Cascades. ii. Environmental uses & Medicinal uses : Chrysanthemum plants have been shown to reduce indoor air pollution by the NASA Clean Air Study.

Extracts of Chrysanthemum plants (stem and flower) have been shown to have a wide variety of potential medicinal properties, including anti-HIV, antibacterial and antimycotic. iii) Cultural significance and symbolism : In some countries of Europe (e.g., France, Poland, Croatia), white chrysanthemums are symbolic of death and are only used for funerals or on graves - similarly, in China, white chrysanthemums are symbolic of lamentation and/or grief. In some other countries, it represents honesty. In the United States, the flower is usually regarded as positive and cheerful. iv) Insecticidal & culinary uses : Pyrethrum (Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium) is economically important as a natural source of insecticide. The flowers are pulverized, and the active components called pyrethrins, contained in the seed cases, are extracted and sold in the form of an oleoresin. This is applied as a suspension in water or oil, or as a powder. Pyrethrins attack the nervous systems of all insects, and inhibit female mosquitoes from biting. When not present in amounts fatal to insects, they still appear to have an insect repellent effect. They are considered to be amongst the safest insecticides for use around food. (Pyrethroids are synthetic insecticides based on natural pyrethrum, e.g., permethrin).

Dried chrysanthemum flowers, yellow or white chrysanthemum flowers are boiled to make a sweet drink in some parts of Asia. The resulting beverage is known simply as “chrysanthemum tea” Júhuâ Chá, in Chinese. Chrysanthemum tea has many medicinal uses, including an aid in recovery from influenza. In Korea, a rice wine flavored with chrysanthemum flowers is called Gukhwaju. 15 Cut Flowers Chrysanthemum leaves are steamed or boiled and used as greens, especially in Chinese cuisine.

1.3.4 Classification of Chrysanthemum (as per the National Chrysanthemum Society of USA)

i) Irregular Incurve : Giant blooms in which petals are loosely incurve and make fully closed winter. The lower petals present an irregular appearance and may give a skirted effect.

ii) Reflex : The disk florets are concealed and the ray florets reflex outwards to create a mop like appearance.

iii) Regular Incurve : Similar to the irregular incurves, only usually smaller blooms, with nearly perfect globular form. Disc florets are completely concealed. They used to be called ‘Chinese’.

iv) Decorative : Similar to reflex blooms without the mop like appearance. Disc florets are completely concealed, ray florets usually don’t radiate at more than a 90 degree angle to the stem.

v) Intermediate Incurve : These blooms are in-between the Irregular and Regular incurves in both size and form. They usually have broader florets and a more loosely composed bloom. Again, the disc florets are completely concealed.

vi) Pompon : The blooms are fully double, of small size, and almost completely globular in form. 16 vii) Single/Semi-Double : These blooms have completely exposed disc florets, Major Cut Flower with between 1 and 7 rows of ray florets, usually radiating at not more than a 90 degree angle to the stem. viii) Anemone : The disc florets are prominently featured, quite often raised and overshadowing the ray florets. ix) Spoon : The disc florets are visible and the long tubular ray florets are spatulate. Central disc in this flower is round and visible. x) Quill : The disc florets are completely concealed, and the ray florets are tube like. xi) Spider : The disc florets are completely concealed, and the ray florets are tube like with hooked or barbed ends, hanging loosely around the stem. xii) Brush or Thistle : The disc florets may be visible. The ray florets are often tube like, and project all around the flower head, or project parallel to the stem. xiii) Unusual or Exotic : These blooms defy classification as they possess the attributes of more than one of the other twelve bloom types. 1.3.5 Cultivars for Land and Pot Culture There are two type of Chrysanthemum can be grown in land as well as in pots. i) Large Flower : Beauty, Snow Ball, William Turner, Innocence, white, Green Godess, Chandrama, Super Giant, Sonar Bangla, Pink Cloud, Shirley, Perfection, Classic Beauty, Pink Turner, Brave, Distinction, Alfred, Autumn Blaze etc. ii) Small Flower : Mercury, Jyotsna, Birbal Sahni, Himani, Topaz, Archana, Basanti, Nanako, Sujata, Kundan, Nilima, Alison, Jaya, Gem, Jean etc. Chrysanthemum culture in pot requires very strict time bound monthly intercultural practices with precise operation. Selection of disease free and high quality planting material is ideal for commercial growers. Pot culture includes soil preparation and selection of proper size pot for it. 1.3.6 Soil preparation i) Soil preparation for pots : Ideal soil composition for growing healthy chrysanthemum plants in pot includes one part of clay soil, one part of leaf mold and 2 part of rotten cow dung manure. Fertilizer is also mixed at this stage which includes Bone meal one part, Super phosphate one part, Di - ammonium phosphate one part and Neem Cake one part i.e. in the ratio of (1:1:1:1). The mixture should be kept as a heap and spread for solar treatment and for proper sun drying prior to filling of pots. For filling 100 pots. 5kg bone meal, neem cake and fertilizer mixture is required to mix in the hundred pot’s mixture soil. Soil is prepared well in advance i.e. a month prior to planting. A small amount of Malathion powder is added in the soil to get rid from insect. ii) Filled Soil preparation : To grow Chrysanthemum in the field, it required sandy loam soils, retain sufficient moisture and provide sufficient aeration 17 Cut Flowers essential for proper root growth. Therefore, these are ideal for chrysanthemum growing. Chrysanthemum thrives best in slightly acidic soils with pH ranging between 6.2 and 6.7.

iii) Fertilizers : Higher flower yield can be obtained at 80 Kg. N, 160 Kg P and 80 Kg K per hectare. 1.3.7 Essential Environmental Factors Environment has great influence on growth and flowering of chrysanthemum. The major factors light, temperature, relative humidity and air composition.

i) Light : It is well known that chrysanthemum plants continue to grow vegetative till the nights are shorter than critical level 6½ hrs in most of the traditional varieties. Flourescent light of very high intensity given only for one minute every night completely inhibits the flowering. It has been reported that a minimum of 3-5 days are necessary for bud initiation. It has been observed that day-length of 14-14½ hrs could initiate flower buds, but their development occurred only when day-length was of 13-13½ hrs.

ii) Temperature : The growth rate in chrysanthemum remains at low level at or below 10°C. As the temperature is raised to 15°C, the growth rate increase rapidly. A constant temperature of 16°C has been found to be the best for rooting of cuttings. On the basis of their response to temperature regarding flowering, the varieties have been grouped into 3 classes by Cathey. a) Thermozero : Flowering at any temperature between 10°C and 27°C temperature. b) Thermopositive : At temperature higher than 27°C bud initiation is rapid but flowering is delayed. c) Thermonegative : Bud initiation occurs at low to high temperature between 10°C and 27°C, but continuous high temperature delays bud development. iii) Relative Humidity : A relative humidity between 70 and 90 per cent is optimum for the growth of chrysanthemum. iv) Air Composition : In temperate regions, chrysanthemum grown in

glasshouses. During the day time, the required amount of O2 is available as a result of photosynthesis. During night proper ventilation is necessary for ensuring sufficient oxygen supply. Production has been found to increase

significantly by artificially enriching the greenhouse atmosphere with CO2.

Supplementary CO2 (700-900 ppm) produces longer stem length and early flowering. 1.3.8 Planting and Month Wise Operations Planting and month wise operation includes watering, fertigation, pinching, dis- budding removal of old and diseased leaf, protection from hot winds and excessive rains and staking. Intercultural practices from January - December for small and large flowered chrysanthemum are briefly explained. In the month of January and February, suckers are planted in earthen small size pots or beds and large flowered chrysanthemum is transplanted in 10 cm 18 pots. Small flowered chrysanthemum can be transplanted in well manured beds. Similarly few plant of large flowered chrysanthemum should be planted in beds Major Cut Flower to have cuttings from them in the month of July. In the month of April, in large flowered chrysanthemum beds regular watering is required and potted plants watering is restricted to check the growth. Small flowered chrysanthemum in beds requires more branching by pinching. This is the ideal time to pinch the plants back to 10 cm from ground level. In the month of May large flowered chrysanthemum should be protected from hot wind and repotting in 15 cm pot gives better results. Small flowered chrysanthemum requires second pinching in month of May. In June large flowered chrysanthemum requires protection from hot wind in the month of June. Small flowered chrysanthemum requires protection from hot winds during the month of June and this is the proper time for third pinching. The pinching should be done in first week of June. In the month of July Small flowered chrysanthemum should be lifted from beds and it should be planted in 25 cm pots. Large flowered chrysanthemum requires repotting in 20 cm pots in the month of July. This is the high time for taking cuttings for raising dwarf plant with superior blooms. In August chrysanthemum plants need protection from excessive rains. Disease foliage should be removed and fourth pinching is required in small flowered chrysanthemum.

In the month of September, rooted cuttings of large flowered chrysanthemum should be planted in 25 cm pots to check the growth. Lateral branches should be removed. Staking is required at this moment. Plants require neem cake feed. In the month of October, small flowered chrysanthemum needs final pinching and plant should be feeded with oil cake and super phosphate in this month. Diseased leaf should be removed from the plant. In October large flowered chrysanthemums requires De-shooting and dis-budding. Plant should be feeded with oil cake and super phosphate in this month. Dis-budding should be continued and plant should be feeded with potash. 1.3.9 Irrigation The crop is to be irrigated twice a week in the first month and subsequently at weekly intervals. Irrigation depends on soil and weather conditions. Weeding and hoeing’s generally done manually as and when required, normally 8-10 times. Besides control of weeds, it made the soil loose, porus to provide aeration. 1.3.10 Nutrition i) Dry fertigation: For dry fertigation Di-ammonium phosphate, super phosphate, bone meal and neem cake at ratio of (1:1:1:1) is mixed thoroughly. One tea spoon (10 g) of this mixture is applied at fifteen days interval in chrysanthemum pots for better growth and flowering. ii) Liquid fertigation: For better growth and quality flowering in chrysanthemum liquid fertigation is very essential. For making 100 ltr. of liquid fertigation following components are mixed in a big tank. Unripe cow dung………………………...... 5 kg DAP…………………………………………5 kg Super phosphate…………………………….5 kg Neem Cake………………………………….5 kg Calatropis leaf (Madar)……………………..10 kg 19 Cut Flowers The solution should be stirred well prior to use and kept for 15-20 days before use. Liquid fertigation should start from October and continued up to November at fortnight interval. This liquid should be diluted ten times before use. 1.3.11 Propagation Chrysanthemum is propagated by both vegetative and sexual methods.

A) Sexual method of propagation: It is by seed productions. This method is adopted by the breeder for the development of new varieties.

B) Asexual method of propagation or vegetative method of propagation : The vegetative method includes multiplication through suckers, cuttings and micro-propagation.

i) Sucker method: Profuse suckering occurs about a month after blooms fade. After separating the suckers from mother plants, they are planted directly in the field or for root formation in pots.

ii) Cutting method: Propagation through stem cuttings is the common method followed by the commercial growers. An ideal cutting is supposed to be 4-6 cm long with a diameter of 3.2 to 4.8 mm. The terminal cuttings are late June and July. Seradix B-1 or 2000 ppm IBA to 0.5 cm basal portion. The cuttings root between 3 and 4 weeks.

Preparation of cuttings Cuttings are prepared from mother plants during June to August. In case of early rains cuttings can be prepared in the end of June otherwise July to mid August is the ideal time for making cuttings. Stem cuttings from terminal portion is selected and its length should be restricted to 10-12 cm. Bavistin or Indofil M-45 @ 2 % solution is prepared for the treatment of cuttings. After quick dipping for 2-4 second in fungicide solution, hormone like Rootex No.1 or 2000 ppm solution of IBA (quick dip method) is applied at the base of the cuttings. Cuttings are planted in 25- 30 cm pot filled with sterilized coarse sand. For large flowered chrysanthemum especially for spider type cultivar sand filled pots are ideal as the roots developed from stem cuttings are fine and its development is best in sand. The rooting takes place within 15-20 days of planting.

iii) Micro-Propagation Method: Chrysanthemum can be multiplied faster by culturing shoots apex, somatic callus, from peduncle and other floral parts and from leaves in vitro. The terminal cuttings 2-3 cm long with at least one node are taken. 1.3.12 Growth Substance Growth substances and various other chemicals have been found to regulate growth and flowering in chrysanthemum.

a) Growth promotion : GA3 has been found to show marked effect on growth and development depending mainly on the time of application and stage of rd growth. Treatment with GA3 during 3 week of short days caused elongation of stem and of peduncle when applied in 4th week of SD., Spraying 20 chrysanthemums at pinching time with BA (Benzyeadenine) at 40 ppm Major Cut Flower increases branching. b) Growth retardation : For developing well-shaped pot plants, growth retardants have proved very effective. SADH and phospon are being used commercially. The application of SADH (2000-4000 ppm) after disbudding reduces stem length below the flower head. The liquid form is used as soil drench. CCC (Chlormequat) at 1.25 per cent concentration suppresses the plant height. 1.3.13 Harvesting and Storage of Flowers i) Harvesting : Single cultivar & are harvested when maximum flower & are open but before the pollen & are shed from the outer row of the florets where as decorative types should be harvested when topmost flower are almost fully open. ii) Storage : Flowers can be wrapped in the plastics and stored for 6 to 8 weeks at a temperature of 0.5°C. Pot mums can be easily stored upto 2 weeks at a temperature of 4°C at wet storage. 1.3.14 Plant Protection A) Insect and Pets : i) Leaf miner : It makes tunnels in leaves and can be controlled effectively by spraying Metasystox @ 0.1 %. ii) Red spider mite : The cyclic sprays of Vertimec @ 0.7 %, Dicofol @ 0.1 %, Metasystox @ 0.1 % and Polytrin @ 0.1 % is applied once in a week. iii) White Fly : They are very fond of the sugary material secreted from the aphids body and carry the spores of fungus and other diseases. They are generally controlled by regular sprays of Pyriproxyfen @ 0.2 %. iv) White thrips : They such the sap and leave the sucking marks on the under surfaces of leaf and on buds. The repeated sprays of the Confidor @ 0.1 % and Monocrotophos @ 0.1 % can help to prevent the severity of their infestation. v) Caterpillar of Helicoverpa: They can be a severe problem if their entry is not prevented through men doing the operations. The regular spray of Confidor 0.4 ml/ l and Metasystox @ 0.1% ml/l can help to control effectively. vi) Aphids : The sugary secretion creates black marks which favor fungal infection on the leaves. The application of Monocrotophos @ 0.1 % will help to control the Apids. vii) Caterpillar (Spodoptera Litura) and cut worms (Agrotis sp.) : Cut the leaves, buds and flowers. The spray of the 0.1 % Metasystox and 0.25 % Endosulfan should be applied weekly. B) Nematodes : They produce yellowish brown irregular spots in the leaves. To control Nematodes, the soil should be sterilized with strong Nematicides and Methyl bromide. 21 Cut Flowers C) Diseases:

Diseases Characteristic features Control measures

Fungal diseases Rhizoctonia solani Dry rot and crown Rhyzolex @ 0.4 ml/l Verticilium wilt Yellow leaves Root rot Soil sterilizationSoil Pythium after planting sterilization with propanocarb @2-3 g/m2 Sclerotina White spongy growth of Benomyl @ 0.4 /l ie 50 g / sclerotium the stem, black inside 200 l/ 1000 m2 area and dry leaves Septoria leaf spot Black spot on the leaves Mencozeb @ 250 g/ 200 l/ 1000 m2 area

Botrytis cineria Gray mould on flowers Polyoxin 110g / 300 l/ 1000 and leaves m2 area

Ascochyta Black rot at the flower Mencozeb @ 250 g/ 1000 base m2 area

Bacterial Diseases Pseudomonas Redish brown strips on Soil sterilization with cichorii stem which later Copper Hydroxide @ 0.3 % becomes black

Erwinia Elongated watery and -do- chrysanthimii brown spots

Agrobacterium Bacterial nodules on the -do- tumisfeciens roots

Check Your Progress Exercise 2 Note : a) Space is given below for answers. b) Compare your answer with that given at the end of the unit. 1) Describe the classification of chrysanthemum...... 2) Discuss propagation technique of chrysanthemum...... 22 3) Describe the importation of Pinching and Disbudding in chrysanthemum. Major Cut Flower ...... 4) Differentiate between spray and standard type chrysanthemum......

1.4 GERBERA

Gerbera originated in South Africa, belongs to the family Asteraceae. It is an important commercial cut flower crop grown throughout the world under a wide range of climatic conditions. At Aalsmeer Flower Auction Centre (Holland) it occupies fourth place among the top ten cut flowers of the world floriculture trade in a sales volume. In India, its commercial cultivation under low cost polyhouse environment is on rise and has made its cut flowers availability round the year. 1.4.1 Growing Environment The major growing environmental factors are light, temperature and humidity to grow Gerbera flowers. i) Light : Gerbera can be grown under open field condition, but with the introduction of new exotic varieties, which require more care in their management, it has become difficult to get production of superior quality blooms under open field conditions or even agro shade nets. Therefore, gerbera has to be grown under protected environment. Different growing environments, viz., open field, 50 % shade net, insect proof net, naturally ventilated polyhouse (low cost) and fan and pad evaporative cooled polyhouse (medium cost) were compared for growing exotic varieties of the gerbera under Bangalore condition. The yield of superior quality flowers was reported higher under naturally ventilated polyhouse. ii) Temperature : The ideal temperature for gerbera flower initiation is 23°C and for unfolding are 25-27°C. Flowering is harmed considerably at temperature below 12°C and above 35°C. iii) Humidity : The optimum relative humidity inside the greenhouse should be 80-85 %.

23 Cut Flowers 1.4.2 Commercial Varieties Several exotic varieties of gerbera in Single, Semi-double and Double types are available with nurserymen. Gerbera varieties are also classified in two groups i.e., large flowered and mini gerbera with desirable characters like - large flower diameter, long and stout flower stalk, double type of flower with black center, increased vase life and ability to withstand long distance transportation, which have demand in the market. Some of the suitable varieties under Indian conditions are: Cabana, Daikiri, Ellymay, Essandre, Evening Bells, Feugo, Gold Spot, Golden Gate, Ibiza, Jankfrau, Lindessa, Lyonella, Optima, Ornella, Paganini Piton, Polar, Red Monarch, Rosabella, Ruby Red, Sangria, Sunway, Tiramisu, Twiggy etc. 1.4.3 Soil and Growing Medium Well drained loam sandy to sandy soil, rich in organic matter and has adequate moisture holding capacity, is ideal for successful Gerbera cultivation. A soil pH of 5.5-6.5 and E.C. 0.5-2.0 ds/cm2 are ideal. A lower pH may results in the lack of manganese or iron and a high pH affects the soil structure. The land should be ploughed / dug deep enough 3-4 times and brought to a fine tilth. Gerbera is grown on 1 meter wide and 30 cm high raised beds of convenient length, leaving 30-40 cm space between two beds, should be prepared by mixing farm yard manure ( 8-10 kg/m2) and sand ( 3-4 kg/m2) into the prepared beds or beds may be prepared by mixing farm yard manure, sand and coconut coir in 2:1:1 ratio.

60 cm

45 cm

1.4.4 Disinfection or Sterilization of Soil Before taking up transplanting, soil sterilization or disinfection of the prepared beds is absolutely necessary. It would minimize the infestation of the soil borne pathogens, which would otherwise destroy the crop partially or completely. The raised beds should be drenched by 4 % solution of formaldehyde (1-1.2 litre/m2) 24 and immediately covered with air tight polyethylene film for 4-5 days. Soon Major Cut Flower after, the treated beds should be watered thoroughly to drain off the chemical after disinfestations and subsequent washing out of the soil; it is advised to wait for two weeks before taking up transplanting. Soil disinfection may also be done with methyl bromide (@ 30 g/m2 area). Growing medium may also be sterilized by application of Basamid @ 40 g/m2 area. The treated beds have to be covered gas proof by polyethylene film for 6-7 days. A few days before transplanting neem cake @ 1 kg/m2 can be incorporated into the prepared beds. Alongwith this Furadan @ 10 g/m2 can be applied as a preventive measure against the Nematodes. 1.4.5 Transplanting Proper planting is important. If the plants are planted too deep the crown rot is encouraged and too shallow the exposed roots are easily disturbed and plants may wilt and die. The young plants should be planted so that the crown is slightly 2-3 cm above the surrounding soil level. The crown must be dried out between two watering; otherwise condition will be ideal for infection of Phytophthora cryptogea. Planting can be adopted at a spacing of 30 x 30 cm, in three rows per bed of one-meter width. Plantlets to be transplanted without disturbing the root ball. After planting, the relative humidity inside the greenhouse should be kept 70-80 % or shade nets should remain closed for 4-6 weeks to avoid the desiccation of the plants. 1.4.6 Watering or Irrigation of Gerbera Although gerbera crop requires a constant supply of water, the soil surface should dry out between watering. The deep roots draw water from the base of the beds. Excessive dampness around the leaves and crowns encourages the incidence of Botrytis, powdery mildew and crown rot diseases. Immediately after transplanting, watering should be done using overhead sprinklers, watering cane, watering hose fitted with a ‘rain’ nozzle up to one month. Thereafter, gradually shift to drip irrigation. Generally, one dripper per plant is required. The average water requirement may be 700 ml/plant/day (4.5 to 6.0 litre/day/m2), depending on the season, soil texture, light intensity and crop stage. It is necessary to avoid over watering, even though plants tend to dry out rapidly due to their large leaf area. Watering can be done in 2-3 shifts a day. A watering shift should not be too short to ensure vertical flushing of excessive salts. On soils with insufficient drainage, irrigation should be limited to only one large watering before 10 am in order to let the soil dry out during the day. 1.4.7 Nutritional Requirement Gerbera requires a plenty of macro and micronutrients for proper growth and development. The first dose of fertilizers should be applied 10-15 days prior to the transplanting. Application of 10:15:20 g NPK/m2, respectively during first three months of transplanting will be helpful in better establishment and growth of the plants. From fourth month onwards application of 15:10:30 g NPK/m2 at two months intervals is desirable. Fertilization with 80 % of the recommended 25 Cut Flowers dose (1:10:30 g/m2) two months through straight fertilizers and remaining 20 % through the water soluble fertilizers reported cost effective to obtain the higher returns and good quality of cu flowers. Improved flower yield, stalk length and flower diameter can obtain by application of 15 tonne / ha vermicompost plus 75 % recommended dose of NPK (15:10:30 g/m2/two months). Spraying of micronutrient like boron, calcium, iron, copper and magnesium @ 0.15 % each, at monthly intervals is also desirable. Concentrated complex of micro-nutrients mixtures may also be sprayed (0.2 %) at monthly intervals for obtaining increased flower production.

Application of fertilizers through drip fertigation system preferably in the morning hours around 8.00 am is advisable. Fertilizers should be given 10 days after the transplanting. Initially 19:19:19 NPK should be given at 0.5 to 1.0 g/l of water on daily bases upto flowering stage. After appearing of the flowering, the fertigation should be given as per the following ratio: viz., 1:1:3:1: 0.2 NPK, Ca and Mg. Application of micro-nutrients through drip irrigation is also beneficial. However, it is suggested to analyze the soil and water samples once in two months regularly to fine tune the fertigation programme according to the soil and water analysis report. 1.4.8 Propagation of Gerbera Gerbera is commercially propagated either through suckers or tissue culture plantlets. Its propagation through tissue culture plantlets has become the predominant method to provide uniform flowering, free branching and pathogen free plants. Faster the delivery of the young plants, it is necessary to transplant them as soon as possible. It is good thing to keep them in a room without direct sun, arrange the boxes one by one without placing above each other. In this way it is possible to guarantee a good aeration. 1.4.9 Harvesting of Flowers The first flowering occurs in 7-12 weeks after transplanting. Harvesting of flowers should be done when outer 3-4 rows of the disc florets have fully developed. However, some growers remove the first flower as soon as feasible. They believe this will result in more rapid and uniform elongation of the remaining flowers. In a young plantation, the plants may be pulled loose while picking. Therefore, the first flowers have to be picked very carefully. The cut flowers should be pulled rather than cut, because cutting will have a stem stub on the growing plant that encourages the development of diseases. The base of the flower stem should be pushed slightly down and to one side and then separated from the crown with gentle upward tug. There is absolutely no need to apply knife, scissors, etc. while harvesting of flowers. Water movement through the basal portion of the stem is slower than through the segment 5-6 cm higher. Therefore, the basal 5-6 cm portion should be cut using very sharp knife removed before placing in the harvesting bucket. 1.4.10 Yield of Cut Flower Yield: The flower yield of gerbera crop depends upon the various factors like growing environment, varieties planted, spacing adopted, etc. The average yield under low cost naturally ventilated polyhouse is 30-45 flowers/plant/year (200- 250 flowers/m2/year). If properly maintained, healthy plants give economical yield for a period of 2½-3 years, after that plantation will have to be replaced. 26 1.4.11 Plant Protection Major Cut Flower A) Insect-pests :

i) White fly (Bemisia tabaci) lays eggs on the lower surface of the leaf. Nymphs and adults suck cell sap from the leaves resulting in discolouration, reduced plant vigour and development of the shooty mould on leaves. Removal and burring of heavily infested leaves check white flies build up. Chemical control includes sprays of dicholorovos, trizophos or phosphomidin @ 1.5-2 ml/l of water at regular intervals.

ii) Leaf miner (Limomyza trifolii) causes considerable damage to the foliage. Adults lay eggs in the leaves by punching. Maggots feed inside the leaves by leaving characteristic mines which turn brown, brittle and dry in case of heavy infestation. Removal and destruction of the heavily infested leaves reduce further damage. Spray during morning hours of pyrazophos, metasystox, or dimethoate @ 1.5-2 ml/l of water are quite effective measures.

iii) Aphids (Myzus persicae) attack growing flowers. Both nymphs and adults colonize on lower sides of petals and spread to entire flower in case of heavy infestation. Aphids suck the sap from the petals leading to disclouration, wilting and distortion of the flowers. Spray of monocrotophos or dimethoate @ 1.5-2 ml/l of water at regular intervals is quite effective to control aphids.

iv) Bud caterpillar (Spodoptera litura) laid eggs in groups on lower surfaces of the leaves. Early instars are gregarious in nature and feed on the leaves by scraping them. Black colored mature larvae migrate to growing buds and flowers and damage them. Collection and destruction of egg masses and leaves infested with early instars reduce the pest build up. Spray of methyl parathion or endosulphan @ 1.5-2 ml/l of water controlled this pest effectively.

B) Diseases :

i) Crown rot is a major disease and severe infection can destroy the entire gerbera crop. The crown of the plant turns dark and decays. The leaves of the infected plants wilt gradually, become dry and turn to radish brown colour. The infected roots develop a water brown colour. The disease can be effectively controlled by drenching of the root zone of infected plants with 0.2% solution of mataxyl, captan or carbendazim or copper oxychloride at fortnightly intervals.

ii) Powdery mildew (Erysiphae cichoracearum) infection causes white powdery coating on the leaves. Spraying with thiophanale methyl @ 1.5 %, carbendazim @ 0.2 %, hexaconazole @ 1 ml/l, triadimefon @ 1

g/l or dipotassium hydrogen orthophosphate (K2 HPO4) @ 4.3 g/l, are effective against this disease.

iii) Wilt (Fusarium oxysporum) infected plants show yellowing of lower leaves. The collar portion shows vascular discoloration. Rouging and soil application of benzamidazoles (0.2 %) help in reducing the disease spread. 27 Cut Flowers iv) Root Rot is caused by Pythium. Root skin is easily removed and finally wilting of the plants. Avoid excess watering. Drenching with Benlate @ 2 gm/l or with Bavistin @ 2 gm/l is helpful to control the root rot.

Check Your Progress Exercise 3 Note : a) Space is given below for answers. b) Compare your answer with that given at the end of the unit. 1) What are the most common varieties of gerbera being grown commercially under greenhouse? ...... 2) What is the most common nutrient found deficient in gerbera? ...... 3) What do you understand by crown ? How these crown separated from the mother stock? ...... 4) What is the fertigation schedule and when the gerbera is grown under greenhouse? ...... 28 Major Cut Flower 1.5 STATICE

It is known as Limonium and is a genus of 120 flower species. Members are also known as Sea Lavender, Statice, or Marsh-rosemary. Limonium is in Plumbaginaceae, the plumbago or leadwort family. Despite their common names, species are not related to the lavenders or to rosemary.

The leaves are simple, entire to lobed, and from 1- 30 cm long and 0.5-10 cm broad; most of the leaves are produced in a dense basal rosette, with the flowering stems bearing only small brown scale- leaves (bracts). The flowers are produced on a branched panicle or corymb, the individual flowers small (4-10 mm long) with a five-lobed calyx and corolla, and five stamens; the flower colour is pink, violet to purple in most species, white or yellow in a few. Many of the species are apomictic. The fruit is a small capsule containing a single seed, partly enclosed by the persistent calyx. 1.5.1 Species Statics has between 120-150 species in the genus, many of them local endemic species with a very restricted range. Some are use as a cut flower having long stem, in pink, purple, white colour. Species not given a common name are generally referred to simply as “Sea-lavender”, “Statice” or “Marsh-rosemary”. 1.5.2 Soil and Climate It can be easily grown in sandy loam soil in tropical and sub-tropical climate with wide range of temperature. Statice is being grown commercially, under greenhouse conditions for year round production.

Even though these plants are native of salt marshes, they may flourish in any good garden soil. The border and rock garden kinds need well-drained soil and a sunny position. Heavy clay soil must be replaced with compost or lightened by adding quantities of sand or cinders. Firm planting should be done in the spring. They aren’t disturbed for many years because they flower the best when well established. If they are growing poorly, they should be top-dressed with well- decayed manure in the spring. 1.5.3 Seed Sowing and Planting Propagation is from seeds that have been cleaned. The seeds are small in size, 10,000 seeds / 28 g, and take 5-9 days for germination at 18-21°C. Seedlings should be fertilized with low concentration on N fertilizer. Any garden soil is suitable for growing statice but preferably fertile loamy soil. It is fairly drought resistant and, therefore, can be grown in borders and rockeries. The seedlings are transplanted when they attain a height of 4-5 cm and for this 3-4 weeks are required. Planting distance between rows and plants should be 25-30 cm for border or rock garden. For commercial flower production, transplanting of seedlings is recommended at a spacing of 15 cm between plants and 30-45 cm between rows. At such spacing, 4-5 rows are usually separated with 75-90 cm path between two groups. 29 Cut Flowers 1.5.4 Varieties Annuals - L. sinuatum; L. Bonduellii; (These two are used for drying.); L. Suworowii. Perennials - L. macrophyllum; L. latifolium; L. tataricum nanum (also known as L. incanum nanum); L. gmelinii; L. binervosum; L. caesium; L. minutum; L. spathulatum; L. eximium. Shrubby - L. macrophyllum (mentioned above); L. brassicaefolium; L. imbricatum; L. puberulum. The most common varieties are Midnight blue, Blue Perfection, Lavender Queen, Iceberg, Purple Monarch and Gold Coast. 1.5.5 Irrigation Take care when watering because these plants are prone to decay at soil level. The best way to water is by waiting until the soil is fairly dry before wetting. Good drainage is a must. 1.5.6 Propagation It is being propagated through seeds. Seeds may be sown in a pot or pan filled with light soil. Set them in a cold frame or slightly heated greenhouse and once the seeds have sprouted they are pricked out and placed in a large pan or seed flat. Before they are planted outdoors, at 6 inches apart, they should be hardened off. Seeds may also be sown outside when the soil is warm. Small side shoots having rosettes of leaves can be taken off and inserted in pots of sandy soil in the summer. Set them in a shady frame and they’ll form roots quickly. The old plants may also be lifted and divided in the spring. Plant the pieces where they are to grow. 1.5.7 Fertilizers Statice requires balanced fertilizer to meet its demand for nutrients. Field should be fertilized with wellrotten farmyard manure @ 50 tonnes/ha and incorporated 10-15 days before transplanting. Application of 100 kg each of N, P and K per- hectare will be adequate for the proper growth and flowering. Half of the N and full P and K should be incorporated in the soil 3-4 days before transplanting and remaining half of the N should be applied one month after first application. 1.5.8 Plant Protections i) Disease: Statice is attacked by several diseases. Damping off mainly caused by Botrytis cinerea is generally observed in nursery beds. Soaking the seed in hot water (52°C) for 30 minutes or in 0.5 % Sodium hypochloride for 2 minutes.

ii) Anthracnose: Anthracnose is caused by Colletotrichum gloeosporioides. This fungus also produces crown rot and lesions on leaves, stems and flower parts. Cultivars like Gold Coast are more susceptible. Spraying the crop with Bavistin (0.1 %) or Dithane Z-78 (0.2 %) at weekly interval can control the disease effectively. Healthy seeds should be used while raising the nursery. The diseased plant debris should be destroyed.

iii) Alternaria: Sp. Cercospora sp., Fusicladium staticis and Phyllosticta spp. Cause leaf spot on statice. Aster yellow is caused by the California strain of the virus. 30 1.5.9 Harvesting of Flowers Major Cut Flower Statice flowers are harvested when calyces of individual flowers have mostly opened and are showing colour. Flowers can be stored for 2-3 weeks at 2°C. The vase-life of flowers is 1-2 weeks in fresh arrangement and one year or more when used as dried flowers. They are dried by cutting and hanging downwards in an airy, dry, dust-proof shed.

Check Your Progress Exercise 4 Note : a) Space is given below for answers. b) Compare your answer with that given at the end of the unit. 1) Write down the botanical name and family of Statice...... 2) Write down the utility of Statice...... 3) Write down the most common variety of Statice...... 4) What should be the optimum planting time under more than plain and hills? ...... 31 Cut Flowers 1.6 ROSE

Rose flower is luxury product and also competes with other luxury items such as confectionary and sweets for discretionary spending money by the consumer. Therefore, consumer has demand for certain standard of quality and value for money. Some of the quality aspects are colour, freshness, stem length, free from the pests, fragrance and vase life. In last three decades floriculture industry has taken root in India. However, the Indian floriculture industry is completely dominated by traditional flower growing in open field mostly catering to the domestic demand. The first-ever machines which can grade flower like roses not just on the length but also on colour and size are now operational.

Rose is one of the natures beautiful creations and is universally acclaimed as the “Queen of Flowers”. It is top ranking cut flower in the flower trade on the basis of average production and consumption. Great diversity in plant growth, flower colour, flower shape, fragrance, slow opening of buds and good keeping quality made rose so popular that it is grown commercially to meet the demand of cut blooms. In India roses are grown for cut flowers, making essential oil, rose water and gulkand. Whereas it’s dried petals are used for making incense sticks.

The Indian share of world floriculture trade is hardly 0.4 per cent and the area devoted to the floricultural export is increasing day by day. Technical collaboration with the international companies in this field has resulted in setting up the state of art production facilities and sophisticated greenhouses that are intrinsic to the maintenance of light, temperature and humidity. Over 470 (inclusive 160 Export Oriented Units) units are now in operation in India. In spite of the late entry Indian Industry rapid stride and nearly 600 ha of land is brought under protected cultivation of floricultural crops till date. 1.6.1 Botanical Description Roses are perennial belonging to the family Rosaceae. There are about 120 species of roses and thousands of varieties. The modern rose originates from enormous cross breeding among species from far and near east crossed with species from South Europe. The hybrid teas have long stems, a large flower bud and pleasant fragrance. Most of polyanthus is climbers and dwarf perpetually flowering forms. The greenhouse rose (R. hybrida) is an evergreen bush with a terminal flower and internal induction for flowering. Floribundas are hybrids of dwarf polyanthus and tea hybrids. They have big or small flowers. They can produce large quantities of short stems. 1.6.2 Propagation People are not aware of different propagation techniques of rose, therefore they have to purchase rose planting materials from nurseries at very high cost. So the main propagation methods, through which you can produce plants at high level, are as below:

Roses can be propagated both by seeds and by various vegetative methods. But now-a-days tissue culture techniques are being used for the production of disease free plants in large number.

32 A) Sexual Propagation Major Cut Flower i) Seed propagation : This method of propagation is generally adopted by breeders for developing new cultivars with desirable characters. Seedlings of rose species are also used as stock for grafting or budding. The rose fruits (hips) are harvested when fully ripe and thoroughly dried before extraction of seeds. In rose seed germination is very poor because most of the seeds when mature are in resting conditions requiring an after ripening period before germination. So stratification of seeds at 1.6-4.4°C for 6 weeks improves germination. Germination can also be improved with scarification with different chemicals like sulphuric acid for 1-2 hours.

ii) Care of seedlings : For raising seedlings clean seeds are sown about 5 cm apart in pairs in large pots, and compost with adequate organic matter. The flower buds appeared on new seedlings should be pinched off until plants become reasonably large and sturdy. A continuous moisture and nutrient supply control of weeds, diseases and pests contribute to successful seedling growth.

B) Vegetative or Asexual Propagation Roses are propagated by various vegetative methods like cutting, layering, budding and grafting.

a) Cutting : Propagation by cutting is normally done to raise rootstocks for grafting or budding and also adopted for multiplying vigorous types of cultivar, climbers, rambler, polyantha and miniatures. Cuttings are always prepared from shoot. Root cuttings have also been found to form shoots and ultimately a new plant.

i) Stem cutting : It is one of the least expensive and easiest methods of rose multiplication. Cuttings may be single, double or triple eyed, the later being preferred as there is greater chance for more shoot and better root formation. Cutting should normally be taken during the monsoon or spring. The cuttings (15-20 cm long) are made from shoots of pencil thickness. Sand is the most ideal medium for rooting of cuttings. 2-3 buds should be embedded for rooting and 4-5 should be above ground to give shoot system.

The cuttings are usually kept 3 cm apart in a row and 8 cm between the rows. After planting the cuttings, the medium is watered and care is taken to avoid over watering and water logging. In about 4- 6 weeks, the rooted cuttings will be ready for transplanting. The ideal time for raising rooted cuttings is in the month of July. Growth regulator like IBA at 500 ppm or dry rooting power can be used for treating the cuttings before planting in the sand medium to improve rootings. To prevent the cuttings from dehydrating through 33 Cut Flowers the leaves and stems, the cutting are often propagated under mist systems in controlled greenhouses or tunnels. Adequate moisture in the soil and air humidity is to be maintained. Commercial growers usually use mist system to prevent wilting. A fine mist of water is sprayed over the cutting for a few seconds regularly. Acclimatization of newly rooted plants should be done gradually.

ii) Root cutting : Some rose species like Rosa blanda, R. nitida, R. virginiana can be propagated by root cuttings. The cuttings should be taken from young and healthy plants and it is important to maintain polarity when planting. The cuttings should be inserted vertically with the upper most ends at level of the rooting media.

b) Layering : This type of vegetative propagation is usually limited to climbing and rambling roses and usually practiced during the monsoon or early spring and leads to own rooted plants. Mainly 2 types, ground layering and air layering are used.

i) Ground layering : It is performed by the bending shoot to the ground and covers it with soil leaving the terminal end exposed. Root promoting substance can also be used for improving root formation in layers. Rooting usually takes place in a month or so and the layered shoot is detached 15-20 days after root formation.

ii) Air Layering : It consists of removing a ring of bark (about 2.5 cm long) from stem, around the shoot and wrap sphagnum moss around the ringed portion and covering with polythene film. For the improvement of root formation in air-layer some root promoting substances can be used.

c) Grafting : Inarching or cleft grafting is also a method of propagation. The rootstocks are raised in small pots or polythene bags. The scions are selected according the stocks. The scion shoot should be of medium texture, similar thickness of both stock and scion, free from pests and diseases and having 4-5 eyes in length. But it is costlier than budded plants and commercially not used.

d) Budding : Budding is the most popular and successful method for multiplying roses. It provides larger number of plants than cuttings, layering or grafting as a single shoot of the desired scion furnishing a number of buds for budding. Shield or T-bud is the method ordinarily used. On the selected rootstock, the buds are inserted into a T-shaped incision on the pencil thick rootshock and then tied with suitable wrapping material. Several other budding techniques like forkert, patch, chip, skin etc. have also been tried in rose with varying degree of success.

The time of budding varies from place to place and the right stage of budding is when plants have adequate sap flow and the cambium tissue is highly active. The best time to bud roses in eastern India is from January to March, while in northern India it is from November to February. In places with mild climate, like Bangalore, Pune budding can be done throughout the year.

34 e) Some Common Rootstocks in India are as follows : Major Cut Flower i) Rosa multiflora Tolerant to nematode and frost. It performs well in Bihar, Bengal and in the hills. ii) Rosa bourboniana (Edouard Rose) Susceptible to powdery mildew and die back diseases. Plants provide straight stems and mostly used in northern plains of India for budding standard roses. iii) Rosa indica var odorata Well adapted to both excessively dry and wet soil. Plant raised on this rootstock is vigorous and produce flower with longer stems. It is resistant to powdery mildew and insect pests and recommended for northern plains of India. f) Quality of ideal rootstock : Stock plant should have fibrous root system and it should be easily propagated by cuttings with vigorous growth habit, healthy and resistant to disease and frost, uniform growth with thick bark and reasonably should be free from suckers. It should support the budding plant for a long time and should withstand a wide range of soil and climatic conditions.

g) Micro-propagation : Propagating in vitro is a rapid and disease free method for multiplication of plants in roses. Different stages of micro- propagation are, culture establishment, shoot proliferation, rooting and acclimatization. Shoots are proliferated by using a modified M.S. (Murashige and Skoog’s) high salt supplemented medium with hormones. Further roots are produced by using different auxins and rooted plants are acclimatized and successfully transferred to soil after 2-3 month. In micro-propagation of rose, explants that can be used are auxiliary buds, petals and leaves. 1.6.3 Varieties At present there are more than hundred varieties of cut roses grown all over the world and hundreds of the new varieties are added every year. The important IARI Roses are: Jawahar, Pusa Garima, Priyadarshini, Dr. B.P. Pal, Mother Teresa, Lahar, Bhim, Arunima, Pusa Muskan, Pusa Mansij, Mechak, Himangine, Pusa Arun, Mridula, Pusa Bahadur, Pusa Priya, Pusa Guarav. Other verities are Angelique, Barolina, Balami, First Red, Picture, Pasadena, Priyadarshini, Super Star, Golden Gate, Mercedes, Noblesse etc. 1.6.4 Soil In open field conditions different factors that are responsible for quality bloom production are as follows. i) Soil and growing media : If the roses are to be grown in the soil with fertigation schedules the optimum soil conditions required should be ideal with the which are deep (80 cm) sandy loam having 6.5 pH with 1.2 to 1.5 EC. Rockwool, perlite, sponge, coco-fine fiber and thermo-foam are some of the inert soilless media used in agriculture. Various organic mediums like cocopeat, peat-moss, composted manure and other organic mixtures are 35 Cut Flowers active in absorbing and releasing fertilizers and are very strong buffers. Chemical changes in such media are slow and need less frequent monitoring of fertigation. In general the roses are planted under soilless culture having coco-peat and perlite and vermiculite mixture of 80:10:10 ratio in double layer tray and the amount of fertigation required is decided by achieving 30-50 % drainage rate. When water quality is good, a rinse with lesser percentage of drainage is sufficient. The excess water is drained all the way to sides and collected through drain to be used in the open fields. It can be grown in any soil having proper drainage; the ideal soil should be medium loam having sufficient organic matter with pH of 6.0 to 7.5. 1.6.5 Essential Environment Factor The most important point regarding environment is to remember that roses love sunshine and free ventilation. The plants should be free from shades of trees and protected from the strong winds. Humidity also plays an important role in the incidence of pests and disease affecting the growth and flowering. Climate requirements of greenhouse are as follows.

In the northern plains, roses flower best during winter, whereas in the temperate hilly regions during summer. Banglore, Pune and Nasik have mild climate, where roses flower almost throughout the year. Moderately cool climate with bright sunshine and free ventilation is very good for rose growing. a) Light : Plants growing under shade produce thinner leaves with low chlorophyll content, less flower yield and poor development of colour. i) Radiation : High and full without shading at the canopy level of plants. b) Temperatures : Most rose cultivars grow best at a temperature range of 15- 26°C producing good quality and quantity of flowers which may vary upto some extent according to the cultivars. To produce quality bloom day and 36 night temperature should be as follow. i) Day temperatures : 24-26°C Major Cut Flower ii) Night temperatures : 18ºC c) Humidity : High relative humidity causes more incidence of certain diseases and pests while lack of it may result in reduced size of leaves, flowers and stems. It should be as follow. i) Relative Humidity : 70-85 % d) CO2 :

i) CO2 : 1000 ppm

1.6.6 Production Factors i) Planting time : Planting time depends mainly on the climatic conditions of the region. In general roses can be planted any time except hot sunny days and during heavy rains when the soil is wet. But winter months are the best and safest. The suitable time for planting roses in the plains of India is during September - October and in the hills during February - March. ii) Planting depth and Distance : The position of the bud union should be looked into. In temperate region season the bud union should be slightly below the soil. In India better results are obtained if the planting is done with bud union 2-3 cm above the soil level. In open 60 x 60 cm (Row-Row x Plant-Plant) or 60 x 30 cm is common distance. But now a day closer spacing of 30 x 30 cm is also very common. Planting distance for Hybrid Tea (2 x 2 ft) Floribundas (2 x 2 ft), miniatures (1.5 x 1.5 ft), Polyanthas (1.5 x 1.5 ft), and for climbers (3 x 3 ft). iii) Planting : 2 rows per bed @ 0.40 m (from row to row) and 20 cm spacing. The bed should be ridged to the extent that the roots are aerated. Planting density is kept depending upon the varieties and types ranging from 7 to 14 plants per sqm that can be planted to cover the population of 70,000 to 1,40,000 plants per ha. 1.6.7 Pruning, Bending, Development of Bush, Disbudding and De-shooting Pruning facilitates floriferousness bender improving flower quality and plant vigour. Also, the diseased and unproductive growth are removed. It provides strong framework. Pruning is done when the plant is at dormant or near dormant stage. The time of pruning is dependent on prevailing climatic conditions of the region. Under temperate condition, it is done in spring or late autumn. Under North-Indian conditions, the best time of pruning is in the months of September - October. In same southern states, it is done twice, on in late November and then in late June. In pruning cut is made at about half a centimeter above the vigorous bud growing outwardly. The cut should be clean and sharp and immediately be 37 Cut Flowers painted with a fungicidal preparation made by mixing 4 parts of red lead, 4 parts of copper carbonate and 5 parts of linseed oil. Generally strong and healthy plants are pruned lightly moderate grows moderately and weak plants relatively hard. Pruning: Pruning is an important operation for maintenance of floriferousness and flower quality along with vigour of rose plants. The main objectives of pruning are to remove weak and unproductive shoots which allows air and light to reach centre plant. It keeps the plant in proper shape and size and also forces the plant buds to break and grow to produce quality flowers. It also helps in maintenance of proper balance between vegetative growth and flowering.

Pruning should be done when plants are less active or dormant. In northern plains of India it is mainly done during October-November. The basic rule of pruning is to cut half centimetre above the vigorous, outward directed bud by giving a slanting cut because it does not retain moisture and prevents fungal growth.

In H.T. roses all dead, weak, damaged, diseased and crossing shoots are removed from the base retaining only 4-5 healthy basal shoots. Moderately severe pruning appears to be ideal.

In floribunda main objective of pruning is to produce abundant flowers. It is done by removing older growth at every point and young growth is shortened by about 1/3 or 1/2. Whereas in polyantha / miniature removal of only dead, diseased or over crowded branches serve the purpose. a) De-shooting and bending : Sprouting of the buds just below the flower and leaf should be removed regularly because being between shoot and leaf lead to the small buds. Dead shoots are removed immediately. Otherwise they serve as a good surface for fungi. b) Bending : Leaf is the source of the food. Therefore, a balance between the source (assimilation) and sink (dissimilation) is to be maintained. In three month old plants bending induce the cytokinins which encourage the sprouting of shoots to increase the production surface and framework of the plant into a young bush. Then, after the unproductive and thin shoots are regularly bended. Picking flowers at the height of 40 to 80 cm. c) Disbudding is an important operation done by removing buds and retaining only central one resulting in large flower with better quality. d) Deshooting is removal of lateral shoots to allow only terminal shoots. It is necessary otherwise plants get heavily branched with large number of small flowers. 1.6.8 Manuring, Fertilization and Irrigation Rose is a nutrient loving plant and about 16 elements have been known to play important role for its growth and development. Rose should be fed with both 38 organic and inorganic sources. One hundred gram of mixture containing Major Cut Flower Groundnut cake-(5 kg), bonemeal (5 kg), ammorphos (11:48)-(2 kg), Ammonium sulphate are used after pruning per plant.

After pruning N (520 kg), P2O5 (868 kg) and K2O (694 kg)/ ha has been recommended. It is advisable to apply the fertilizers in three split doses and application should be made when there is sufficient moisture in the soil. The first application of the fertilizers should be given 15 days after pruning when the new growth will start, i.e. in October then December and third dose in February.

The fertilizer concentration required for fertigation of mature roses in greenhouse during winter and summer seasons are 300:200:300 ppm at weekly interval. i) Micronutrients : The micronutrients have been identified as essential elements for plant growth and they are required in a small quantity (g ha-1). These micronutrients are Iron (Fe), Manganese (Mn), Zink (Zn), Copper (Cu), Boron (B); Molybdenum (Mo), Chlorine (Cl) and Nickl (Ni). These nutrient are also essential for quality production of cut flower like Rose and other cut flowers. It has been observed that omission of any one micronutrient (Fe,Mn,B,Cu,Zn,) appreciably reduced the number of leaves, leteral shoots and flower production. The Concentration of these micronutrient generally require very low @ 1000, 700, 1000, 8000, 5000 mg-1 respectively. However actual rates of micronutrients applied, should be adjusted based on the soil and tissue analysis results or depending on soil conditions. ii) Foliarfeeding: It is an excellent supplement to root feeding. This should start when there are enough new leaves on the plant after pruning and they show signs of the maturity. This should not be done when the plant is in full bloom, lest the blooms are damaged by the spray. This should be done very early in the morning preferably before 8 am on a clear day. The spray is made up of urea 2 parts, dihydrogen ammonium phosphate 1 part, potassium phosphate 1 part and potassium nitrate 1 part. Three grams of this mixture per litre of water is sprayed along with 1.5 gm of teepol of Zinc Sulphate 1 part of liquid soap at 10 days interval until last flush in March. A mixture managanese sulphate 1 part, magnesium sulphate 1 part, chelated iron 1 part and borax ¼ part is sprayed @ 1 g/litre of water once in two months for supplying trace or minor elements. iii) Irrigation: After pruning when you apply first dose of manure to rose filled, irrigated immediately. The frequency of irrigation in roses depends on many factors such as growth, soil texture, climate and glass house or filled condition etc. what providing adequate soil moistures at all stages of growth and flowering is essential. 1.6.9 Harvesting and Post Harvest Management of Flower i) Post-harvest management : A flower harvested at the tight bud stage has long vase life. Picking stage determines the keeping quality of the flower which differs among the varieties. Prematurely harvested bud will bend from the neck even if placed in water. After picking of flowers they should be placed in clean water treated with a mild bactericide and kept in a cool chamber at around 10°C until they are packed for cooled storage before transit. 39 Cut Flowers ii) Packing: After pre-cooling of the cut flowers, the packing makes the difference to retain the quality in stacks and the flower remain fresh for longer time. The cut roses are packed dry in the standard boxes of 122 cm x 51 cm x 30.5 cm (48" x 20" x 12") size and wet packing of the rose cut stems is done in the boxes of 33 cm x 33 cm x 56 cm (13" x13" x 22") size and stored at 0.5 to 2°C in preservative. However, the roses should be stored even while transit as dry pack at the temperature 0.5 to 0°C. 1.6.10 Plant Protection a) Insects - pests : The most common insects are Aphids, Jassids, Scales and Thrips and red Caterpillars. The symptoms of scale are seen in the picture. i) Aphids: Attack the rose plant in the month of December to March. Control : By dusting 2 % Pyrodust or Bsudin, 28.35 gm per litre of water or by spraying 0.1-0.2 % Melathion or Rogor. ii) Thrips : It attack the plant in the month of December - March. Control: Spray the rose plants with 0.1-0.2 % solution of Melathion or Rogor. iii) Chafer Beetel and Thrips : These attack the rose plants in the month of July and August. Control: Spray with 0.2 % solutions of Rogor. iv) Red Scale: It attack the rose crops in the month of August to October and April. Control: Spray the rose crops with 0.1% Parathion Solutions. b) Diseases i) Die-back : It is one of the major diseases of rose, particularly in India. The stem and roots of the dead plants show browning of internal tissues. Diplodia rosarum is the causal organism. It may occur through improper use of fertilizers, improper waterning, borer damage, poor drainage, lack of light. Proper cultural practice is the prevention for die back in roses. Some systemic fungicide like carbendazim (1g/l) may also be used as soil drench. ii) Powdery-Mildew : This major disease of rose cause much damage to roses all over the world. It is caused by the fungus Sphaerotheca pannosa. It can be controlled by applying sulphur but most of the roses are susceptible to sulphur injury. iii) Black-Spot : This is a fungal disease caused by Diplocarpon rosae. Dark brown, circular spots with fringe borders present on both sides of leaflets. Benlate can be used as control measure. iv) Stem blight : This disease caused by fungi associated with die back. Regular spray of captan (2000 ppm) and such other fungicides control the infection. 40 v) Rust : Rose rust is considered as a serious disease of rose and most Major Cut Flower common in warm and humid areas.

Check Your Progress Exercise 5 Note : a) Space is given below for answers. b) Compare your answer with that given at the end of the unit. 1) Give a list of different product from roses...... 2) Discuss most common species of roses...... 3) What are the most problem of root not of roses being used for budding ? ...... 4) Write down most common variety of hybrid T rose......

1.7 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, we have studied about the importance, economics, growing components of major cut flowers. They are all considered as commercial flowers and each have good return even higher than many of the cereal crops. They can be grown even round the year provided growing environments are made favourable with all possible inputs viz. soil, climate, fertilizers, plant protection 41 Cut Flowers measures, proper harvesting and handling as we have described under this unit. They fetch better price if the quality is maintained. Many of high value cut flowers have better scope for export in addition to domestic trade.

1.8 KEY WORDS

Axil : The angle between the leaf or leaf stalk and stem from which new leaf or side-shoot growth and flower buds arise. Buds found here are known as axillary buds. Side- shoot growth is prevented if they are pinched out.

Cultivar : A type of plant of flower that has been developed in cultivation and named by the plant breeder. Cultivar names are enclosed by quotation marks to distinguish them from the scientific names.

Cutting : A term usually applied to stem cutting. This is a section of stem, 7-10cm long (usually the growing tip), which is used in propagation to root and develop into a new plant.

Dieback : The death of a section stem. This is often caused by faulty pruning.

EC : Electro conductivity of soil or water. Generally plant required for good growth -1-EC of soil or water.

Genus : A group of allied species. Usually a group of plants (though sometimes only one) which are similar in structure and which most probably evolved from a common ancestor. The genus name always begins with an upper case letter.

Growing tip : Also commonly known as growing point, this is the tip of a shoot from which vigorous new growth emerges.

Hybrid : A plant derived from two genetically different parents. Cross fertilization is common between plants of different species within the same genus. Plants arising from such crossings are known as primary hybrids.

Node : A stem joint at which the leaves are borne. The node may be notched or swollen and is a pointed.

Pinching : Also known as topping. A form of pruning practiced by gently removing the tip of shoots with forefinger and thumb to reduce growth.

pH : This is measurement of acidity or alkalinity of a soil, compost and water. pH-7 is neutral, below pH-7 is acidic and above pH-& is alkaline.

Rest period : A period within the 12-month season in which the plant should be allowed to become inactive, producing little or no leaf or root growth. 42 Rootstock : A vigorous plant which provides the root system in Major Cut Flower grafting. Also known as stock or a plant root system.

Scion : A hoot or bud of one species which is united to a stock of another plant by grafting, for propagation.

Species (Sp.) : The members of a genus are called species. From its seed each persistently breeds true to type in its main characteristics. A plant’s name is made up of at least two parts: the name of the genus and the name of the species.

Variety : A word used to refer to variations of the plant that have occurred in the wild, but sometimes incorrectly used to describe a form developed in horticulture. Cultivar is a more accurate term for the latter product.

1. 9 FURTHER REFERENCES 1) Bose, T.K. and Yadav, L.P. (ad.) (1989). Commercial Floriculture, Naya Prokash, Calcutta. 2) Larson, R.A. (1980). Introduction to Floriculture, Academic Press, New York. 3) Chadha, K.L. and Choudhury, B. (1986). Ornamental Horticulture in India, ICAR, New Delhi. 4) Kher, M.A. (1975). Chrysanthemum, Dutta Publishers, New Delhi. 5) Swarup, Vishnu (1997). Ornamental Horticulture, Macmillan, New Delhi. 6) Sindhu, S.S. and Choudhary, M.L. (2001). Commercial Flower Production, Division of Floriculture & Landscaping, IARI, New Delhi-12. 7) Pal, B.P. (2005). The Rose in India, ICAR, New Delhi.

1.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS EXERCISES

Check Your Progress Exercise 1

1) Carnation is being propagated through seed and cutting. However the soft wood cutting is most common and commercial method of propagation in carnation.

2) Stacking is important to give a support in the green house to have a quality bloom of carnation.

3) Pinching is a technique of removal terminal shoot to promote the axillary shoots to enhance the number of flowers per plant whereas removal of the axillary suit to promote the terminal growth to have better size of flowers. Both the techniques are helpful to promote the yield and quality of the flower.

4) Fusarium, Alternaria, Bacterial wilt, Rust, Rhizoctonia, and stem rot. 43 Cut Flowers Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1) There are many types of chrysanthemum as discussed below i) Reflex : The disk florets are concealed and the ray florets reflex outwards to create a mop like appearance. ii) Regular Incurve : Similar to the irregular incurves, only usually smaller blooms, with nearly perfect globular form. Disk florets are completely concealed. They used to be called ‘Chinese’. iii) Decorative : Similar to reflex blooms without the mop like appearance. Disk florets are completely concealed, ray florets usually don’t radiate at more than a 90 degree angle to the stem. iv) Intermediate Incurve : These blooms are in-between the Irregular and Regular incurves in both size and form. They usually have broader florets and a more loosely composed bloom. Again, the disk florets are completely concealed. v) Pompon : The blooms are fully double, of small size, and almost completely globular in form. vi) Single/Semi-Double : These blooms have completely exposed disk florets, with between 1 and 7 rows of ray florets, usually radiating at not more than a 90 degree angle to the stem. vii) Anemone : The disk florets are prominently featured, quite often raised and overshadowing the ray florets. viii) Spoon : The disk florets are visible and the long tubular ray florets are speculating. ix) Quill : The disk florets are completely concealed, and the ray florets are tube like. x) Spider : The disk florets are completely concealed, and the ray florets are tube like with hooked or barbed ends, hanging loosely around the stem. xi) Brush & Thistle : The disk florets may be visible. The ray florets are often tube like, and project all around the flower head, or project parallel to the stem.

2) Chrysanthemum is propagated through suckers, soft wood cutting and seeds. The most common and commercial practices is softwood cutting to get quality bloom with higher production.

3) Pinching is a technique of removal terminal shoot to promote the axillary shoots to enhance the number of flowers per plant whereas removal of the axillary suit to promote the terminal growth to have better size of flowers. Both the techniques are helpful to promote the yield and quality of the flower.

4) The spray type of chrysanthemum have multiple type of flowers even in cluster and comparatively smaller size of flower where as the standard type bears bigger size of flowers with long stick which is normally grown in the pots. 44 Check Your Progress Exercise 3 Major Cut Flower

1) Cabana, Daikiri, Ellymay, Essandre, Evening Bells, Feugo, Gold Spot, Golden Gate, Ibiza, Jankfrau, Lindessa, Lyonella, Optima, Ornella, Paganini Piton, Polar, Red Monarch, Rosabella, Ruby Red, Sangria, Sunway, Tiramisu, Twiggy etc.

2) Molybedenm, magnesium & Ferric are the most common nutrient found deficient.

3) The crowns are the off shoots/ daughter plants coming out from the base of the mother plants, just after the flowering is over. They are being separated by uprooting the plants and replanting each individual separately.

4) NPK in the 19:19:19 normally liquid fertigation is given in the greenhouse crop at weekly interval. Since the Gerbera is proved to micronutrient deficiency therefore multiplex or a combination of micronutrient especially ferric molybdenum and magnesium should also be given at a regular in time to have a better growth of flowering.

Check Your Progress Exercise 4 1) Statice is botanically known as Limonium and belongs to family Plumbaginaceae. 2) Statice is being used as a fresh flower as well as potted flowers and due its very good self life it is used as a dry flower. 3) The most common varieties are Midnight blue, Blue Perfection, Lavender Queen, Iceberg, Purple Monarch and Gold Coast. 4) The best time of sowing under plain Oct where as under hills seeds can be shown during Feb-March for raising seedlings.

Check Your Progress Exercise 5

1) A number of products are prepared from roses like perfume, gulkand, rose water in addition to uses as cut flowers.

2) Rosa indica, Rosa centifolia, Rosa damascena, Rosa bourbiana, Rosa moschata etc.

3) Rosa indica var. odorata of the most common root stock used under northern Indian conditions. Whereas Rosa multifora are used for central India and Rosa bourbiana is extensively used in southern part of the country.

4) Jawahar, Pusa Garima, Priyadarshini, Dr. B.P. Pal, Mother Teresa, Lahar, Bhim, Arunima, Pusa Muskan, Pusa Mansij, Mechak, Himangine, Pusa Arun, Mridula, Pusa Bahadur, Pusa Priya, Pusa Guarav.

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