Scholarly Undergraduate Research Journal at Clark
Volume 1 Article 6
October 2015 Religious and Secular Knowledge on the Draft in Israel Laina E. Pauker Clark University
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Recommended Citation Pauker, Laina E. (2015) "Religious and Secular Knowledge on the Draft in sI rael," Scholarly Undergraduate Research Journal at Clark: Vol. 1 , Article 6. Available at: https://commons.clarku.edu/surj/vol1/iss1/6
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Cover Page Footnote Thank you to everyone who participated in this research. Thanks to my advisor, Johanna Vollhardt, and to my other defense committee members, Rashmi Nair and Rachel Falmagne. Thank you to the Israel Religious Action Center in Jerusalem for their insight into how religious-secular issues are addressed. And thank you to my friends and family for their support through this process.
This manuscript is available in Scholarly Undergraduate Research Journal at Clark: https://commons.clarku.edu/surj/vol1/iss1/6 Social Sciences 46 ------can take various forms, ranging from forms, ranging from can take various interpersonal interactions to institu channels of information tionalized based on cultural, political, and describes Bar-Tal societal sources. security as central to the ethos of pre- the to back dating society, Israeli knowledge categories such as ideol knowledge decisions, infer norms, values, ogy, ences, goals, expectations, religious (xii). dogmas, or justifcations” beliefs fulfll “Societal Accordingly, the elementary epistemic function of about society” knowledge providing about theorizes (48-49). Bar-Tal beliefs that citizens the over-arching society and their role regarding share beliefs within it; he discusses how meaning to experiences in order give Te collec knowledge. to produce to everyone experiences relevant tive transmitted and in the society are negotiated into societal beliefs. Tis - - - - Daniel Bar-Tal (2000) Bar-Tal Daniel Laina E. Pauker describes beliefs as, “basic units of Societal Beliefs and Teir Societal Splintering gies, and the ways in which they their ideas. Te purpose of legitimize this study is to bring understanding and ratio perspectives of diferent to the contentious nalizations related social issue of the draft in Jewish society. Israeli situates the thinker in their political situates the thinker in their political 1993). and social context (Harding, (2000) social on Bar-Tal’s I also drew defnition of societal psychological beliefs, including their complexities In society. in the context of Israeli to understand what perpetu order polariza ates the religious-secular and religious tion, I examined how secular people understand the draft, to opposing ideolo they react how - - - - year in Israel before beginning her undergraduate studies at Clark, inspiring inspiring studies at Clark, beginning her undergraduate before in Israel year lab and Confict and Cooperation on Intergroup the research her focus within and So Development a minor in International With major. her Psychology also the two disciplines intersect. Laina in where is interested cial Change, she is the fne arts of these topics through pursues her exploration and flm. She her certi a form of confict fcation in mediation, towards working currently in of her debut documentary and is organizing screenings flm, “Year resolution, Motion.” Laina Pauker is a recent Clark graduate from New Haven, CT. She spent a She CT. Haven, New from graduate Clark is a recent Laina Pauker Te issue of the draft is a f in Israel the Dra Secular on and Religious Knowledge and the sources of knowledge that of knowledge and the sources the participants on, I grounded drew which analysis in feminist theory, while recognizing the contextual while recognizing of their argu and ideological roots studying both the ideas ments. In survey 1999), I sought (Krosnick, beliefs to examine participants’ these ideas speak to their broader these ideas speak to their broader state. understandings of the Jewish an open-ended, qualitative Using Israeli society. Tis paper looks at the society. Israeli under Israelis ways in which Jewish stand the issue of the draft and how the policy of mandatory conscrip tion, the draft is a central aspect of controversial point of division be controversial the secular and ultra-religious tween to Due communities in Israel. Jewish Knowledge on the Draft in on the Draft Knowledge Israel Religious and Secular and Secular Religious specifcally. e research aims to foster a greater understanding of aims to foster a greater of participants. Te research the responses to contextualize divide in Israel on the draft knowledge Israeli and within Jewish epistemological communities, the complexity within and between erent religious orienta religious ferent of di Israelis (open-ended) online surveyanalysis of a qualitative to examine what Jewish Israeli Jewish analyzing their ideas. In they legitimize as how about the draft issues as well tions think and know as the contemporary on the historical, philosophical division as well draws religious-secular this research knowledge, the Jewish population. With recent legal changes in conscription policy, there has been much controversy over the over has been much controversy there legal changes in conscription policy, recent With population. the Jewish thematic this study uses on feminist standpoint theory, Drawing in the army. [ultra-Orthodox] of Haredim role Abstract within on the question of military and secular knowledge draft in Israel religious seeks to understand Tis research ------Today, Jewish practice takes a Jewish Today, Analyzing the current de Analyzing the current many European countries. Compli many European division cating the religious-secular many factions within each group are groups, between as overlap as well and difer geographical diferences, ent understandings of categories. is not the formally Tough Judaism there is much variation in the ways is much variation there secular Judaism traditional versus for understood and measured are surveys.fect the fact that Tis may re indi the latter contains much more the practice where in vidual variation follow communities ultra-religious observance.a code of strict religious of the complexities of the Because which forms of civil religion, various as a national culture, developed have statistics may limit our understand ing. (Sharot, wide range of forms in Israel who identify as secular 1990). Jews may take part in practices such as part holidays because they are Jewish and norms culture of the nation’s rather than because of religious would be obligation. An equivalent having the day of for Christmas in Contemporary Israeli Contemporary Israeli Judaism reli Israeli mographics of Jewish the gious practice is complicated by in what categories are discrepancy understood. they are used and how While numbers describing Haredi consistent, more populations are civil religion in Israel is based on in Israel civil religion the society in fcation of sancti “the manifests which functions” which it than and politically rather culturally & Don-Yehiya, (Liebman religiously and religious the case of 1983, 5). In beliefs and in Israel, secular Jews fun from evolved conceptions have understandings damentally diferent of the state as a Jewish and of reality, entity. ------Liebman and Don-Yehiya Liebman and Don-Yehiya Modern Zionism grew out grew Zionism Modern ence. Alternatively, they describe that describe they Alternatively, ence. custodians of Jewish tradition were tradition were custodians of Jewish writers scholars and Hebrew Jewish rather than rabbis.Tis point of view was inevitable since, in their eyes, tradition was a national the Jewish (352). one” and not a religious (1983) write that the traditionally in world view is centered Jewish a spiritual dimen ultimate reality, physical experi direct, sion beyond each with diverging approaches to approaches each with diverging civil As secular, philosophy. Zionist dif these from developed religion Achad thinkers like streams, ferent of (who was a proponent Ha’am separated further Zionism) Spiritual the orthodoxy of traditional from Liebman, and Deshen, Judaism. (1995) write, Shokeid and his was clear to Ahad Ha’am “It leading disciples that the appropriate back to the Land, beginning with back to the Land, beginning with the foundation of agricultural settle 2014). zion”, ments (“Hibbat period, developing of this Haskalah multiple strands ranging in their relationship as their tactics as well and Schweid to traditional Judaism. (2008) distinguish between Hadari Zionism, Spiritual Zionism, Political Labor Movement, and the Hebrew Jewish religion and asserted that religion Jewish intervention,exile was not divine of historybut rather a consequence the With 2000). (Cohen & Susser, dur escalation of anti-Semitism ideas ing this time, Enlightenment of nationalism. Out Jewish fostered a Zion, Hibbat grew the Haskalah in the 1880s movement pre-Zionist life which sought to bring Jewish the Haskalah [Enlightenment], there there [Enlightenment], the Haskalah obser traditional from was a shift assimilation, study, to secular vance 2014). (Schoenberg, and rationality rejected philosophies Haskalah messiah in the the centrality of the ------In tracing the origins of In In closely examining the closely examining the In the Jewish Enlightenment in Europe in Europe Enlightenment the Jewish during the 1700s and 1800s. During divide and the evolutions of the divide and the evolutions ideologies that inform perspectives on the state, one place to begin is Division Division the contemporary religious-secular Israeli Context and the Context Israeli of Religious-Secular Origins Overview Of the Jewish the Jewish Of Overview Israel, each difers in their under Israel, of the nature standing of the Jewish state itself. ict. In ex clashes and societal confict. In amining the beliefs of ultra-religious communities in and secular Jewish polarization often unfolds (Cohen polarization often unfolds (Cohen leading to political 2000), & Susser, standings of the country and the it. As a result, within of religion role which is a division through religion orientations toward the meaning of the meaning orientations toward ideologies within the state. Multiple context inform under the Israeli deep and relevant divisions. Steeped Steeped divisions. deep and relevant discourses, religious in diferent very have diferent and secular Jews grants, politically right wing and left grants, politically right wing and left as many other wing people, as well Te country is made up of religious ashkenazic and and secular citizens, sabras and immi Jews, sephardic ict, Israel confict, Israel ing Israeli-Palestinian divides on is fraught with internal 2005). (Yonah, many societal levels erent ideological orientations to ideological orientations diferent the ongo Beyond the state itself. is much splin context, there Israeli beliefs based on tering in societal the theme of security as an example of security as an the theme belief that informs of a prevalent society. many aspects of Israeli ected in public agenda, political public agenda, political fected in re uses He media concern. debate, and state Jewish settlements and continu settlements state Jewish is for security Tis regard ing today. 47 Social Sciences Social Sciences 48 ------In tryingIn to understand these Military is one conscription and, consequentially the construc situ Harding tion of knowledge. to those in ates thinkers, attentive positions, within their marginalized political contexts who might other illustrates that She wise be ignored. is situated within a social knowledge Knowledge is Situated Knowledge societal beliefs radically diferent it is society, Israeli within Jewish feminist by useful to draw on work scholars w ho examine important contextual aspects of knowledge construction in a constantly chang 2000; ing social world (Falmagne, her scholar 1993). In Harding, ship of epistemology—the study of to social and its relation knowledge (1993) Harding practice—Sandra She is a pioneer in feminist theory. writes about the necessity of address of factors to understand ing a web construction. Political knowledge structure dynamics inherently power determining social location society, rary divide. haredi,” 2014). haredi,” questions speaks to larger issue that and secular Is religious about how as Jewish the state raelis understand the dif in that it makes transparent and view, in lifestyle, world ferences Tis issue enables analysis rationality. respond Israelis of the ways Jewish perspectives and secular to religious focus to the role and also brings the citizens Jewish of and responsibilities When a particular State. in a Jewish it to exemption, claims a right group of soci tension with the rest creates think Israelis examining how In ety. about national service, this study that of knowledge sources analyzes the people draw on in confronting of the ideological roots Tracing issue. of the nature ideas about the Jewish the contempo state contextualizes ------is decision has caused vast Tis decision has caused vast sion was a relief (“Knesset approves (“Knesset approves sion was a relief munities in Israel and the United and the United munities in Israel Leaders spoke out against the States. politi decision and ultra-Orthodox in Parlia the vote cians boycotted of thousands gath ment. Hundreds of the Jerusalem in the streets ered to tens of thousands gathered area; (Kersh Manhattan in lower protest Jews secular for However, 2014). ner, long felt that they carried who have the deci of citizenship, the burdens to pursue their religious studies, to pursue their religious forms of recognized or other army, national service. will Enlistment voluntaryremain during this inter the target of enlist mediate stage. If yeshiva ment is not met, however, students will be legally drafted, apart students 1,800 exceptional from (ibid). each year com in the ultra-Orthodox protests Wednesday, March 12, 2014, Israeli 12, 2014, Israeli March Wednesday, a law that will approved Parliament integrate the ultra-Orthodox slowly population into national service 2014). Amendment No. (Kershner, also Service Bill, 19 to the Security the and Bill Enlistment the as known former conscripts Service Bill, Equal (“Knesset students yeshiva ly excused 2017, 2014). Until haredi,” approves choice whether some they will have e Tal Law presented many Law presented Tal 2002. Te to the crisis at hand, alternatives service,including a combined which military for both study and allowed service. for When the law was up court in 2012, the review that found right to equality it infringed on the the law had and that, in practice, the tradition further entrenched (Levush, 2012). On of exemption deferment and exemption of yeshiva yeshiva of and exemption deferment Par the Knesset (Israeli students, of passed the Deferment liament) Students Yeshiva for Military Draft of the Study Is Whose Occupation Law) in (Tal Law 5762-2002 Torah - - - - the Basic Law of Human of Human Law the Basic 2 Military service entails a two As demonstrated, traditional is study analyzes the army Tis study analyzes today. as a central example of religious- secular division. discussed, the tension between reli between discussed, the tension developed gion and state historically in societal divisions that continue over marriage, and divorce through through marriage, and divorce over 2005). As courts (Yonah, religious ag, which contains fag, which contains the Israeli from to the Law of of David, the Star monopoly to the Rabbinic Return, State” (Shetreet, 2014). In Israel, Israel, 2014). In (Shetreet, State” in has been institutionalized religion 1990) ranging many ways (Sharot, Dignity and Liberty establishes Dignity and democratic a “Jewish rights as pursue their studies of Jewish texts as pursue their studies of Jewish to national service.an alternative the widespread to regulate order In ligious males, who have formerly ligious males, who have within the categorybeen viewed of able to were accepted exemption, Israeli society, socialization, and society, Israeli 2013). Re (“Te State,” culture citizens of school-leaving age and citizens includes reserve duty up to the age in plays a huge role of ffty-one. It wide range of jobs from combat to wide range of jobs from is com in schools. It volunteering pulsory for both male and female to three year commitment (depend year to three ing on gender) and encompasses a state and their own civic or religious civic or religious state and their own within it. as Jews roles knowledge bases, the draft can be knowledge the ways these into used as a window understand the groups two polarized of the state. Speaking to broader to broader of the state. Speaking and secular questions about religious have manifested in a contemporaryhave divide which raises religious-secular nature many issues about the Jewish Focal Point for Analysis for Analysis Point Focal philosophies and Zionist Jewish Military a Conscription as or explicitly recognized state state recognized or explicitly religion, - - - - - e participants were frst Te participants were Recruitment, using snowball using snowball Recruitment, Te survey was hosted on colleagues, associates, and family A for full Appendix members. (See script). recruitment an a text that gave asked to read overview of the conscription con diferent and presented troversy participants were informed of the informed participants were of the the topic involved, researchers contact information, the IRB study, B for consent etc. (see Appendix form). the course sampling, took place over of the summer and fall of 2014. primarily happened Recruitment during and in the aftermath of Pro military op an Israeli Edge, tective eration during the summer of 2014, which may account for the small number of participants. Te survey online was posted in public Israeli forums, for English such as a group well as Israel, in immigrants speaking friends, e-mail to family, as sent by the Troughout and coworkers. fall, a colleague and I continued to send the survey e-mail to Israeli by Procedure and Materials Procedure an online surveyQualtrics, platform, time of an estimated and required opened It minutes. ffteen to twenty with a consent form in which the towards the right both in political the right both towards party on the spec identifcation and many did not trum scale. However, or expressed the questions answer disillusion regarding difculty and a wrote politics. “Tey all lie,” Israeli old Liberal Mod year twenty-seven female (Participant ern Orthodox 13). A forty-two old culturally/ year female wrote, traditionally Jewish “Tey all frustrate me right now” in 8). Tese responses, (Participant of the addition to the distribution fect some of the tensions sample, re politics. in Israeli ------Political party identifcation Political Participants’ religious back religious Participants’ 4 each). Overall, the sample leaned 4 each). Overall, the religious spectrum. the religious and self-identifcation on a politi cal spectrum scale as indicators were political used to gauge participants’ thirteenafliations. Only partici with which political pants recorded party they identifed. Te majority of participants (n = 11) identifed as tie be a by followed right”, “center (n = left” and “center “center” tween and therefore, it is difcult to draw and therefore, knowl Haredi conclusions regarding participants edge on the draft. Five to the categories in alternatives wrote including “cultural/tradi provided, Te results practice.” and “no tional” a indicators present of the three orientation complex view of religious in fecting a range of backgrounds re terms of schooling and neighbor as self-identifcation on hood as well the majority of participants who attended secular (n = 27) reported schools (45.16%), a slight major neighborhoods in mixed ity lived (41.94%). Concerning participants’ identifca religious self-reported was only one tion (n = 28), there participant in the sample. Haredi which is at the center Tis group, of the conscription debate, is not study in the present represented well Educational background ranged background Educational and oc PhD, high school to from = soldiers (n from cupations ranged engineers. 4) to teachers to schooling, neighborhood, ground, and identifcation on a religious used as indicators to spectrum were on per religiosity assess participants’ While sonal and communal levels. from twenty to sixty-two years old, sixty-two years to twenty from old, of 31.85 years with a mean participants Eleven (SD = 12.17). seventeen male, were (35.48%) and three female, were (54.83%) their gender. report (9.68%) did not ------irty-one Israelis above the above Tirty-one Israelis Looking at the origins of e standpoint theoryTe standpoint re age of eighteen were surveyed for age of eighteen were Ages ranged project. this research Methods Methods Participants them. deeper, more complex understanding complex more deeper, sociocultural perspectives of diferent and the rationalizations that inform this research studies the polarized studies the polarized this research a to bring ideas on the draft in order erent knowledge knowledge underpinning diferent bases, deconstructing the confict Ultimately, the groups. between communities in their historical and cultural context. Te standpoint theory makes clear the assumptions traditional religious Judaism and Judaism traditional religious situates the two nationalist Zionism and secular Jewish Israelis. Israelis. and secular Jewish the ideological divide between the context of the debate around the the context of the debate around this study military draft in Israel, examines the standpoints of religious ect knowledge production and production afect knowledge types of to diferent giving value ideas to these Applying knowledge. erent social locations, social locations, thinkers of diferent factors that may making transparent products of their historically specifc products 1993). social location (Harding, Tis theory in analyzing is relevant stitutes knowledge for members of stitutes knowledge Tink social groups. the respective within systems and are ers develop e epistemic norms established by established by Te epistemic norms defne what con each community tual frameworks and notions)… and notions)… tual frameworks social institu shape social practices, (193). subjects” tions, and social ects these social stand fects these re ogy that “Te writes, (2000) Falmagne points. (the concep ideological formations of looking at epistemol fects a way matrix, looking at gender in particu at gender matrix, looking one part.lar as only 49 Social Sciences Social Sciences 50 ------As described above, two As described above, Temes and subthemes sup A twenty-six year old male partici year A twenty-six pant who identifed as Conservative/ should citizen “Every wrote, Masorti contribute to the country the best a 9). Similarly, (Participant he can” non-practicing thirty-one secular, “it is legitimate old male wrote, year posed to other forms of analysis such posed to other forms of analysis such analysis. content as quantitative to illicit provided quotes were in the frst two questions. responses themes in the of the overlap Because analyzed of the questions, they were to along with responses together, other intersecting questions. Below is a brief description of the themes in analyzed identifed, which were depth and detail in the full greater study. porting the argument for the draft the idea included civic responsibility, study is not a legitimate Torah that of war, civic contribution, the threat in de-legitimization of Haredim, and the equality in economic policy, of the army. social and cultural value qualitative manner, we were able able were we manner, qualitative themes and patterns to look for and to larger contextual that spoke the and to interpret societal issues of ideas substantiation beliefs and of detail. Using degree with a great and Braun by established the process familiar began by (2006), we Clark generating initial by izing ourselves for themes by codes and searching We data. gathering the relevant mapping out the themes by reviewed fn them, re between relationships themes ferent ing the scope of di defning and naming them, and by with ex report a fnally producing of tended analysis and interpretation the themes including examples and of the small sample quotes. Because and the open-ended nature size chose to use of the questions, we as op thematic analysis in particular, ------We used thematic analysis We Following the open-ended Following ing the open-ended responses in a ing the open-ended responses Appendix C). Finally, we also asked we C). Finally, Appendix if participants had served in the if participants Forces, Defense Israeli if and inquired identifed as Zionist, participants had additional ideas or at information they wished to share the end of the survey. Analysis and Results 2006) to interpret & Clarke, (Braun examin data. By the qualitative communities. By asking about who asking communities. By participants as an ultimate viewed hoped we draft issues, authority over of the sources about to learn more participants utilized. knowledge demographic several questions were place questions, such as age, gender, of birth, educational background, po and practice, and beliefs religious litical ideology (see full survey in the on a meaningful reality which they on a meaningful reality that shape, asserting knowledge may turn into societal beliefs (66). Te two quotes used in the initial to leaders attributed questions were and of secular (state government) (rabbinical leader) commu religious meant nities. Tese statements were fect positions of people with to re who potentially in political power, diferent fuence constituencies from information that afect the knowl information that individuals, edge formation of individuals enhancing the validity (as cited sources place on of those Raviv & Brosh, Raviv, Bar-Tal, by Bar- 1991; Kruglanski, 1989; Raviv, 1993). Bar-Tal & Abin, Raviv Tal, of politi the example (2000) gives who make leaders, cal and religious decisions for their constituents based which is central to the formation of central to the formation which is (Bar-Tal, a societal level beliefs on questions open-ended Two 2000). pertaining followed. to authority by as discussed authority, Epistemic of to sources refers (2000), Bar-Tal - - - - an 3 Te next set of questions ese questions were included in C). Tese questions were consen to assess the perceived order of beliefs, heterogeneity) sus (versus participants shared viewsparticipants with most shared (see full survey in Appendix Israelis erences with friends, family, with friends, family, and diferences and community members. Similarly, another question asked whether ers, or others who could potentially bring additional nuances to their asked about commonalities ideas, we to them, or if participants were open to them, or if participants were with strangers, outsid to exchange knowledge communities. To assess if To communities. knowledge participants limited their exchange similar of ideas to people who were designed to understand the ways in which the ideas and beliefs of partic constructed within larger ipants are asking whether participants discuss these issues, and with whom, were plain your viewpoint on the issue. plain your Do you think the argument is valid? think the argument is valid? you Do ex evidence to Why or why not? Use occur from one question preceding preceding one question occur from Te open-ended questions the other. each quote read: following the quotes was alternated to avoid the quotes was alternated to avoid that might bias bias or perceived advocates that Torah study is of Torah that advocates to army serviceequal value (see full of C). Te order text in Appendix of the study to balance the levels of of the levels of the study to balance quotes), assertsauthority in the two which perspective, an alternative yeshiva student (which we attributed we student (which yeshiva for the purposes to a rabbinic leader will incorporate Haredim into the will incorporate Haredim asserts the belief that everyone army, should serve. a Te other quote, by advocate for the policy change that for the policy advocate about the text, one on each position. text, one on each about the Lapid, Yair MK Te quote by text). Afterwards, participants were text). Afterwards, participants were to two questions respond asked to positions on the issue, in order to order on the issue, in positions C for Appendix (See illicit responses ------Participants’ responses on on responses Participants’ Finally, twenty-one partici twenty-one Finally, y, I thought it was im I fy, Brie Discussion draft issues speak to a range of what is informing their ideological to did not respond afliation. Four the question. drafted for other reasons not stated. drafted for other reasons A few participants had left Israel the drafting age. before left (we pants identifed as Zionists the defnition of the term up to the did not. Six individual to interpret). a range Tis could be informed by including a of ideological reasons, no have that Jews secular perspective not regard claim to Israel, inherent state. An ing the country as a Jewish perspective religious anti-Zionist in sovereignty could be that Jewish the Land should only be established An with the coming of the Messiah. inher of lack a be could reason other on a sym ent connection to Israel a minority of native by bolic level participants Because did not Israelis. exactly it is difcult to know specify, portant participants to ask whether to order in had served army, in the participantssituate what thought their to draft in relation about the thereof). experiences (or lack own currently participants were Eleven serving servedor had previously par Seventeen army. in the Israeli serveticipants did not in the army. to the ques did not respond Tree af When asked what factors tion. to servefected their decision or not, of the deci some noted the gravity sion, especially for immigrants. One I could “If oleh [immigrant] wrote, though I go even I’d do it all over with the Military policies disagree about defending oneself” (Partici as not drafted were pant 25). Many above immigrants because they were did not get the age limit. Others ------Responses to whether par Responses e majority of participantsTe majority are represented. represented. are (83.87%) answering “yes”. Recog “yes”. (83.87%) answering is not insular, nizing that knowing and friends, family, can see how we community often shape ideas and participants(48.39%) Fifteen beliefs. to whether most oth “yes” answered their beliefs on the shared er Israelis are issue. Considering that Haredim fect this statistic may re a minority, the limitations of the sample, as not perspectives many Orthodox/Haredi neighbors, soldiers, strangers, non- specifc others, peers/schoolmates, as seems and rabbis/educators. It mostly en though participants are gaging with people close to them in likely to more which are exchanges held beliefs. previously reinforce the same beliefs as ticipants shared and community their friends, family, participantsincluded twenty-six on the draft. A little over half of the on the draft. A little over participants discussed with friends, 48.39% discussed with family, discussing the is 12.9% reported 9.68% while sues with coworkers, discussed with Americans or other this categoryoutsiders. Sometimes with friends or family overlapped twice in these and was categorized reported exchanges cases. Other included community members or about draft issues and that the topic about draft issues personally therefore of the study was to most participants. Be relevant and at religious cause I was looking bases participants secular knowledge drawing on, I was interested were of diferent Israelis in the exchanges having with oth were backgrounds ers which could potentially reinforce perspectives their and/or broaden is they discuss draft that responded indicating others, possibly sues with drawing on normative are that they Further environment. ideas in their care it suggests that people more, ------use to support their arguments, I was of knowledge sources able to analyze which inform beliefs. justify their beliefs on draft issues. By By issues. draft on beliefs their justify looking at the evidence participants government, and both government and both government government, fect the various and rabbis. Tese re ways in which participants sought to ish Law/Halacha, national secular ish Law/Halacha, epistemological communities, law, majority elected epistemic authority, justifcation, distinct ideologies, per sonal practice as justifcation, Jew spoke to themes problematizing spoke to themes problematizing the draft. Temes pertaining to the legitimization of ideas included no butes value to both. Tis is just one butes value many diverse were example. Tere opinions within the population who exists because of defense as well as its exists because of defense as well in tradition and attri rootedness reason for the existence of the state reason 24). Tis re (Participant of Israel” sponse speaks to the belief that Israel ity to defend ourselves physically, physically, ity to defend ourselves but also in our connection to tradi underlie the tion and values…that old Orthodox male who wrote that who wrote male old Orthodox is of the state of Israel the “viability dependent not just upon our abil a participant who problematized a participant who problematized year the draft issue was a ffty-seven services, contribution as le Haredi gitimate, and seeking to understand example of One other perspectives. tion who support Temes the draft. for the argument problematizing army the draft included alternative complexity of the draft issue and the complexity of the a popula of beliefs within diversity similar to these. However, these similar to these. However, contained themes and subthemes fecting the re well, many nuances as with service. other partici Many pants who articulated of value the national service statements echoed ability” (Participant 17), implying 17), implying (Participant ability” should not interfere that religiosity to expect everyone to give accord everyoneto expect to give and mental or her physical ing to his 51 Social Sciences Social Sciences 52 ------As the researcher, I approach I approach As the researcher, the research. Falmagne (2000) Falmagne the research. the production writes, “Crucially, is always profoundly of knowledge political: the choice of topics, the choice of methods, and the assump tions defning what counts as valid political choices” are knowledge grew up going to an egalitarian, Jew grew religious ish day school in a mixed and secular neighborhood of New or Zion I attended religious Haven. the age of ist summer camps from in which greatly eight to seventeen, and my identity fuenced my Jewish in Israel I lived connection to Israel. and have college before for a year been back multiple times, including this past summer when I interned at Center in Action Religious the Israel Te organization works Jerusalem. in Judaism progressive to promote fghting racism, ensuring by Israel equality for women, and working the inclusion of non-Ortho towards All of these of Judaism. streams dox experiences and identities infuence focused on in this the topic I have and the way I approach research fexivity Re based on the data with assumptions American standpoint as an my own who identifes as Conservative. Jew of my family identify with Members categories the full range of religious Conserva used in this study (secular, Ortho Nationalist, Religious tive, and other) and I have Haredi, dox, of thus been exposed to a wide range and Zion on Judaism perspectives old and years ism. I am twenty-two the perspectives of others who have who have of others the perspectives in verybeen steeped world diferent sur the problematizing views. In thesis illustrates this responses, vey common for building on potential divided communi between ground the overlapping ties, beginning with and values. sources ------e purpose of this research of this research Te purpose beliefs is crucial for understanding alities can relate and build on. Tese alities can relate articulated in some of the surveyare and should be further responses research. in future developed and the case of ultra-religious In beliefs and in Israel, secular Jews often evolved conceptions have un fundamentally diferent from and of the derstandings of reality Recognizing entity. state as a Jewish bases that inform the knowledge reconcile world views based in difer reconcile ent philosophical justifcations and Furthermore, forms of rationality. is evidence of deep prejudice there within the survey that used responses de-legitimization and dehumaniza is a complete lack there tion, where world views. of alternative of respect is also common ground there Yet, which com values, and overlapping very re munities who have diferent drawn on within epistemic com between munities and the overlap to a myriad of ways are them. Tere texts, and secular religious interpret drawn on as evidence by which are are ere T participants in this survey. rabbinical commentaries cited by participants supporting army service as secular arguments that op as well pose army service articulated within is difcult to It other responses. the diverse knowledge bases in Jew knowledge the diverse to bring society in order ish Israeli people where understanding of societal positions are with diferent Te issue is far more coming from. a religious-secular complicated than of traditional polarization. Ideas not mutu are and Zionism Judaism Te survey responses ally exclusive. further the range of sources convey several compromises to accommo compromises several world view in na Haredi date the tional service (Participant programs 31). complexity within is to examine the ------In opposition, the ye In articulated, “the Land of Israel and Land of Israel articulated, “the specifying the the Country of Israel” multiple understandings in outlining erent concepts. drawing on these diferent female old Orthodox A sixty-year physical demands of the army. Tis physical demands of the army. of in many dichotomy was apparent which discussed Israel the responses, Haredim as Am Yisrael, a spiritu as Am Haredim ally bound nation, is central while in the Yisrael is prioritized Medinat tion controversy becomes extremely becomes extremely tion controversy signifcant when the identity of the nation of Israel, which represents which represents the nation of Israel, ways of understanding the diferent Te conscrip of Israel. nature Jewish (ibid). Tis statement articulates a Yisrael, Medinat dichotomy between Yisrael, and Am the state of Israel, connection to the state of Israel, we we connection to the state of Israel, [the nation of Israel]” Israelites are “We [Haredim] are not Israelis. We We not Israelis. are [Haredim] “We 2014). other,” (“Israel’s Jews” are any have don’t continues, “We He physical value of the state. As Yoe the state. As of physical value lish Kraus, the unofcial operation articulates, Haredit of Eda director e Haredi yeshiva is a yeshiva Te Haredi network. the system that reinforces knowledge the often above of Judaism, value system is also a socialization shiva itself provides a knowledge base, a base, a knowledge itself provides a set of societal beliefs that speak to experience. collective country, primarily in relation to primarily in relation country, that security threat defense against a Te army recognize. most Israelis erent backgrounds in backgrounds of many diferent needs of the the physical addressing “prayers don’t stop bullets” (Partici stop bullets” don’t “prayers pant 16). Te army is a socialization that brings together Israelis network ing the value of physical protection of physical protection ing the value year fve As a twenty- the army. by male asserted,old non-practicing the concrete nature of the state of Is of the state of nature the concrete articulat in themes rael, as expressed understandings of Israel as a Jewish as a Jewish of Israel understandings assert the responses of state. Many ------
Te law Ashkenazic House of learning House Zionist pioneers Zionist Enlightenment (maskilim Enlightenment Jewish Law; draws on Tal Law; draws on Jewish e name; refers to God Te name; refers Ultra Orthodox Ultra fc Glossary Context-Speci of in this Paper Used Terms Haredi: Hashem: Haskalah: of the Enlightenment) followers are Jews are the Jews of France, Germa of France, the Jews are Jews and their de Eastern Europe, ny, Ashkenazic scendants. Te adjective nouns, Ashkenazi and corresponding (singular) and Ashkenazim (plural), word the Hebrew from derived are to Ashkenaz, which is used to refer Germany. midrash: Beit Chalutzim: Dina: Dina D’Malchuta Talmudic of the land is the law; a expression Halacha: mud, which includes the written and oral law Ashkenazic/Ashkenazim: participants Bar- rmed by and conf can cre (2012), and Hammack Tal terms changes in systemic ate more and soci social structure, of policy, uence inf Additional etal discourse. can promote the NGO sector by and a progressive relations positive and democratic balance of Jewish seeks to under Tis research values. draft issue and stand beliefs on the on to legiti people draw the sources that this their beliefs. I hope mize understanding of fosters a greater and between the complexity within epistemological communities, and knowledge Israeli within the Jewish on the draft. - - - - Communication between Communication between In moving forward, I draw moving In Future research might collect research Future Lastly, the online format of the online format Lastly, which was discussed by some of the which was discussed by it is apparent that change must be it is apparent between multilateral. Interaction is people on an interpersonal level but can help impossible to enforce expose people to other world views of ideas and enable the development the general arguments given beyond in the communities to which they belong. leadership, secular and religious ter understanding of the sources that ter understanding of the sources bases, how inform their knowledge ultimately, and legitimized, ideas are breaking towards to better work how and religious barriers between down secular communities in Israel. of participants on the responses solu for innovative who advocate and reconciliation tions towards this research, social change. From Future Research and Action Research Future in-person interviews to gain in order data with additional depth. more could research future Furthermore, deeper into the beliefs of Hare delve to access have dim, if researchers language those communities through skills and the necessary connections. information of comprehensive More a bet can foster perspectives Haredi within the Haredi community where community where within the Haredi In- may not be permitted. Internet person interviews would yield difer perhaps with ent kinds of responses, detail of personal substantive more could shed light experiences, which However, on the issues discussed. this was because of time constraints, not possible. study is limited to the knowledge of to the knowledge study is limited Israelis. only Jewish type of data infuenced the the study sample to and limited the collected access, especially those with Internet ------Another limitation for the Because the surveyBecause was in numerous ideologies that inform numerous understand fundamentally diferent ings on the identity of the state. Tis tion that Israel is a Jewish state, but is a Jewish tion that Israel this belief may not be true for all are Tere citizens. Israeli non-Jewish Israel as a Jewish and democratic as a Jewish Israel state. Tis is based on the assump ere are many other religious many other religious are Tere Jews. with diferent within Israel, groups understandings of the draft and of ter sense of religious rationality. rationality. ter sense of religious to sample is that it was restricted to the ones discussed by participantsto the ones discussed by to gain a bet for this survey in order being produced. Future research research Future being produced. Talmudic might examine additional law] Jewish by up [backed arguments separate neighborhoods—as well as separate neighborhoods—as well it is difcult to gain access culturally, systems to the distinct knowledge segregated from the rest of the popu of the the rest from segregated lation, both physically—living in sometimes even modern Hebrew) in Hebrew) modern sometimes even their separate school system. Because largely communities are the Haredi e Haredi person participated. Te Haredi and of community is rather insular, (or learn English do not ten children number of American-born partici only one Haredi pants. Additionally, English, the population sample was English, speakers to fuent English restricted in a disproportionate and resulted Limitations identify any biases that infuenced identify any biases the data analysis. some transparency regarding my regarding some transparency to connect standpoint in order own and to to the researcher the research tion of my socialization, education, socialization, education, tion of my and numer personal interpretation, I hope to provide ous other factors. and this has political consequences has political consequences and this fec Tis is a re in my research. (197). What I know and how I think and how What I know (197). I come from where informed by are 53 Social Sciences Social Sciences 54
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. - Te Ox Towards a Towards New Bruns New - Israeli Juda Israeli Israelis split over service split over Israelis ousand Oaks, London, Tousand Oaks, dations of thought, culture, and dations of thought, culture, and E. H. Miller P. In development. Scholnick (Eds.), Kofsky psychologyfeminist developmental Rout NY: York, New 191-212). (pp. ledge. e Johns Hopkins Hopkins MD: Te Johns Baltimore, Press. University S., Liebman, C. S. & Deshen, M. (1995). Shokeid, ism: Te Sociology in Israel of religion society). (studies of Israeli Publishers. Transaction wick, NJ: (2014, (Producer). T. Elterman, 11). March Times. York New Video]. [Web http://www.nytimes. from Retrieved com/video/world/mid dleast/100000002763337/israelis- html?emc=edit_ split-over-service. tnt_20140312&nlid=65015911&tn temail0=y R. J. (2000). Positionality Falmagne, foun and thought on the gendered a society. Publications. Sage Delhi: and New (2012). P. D., & Hammack, Bar-Tal, and Confict, delegitimization, (Ed.), Trop L. violence. In confict handbook of intergroup ford Cape Auckland, York, New Oxford, Kong, Hong Salaam, Dares Town, Madrid, Lumpur, Karachi, Kuala Nairobi, City, Mexico Melbourne, To Taipei, Shanghai, Delhi, New Press. University Oxford ronto: (2006). Us V. & Clarke, V., Braun, ing thematic analysis in psychology. in Psychology, Research Qualitative 77-101. B. (2000). Cohen, A., & Susser, and the politics of jewish iden Israel impasse. tity: Te secular-religious ------
- Israel Israel Retrieved Retrieved . Retrieved Retrieved . Shared beliefs in Shared Judaism 101 Judaism is may change as a result of Tis may change as a result Note that MK Yair Lapid, who rep Yair that MK Note ere are many more, and varied, and varied, many more, are Tere resents a leftist political party called resents had an instrumental Atid, role Yesh in the policy change. nitions of Zionism. Here, three three Here, defnitions of Zionism. very provided general defnitions are of an example the reader to give some of the distinctions that exist. ment opposition from the left (Ho, the left (Ho, ment opposition from did not exist at the time 2014). It when this study was administered. a controversial ‘Jewish state’ bill, state’ ‘Jewish a controversial to Parlia which has been proposed with vehe ment in the past week Bar-Tal, D. (2000). Bar-Tal, (1995-2011). http://www.jewfaq.org/ashk from seph.htm law- human dignity and Basic 17). (1992, March liberty. Afairs. Ministry of Foreign http://mfagov.il/MFA/MFA- from Law- Hu Archive/1992/Pages/Basic Liberty-.aspx man Dignityand 3 References Jews. Ashkenazic and Sephardic 1 2 Footnotes their historical homeland. Tis goal their historical homeland. of the creation by was implemented Zionism Today, of Israel. the State supportsexistence of the state of the a revival and helps to inspire Israel and national life, culture of Jewish Infor and Israeli (Zionism language” mation Center). that the Jews have the right to self- the have Jews that the national in their own determination their the right to develop home, and Zion Historically, culture. national a legally recog create to ism strove in for the Jews national home nized - - Religious school Religious Modesty National service National Immigrant Sephardic Jews are the are Jews Sephardic Religiously based dietaryReligiously Traditional, refers to the refers Traditional, 1 Sabbath e national revival move “Te national revival e national movement for “Te national movement “Political support for the “Political A yeshiva program that program A yeshiva e Old Testament or the Testament Te Old Native Israeli Native Israel” (Jewish Virtual Library).Virtual (Jewish Israel” holds people. It ment of the Jewish their homeland and the resumption their homeland and the resumption in the Land of sovereignty of Jewish Webster). people to of the Jewish the return creation and development of a Jew and development creation (Merriam- ish homeland in Israel” Zionism: Yeshiva/yeshivot: Torah: Bible Jewish Sheirut leumi: Sheirut Sniyut/tsnuah: Shabbat: are derived from the Hebrew word word the Hebrew from derived are Spain. to which refers Sepharad, and corresponding nouns Sephardi nouns Sephardi and corresponding (plural) (singular) and Sephardim Jews of Spain, Portugal, North North Portugal, of Spain, Jews and their East, Africa, the Middle Sephardic descendants. Te adjective Sephardic: Oleh/olah: Oleh/olah: Sabra: Israel which upholds both halacha which upholds both Israel and egalitarianism Masorti: in movement Conservative Jewish Kashrut: restrictions service Hesder: study with military Torah combines
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Israel Israel Retrieved Retrieved Retrieved Retrieved Israel afairs, Israel Retrieved from from Retrieved Merriam Webster Webster Merriam and Israeli Zionism Retrieved from http:// from Retrieved Jewish Virtual Library. Library. Virtual Jewish library.org/jsource/Zionism/Hib bat_Zion.html fnition of Zionism. A De Zionism: (n.d.). http://www.jewish from Retrieved virtuallibrary.org/jsource/Zionism/ zionism.html (n.d.). Zionism. Dictionary. www.merriamwebster.com/diction ary/zionism (n.d.). Zionism. Center. Information http://zionism-israel.com/zionism_ defnitions.html middleeast/israel/10692715/Israel- passes-law-to-draft-ultra-Orthodox- Jews-into-the-army.html Forces Defense Israel Te State: 1). (IDF). (2013, January fairs. A Ministry of Foreign http://www.mfa.gov.il/mfa/ from aboutisrael/state/pages/thestate-israel defense forces-idf-.aspx a as Israel (2005). Y. Yonah, Chal multicultural democracy: lenges and obstacles. from 11(1), 95-116. Retrieved http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/ abs/10.1080/135371204200 0324472#.VFqk-ShW3KN zion. (2014). Hibbat Zionism: Library. Virtual Jewish http://www.jewishvirtual from
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Retrieved Retrieved 51, 63- e Telegraph. Te e Jewish Virtual Li Virtual Te Jewish Civil religion in Israel. in Israel. religion Civil e Jewish Virtual Library. Virtual Te Jewish Library of Congress. of Library Sociological analysis, Retrieved from http://www. from Retrieved graph.co.uk/news/worldnews/ Shetreet, S. (2014, January 1). S. (2014, January Shetreet, Freedom rights in Israel: Human of religion. brary. jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/Soci ety_&_Culture/freedom.html 12). Israel R. (2014, March Tait, passes law to draft ultra-Orthodox into the army. Jews http://www.tele from Retrieved Schoenberg, S. (2014). Te has kalah. http://www.jewishvir from Retrieved tuallibrary.org/jsource/Judaism/Has kalah.html Sociologi S. (1990). Israel: Sharot, in the Jewish cal analyses of religion state. 76. draft.php Yehiya, Liebman, C. S. & Don E. (1983). London: Uni Los Angeles, Berkeley, of California Press. versity A. (2008). E., & Hadari, Schweid, culture. Te idea of modern Jewish Press. Studies Boston: Academic www.annualreviews.org www.annualreviews.org doi/pdf/10.1146/annurev. psych.50.1.537 Supreme Israel: Levush, R. (2012). court law the invalidating decision militaryon haredi draft postpone ment. http://www.loc.gov/ website: from law/help/il-haredi-military- http://www.knesset.gov.il/spokes man/eng/PR_eng.asp?PRID=11195 research. (1999). Survey J. Krosnick, of Psychology, Review Annual http:// from 537–67.Retrieved
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Times of Israel. Times Retrieved from from Retrieved Retrieved from from Retrieved Feminist epistemologies. Feminist Vice News. Vice e State of Israel, of Israel, Te State Al Jazeera. Jazeera. Al DW. New York Times. Times. York New Knesset approves haredi enlistment haredi Knesset approves bill. (2014). Release. Knesset Press Search&mabReward=relbias:w com/2014/03/13/world/middleeast/ israel-restricts-exemptions-from- military-service.html?module= Israel to phase out religious ex to phase out religious Israel emptions. http://www.nytimes. from trieved Kershner, I. (2014, March 12). I. (2014, March Kershner, news/middleeast/2014/03/isra el-ultra-orthodox-protest-draft bill-201432143645860809.html anger of secular Jews. (2014, anger of secular Jews. 03). March http://www.aljazeera.com/ from has traditionally been allowed to has traditionally been allowed the militaryavoid draft - to the Israel’s ultra-orthodox protest draft ultra-orthodox protest Israel’s bill the ultra-orthodox video/israels-other-religious-war- theultra-orthodox-vs-the-idf?utm_ source=vicenewsfb ultra-orthodox vs. the IDF. (2014, ultra-orthodox vs. the IDF. 24). October https://news.vice.com/ from Israel’s other religious war: Te other religious Israel’s http://www.dw.de/israel-parlia ment-passes-law-to-conscript-ultra- orthodox-jews/a-17489303 Israel parliament passes law to con parliament passes law Israel (2014, script ultra-orthodox Jews. 12). March delayed-amid-coalition-jockeying/ coalition jockeying. coalition jockeying. http://www.timeso from Retrieved fsrael.com/vote-on-jewish-state-bill- New York and London: Routledge. and London: York New Vote 24). S. (2014, November Ho, amid bill delayed state’ on ‘Jewish & E. L. Alcof In objectivity?” strong (Eds.), Potter Harding, S. (1993). Rethinking Rethinking S. (1993). Harding, “What epistemology: standpoint is 55 Social Sciences Social Sciences 56 - However, many Haredim have protested against the new regulation. Yeshiva students, and the community the community and students, Yeshiva the new regulation. against protested have Haredim many However, a leader at A rabbinical society. to contribution essential an is Torah of the study assert that to, they belong is at T higher army. a much serve we in the army, exemption, an get we that not is “It stated, protest recent Torah.” towards attitude our Many Israelis see the new law as legitimate, as the rest of country participates in mandatory service. Yair service. in mandatory Yair country participates of the rest as see legitimate, as the new law Israelis Many expect here to who live people too much it “Is said, recently minister fnance leader and Atid Yesh Lapid, other any than less no or more no do their bit, ... to soldiers every defended by day are whose lives and citizen?” Israeli On Wednesday, March 12, 2014, Israeli Parliament approved a law that will slowly integrate the Ultra- integrate will slowly that a law approved Parliament 12, 2014, Israeli March On Wednesday, the Security 19 to Service No. service. as also Bill, known national Amendment into Orthodox population or the IDF to students excused yeshiva the Equal Service Bill and formerly the Enlistment conscripts Bill, service national program. Do most other people in Israel have a similar view on these issues as the one you described above? Yes/no described above? a similar view on these issues as the one you have Do most other people in Israel erences: and dif describe the commonalities Please erences: and dif describe the commonalities Please Do other community members have a similar view on these issues as the one you described above? Yes/no described above? a similar view on these issues as the one you Do other community members have Do friends and family have a similar view on these issues as the one you described above? Yes/no described above? view on these issues as the one you a similar Do friends and family have ______erences: and dif describe the commonalities Please If yes: Who do you usually talk to? ______usually talk to? do you Who If yes: argument? ______argument? Yes/no discuss this issue of the militaryDo you draft with others? Do you think the argument is valid? Why or why not? What could be said to support be said to could What this or contradict not? or why Why is valid? think the argument Do you “Is it too much to expect people who live here and whose lives are defended every do their bit, soldiers ... to are day by and whose lives expect here to people much “Is it too who live citizen?” other Israeli or no less than any no more Do you think the argument is valid? Why or why not? What could be said to support be said to could What this argu or contradict not? or why Why is valid? think the argument Do you ment? the article from quote a second above: consider Please Torah.” attitude towards is our That higher army. a much serve we in the army, get an exemption, “It is not that we First, please consider this quote from the article from this quote please consider above: First, erent positions are presented. We would like to ask you questions about each one: ask you like to would We presented. In positions are this articleerent dif two Please read the text below and answer the questions that follow: that the questions and answer text the below read Please Appendix C: Survey Appendix * Right
*
Center *
*
Did you serve in the Israeli Defense Forces or national service program? (yes/no) service or national program? serve Forces Defense Did you in the Israeli What Israeli political party Israeli What with? ______identify do you political spectrum? on the Israeli classify yourself do you How Left * Religious Nationalist Nationalist Religious Orthodox Haredi Other o Secular o Mixed Jewish practice? describe your you would How Secular Jewish Conservative/Masorti What is your current occupation? occupation? current is your What in? type live What of community do you o Religious What type of school did you attend? attend? typeWhat of school did you o Religious o Secular o Mixed background? educational Describe your o Female o Other born in? you countryWhat were Age: Gender o Male
questions asked, please do so here: questions asked, 13. Do you identify as a Zionist? (yes/no) identify 13. Do you of this study or the the topic regarding or explain express like to would else you is anything If there ected your decision to serve decision to ected or not serve? your factors af the ideological that were What 12. 11. 10. If other, please describe: If other, 9.
8.
6. 7. 5.
4. 3. 2. 1. Thank you. Now as the last step, please answer some demographic questions: demographic some please answer last step, as the Now you. Thank Do you think there is one right answer to these questions? Yes/no questions? these to answer is one right there think Do you has the authority answer? that Who determine to If yes: 57 Social Sciences