International Journal of Scientific Research and Review ISSN NO: 2279-543X

In quest of alternatives to chemical pesticides for agriculture and household: A step towards environmental safety and human health

Kulvir Sra Dhindsa Asst. Professor, Zoology, DAV College, Chandigarh-160010, India Email: [email protected] Key words: environmental safety, biological control agents, classical practices, alternatives to harmful chemicals

ABSTRACT Pests like bugs, beetles, cockroaches, ants, mites, mosquitoes & rodents are a big nuisance and adversely harm agricultural products and household items. A variety of synthetic chemicals are frequently used in excess to get rid of them. These chemicals in the form of herbicides, insecticides, fungicides or rodenticides pose a serious threat to natural fauna & flora, degrading the environment. Many of them have long residual effect and accumulate in the tissues of organisms magnifying with each trophic level of the food chain. They are having adverse effects on the human health. Moreover over a period of time pests are becoming resistant to the chemicals, promoting the need for greater amount of sprays. As a result of the recognition of these problems the emphasis from chemical control of pests has shifted to other safer biological control methods utilizing natural enemies and pathogens. These alternatives vary from friendly organisms like viruses, bacteria, protozoa, predatory or parasitoid and larvivorous fishes to natural plant products. Large variety of these biological control agents which have been isolated, laboratory and field tried are now applied in the vector and pest control programs all over the world. Modification of the agricultural practices and simple techniques like exclusion of pests can also prevent the crops and help us keep the environment safe for humans to survive and stay healthy. The same principle can be applied for dealing with pest problems in the household. An attempt has been made to cover various biological control approaches in the past and present all over the world that can be effectively used as an alternative to harmful synthetic chemicals. The present status of these practices, comparison and their success rate has also been discussed.

Volume 7, Issue 10, 2018 Page No: 95 International Journal of Scientific Research and Review ISSN NO: 2279-543X

Introduction A variety of synthetic chemical pesticides are used in excess to get rid of field and household pests all over the world. These were considered a boon for the farmers as these prevented the crops from damage and provided pest free farm products to all of us. But over a a few years the associated problems became visible in the populations.1,2 This led to lot of hue and cry in the communities. Scientists all over the world joined their hands in pursuit of safer alternatives to these harmful chemicals. Till date a variety of environmentally safe pesticides have been isolated, lab reared, modified, lab and field tested then commercialized to serve the purpose. Still this quest is not over and the scientific community is on a lookout for better isolates and techniques for improving their efficiency in the field.

Harmful effects of chemicals on non target fauna & flora Chemical pesticides and herbicides belong to several classes of chemicals. Major classes of current and widely used such chemicals include organochlorines, carbamates, organophosphates, pyrethroids and neonicitinoids. To increase farm productivity the use of pesticides has increased many folds over the past few decades. According to an estimate, now about 5.2 billion pounds of pesticides are used worldwide per year. Their use is not only restricted to agricultural fields, but they are also employed in homes in the form of sprays, poisons and powders for controlling cockroaches, mosquitoes, rats, fleas, ticks and other harmful bugs. Due to this reason, pesticides are frequently found in the food commodities in addition to their presence in the air. Agricultural pesticides are powerful chemical tools that are developed, produced and used to mitigate crop damage or loss by pest organisms Unfortunately, with the benefits of chemistry have also come harmful effects, some so serious that they now threaten the long-term survival of major ecosystems by disruption of predator- prey relationships and loss of biodiversity. Most of them persist in the environment and accumulate in the tissues of organisms accumulating more and more with each trophic level in the ecosystem. The phenomenon is called Bio-magnification, eg. DDT. Another problem was the development of genetic resistance to these chemicals by pests. So over a period of time heavier doses of chemical pesticides were required polluting the environment so much so that it was totally unsafe for the non-target organisms. Frequently used pesticides are the chemicals used to kill insects and other pests of the crops in the fields or storage places while herbicides are the chemicals used to get rid of weeds in the field. These harmful chemicals are a concern

Volume 7, Issue 10, 2018 Page No: 96 International Journal of Scientific Research and Review ISSN NO: 2279-543X

for sustainability of environment and global stability Each pesticide or pesticide class comes with a specific set of environmental concerns.5,6,7,8 i. Some pesticides like DDT can cause egg shell thinning in birds , can work as endocrine disruptors, can be carcinogenic can cause juvenile decline and thus be fatal for many living non target fauna ii. Chemicals like organophosphates and carbamates can cause immune-toxicity and impair signal transduction pathways and metabolic functions thus leading to acute mortality. iii. Many other classes of chemical pesticides also cause thyroid disruption, can decrease reproductive capacity or can cause mortality of the species iv. Sprayed pesticides can contribute to air pollution. v. Pesticides can cause soil pollution, even affecting the important functions like nitrogen fixation by the microorganisms present there. vi. Their bioaccumulation causes further problems in the environment. vii. Recent studies have shown that organophosphates can bind to membrane bound receptors of membrane of cells which fight foreign organisms viii. DDT is an estrogen mimic and can cause breast cancer. Female fish embryos can change to males if exposed to DDT before hatching.

Over 98% of sprayed insecticides and 95% of herbicides reach a destination other than their target species, because they are sprayed or spread across entire agricultural fields. Field runoffs can carry pesticides into aquatic environments while irrigation channels and wind can carry them to other fields, grazing areas, human settlements and undeveloped areas, potentially affecting other species. Other problems emerge from poor production, transport and storage practices. Over a period of time, repeated application increases pest resistance, while its effects on other species can facilitate the pest's resurgence and pest rebound also secondary pest outbreaks.9

Volume 7, Issue 10, 2018 Page No: 97 International Journal of Scientific Research and Review ISSN NO: 2279-543X

In quest of biological control agents In the recent decades, research has been intensified in finding, isolating and developing various bio-control agents and employing them in the pest control programs. Some biocontrol agents that hold great promise for large scale use are - 1. Bacteria : Bacillus thuringiensis & B. sphaericus 2. Fungi (Coelomomyces spp., Culinomuces clavisporus, Lagenidium giganteum, etc. 3. Nematodes (Steinernema spp.& Heterorhabditis spp. 4. Baculoviruses (Nucleopolyhedrosis virus. & Granulosis virus) 5. Protozoans (Nosema locustae) 6. as predators or parasits (lady beetles, lacewings, spiders,wasps etc.) 7. Larvivorous fishes (Gambusia affinis, Lebistis reticulatus, Rasbora daniconius, Aplocheilus blockii, Oryzias melastigma, Puntius spp.etc.).

Bacteria Spore forming bacteria of genus Bacillus (Bacillus thuringiensis and B. sphaericus) admirably fulfill the criteria for a microbial control agent of mosquito larvae and agricultural pests like diamondback moth. Ever since the discovery B. sphaericus and evidence of its insecticidal property10, a large number of toxic strains of this species have been isolated & tested. The other species of Bacillus that is widely used in the bio-control programmes is Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis (serotype H-14) which was isolated in Israel from dead Culex pipiens larvae and its larvicidal activity was tested. Bti is almost an ideal microbial control agent because it has high larvicidal activity towards mosquitoes and safety to non-target insects and mammals. It is easily fermented to a stable sporulating stage and can be readily formulated3. Bacillus thuringiensis and B. sphaericus act as stomach poisons than as infectious pathogens (WHO, 1983)11.

At present, large number of Bs & Bti strains have been isolated, extensively studied, commercialized and used in the mosquito control programs as dust formulations, liquid concentrates, briquetts etc. There are extensive reports on the successful small and large scale field trials for the control of mosquitoes from India using Bt and Bs formulations of Russian origin12,13,14. There are reports of Bt & Bs being effective in controlling pests. Both Bti and Bs have been reported to be safe to man and other non-target fauna.15,16 Endotoxins produced by Bacillus species are often species specific and unlike chemical insecticides do not contaminate the environment as they have lesser residual efficacy and are

Volume 7, Issue 10, 2018 Page No: 98 International Journal of Scientific Research and Review ISSN NO: 2279-543X

generally safe for non target fauna. Consequently there arose need for isolating newer, better strains formulating them into more effective forms for application.17-20

Recently there are some reports of the development of resistance in mosquitoes to these biocides but this problem can be managed by their judicious deployment in the vector control programmes14.

Although a wide variety of mosquito-pathogenic bacteria have been isolated from several geographic zones, there is a need to isolate and deploy more potent indigenous strains in vector control programs due to restrictions imposed on the use of imported strains and their prohibitive costs. Some of their insecticidal protein coding genes have been introduced into crops, whereby they keep on providing insecticidal activity eg. Bt cotton and Bt brinjal.20 Fungus Fungi are potential bioinsecticides. This is a commercial reality and there are a number of fungi such as Beauvaria, Coelomomyces spp., Culinomuces clavisporus, Lagenidium giganteum, and Metarhyzium that are widely used, especially in greenhouses. Technological breakthroughs will also be needed, especially in production and formulation, to extend their usage to large acreage areas.21,22

Nematodes The active ingredient of parasitic nematodes is the third stage infective juvenile (J3) which is about 500 microns long and 20 microns wide. A pathogenic bacteria (eg. Xenorhabdus ) live in the gut of these nematodes. The infective stage enters the insect through its natural opening, releases the bacteria which multiply and, as a result, insect mortality occurs within 48 hours. The nematode develops inside the dead insect and emerges as new avatar into the environment seeking other insects.

The five species of nematode on the market are Steinernema carpocapsae, S. riobravis, S. feltiae, Heterorhabditis bacteriophora, and H. megidis. In general, these nematodes are available in medium to high value markets. Each species is effective against certain insect groups. Water dispersible granule is the most advanced formulation for using them in the field. Considerable efforts and resources were used in the development of nematode efficacy against corn rootworm, root maggots, and wireworms.23

Volume 7, Issue 10, 2018 Page No: 99 International Journal of Scientific Research and Review ISSN NO: 2279-543X

Viruses

Baculoviruses are ingested by the insect larvae causing infection of the insect's cells and its death occurs in 3 to 8 days, depending on the larval species and instar. These organisms are known to be very slow in killing the insect, and this is one of the major issues affecting their expansion in insect control programs1. However, the probability is high for the development of genetically engineered viruses that carry a specific toxin to the target insect.8,9

Protozoans

The protozoa subphyla Sporozoa and Onidospora contains numerous entomophilic protozoans and most promising examples in biological insect pest suppression programmes. Nosema locustae attacks grasshopper or locust species and spores and applied in bran bait for their biological control. The effects of protozoan infections are chronic rather than acute and they may affect their hosts over a fairly long time period. Because of this, disease is often manifested in the host insect only by a reduction vitality, fecundity and life span. Mettasia grandis is an important pathogen of the cotton boll weevil and showed considerable promise. Mettaisa frogodermae was studied and used in pest suppression programme of khapra beetle.21

Arthropods

These ‘friendly’ arthropods can be categorized broadly as either insect predators or parasites. The activities of these beneficial species can completely prevent or greatly reduce pest problems. It is important to recognize these beneficial arthropods so that they may be appreciated and conserved for organic farming. Adult or immature stages of insect predators or both actively search out and prey insect pests. These include lady beetles, lacewings and spiders. The common insect parasites are trachinid flies and the braconid and icheumonid wasps. These develop in or on single host from eggs or larvae deposited by adult parasites. Lady beetles as well as other predators and parasites are available through garden catalogues and other outlets for introduction in gardens and fields. Conservational biological control aims at saving the already existing predators in the fields modifying the environment around the field and let them work efficiently thereby reducing the harmful pests.22

Fishes

Volume 7, Issue 10, 2018 Page No: 100 International Journal of Scientific Research and Review ISSN NO: 2279-543X

Many species of larvicidal fishes mentioned above have been exploited for their biological eradication of mosquitoes world- wide. Indigenous species of fishes like Aphanius dispar, Aplocheilus blockii, Colisa fasciatus, Chanda nama either individually or in mixed culture hold a potential in biocontrol24,25 and are preferably used in the water tanks and other water reservoirs for killing insect larvae( Source: NIMR, Field Station Goa). Gambusia affinis, Poecilia reticulate were used in malaria vector eradication programs by NIMR

Present scenario

Although many safer options are available and many of these biological agents have cleared laboratory and field trials, a few have been commercialized and put to work efficiently. Advancements in genetic engineering and manufacturing processes (fermentation, synthesis, formulation) will strengthen the position of these biological insecticides in the market and they will find safe widespread usage.

Use of biological products in pest control

Pheromones:

Insects can only mate once the male and female have found each other at the same time. One of the most important functions of pheromones is to assist in this process. If an area is saturated with the pheromone of the pest insect, the message given out by individual insects is swamped. Mating then occurs only by the chance meeting of males and females. As a result, eggs are not laid, or the eggs that are laid are infertile. As with any young and evolving technology, a very wide range of issues has been encountered and resolved. To develop any pheromone, the tiny quantity released by an insect must first be captured. The pheromone from every insect is different, and some are mixtures of complex molecules.26

Insect growth regulators (IGR’s) These are also called the third generation insecticides that disrupt the normal activity of the endocrine or hormone system of insects, affecting the development, reproduction, or metamorphosis of the target insect. They have a much slower mode of action than synthetic chemical insecticides. IGRs include juvenile hormone (JH) mimics and chitin synthesis inhibitors (CSIs). Registered ones like methoprene & hydroprene are also known to be highly effective against insect larvae and are considered safer to humans and other non target fauna.27

Volume 7, Issue 10, 2018 Page No: 101 International Journal of Scientific Research and Review ISSN NO: 2279-543X

Azadirachtin: This is the plant product from Neem tree. Neem grows wild in more than 50 countries worldwide, including India and on much of the African continent. So many medicinal and agricultural uses have been attributed to neem that it is often called "nature's pharmacy" by those who have studied its uses. After more than 20 years of research, scientists are just beginning to understand some of the attributes that make neem such an exciting plant. Azadirachtin woks as a broad spectrum insect growth regulator, by disrupting moulting during an insect's larval, or juvenile, stage. By altering insect metamorphosis, azadirachtin prevents larvae from developing into adults and producing a subsequent generation of insect pests. In addition, many insects are strongly repelled by the anti-feedant properties of azadirachtin28, so much so that dozens of leaf-eating species will starve to death rather than eat leaves treated with azadirachtin. These combined modes of action are unique among currently available synthetic chemical and microbial insecticides. Proprietary methods have been developed for extracting the insecticidal components from neem oil. The resulting "neem extract" contains the essential natural insecticide azadirachtin.

Pyrethrum and Pyrethroids: Pyrethrum is the name of a natural insecticide made from the dried flower heads of Chrysanthemum cinerariifolium and C. coccineum that will ‘knock down’ most insects, but unless something like piperonyl butoxide is added, the insects will not be killed. To mimic the insecticidal activity of the natural compound pyrethrum another class of pesticides, pyrethroid pesticides, has been developed. These are non persistent, which is a sodium channel modulators, and are much less acutely toxic than organophosphates and carbamates29

Other means of reducing chemical pesticide use in fields Since olden times a method of Crop rotation was practiced for improving soil fertility this is also important for safe control of insects as it cuts down the life cycle of plant specific pests reducing the incidences of infection and multiplication. Hand picking of weeds like Parthenium also reduces the pressure of chemical usage for herbicidal control. Exclusion of the insect pests- Since the olden times covering of ripening fruits with cloth or paper bags prevented pest attack. Since ages the pear orchards were protected with paper bags in Japan30

Volume 7, Issue 10, 2018 Page No: 102 International Journal of Scientific Research and Review ISSN NO: 2279-543X

Green House/ Polyhouse farming- This includes rowing crops under protected conditions like inside closed net covered farms where less pests attack hence farming can be organic. There is also usage of other techniques like hanging method that aids further protection as ground pests are excluded. Recently a lot many progressive farmers are opting for this and successfully reaping rich harvest.31 Choosing crops wisely- Some plant varieties are less susceptible or disease resistant so require less pesticide sprays moreover the genetically modified crops are pest resistant altogether. So chosing such varieties are a boon for organic farming. Many such varieties of fruits, vegetables and other cash crops like cotton are already commercialized. Eradication of alternate hosts and destruction of infected plants also are the forms of biological control. Burning infected stubble or destroying the infected plants prevents the spread of the diseases.

Improved agricultural practices

Beneficial microorganisms in the environment help to control plant diseases by competing with the diseases, by production of antibiotics or lysing of metabolites that affect the growth of the diseases, or by infection or predation of the diseases. Some soils naturally have a complex population of microorganisms that interact to suppress plant diseases. A fertile soil is more likely to have this complex population than a poor soil. Good practices of land and soil management, such as drainage, intensive cover cropping (green manuring), liming, and fertilizing, help to build up this diverse population of microorganisms. The suppressing action of beneficial organisms can be overcome by water logging, adding large amounts of nitrogen-rich organic matter, or by input of large amounts of disease inoculum. A waiting period of a few days or weeks between incorporation of nitrogen-rich organic matter, such as farm manures or organic fertilizers, and planting or seeding of crops should be provided to allow for dissipation of diseases stimulated by the addition of organic matter. Crop rotation helps maintain soil fertility. Biofumigation by using residues of plants like mustard, rye, turnip etc. further aid in keeping crop disease free organically. Moderate amendments of organic matter to soil help promote biological control. The total intensified microbial action induced by the organic matter seems to be involved in biological control of diseases. Many supportive approaches have been developed to support

Volume 7, Issue 10, 2018 Page No: 103 International Journal of Scientific Research and Review ISSN NO: 2279-543X

organic farming like Integrated Pest Management, Integrated Crop Management, agroecology, permaculture and biodynamic farming.32

How to tackle household and kitchen garden pests without chemical usage? As soon as we see insects like cockroaches, ants, termites, silverfish or mosquitoes invading our territory we reach out for hit spray. Of course they are great nuisance and have no right to trouble us but we have to be cautious while using the chemicals. Wheezing, coughing, breathlessness is the common immediate problems posed by their indoor sprays apart from their long term harms. Little bit of awareness and a little extra labour can help us a lot. There is lot of information available on the internet about these safer alternatives some of which are listed below- 1. Use of safer alternatives: Borax- This is naturally occurring compound very effective against cockroaches and ants. It can be used as bait mixed with wheat flour for driving the roaches from the kitchen, silver fish from your cupboards or used in liquid bait for ants. Diatomaceous earth-This is a natural pesticide dries pests out, which is why it’s effective on pests that need a lot of water, such as slugs, millipedes, and sowbugs. Herbal Oils – Peppermint Oil & Oregano Oil are used control aphids, spider mites, and scales by suffocating. Pyrethrum – a natural insecticide that will ‘knock down’ most insects, Insecticidal Soap – controls soft-bodied insects such as aphids, leafhoppers, scales, and whiteflies. This is sold as “Safer’s Soap.” Iron Phosphate – will control slugs and snails. It is safer and very effective and is sold as “Slug-go” or “Escar-go”. Neem (Azadirachtin) – will control gypsy moths, leafminers, thrips, caterpillars, and mealybugs in the garden. Neem oil is also a fungicide. It is sold as “Bio-neem” or “Azatin”. Pyrethroids – As mentioned earlier are the synthetic versions of pyrethrum and they are effective against most insects. However, they do last longer in the environment than pyrethrum. Sabadilla – will control caterpillars, leafhoppers, thrips, stink bugs, and squash bugs. Sabadilla may be sold as “Natural Guard” or “Red Devil”.

2. Traps – Electronic fly catchers, rat traps, Japanese beetle traps, pantry traps are excellent for controlling insects indoors as well as in the garden.

Volume 7, Issue 10, 2018 Page No: 104 International Journal of Scientific Research and Review ISSN NO: 2279-543X

3. General cleanliness and plenty of sunlight- Cleaning the cupboards frequently and sunlit indoors keep the bugs and silverfish away. Food particles left in kitchen or dining area attract cockroaches and ants.

4.Exclusion- Use of Netlon , mosquito nets, fine wire meshed doors ( double doors), keeping the doors and windows closed in the evening hours when there is influx of insects esp. mosquitoes can save us from pests. Prevention is better than cure. Since the ancient times, this has been practiced in various parts of the world. Some such techniques were so simple like covering the individual fruits with paper bags on the trees, keeping the doors and windows closed in the evenings so as to check the mosquitoes from entering the houses or using insect repellent oils.

Summary The environmental toxicology of the chemical pesticides and herbicides is difficult to surmise or even quantify as most of the effects are so subtle and occur after long term exposure to them. But thankfully there are a lot many alternatives to chemical pesticides available, which can be further explored and put to use. In this paper an effort has been made to cover all the alternative methods for getting rid of pests from the field as well as house hold. Some of them are the safety tips so that we can cut down on the use of harmful chemicals thus decreasing soil and water pollution. The main aim was to create awareness about the negative effects of excess and harmful chemical usage and to suggest some alternatives for the same. The responsibility lies on the shoulders of all educationists and researchers. But we have to keep in mind that just because a pesticide is “organic” or derived from a natural product, does not mean that it is safer than a synthetic chemical. It may have some side effects so it is our responsibility to read the pesticide labels and follow all directions on it and use them judiciously. Many of the substitutes mentioned in this study do hold great promise and will contribute for the success of organic farming, thus protecting human race against the health hazards posed by chemical pesticides and prevent environment degradation.

References

1. C. Lamberth, Jeanmart, S., Luksch, T. and A. Plant (2013). "Current Challenges and Trends in the Discovery of Agrochemicals". Science. 341 (6147): 742–6.

Volume 7, Issue 10, 2018 Page No: 105 International Journal of Scientific Research and Review ISSN NO: 2279-543X

2. H. -R. Kohler and R. Triebskorn (2013). "Wildlife Ecotoxicology of Pesticides: Can We Track Effects to the Population Level and Beyond?" Science. 341 (6147): 759- 765. doi:10.1126/science.1237591. PMID 23950533. 3. M. A. Fleischli, Franson, J. C., Thomas, N. J., Finley D. L. and W. Riley (2004). "Avian Mortality Events in the United States Caused by Anticholinesterase Pesticides: A Retrospective Summary of National Wildlife Health Center Records from 1980 to 2000". Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology. 46(4):542– 550 doi:10.1007/s00244-003-3065-y. 4. P. Story and M. Cox (2001). "Review of the effects of organophosphorus and carbamate insecticides on vertebrates. Are there implications for locust management in Australia?" Wildlife Research. 28 (2): 179. doi:10.1071/WR99060 5. C. Boutin, Freemark K.E. and D. A. Kirk (1999). Farmland birds in Southern Ontario: field use, activity patterns and vulnerability to pesticide use. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment. 72:239-254. 6. R. Rolland, M. Gilbertson and T. Colborn Eds. (1995). Environmentally induced alterations in development: a focus on wildlife. Environment Health Perspectives.103 (4): 3-5. 7. H. V. Daly, Doyen J. T. and A. H. Purcel (1998). Introduction to Insect Biology and Diversity. Oxford University Press. pp. 279–300. ISBN 978-0-19-510033-4. 8. K. F. Baker (1987). Evolving concepts of biological control of plant pathogens. Ann. Rev. Phytopathol. 25:67-85. 9. L. R. J. Hillocks (2012) Farming with fewer pesticides: EU pesticide review and resulting challenges for UK agriculture Crop Protection 31 (1):85-93 Elsevier https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cropro.2011.08.008 10. Davidson E. W. & A. A. Youstan (1990). In Bacterial control of Mosquitoes Blackflies. Eds.Huegette de Barjac & Donald J. Sutherland. Rutgers Univ. Press, New Jersey, pgs.237-255. 11. WHO (1983) Basic Biology of Human Diseases, ed. Michal F. pgs. 78-83. Geneva World Health Organization. 12. F.A. Drobiewsky (1994) J. Applied Bacteriology.76: pgs 101-109. 13. S. Poopathi, T. R. Mani, G. Baskaran & L. Kabilan (1999). Journal of Parasitic Diseases. 23:121-124.

Volume 7, Issue 10, 2018 Page No: 106 International Journal of Scientific Research and Review ISSN NO: 2279-543X

14. A. Kumar, Sra K., Sangodkar U. M. X. & V. P. Sharma (2000) Advances in the Biocontrol of mosquito vector utilizing Bacillus sphaericus and Bacillus thuringiensis var. israelensis.Vol LXX, Section B, part I, pgs 1-20. 15. L.A. Lacey & M. S. Mulla (1990) in Safety of Microbial Insecticides. eds. Liard M., Lacey L.A & Davidson E. W. CRC Press 16. "Least Toxic Pesticides."Safety Source for Pest management n.d. Web. 17 January 2010. 17. K. S. Dhindsa, Sangodkar U.M.X. and Ashwani Kumar (2002).Novel cost effective method for screening soils for the presence of mosquito pathogenic bacilli. Letters in Applied Microbiology. Vol. 35, Issue 6, pp.457-461. 18. K. S. Dhindsa, Sangodkar U.M.X. and Ashwani Kumar (1998) Mosquito pathogenic bacilli from the soils of Goa. Association of the Microbiologists of India. Diamond Jubilee Symposia and 39th Annual Conference, Mangalore, Dec 5-6. 19. K.S. Dhindsa, Sangodkar U.M.X. and Ashwani Kumar (2000) Isolation, Characterization and Efficacy of some bacilli pathogenic to mosquitoes from the soils, of Goa. The Indian Society for Parasitology. Fourteenth National Congress of parasitology, April 23-26. 20. R. Georgis (1996) Present and Future Prospects of Biological Insecticides. Cornwell Community Conference on Biological Control April 11-13. 21. www.biopesticideindustryalliance.org/microbial-biopesticides/protozoa 22. M. Louise Natural Enemies Handbook: The Illustrated Guide to Biological Pest Control by Flint. Publication 3386, University of California, 6701 San Pablo Ave., Oakland, CA 94608-1239 23. DI Shapiro-Ilan, Cottrell TE, Mizell R.F, Horton DL, Behle B, Dunlap C. (2010). Efficacy of Steinernema carpocapsae for control of the lesser peach tree borer, Synanthedon pictipes: Improved aboveground suppression with a novel gel application. Biological Control 54: 23-28. 24. I. Bhattacharjee, S.N. Chatterjee & A. Ghosh (2008) Mosquito control by larvivorous fish. Indian J Med Res 127, pp 13-27. 25. “Some Natural Pesticide Alternatives.” Sonora Environmental Research Institute. .n.d. Web. 17 January 2010. source: www.pyrethrum.com 26. A.R. Jutsum and R.S.F. Gordon. (1989). Insect Pheromones in Plant Protection. John Wiley & Sons, New York, 369 pp. 27. B. J.Valentine, G. M. Gurr, and W. G. Thwaite. (1996). Efficacy of the insect growth regulators tebufenozide and fenoxycarb on lepidopteran pest control in apples, and their

Volume 7, Issue 10, 2018 Page No: 107 International Journal of Scientific Research and Review ISSN NO: 2279-543X

compatibility with biological control for integrated pest management. Austr. J. Exper. Agric. 36:501-506. 28. S. Ramarethinam, Marimuthu S. and N.V. Murugesan (2000). Effect of a neem oil formulation on the growth, development and histomorphology of some lepidopteran pest (Helicoverpa armigera, Spodoptera litura and ). Pestology 24 (10): 1-8. 29. W. N. Aldridge, (1990). "An Assessment of the Toxicological Properties of Pyrethroids and Their Neurotoxicity". Critical Reviews in Toxicology 21(2): 89–104. 30. F. H. King (2011) Farmers of Forty centuries: Organic farming in China, Korea & Japan by Dover Publications Inc. Mineola New York. 31. www.sciencedailey.com 32. K. S. Dhindsa (2018) Implementation of Biological Control Practices in Biodiversity Conservation. Journal of Plant Development Sciences (JPDS) Vol. 10.No.4, April 2018.

Volume 7, Issue 10, 2018 Page No: 108