NATIONAL TECHNICAL UNIVERSITV OF ATHENS DEPARTMENT OF NAVAL ARCHITECTURE AND MARINE ENGINEERING
INTERNATIONAL MULTI-CONFERENCE On Maritime Research and Technoloqy EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, OPERATION &:SAFETY
HOTEL KNOSSOS ROVAL VILLAGE OCTOBER 15-19 2001
PG ENTr 1Wng adiMWIlyWof .' NATIONAL TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY OF ATHENS DEPARTMENT OF NAVAL ARCHITECTURE AND MARINE ENGINEERING
EUROCONFERENCE
PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, OPERATION AND SAFETY
Edited by A. Papanikolaou & K. Spyrou
Knossos Royal Village, Anissaras, Crete, Greece October 15-17, 2001 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCtION. SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001
WELCOME - INTRODUCTION
It is with great pleasure that I welcome you all to the International Maritime Research and Technology multi-conference organised by the Department of Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering of the National Technical University of Athens.
Following the successful organisation of the 3rd International Stability Workshop on "Contemporary problems of ship stability and operational safety" in 1997 in Crete, a number of prominent colleagues dealing with maritime R&D in Europe and overseas asked NTUA to consider hosting again a series of conferences and meeting events at the beautiful island of Crete. The response was, of course, positive despite of the anticipation of organisational problems related to the uniqueness of this multi- conference.
I am very pleased to see you all here, especially those of you who have come from overseas. We are expecting over the next few days close to 200 colleagues and friends from all over Europe, USA and Japan, a clear indication of high expectations and of interesting days ahead. We count among the participants not only internationally recognised experts but also more than 20 young researchers of European academic and industrial institutions thanks to the support of the TMR programme of the European Commission.
The multi-conference consists of the following series of events:
1. A EUROCONFERENCE on Passenger Ship Design, Operation and Safety (October 15-17, 2001) 2. The WEGEMT Annual Conference (October 17, 2001) 3. The Annual Conferences of Thematic Networks SAFER-EURORO, MARNET-CFD, CEPS & PRODIS (October 18-19, 2001). 4. Various Meetings of European R&D projects and of International Committees, particularly the Ship Stability Committee of ITTC and the Executive Committee of the International Marine Design Conference, as pre- or post conference events.
The proceedings in hand refer to the papers presented during the EUROCONFERENCE on Passenger Ship Design, Operation and Safety, the first major event of the Multi-conference. The aim of this conference is to address in depth various contemporary issues related to passenger ship design and construction, operation, economy and safety, taking into account recent regulatory and maritime policy matters affecting both safety and economy of passenger ships. This aim was tackled by ensuring the presence of internationally recognised speakers from the whole spectrum of the passenger ship maritime industry, including maritime regulatory and policy authorities, research and academic institutions. Twenty seven papers cover the subject of the EUROCONFERENCE in a unique way, considering the -latest developments of naval architecture and passenger shipbuilding, passenger ship operation, economy, safety and of the international regulatory framework. The EUROCONFERENCE presentations close with a historical paper on the work of the great Greek scientist Archimedes presenting recent evidence to prove that the original ideas of ship stability criteria (and of ship safety), besides floatability, can be found amongst his impressive work, dated back almost 2300 years. EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETy AND OPERATION - Crete. October 2001
The organisation of the planned series of events would have been impossible without the active help of all members of the International Organising Committee, particularly Professor Dracos Vassalos (Strathclyde University - SSRC, WEGEMT, ITTC & SAFER-EURORO), Mr. Patrick Person (COREDES & Chantiers de P' Atlantique, CEPS & PRODIS), Dr. Paul Gallagher (WS ATKINS and MARNET-CFD), R. Adm. Antony Kaloudis (Greek Shipowners Association for Passenger Ships), Ass. Prof. Kostas Spyrou (National Technical University of Athens), Jim Grant (WEGEMT), members of the staff of the Ship Design Laboratory - National Technical University of Athens, particularly Ms. Valia Leoutsea, Ms. Aimilia Alissafaki and Ms. Eleftheria Eliopoulou and of many other friends here in Crete, who contributed in various ways to the organisation of this conference.
I wish to acknowledge the financial support of the EUROCONFERENCE on Passenger Ship Design, Construction, Operation, Economy and Safety by the European Commission (DG XII, programme TMR-CODESO, contract no. HPCF-CT- 1999-00104) and of the various other multi-conference social events by our sponsors MINOAN Lines, The Greek Shipowners Association for Passenger Ships, ANEK Lines and the Prefecture of Heraklion-Crete.
Last but not least, I like to express my sincere thanks to all authors of the EUROCONFERENCE papers, the key-note speakers, the chairmen, delegates and all conference participants. I hope we will have some interesting days ahead of us discussing together what we all enjoy in one form or another, namely marine technology research and development and its impact in practice and to share our experiences and our vision towards a better maritime tomorrow.
Apostolos D. Papanikolaou Chairman, International Multi-conference Committee
ii INTERNATIONAL MULTI-CONFERENCE On Maritime Research and Technology EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, OPERATION & SAFETY Annual Conferences of the European Thematic Networks SAFER-EURORO, MARNET-CFD, CEPS & PRODIS WEGEMT Annual Conference October 15-19, 2001 http://www.naval.ntua.gr/crete int conf 2001
ORGANISED BY
National Technical University of Athens (Dept. of Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering) WEGEMT (European Association of Universities in Marine Technology & Related Sciences) The European Thematic Networks SAFER-EURORO, MARNET-CFD, CEPS & PRODIS
Following the successful organisation of the 3Pd International Stability Workshop on contemporary problems of stability and operational safety of ships in 1997, the Department of Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering of the National Technical University of Athens is hosting a Multi-conference on Maritime Research and Technology at the beautiful island of Crete.
The multi-conference consists of the following series of events:
1. EUROCONFERENCE on Passenger Ship Design. Operation and Safety (October 15-17, 2001)
The aim of this conference' is to address in depth various contemporary passenger ship concepts, their design and construction, operation and economy and various regulatory and maritime policy issues affecting both their safety and economy. This aim is achieved by allowing in-depth discussion of a restricted number of invited papers of internationally recognised experts and authorities representing the whole spectrum of the passenger ship maritime industry, including maritime regulatory and policy authorities, research and academic institutions.
The conference comprises five (5) sessions to address the following areas:
* Introductory session * PassengerShip Design & Construction * PassengerShip Economy & Operation * PassengerShip Safety * Passenger Ship Regulations & Policy
Each session will be guided by a discussion leader (co-ordinator), who will direct and encourage discussions based on the invited presentations2 and summarise the results, to be included in the final conference proceedings. The aim of the invited speakers. who have been selected strictly on the basis of their expertise and authority in the respected fields, will be to stimulate discussion in the session area by explaining their concepts and ideas and the specific problems identified in on-going front-end R&D, developments in the market of passenger shipping and in related regulatory and policy issues. Session
The Euroconference is funded by the European Commission, DG XI1, programme TMR-CODESO 2 Available as pre-prints at the start of the EUROCONFERENCE
iii EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete. October 2001
discussers will be selected by the session chairman from the list of participants and the plenary. Observers can take part in the round table discussion through the session chairman.
2. Annual Conferences of Thematic Networks SAFER-EURORO. MARNET-CFD. CEPS & PRODIS (October 17-19. 2001).
Please note that this will be the closing Annual Conference for the SAFER EURORO and MARNET-CFD networks.
3. WEGEMT Annual Conference
Relevant information about the above Thematic Networks and Annual Conferences can be found in the Appendix or by visiting relevant web site addresses as following:
" SAFER-EURORO: httt://wxw.safercLroro.or/ " MARNET: http://pronet. \sutkins.co.uik/triarnet CEPS & PRODIS: htti://wwwv.marinfo.net/ " WEGEMT: hitp://www.wcent.or,.uk/
4. Invited Paper of the WEGEMT Annual Conference - Closure Paper of Euroconference
Prof. Dr.-lng. Dr. h.c. Horst Nowacki will present results of his recent research on the work of Archimedes and Ship Stability. The law of Archimedes (287 - 212 B.C.) for buoyancy and displacement is universally acclaimed, but his fundamental work on hydrostatic stability is much less widely known. In fact, however, resent investigations show that the original ideas of stability criteria based on the lever arm between buoyancy and gravity force resultants can be also found in his Work. This paper will revisit his original treatises, review his approach to stability and will show how he calculated "righting arms" for simple shapes (paraboloids) without the aid of calculus. The paper will also address by what circuitous route this long forgotten knowledge finally resurfaced again in the beginning of thle modem scientific era of ship theory in the 18'h century.
5. Meetings of EU funded proiects and of International Committees
A series of meetings of EU funded projects will take place during and around the week of the multi- conference: - Kick-off meetings of the FP5 Technology Platform project VRSHIPS-ROPAX2000 " Midterm Assessment meetings of projects HARDER, NEREUS & ROROPROB " Project meeting of FP5 project snas " Meeting of the Int. Towing Tank Conf. (ITTC) specialist committee on Prediction of Extreme Motions and Capsizing " Meeting of the Exec. Committee of the Int. Marine Design Conf.(IMDC) " Meeting of the Exec. Committee of the European Association of Universities in Marine Technology and Related Sciences (WEGEMT)
iv EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001
Venue
Date: 15 - 19 October, 2001 Place: Anissaras Hersonissos-CRETE, Hotel KNOSSOS ROYAL VILLAGE, abt. 23 km from HERAKLION International Airport
Registration & Fees
EUROCONFERENCE (Oct. 15-17, 2001)
200 EUR. for registered under- and postgraduate university students, young researchers funded though the TMR programme and WEGEMT members 300 EUR, for regular participants (observers) (fees include proceedings, coffee/tea, Euroconference reception & dinner)
WEGEMT Annual Conference: free attendance for WEGEMT members, observers welcome.
Thematic Networks Annual Conferences: free attendance for Thematic Network participants, observers welcome but registration through the Thematic Network Leaders requested.
Committee & Project meetings: only for members, registration through the organisers of the meetings requested
Final Schedule of Events
ITTC Specialist Committee3 on Prediction of Extreme Motions and Capsize, Oct. 11-12, 2001 Welcome Reception EUROCONFERENCE: October 14, 2001 (Sunday night) Start of EUROCONFERENCE 4: October 15. 2001 (Monday) Dinner EUROCONFERENCE. October 15, 2001 (Monday night) Closure of EUROCONFERENCE October 17, 2001 (Wednesday noon) WEGEMT Annual Conference5 : October 17, 2001 (Wednesday afternoon) IMDC Exec. Committee6 Meeting: October 17, 2001 (Wednesday afternoon) Dinner WEGEMT: October 17, 2001 (Wednesday night) Start of Thematic Network Annual Conferences7 : October 18, 2001 (Thursday) Reception Dinner Thematic Networks: October 18, 2001 (Thursday night) Closure of Thematic Network Annual Conferences: October 19, 2001 (Friday noon) EU funded Proiect Meetings': Kick-off meeting VRSHIPS-ROPAX2000. Oct. 19-Oct. 20, 2001 Midterm Assessment meetings: HARDER, NEREUS, ROROPROB, Oct. 22-23, 2001 Project meeting: sts, Oct. 24-25, 2001
3 Only for Committee members 4 All EUROCONFERENCE events only for registered participants 5 for registered WEGEMT members, guests welcome 6 only for Committee members for Thematic network partners, participation of others on request through the Thematic Network Leaders I only for project pariters
V EUTROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001
International Organising Committee
Professor Apostolos Papanikolaou (National Technical Univ. of Athens, chairman)
Professor Dracos Vassalos (University of Strathclyde, SAFER-EURORO & WEGEMT)
Mr. Patrick Person (Chantiers de 1' Atlantique, PRODIS-& CEIS)
Dr. Paul Gallagher (WS ATKINS, MARNET)
R. Adm. Antony Kaloudis (Greek Shipowners Association for Passenger Ships)
Ass. Professor Kostas Spyrou (National Technical Univ. of Athens)
Mr. Jim Grant (WEGEMT Foundation)
Ms. Valia Leoutsea (National Technical Univ. of Athens, secretary)
vi EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Welcome & Introduction to the Euroconference page i
Final Programme page xi
SESSION 1: Introductory Session to the Euroconference page 1
Chairman: A. Papanikolaou (NTUA, Greece)
E. Mitropoulos, IMO page 3 "International Regulations - The IMO Initiative on Large Passenger Ships"
P. Person, P. Suinat. Alstom - COREDES page 11 "Evolution in Shipbuilding during the Last Years, Example on Cruise Shipbuilding"
S. Zabetakis, ANEK Lines page 37 "Prospects of Greek Coastal Passenger Shipping"
C. Economou, European Commission DG TREN Maritime Safety Unit page 39 "Stability Requirements for Passenger Vessels: A Divided EU Approach to a Common Problem?"
SESSION 2: Passenger Ship Design & Construction page 43
Chairman: P. Sen (University of Newcastle, United Kingdom)
K. Levander, Kvaemer Masa Yard page 45 "Improving the ROPAX Concept with High Tech Solutions"
S. Krueger, Flensburger SG Yard page 63 "Competitive RoRo-Ships by First Principle Design Tools"
C. Arias. F. Castillo, IZAR Group/Astilleros Yard page 73 "New Concepts to Improve Safety to Conventional and Fast Ferries at Design Step"
M. Kanerva, Deltamarin page 83 "From Handy Size up to Large Cruise Ferries, Elements Required to Design & Build Successful Configurations"
K. Spethmann, Abeking & Rasmussen Yard page 113 "Design of Mega-Yachts and Mini-Cruise Vessels"
A. Papanikolaou, E. Eliopoulou, NTUA-SDL page 135 "The European Passenger Car Ferry Fleet - Review of Design Features and Stability Characteristics of Pre- and Post SOLAS 90 RO-RO Passenger Ships"
vii EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION. SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete. October 2001
SESSION 3: Passenger Ship Economy & Operation page 151
Chairman: Y. Ikeda (University of Osaka Prefecture, Japan)
A. Potamianos, Royal Olympic Cruises page 153 "Passenger Ship Operation and Economy"
B. Dionisi, Grandi Navi Veloci-Grimaldi Group page 167 "Safe Ship Operations: Are We Confusing Regulation with what Makes sense for Safety?"
R. Kjaer, Color Line page 179 "Operational Aspects - Passenger Ships"
A. Maniadakis. MINOAN Lines page 197 "Renewal of Minoan Lines Fleet"
M. Mariakakis, ANEK Lines page 205 "On the Renewal of ANEK Passenger Ferry Fleet"
SESSION 4: Passenger Ship Safety page 207
Chairman: Kostas Spyrou (NTUA, Greece)
H. Hormann. Germanischer Lloyd page 209 "Selected Aspects of Passenger Ship Safety, a Classification Society's Point of View"
T. Svensen. Det Norske Veritas page 219 "Passenger Ship Safety for Ferries: Simplicity, Reliability & Cost Effectiveness"
M. Dogliani, F. Porcellacchia, Registro Italiano Navale Group page 229 "From R&D to Classification Services on Passenger Ship Safety: RINA'S View on Short Term Developments"
J. de Kat, MARIN page 243 "Passenger Ship Safety from a Hydrodynamics Perspective"
S. Naito, Osaka University page 255 "Propeller Racing in Rough Sea" L. Vredeveldt, TNO page 265 "Two Examples of Applied Scientific Research in Ship Safety" viii EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001
SESSION 5: Passenger Ship Regulations & Policy page 277
Chairman: Tom Allan (Chairman of MSC-IMO, United Kingdom)
S. Rusaas, Det Norske Veritas page 279 "Harmonisation of Rules and Design Rationale - Project HARDER - A Report on Current Status"
C. Mains, Germanischer Lloyd page 289 "Updated Probabilistic Extents of Damage Based on Actual Collision Data"
R. Tagg, SU-SSRC page 299 "Subdivision and Damage Survivability of Passenger Ships - the Regulatory Framework at IMO"
Y. Ikeda, University of Osaka Prefecture page 307 "Japanese Research Activities on Damage Stability of a Ship to Support International and Domestic Regulatory Works"
D.Vassalos, SU-SSRC & A. Papanikolaou, NTUA-SDL page 315 "Impact Assessment of Stockholm Agreement on EU Ro-Ro Passenger Vessels"
WEGEMT invited paper page 335
H. Nowacki, Tech. Univ. Berlin page 337 "Archimedes and Ship Stability"
Information about the Annual Conferences of the European Thematic page 363 Networks SAFER-EURORO, MARNET-CFD, PRODIS & CEPS and WEGEMT: The European Association of Universities in Marine Technology and Related Sciences
ix EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001
INTERNATIONAL MULTI-CONFERENCE On Maritime Research and Technology EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, OPERATION & SAFETY Closing Conferences of European Thematic Networks SAFER-EURORO, MARNET, CEPS & PRODIS WEGEMT Annual Conference October 15-19, 2001
Final PROGRAMME
OCTOBER 15, 2001 - 10 Day of EUROCONFENCE
08:00 - 08:45 Final Registration
08:45 - 09:00 Welcome and introduetion to the Euroconference: Prof. A. Papanikolaou
09:00 - 9:30 Welcome to the Euroconference: The Greek Ministry of Merchant Marine, The Prefect of Heraklion, The Mayors of Heraklion and Hersonissos/Anissaras The Chairman of the Department of Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering, National Technical University of Athens
09:30 - 11:00 SESSION 1: Introductory Session to the EUROCONFERENCE (1) Chairman: Prof.A. Papanikolaou (NTUA, Greece) Two invited papers:
> International Regulations: R. Adm. Thymios Mitropoulos (Ass. Secretary-General IMO/ Director of Maritime Safety Division) > Passenger Ship Design & Construction: Mr. Patrick Person (former Vice-President Chantiers de I'Atlantique, Chairman COREDES) & Mr. Paul Suinat (Chantiers de l'Atlantique)
11:00 - 11:30 Coffee/Tea
11:30 - 13.00 SESSION 1: Introductory Session to the EUROCONFERENCE (2) [CONT'D] Two invited papers:
> Passenger Ship Operation-Economy: Mr. Stelios Zabetakis (CEO, ANEK Lines, Chairman of the Union of Greek Coastal Passenger Shipowners) > Passenger Ship Safety-Policy: Mr. Christos Economou (DO TREN, European Commission)
13:00 - 14:00 Lunch at KNOSSOS ROYAL
.xi EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001
14:00 - 15:30 SESSION 2: Passenger Ship Design & Construction 0) Chairman:Prof. P. Sen (UNEW, United Kingdom) Three invitedpapers: > Mr. Kai Levander (Vice President, Kvaemer Masa Yard, Finland) " Dr. Stefan Krueger (Head of Ship Design, Flensburger SG Yard, Germany) " Prof. C. Arias (IZAR Group/Astilleros Yard, Spain)
15:30 - 16:00 Coffee/Tea
16:00 - 17:30 SESSION 2: PassengerShip Design & Construction (2) [CONT'D] Three invited papers: " Mr. Marku Kanerva (General Manager, Deltamarin Design, Finland) " Dr. Klaas Spethmann (General Manager, Abeking & Rasmussen Yard. Germany)/ Prof. Ludwig Seidl (Univ. of Hawaii, USA) " Prof. A, Papanikolaou (Head of Ship Design Laboratory, National Technical University of Athens)/ Ms Eleftheria Eliopoulou (Ship Design Laboratory, National Technical University of Athens)
OCTOBER 16, 2001 - 2 nd Day of EUROCONFENCE
09:00 - 10:30 SESSION 3: PassengerShip Economy & Operation (1) Chairman:Prof. Y Ikeda (Osaka Univ. Pref, Japan) Three invitedpapers:
> Mr. Andreas Potamianos (Royal Olympic Cruises, Greece) > Mr. Aldo Grimaldi/ B. Dionisi (Grimaldi & CONFITARMA, Italy) > Mr. Rolf Kjaer (Technical Director. COLOR Line, Norway)
10:30 - 11:00 Coffee/Tea
11:00 - 12:30 SESSION 3: PassengerShip Economy & Operation (2) [CONT'D] Two invitedpapers: > Mr. Antonis Maniadakis (Minoan Lines, Greece) > Mr. Manolis Mariakakis (ANEK Lines, Greece) 12:30- 14:00 Lunch
14:00- 15:30 SESSION 4: PassengerShip Safety (1) Chairman:Ass. Prof.Kostas Spyrou (NTUA, Greece) Three invitedpapers: " Mr. Hartmut Hormann (Director of Maritime Safety, Germanischer Lloyd, Germany) " Dr. Totr Svensen (Technical Director, Det Norske Veritas, Norway) > Mr. Mario Dogliani (Head of Innovation Research & Products, RINA, Italy)
15:30 - 16:00 Coffee/Tea
xii EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete October 2001
16:00- 17:30 SESSION 4: Passenger Ship Safety (2) [CONT'D] Three invitedpapers: > Dr. Jan de Kat (Head of R&D, MARIN, The Netherlands) - Prof. Shigeru Naito (Head of Department, Osaka University, Japan) > Mr. Lex Vredeveldt (TNO, The Netherlands)
OCTOBER 17, 20 0 1-3d Day of EUROCONFENCE
08:30 - 10:30 SESSION 5: PassengerShip Regulations & Policy (1) Chairman: Mr. Tom Allan (Chairman of MSC-IMO, United Kingdom) Three invited papers: > Mr. Sigmund Rusaas (Project HARDER- Det Norske Veritas, Norway) - Mr. Christian Mains (Germanischer Lloyd, Germany) > Mr. Robert Tagg (Chairman of SDS/IMO, USA)
10:30 - 11:00 Coffee/Tea
11:00 - 12:30 SESSION 5: Passenger Ship Regulations & Policy (2) [CONT'D] Two invited papers: > Prof. Yoshiho Ikeda (Osaka Univ. Prefecture & IMO. Japan) > Prof Dracos Vassalos (Director SU-SSRC, United Kingdom) & Prof Apostolos Papanikolaou (Director NTUA-SDL, Greece)
12:30 - 13:00 Closing of the Euroconference: Prof. A. Papanikolaou (NTUA, Greece)
17:00 - 18:30 WEGEMT invited paper & Euroconference Closing paper:
'ARCHIMEDES & Ship Stability' by Prof. Dr.-Ing. Dr. h.c. Horst Nowacki (Tech. Univ. Berlin, Germany)
xiii EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001
SESSION 1: Introductory Session to the Euroconference
Chairman: A. Papanikolaou (NTUA, Greece)
Papers:
E. Mitropoulos, IMO "International Regulations - The IMO Initiative on Large Passenger Ships"
P. Person, P. Suinat, Alstom - COREDES "Evolution in Shipbuilding during the Last Years, Example on Cruise Shipbuilding"
S. Zabetakis, ANEK Lines "Prospects of Greek Coastal Passenger Shipping"
C. Economou, European Commission, DG TREN, Maritime Safety Unit "Stability Requirements for Passenger Vessels: A Divided EU Approach to a Common Problem?" EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete. October 2001
E. Mitropoulos, Ass. Secretary-General Director, Maritime Safety Division, IMO
"International Regulations - The IMO Initiative on Large Passenger Ships"
3 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPEREATION - Crete. October 2001
INTERNATIONAL REGULATIONS - THE IMO INITIATIVE ON LARGE PASSENGER SHIPS SAFETY*
by E.E. Mitropoulos Assistant Secretary-Genera /Director, Maritime Safety Division, IMO
Mr. Chairman, Ladies and Gentlemen,
It is a pleasure for me to be with you today and I would like to thank the organizers of this important meeting very much for the invitation. To share information and exchange views with members of the shipping community on all sorts of matters relating to passenger ships is timely and appropriate. And for me to speak on a subject so high on IMO's current agenda as the "safety of large passenger ships" is a most welcome opportunity. The fact that the meeting takes place in a country with deep roots in shipping and on an island which has maritime traditions going back to times immemorial adds to the glamour and significance of the event.
At the risk of being seen as preaching to the converted, I will start by stating the obvious, that is that the last decade has seen an unprecedented increase in cruise shipping activities. This may be attributed largely to the phenomenal economic development in many parts of the world and the resulting investment of huge amounts of money in the building of cruise ships of what seemed, at one point in time, to be an escalating size in an ever increasing number of units. The prospects of a bright future in the only expanding sector of the shipping industry encouraged the placing of orders for new buildings at a rate never seen before and soon the capacity of shipyards specializing in sophisticated constructions, such as those for cruise ships, proved insufficient to satisfy, the demands of interested shipping companies. In turn, this resulted to considerable restructuring in this sector through mergers and acquisitions. For passengers, the charms of a cruise, the attractions of new, unexplored coasts, the promise of visits to virgin sea areas of unparalleled beauty and adventurous breaks from the monotonous life at home; and, for shipping companies and holiday organizations, the benefits of the economies of scale rendering cruises affordable to the travelling public at rates never offered before, all contributed to a boom in the cruise shipping industry which resulted in a spectacular increase in the number of ships and berths available and the tonnage these ships represent.
Against these unprecedented developments, questions began being asked:
- How safe are these gigantic ships?
- Are sufficient measures provided against the risks of fire, collision or grounding?
- For how long will they remain afloat following an accident?
- How safely and quickly can they be evacuated in case of an emergency?
- Are there any assurances that passengers and crews of these enormous ships abandoned at a remote sea area will be provided with shelter and other facilities?
- Can the applicable safety standards, developed before the emergence of these big ships, adequately respond to the needs created by them?
- Is there an adequate search and rescue system in place covering the globe?
Views expressed in this paper are those of the author and should not be construed as necessarily reflecting the view-s of IMO or its Secretariat. 5- EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001
The direct recipients of these questions were initially the companies owning these large ships and the States whose flag they flew, and generally they were companies and States with a remarkably high safety record. But increasingly, given its global mandate over safety and environmental protection, such questions began to be asked of the International Maritime Organization, whose Secretary-General had accurately sensed the need to focus attention on these concerns.
However, large cruise ships were a different "animal" and whoever decided to address their safety had to be careful not to cause undue concerns or allow any uneasiness to spread among the travelling public on unsubstantiated grounds, and thereby damage a sector of the shipping industry which had shown that safety was very high indeed on its agenda. This was particularly important when companies were expanding their fleets or opting for new, bigger than ever before, cruise ships.
Mr. O'Neil's first approach to the issue was displayed in December 1998 when addressing the seventieth session of the Maritime Safety Committee. He then expressed admiration for the achievements of the shipbuilding and ancillary industries in delivering gigantic cruise ships embodying state-of-the-art technology. At the same time, he expressed the hope that the operational safety aspects in emergencies of these mammoth ships carrying* thousands of passengers and crew members had been properly studied and satisfactorily resolved. One month later, when addressing the Sub-Committee on Fire Protection, he repeated the statement adding that it would be prudent for the Sub-Committee to consider whether guidelines on an evacuation analysis for passenger ships in general, with special emphasis on new large cruise ships, needed to be developed.
The third and catalytic approach was made in a Note submitted to the May 2000 session of the Maritime Safety Committee, in which statistics on the growth of the world passenger ship fleet were provided (including the number, gross tonnage and capacity in passengers and crews of "large" passenger ships, the figure of 50,000 gross tonnage per unit used for the sake of argument). A compiled list was also provided of the work on passenger ships previously assigned to various Sub-Committees (such as the DE, FP, SLF, COMSAR, NAV and STW) which, until then, had been assigned tasks to consider various aspects pertaining to passenger ships.
Having set the scene, the Secretary-General then concluded that the time had come for IMO to undertake a holistic consideration of safety issues pertaining to passenger ships, with particular emphasis on large cruise ships.
One can easily understand the importance and significance of the statistics against which the Secretary-General structured his argument, given the high number of passengers and crews being carried on board recently delivered large cruise ships, some of which are over 100,000 gross tonnes ana capable of carrying over 4,000 persons. The trend towards building ever- bigger, more sophisticated cruise ships incorporating innovative features in their design, means of propulsion and equipment is likely to continue and, therefore, the suggestion for a global consideration of their safety features was well justified within:
- IMO's proactive policy, which would underline the Organization's move away from being merely reactive to events; and
- the provision in Assembly resolution A.900 (Objectives of IMO in the 2000s) that the Organization's focus of attention during the current decade Should be on addressing safety issues by ship type, with particular emphasis on passenger ships.
6 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001
In making his proposal for a holistic approach of large passenger ship safety, the Secretary-General was anxious to dispel any negative and unsubstantiated perception associated with the safety of the recently built large cruise ships, which he had no reason to doubt in any respect. He was similarly not concerned as to whether such ships complied with the most recently adopted Safety of Life at Sea Convention (SOLAS) requirements applicable to ships of their category, because he was convinced that they did. What, however, he thought merited due consideration was whether SOLAS and, to the extent applicable, the Load Line Convention requirements, several of which had been drafted before some of the large ships in question had been built, duly addressed all the safet' aspects of their operation - in particular, in emergency situations. Also, whether the training requirements of the STCW Convention relating to personnel operating large cruise ships were in need of any review or clarification in the circumstances.
The entire NMO membership, including the sector of the industry most directly concerned, responded positively to the Secretary-General's call for action and the Maritime Safety Committee endorsed his proposal to undertake a global consideration of large passenger ship safety issues. Furthermore, it decided to keep the matter under its own auspices, through the establishment of an ad hoc Working Group on Large Passenger Ship Safety. To ensure this effort would be successful and conducted in a co-ordinated manner, the Committee agreed to start wvork at its seventy-third session in December 2000 and approved terms of reference for the working group, mainly asking it:
.1 t conuctanoervew o th exitin situation relating to large passenger ships in the light of current practices, the existing regulatory regime and safety philosophy/approaches;
.2 to identify areas of concern relating, in particular, to the ship (i.e. construction and equipment, evacuation (external/internal), and operation and management); the people (i.e. crew, passengers, rescue personnel, training, and crisis and crowd management); and the environment (i.e. search and rescue services, operation in remote areas and weather conditions);
.3 to identify', from a proactive point of view, the potential risks future large passenger ships might face in the coming decade, and any long-term considerations relating to the above; and
.4 to prioritize the work to be undertaken and develop a draft work plan for the Comm ittee and its subsidiary, bodies.
Acting on recommendations of the ad hoc Working Group on Large Passenger Ship Safety, the December 2000 session of the MSC'
I agreed that there was a need for an overall philosophy to govern the consideration of existing and future large passenger ship safety issues, agreeing not to define 'large' passenger ships at that point in time;
.2 decided, with regard to existing large passenger ships, to focus its efforts primarily on matters related to the human element such as operations, management and training, without this precluding consideration of equipment and arrangement issues; and
3 concerning future large passenger ships, agreed that such ships should be designed for improved survivability based on the philosophy that "a ship is its
7 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001
own best lifeboat", which envisages that passengers and crew would normally be able to evacuate to a safe haven on board and be able to stay there.
The Committee considered that special design requirements for future large passenger ships might be necessary in order to achieve the "safe haven as ship proceeds back to port" goal and that the consideration of new concepts in this regard would be essential. It was also of the view that this philosophical approach would partly address the risks associated with evacuating and rescuing a large number of survivors by reducing the need to abandon the ship in the first place.
Notwithstanding the above philosophy, the Committee also recognized that ship abandonment would continue to occur and, therefore, agreed that future ships should be equipped with effective life-saving arrangements and appliances designed to ensure survival in the area of operation, also taking into account the availability of search and rescue services.
In addition, the Committee also discussed a wide range of topics relating to the safety of existing and future large passenger ships, including concerns associated with collisions, groundings, fire safety, equipment failure, medical emergencies, evacuation, abandonment, search and rescue, unlawful acts, operations and management. It should, hoxvever, be noted here that some of these issues have already been, or are still, under discussion by several of the Committee's subsidiary bodies. Nevertheless, the Committee decided that, from here on, all of the current efforts, and any new proposals related to large passenger ship safety, Would be co-ordinated in a holistic manner by the Committee rather than through the work of selected Sub-Committees focusing on specific areas of concern, as had been done in the past.
Further progress was made by the MVSC at its 74 th ssin hnteCmite
I1 approved a structure approach for dealing with dealing with large passenger ship safety matters, including a guiding philosophy, strategic goals and objectives; and
.2 agreed to an updated work plan and placed an item on "Large passenger ship safety" in the work programmes, and provisional agendas of the forthcoming sessions of, the FP, COMSAR, NAy, DE, SLF and STW Sub-Committees.
The Committee further agreed that the guiding philosophy should be viewed as a "vision Statement" to provide an idealized view of where it would like to be in the future regarding the regulatory framework for large passenger ships. The Committee considered that such an approach was necessary to ensure that proposed strategic goals, objectives and tasks could be linked back to the guiding philosophy and, where a linkage could not be made, such proposals would not be considered. Taking these points into account, the following guiding philosophy was approved by the MSC:
I1 the regulatory framework should place. more emphasis on the prevention of a casualty from occurring in the first place;
.2 future large passenger ships should be designed for improved survivability so that, in the event of a casualty, persons can stay safely on board as the ship proceeds to port;
.3 the regulatory framework should permit alternative designs and arrangements in lieu of the prescriptive regulations provided that at least an equivalent level of safety is achieved;
8 EIIROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001
.4 large passenger ships should be crewed, equipped and have arrangements to ensure the safety of persons on board for survival in their ýrea of operation, taking into account climatic conditions and the availability of SAR services; and
.5 large passenger ships should be crewed and equipped to ensure the health safety, medical care and security of persons on board until more specialized assistance is available.
Again, in order to make timely progress on the issue, MSC 74 decided to re-establish the United States-led correspondence group to work intersessionally mainly for the purpose of:
.1I closely examining the identified areas of concern with a view towards finalization;
.2 finalizing the objectives for matters relating to large passenger ship safety and link each objective to the philosophy and strategic goals;
.3 prioritizing the work to be undertaken and develop an updated draft work plan indicating which tasks should be done by the Committee and also indicating appropriate sub-committees to deal with the issues identified in such a work plan; and
.4 further considering matters related to health safety, medical care and security on board with a view towards finalizing the objectives and tasks for these areas.
The omens are favourable that substantial progress on the vital issue of large passenger ships will be made at MSC 75 in May 2002.
Ladies and Gentlemen,
Passenger ship safety is high on IMO's agenda and will remain there, as can be seen from resolution A.900(21I), which 1 briefly mentioned earlier. This resolution, which was adopted by the IMO Assembly in November 1999, sets the objectives the Organization should seek to achieve during the first decade of the new century and commits IMO to take more vigorous measures to implement the proactive policy agreed during the 1990s, so that any trends, which might adversely affect safety, may be identified early on.
The Objectives also include the shifting of emphasis onto people; looking at the safety of ship types, with special emphasi's on passenger ships, including high-speed passenger craft; developing a safety culture and environmental conscience in all activities undertaken by IMO; and avoiding excessive regulation. There are several other subjects that have been highlighted in * this way, but I believe that the examples I have given clearly demonstrate the way IMO will be * heading.
I wish to conclude by suggesting that, one and a half years into the new century, we should seize. the opportunity, when setting the course for the future, to also recall the past achievements of the shipping industry, particularly during the last two or three decades. Cruise ship passengers, and the passenger ship industry as a whole, is better served nowadays than ever before. The overall accident rate of merchant ships is on the decline and pollution of the marine environment has been reduced considerably. Whilst not allowing ourselves to indulge in any complacency, we can feel proud of the transformation of our industry into a safer and cleaner one than ever before.
9 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001
I also believe that the past achievements should act as an impetus and motivation for us all to try even harder to capitalize and build on them - or to be ready to respond to any challenges the future may hold. To succeed in this, there is a need for a total commitment on the part of all the components of the industry, including the cruise ship industry - or, should I say, especially the cruise ship industry, given its unique responsibility in choosing to carry the most precious commodity of them all. The unreserved commitment to high standards of safety and environmental protection by all partners in any passenger ship operations will certainly provide the most welcome guarantee of success.
Thank you.
10 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001
P. Person, Chairman COREDES, former Vice-President Chantiers de 1'Atlantique P. Suinat, Alstom, COREDES
"Evolution in Shipbuilding during the Last Years, Example on Cruise Shipbuilding"
11 EUROCONFERLNCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 *CESA*
COMMITTEE OF E.U. SHIPBUILDERS' ASSOCIATIONS COREDES The R&D Committee of CESA
CRETE - Octobre 2001 EVOLUTION IN SHIPBUILDING DURING THE LAST YEARS EXAMPLE ON CRUISE SHIPBUILDING
Coredes Chairman : Patrick PERSON - pemar.consultingq.wanadoo.fr Presented by Paul SUINAT: paul.suinat(d~marine.alstom.com
This paper on the evolution of shipbuilding during these past years is divided into two parts :
is' part an overview on the general evolution of the European shipbuilding
2 nd part more precisely the technical evolution taking as examples the building of cruise vessels kindly given by Chantiers de I'Atlantique. This will show the main differences in the construction of passengers ships from the early nineties, in the product as well as in the process
PART I
I have retained for explaining the general evolution of the European shipbuilding industry three main facts :
1st fact - CONCENTRATION Concentration has come unhappily from the closure of some yards in financial difficulties but nut only. It came also from decisions either of the Member States (like in France or Spain) or of the concerned industrial groups (like in Germany, Denmark or Norway and Sweden). The following examples are quite significant and, in my opinion, the trend is still there and will continue::
- In Spain the merging of AESA and BAZAN to form IZAR
-In Germany: the crossed exchange of shares between HDWand BLOHM &Vos
13 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 *CESA*
- In Finland and Germany: two yards AKER FINNYARDS and WISMAR under the same group AKER KVAERNER MASA YARDS and WARNOWER under the same group KVAERNER
- In Denmark and Germany Two yards ODENSE STEEL SHIPYARD and STRALSUN under the same group : AP MOLLER
- In The Netherlands DAMEN has bought ROYAL SCHELDE; and the CALAND group has merged IHC with de MERWEDE and VAN der GIESSEN de NOORD
- In Italy FINCANTIERI did it already in the eighties being well in advance on its colleagues
- In Poland GDYNIA shipyard has bought the former GDANSK yard well known from the SOLIDANORSC period
- in Greece HELLENIC shipyard is in the process to be bought by HDW. This trend in concentration will certainly continue, the competitors overseas being already very huge (ex. : the Koreans) or in the process of a certain merging (ex. : the Japonese) : there is no other way out for remaining competitive than to acquire the critical mas This concentration may not go until a total merging. A good example of a concrete first step is the creation of EUROYARDS, a European economic interest group which is constituted by 6 yards : Chantiers de r'Atlantique (France), MEYERWERFT (GERMANY), HDW (GERMANY), IZAR (SPAIN) and FINCANTIERI (ITALY) and MASA YARD (FINLAND). These six yards cooperate in general politics and in technical strategy, matters as R &D, and in personnel management, though remaining hard competitors for getting orders on the same niches.
14 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION. SAFETY AND OPERATION - Cre~t, Octobtr 2001 ***CESA*
2 11 fact - COOPERATION
Apart the cooperation already mentioned in EUROYARDS, it should be noticed the big efforts deployed by CESA, the Committee of European Shipbuilding Associations, for promoting the R & D cooperation between the different European yards. The creation of COREDES, the Committee for Research and Development in European Shipbuilding, one of the working groups of CESA, in the late eighties, has been the motor of this cooperation. All main shipyards and many of the others have then in the recent years been exchanging these positions and views on their R & D needs and priorities. They have altogether submitted a number of projects for funding by the European Commission. This number of projects being in constant progression from the first call in which shipbuilding was present as such, under the 3rd Framework Programme. The COREDES targets, focused on R & D, have been largely overpassed, as it is the case normally with cooperation. Many other subjects have then bee treated in cooperation within the shipbuilding family. A better knowledge of the respective actors amongst the more active shipyards has been acquired, opening possibilities of cooperation in technical matters, suppliers chains, personnel management and others. As far cooperation in R and D is concerned, it would not be fair not to mention the initiative of the European Commission of promoting the famous THEMATIC NETWORKS. They are funded by the Commission, and regrouping a significant part of the most active companies dealing with R and D in shipbuilding. These companies being yards, research centers, model test basins, classification societies and main equipment suppliers essentially. The main objective of the Thematic Networks is to promote the submission of R and D projects under FP5 : the results have been quite bright, as least for the two first calls of FP5; more than the double of projects have been approved at each of these calls, compared to any call of FP4. Four Thematic Networks have been of important value for the shipbuilding industry in that respect
- SAFER EURORO Safety of RoRo ships and more generally of all types of ships
- CEPS Dealing with the process in shipbuilding (design, production...)
15 OEUROCNFERENCENPASSENGER SHIP DESIGN CONSTRUCTON, SAFETY AND OPERATION - CreItl. Octber 2001
PRODIS Dealing with the product, which means the ships as well as all the ship systems
TRESHIP Focused on the environmental issues (emissions - noise - vibrations ...) THEMES Thematic Network on safety assessment in waterborne transport
This cooperation, especially in R and D, has still to be improved
- with more actors in shipbuilding
- looking for all possible synergies between the national funded. programmes and the Commission funded programmes
Two actions are now in progress for getting this improvement
- the submission to the Commission of a new Thematic Network ERASTAR (in the European Research Area, a TN for shipbuilding Technical Applied Research), covering the two above projects. We hope to get this TN approved.
- The promotion of a Research Council for shipbuilding Constituted by the chairmen of the main European yards, piloting and supporting, at the highest level, the strategy and policy in R & D, for giving a better visibility to the COREDES works.
3 rd fact - COLLABORATION
A much better collaboration exists now between shipbuilding and the other industries of the maritime transport chain, than it was some years ago. The reasons are multiple
16 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SILIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete. October 2001
* CESA*
First reason
Shipbuilding has focused its works on its core business, leaving to the other specialists - in particular the equipment manufacturers - the responsabilities of the ship systems and putting them in the situation to be more a co-builder than a supplier or a sub-contractor. It is not a hazard that more and more national associations of yards and equipment suppliers are linked or share the same offices. Even at the European level CESA and EMEC are lodged in BRUSSELS in the same offices. This trend goes rather far, to all the ship systems because the core busines of a shipbuilder is only :
- to design the ship (function of NAVAL ARCHITECT)
- to build the hull (this construction needs huge industrial means, investments and infrastructures, as well as the knowledge of the corresponding personnel
- and to be the general entrepreneur (able to coordinate thousands of tasks, to pilot and check the interfaces between the different shipsystems). This also needs industrial means and even more the know-how of specialised people.
Second reason
Is to remain competitive. In front of aggressive behaviours like Koreans, it is necessary to organise and structure closer links with the owners, the shipbuilders'clients, the equipment manufacturers, the classification societies, etc...
It is also necessary to better use the very big potential of European research centers and European Universities, able to help the yards to maintain a certain technological advance, the famous competitive edge, in front of their competitors.
Third reason
Is due to the market niches on which a major part of European shipyards has based its commercial policy.
These specialised ships need a real work in collaboration with the owners for complying with the needs of the clients (ex. cruise vessels), and with the equipment manufacturers bringing their know-how in a certain number of functions for which the shipyards are uncompetent (ex. pods, public spaces or insulation of LNG tankers).
17 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 *CUSA*
Therefore, this collaboration between all the actors of the Maritime Transport Chain has taken a bigger and bigger place; due to the necessity for the yards but also to an European Commission initiative launched now ten years ago, the MARITIME INDUSTRY FORUM. This initiative has served and still serves all the maritime professions, and in particular the shipyards.
Although the place is bigger than before for collaboration, more efforts are needed and actions will be launched in the months to come. We hope that one of these actions for promoting collaboration between universities and yards through thd new submitted Thematic Network ERASTAR, will be successful
As a conclusion, let us make efforts in order that the 3 C - Concentration, Cooperation and Collaboration - inside the European shipbuilding industry will lead to less frequentation like it is the case for our main competitors.
PART 2
SAMPLE OF EVOLUTION IN THE LAST TEN YEARS IN CRUISE SHIPBUILDING
18 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001
CHANTIERS DE L'ATLANTIQUE
EVOLUTION in TECHNOLOGY and SHIPBUILDING PROCESS
BIG CRUISESHIPS IN THE LAST 10 YEARS
C•q - * -.-,v
CHANTIERS DE LATLANTIQUE C.q _
1. TECHNOLOGICAL PROGRESS
* SIZE
* PROPULSION
* EQUIPEMENTS
* ((GREEN SHIP))
* COMFORT/ PASSENGERS SPACES
19 EU ROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001
CHANTIERS DE L'ATLANTIQUE S o2flV -h
SHIPS SIZE
* OVERPANAMAX
* PANAMAX
* 300/400 CABINS
* SMALL CRUISE SHIPS/ BIG YACHTS
CHANTIERS DE L'ATLANTIQUE
SIZE
UMS Tonnage 45000 73000 91 000 140 000 145 000
LENGTH HT 214 M 268 M 294 M 311 M 345 M
BREADTH (Moulded) 27 M 32 M 32 M 38,6 M 41 M
PASSENGERS CABINS 605 1 141 1 020 1 550 1 310
CREW CABINS 221 428 536 620 703
SPEED 22 N 22 N 25 N 23 N 29,5 N
DELIVERY DATE 1983 1987 2000 1999 2003
NAME NIEUW SOVEREIGN MILLENNIUM EAGLE 0M2 AMSTERDAM OF THE SEAS
20 EUI1OCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUJCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001
CHANTIERS DE L'ATLANTIQUE SILHOUETTES COMPARISON
MILLENNIUM
FRANCE
CHANTIERS DE L'ATLANTIQUES21h SILHOUETTES COMPARISON MILLENNIUM FRANCE
'I::
21 EUtJOCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001
CHANTIERS DE L'ATLANTIQUE • ' l -'
PROPULSION
GENERALIZATION OF ELECTRICAL PROPULSION - Advantages : Flexibility, redundancy
-COMING OF PODS - Advantages :Efficiency, manoeuvrability, space saving
CHANTIERS DE LATLANTIQUE • o• fl
22 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001
CHANTIERS DE L'ATLANTIQUE CQ DS2I
EQUIPMENTS
* FONCTIONNALITIES
* TECHNOLOGY
.7 SAMPLES .....
CHANTIERS DE LATLANTIQUE S.Zo r -l
CABLE LENGTH (in SOUND & LIGHT
enfothdkrn) meters) Ex nse
2500., _ _ wi out .- 2500 I 5... 2000 design___ 4
1500___ 1000 " " 2-
1991 1994 1996 2000 2001 1991 1994 1996 2000
23 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001
CHANTIERS DE L'ATLANTIQUE S o1T-° AUTOMATION LIGHTING (number of inputs outputs) Nb of lighting points
14000 60000 ! _ _ 12000 - 50000 r ; 10000 40000
8000
,oo_ 400002 I .
400011______200 _ _
2000- ______10000 - I_ _ _- ______. I _ _ _i o, _ _ _ _ _ ,__ _
1991 1994 1996 2000 2001 1991 1994 1996 2000 2001
CHANTIERS DE L'ATLANTIQUE •o'•T o EQUIPEMENTS PROGRESS OF INSTALLED POWER K.W 18000 16000 14000 12000 10000 8000 6000 4000 2000 0 1991 1994 1996 2000 2001
24 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete. October 2001
CHANTIERS DE LATLANTIQUE • o @_e
NON POLLUTING SHIP
((GREEN SHIPYY
No sewage at sea
- incineration
- filtration
" Smokes - Nox/Sox rate
CHANTIERS DE L'ATLANTIQUE 2IC rQ
ONBOARD INCINERATION INCINERATORS - FACTORY SMOKES N 300- 0 German' 250 IStandard
200 EConventiona Incinerators
150
5l nc inerators Iwithi
NOx sox 2.
25 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001
CHANTIERS DE L'ATLANTIQUE So o
PROPULSION TRAINS SMOKE EMISSION '4
12
10
OIMOrfg ti i limit
4
CHANTIERS DE L'ATLANTIQUE SS?[T-5
COMFORT /PASSENGERS SPACES
* Public spaces more and more open to day light
* Increased average area per passenger
* Noise reduction
* Using of noble materials
* Higher & higher level of public spaces decoration
26 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION. SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, Ottober2001
CHANTIERS DE L'ATLANTIQUE ScQ1Tho
WINDOWS & WINDSCREENS AREA INCREASING
7000 7000 * 000 SO00o 4.000 3000 2000 1000 0
1957 1991 192 19 961097 1090 2000 SOVEREIGN MONARCH MAJESTY LEGEND SPLENDOUR RHAPSODY VISION MILLENNIUM OF THE OF THE OF THE OF THE OFTHE OFTHE OF THE SEAS SEAS SEAS SEAS SEAS SEAS SEAS
IS.
MILLENNIUM
CHANTIERS DE L'ATLANTIQUE SooI--
Outdoor Cabins I Balcony cabins
100% 93% 90%
80% %
70%
60%
50%
40%
30% 20% 23%
10%
0%
Scwmjgn Legenl Vision of0U Seas MlIerxn R On.
[-,-%cabin2s ecrneuns- %
27 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete. October 2001
CHANTIERS DE LATLANTIQUE ~STh
FRANCE RHAPSODY OF THE SEAS
CHANTIERS DE LATLANTIQUE Q IContractual sound levels for passengers
re M2 PER PASSENGER spaces in passengers ships BA
17,3
140r
12.0 rn 2.6I _ 5
8., 8.5 5
Sovereign Legend Wlnun RI 18/10kIiinrti 0 90 150w F98 3S k Seas C19871 17700~M E19931410000 kW
28 EUORtCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY'AND OPERATION - Crete. October 2001
CHANTIERS DE LATLANTIQUE
VISION OF THE SEAS
CHANTIERS DE LATLANTIQUE
2) EVOLUTION of PRODUCTION METHODS
29 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete. October 2001
CHANTIERS DE L'ATLANTIQUE • oI1V - l
EVOLUTION OF METHODS
'r4 CONSTRUCTION METHODS
I TIME SCHEDULE REDUCTION
-;• SUPPLIERS & SUB CONTRACTORS INTEGRATION
CHANTIERS DE L'ATLANTIQUE SS• Th5
MAIN LEVERS
"40=mmICONCURENT ENGINEERINGIRMan1 .11 PANNELS SIZE Ilinmbý T .. ml ERECTION IN BLOCKS "n0111100 C 44ým! PRE-OUTFITTING Ill .,•l1l PREFABRICATION Ullmnll• 0
M ii MECANISATION 11llllý S E , ACCURACY "i T E SUPPLIERS Tlllo SUB CONTTRACTORS "llllý STANDARDISATION IEll0 LOGISTIC
30 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001
CHANTIERS DE L'ATLANTIQUE CQoThfL
ERECTION STRATEGY BLOCKS ((WITH SHAPEI ) & I OR COMPLEX
ALL IN A BLOCK
CHANTIERS DE LATLANTIQUE
31 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION -Crete. October 2001
CHANTIERS DE LATLANTIQUE SIh PREFABRICATION
>4
SPIPING MODULES PRE-ERECTED CABINS
CHANTIERS DE L'ATLANTIQUE S1h
Fairingi Ratio (hours IM2) HI m2
0,8
0,6
0,4 _ _ _
A29 A31 E31 G31 H31 J31 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001
CHANTIERS DE LATLANTIQUE RELATIVE PROGRESSWORK Desian I Production
O/IL I I o ,/I Io1, 1.- 11 1 1
0 FTI$r I i I II-•P
1.• Ll I/l F III I F -II 1 20 4 1 1 T 8 1 10 11 12 1,1I4 11 17 It 11 20 21 22 23 2 2
...... 2.... [ u ...... L.1
CHANTIERS DE L'ATLANTIQUE Q1o& ---
KEYS OF SUCCESS
-, QUALITY IMPROVEMENT
II STEEL HULL ACCURACY
I- LOGISTIC CONTROL (SUPPLY CHAIN)
-WEIGHT MANAGEMENT CONTROL EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete. October 2001
CHANTIERS DE L'ATLANTIQUE •ooT•h-
SUPPLIERS & SUB CONTRACTORS
- YARD CORE BUSINESS NAVAL ARCHITECTURE INTEGRATION STEEL HULL COORDINATION - EXTERNAL PART
SUPPLIERS - ANTICIPATED PROCUREMENTS - COOPERATION
CHANTIERS DE LATLANTIQUE SS I h-
CRUISE SHIP TURNOVER
;S. SUPPIL:RS
Manpower: 44%
.34 EIJROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete. October 2001
CHANTIERS DE LATLANTIQUE SQlf
TIME BETWEEN CONTRACT AWARD & SHIP DELIVERY 3m,. (Prototypes)
3n 8Imndaýmonth.
S29(7I110OCT 'lJ I I
YEAR S
090U.,c~tC-11i
CHANTIERS DE L'ATLANTIQUE
35 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001
S. Zabetakis, ANEK Lines, CEO, Chairman of the Union of Greek Coastal Passenger Shipowners
"Prospects of Greek Coastal Passenger Shipping"
Presentation only - Paper not available at the time of preparationof the Proceedings
37 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete. October 2001
C. Economou, European Commission, DG TREN, Maritime Safety Division
"The EU Policy on Safety of Passenger Vessels / Stability Requirements for Passenger Vessels: A Divided EU Approach to a Common Problem?"
39 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN. CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001
THE EU POLICY ON SAFETY OF PASSENGER VESSELS "Stability requirements for passenger vessels: A divided EU approach to a common problem?"
Bv Christos Economou. European Commission. DG TREN. Maritime Safety Division
Presentation of the intervention
Focused on the policy rather than the technical aspects of ferries safety. The present EU framework and the future Commission initiatives.
Introduction
The importance of the issue of ferry safety for the Commission. Important legislative measures in place. Future initiatives in the light of the framework actions described in the recent Commission's White Paper on Transport Policy', in relation to constant improvements of shipping safety, the improvement to the transport of citizens and their rights as passengers in the different transport modes.
Present EU legislation in the area of safety of passenger vessels:
In the years which followed the 1993 Commission Communication on a common policy on maritime safety, the Community was given an important legislative framework which addresses the safety of passenger vessels. The totality of measures 2 in this area have their origin in the relevant IMO instruments.
What is the EU position on stability standards for RO-RO ferries? A divided EU approach to a common problem
The present division within the EU among Member States in the North of the EU applying stricter standards through the enforcement of the Stockholm Agreement and those in the South where the SOLAS 90 standards apply. The SOLAS 90 stability standards have also been introduced in domestic EU trades by Directive 98/18. Is this North/South division justified in the eyes of the public and the requirements of the EU internal market?
White Paper European transport policy for 2010: time to decide COM(2001)370 of 12/09/2001
2 Regulation 3051/95 of December 1995 on the safety management of RO-RO ferries, Directive 98/18 of March 1998 on safety rules and standards for domestic passenger ships, Directive 98/41 of June 1998 on the registration of passengers, Directive 99/35 of April 1999 on mandatory surveys of Ro-Ro ferries and HSC.
41 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete. October 200 1
The Commission's reaction to the conclusion of the Stockholm Agreement
Noting that the Agreement would be applicable only to the northern part of the European Union, the Commission announced its intention to examine the prevailing local conditions, environmental and operational, under which ro-ro passenger ferries sail in all European waters and that this examination will include the extent and effect of the application of the Agreement mn the region covered by it. The statement concluded that in the light of this examination the Commission would take a decision with regard to the need for further initiatives.
The Commission study on the implementation of the Stockholm Agreement and its possible extension to the EU waters not covered by it.
Following its earlier commitment the Commission contracted a study finalised in March 2001. On the basis of the findings of this study, the Cdmmission services have formulate the view that a legislative initiative in this field is justified. Justification for the intended Commission initiative.
The forthcoming consultation with Member States and the industry on a new package of measures for passenger vessels. The possible content of the new package of measures to be proposed by the Commission in the near future. The Commission questions to Member States and the industry regarding the possible extension of the Stockholm Agreement standards to the EU waters not covered by it.
The Commission further plans in relation to the security on board passenger vessels.
Following the recent terrorist attacks, the issue of security on board passenger vessels (ferries and cmuise vessels) became a new area of concern for the EU governments and initiated a reflection by the Commission on possible measures which could be introduced in EU level by means of EU legislation. Possible areas where EU action could be effective.
42 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION-, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete. October 2001
SESSION 2: Passenger Ship Design & Construction
Chairman: P. Sen (University of Newcastle, United Kingdom)
Papers:
K. Levander, Kvaemer Masa Yard "Improving the ROPAX Concept with High Tech Solutions"
S. Krueger, Flensburger SG Yard "Competitive RoRo-Ships by First Principle Design Tools"
C. Arias, F. Castillo, IZAR Group/Astilleros Yard "New Concepts to Improve Safety to Conventional and Fast Ferries at Design Step"
M. Kanerva, Deltamarin "From Handy Size up to Large Cruise Ferries, Elements Required to Design & Build Successful Configurations"
K. Spethmann, Abeking & Rasmussen Yard "Design of Mega-Yachts and Mini-Cruise Vessels"
A. Papanikolaou, E. Eliopoulou, SDL-NTUA "The European Passenger Car Ferry Fleet - Review of Design Features and Stability Characteristics of Pre- and Post SOLAS 90 RO-RO Passenger Ships"
43 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001
K. Levander, Kvaerner Masa Yard
"Improving the ROPAX Concept with High Tech Solutions"
Kai Levander, Senior Vice President, Kvaemer Masa-Yards. Technology, Finland
Kai Levander is managing the Technology unit within Kvaemer Masa-Yards, The Technology unit undertakes research and product development work for both outside customers and Kvaemer Masa- Yards' own shipyards.The Technology unit specialises in cruise ships, ferries, transportation systems, fast vessels and arctic operation. Kai Levander has participated in several research and development programs, such as the joint Finnish "SeaTech" projects and the Kvaerner "Ship for the Future" project. Kai Levander has been with Wartsila Marine and Kvaerner Masa-Yards since 1969, mostly working with research and development tasks. He has been the innovator in many ship projects such as the Finnjet Gas Turbine ferry, the Finnpusku pusher-barge concept and the Baltic cruise ferry Silja Serenade with the atrium street. Among his cruise ship projects the All-Outside-Cabin concept of MS Royal Princess, the Windstar sailing cruise ship, the Diamond SWATH-Cruiser and the new Carnival and Costa Panamax vessels can be mentioned. For Royal Caribbean the Technology unit has been involved in the development of all their cruise vessels, including the Millennium and Vantage class ships and the Post Panamax Voyager ships. For the American flag cruise ship market the development of the Project America cruise ship for American Classic Voyages can be included in Kai Levander's reference list. Since 1995 Kai Levander is Assistant Professor in Ship Design at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology in Trondheim.
45 EUROCONFERENCE Passenger Ship Design and Operation Crete 2001
IMPROVING THE ROPAX CONCEPT WITH HIGH TECH SOLUTIONS
Kai Levander Kvaerner Masa-Yards Technology
47 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION. SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001
1. FERRY DEVELOPMENT TRENDS
1.1 Capacity and Speed
Ferries are vessels carrying passengers, cars and cargo on short sea routes. The ferry business has become an important business segment for ship designers, builders and operators. This ship type started to develop during the 60's in the Baltic and rapidly spread to the North Sea and to the Mediterranean routes. A strong local market can also be found in Japan. The passenger car ferries have been growing in size and capacity. A strong interest in high speed vessels started in the 90's : The "High Speed Light Craft" concept developed from the passenger-only segment to high speed ferries with RoRo decks for cars, busses and trucks. The Australian designers and builders have been very successful in this segment and their vessels run all over the world.
70 000-
60000-ooo
50 000oo0 -......
,- 0Ir o 'V4 .,, o 1 - o -o .,-. 00 o~000 ooo 0 0 U)
1 0000- -
1980 1990 2000 1950 1960 1970
Figure 1: Ferry Development Trends dedicated ferry The rapid growth of the ferry industry also led to the development of several types, each tailored for a different mix of passengers, cars and cargo.
48 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN. CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete. October 2001
1.2 Ferry types
RoRo cargo is carried on many short sea routes. If less than 12 passengers or lorry drivers are carried onboard the vessel is a RoRo ferry and can be built according to cargo vessel rules (fig 2). Cargo is loaded through the stem, mostly only at one level to the main deck, with internal ramps to the lower hold and upper deck. The upper deck can be uncovered for the full length. Figure 2: RoRo Ferry
If the ferry carries more than 12 passengers or drivers it is considered to be a passenger vessel. If the RoRo decks are large and the passenger facilities onboard are limited the vessel is called a RoPax ferry. This type ...... often has a lower hold, main deck and upper deck for RoRo cargo (fig 3). The deckhouse is lengthened to accommodate 5.- space for the passengers. The upper RoRo deck is then partly covered. Most RoPax Figure 3: RoPax Ferry ferries have both stem and bow ramps to speed up the loading and unloading of the RoRo decks.
Ferries with passenger facilities suitable for longer routes are called passenger-car ferries or PaxCar ferries (fig 4). They have a full-length superstructure for the passenger cabins and public spaces. Hoistable car platforms are often installed on the RoRo decks to increase the deck area for private cars. The free height needed on Figure 4: PaxCar Ferry the RoRo decks for lorries and trailers is 4,4... .4,8 mn and the hoistable decks divide the space into two private car decks with a free height of 2,0.. .2,4 m.
Ferries with cabin space for all passengers and large public spaces with restaurants,. .Y-." u-.. ..- lounges, bars, etc. are often called Cruise Ferries. These ferries operate on over night routes and some of the passengers travel back with the ferry on the return trip (fig 5). Figure 5: Cruise Ferry The RoRo decks are small and the passenger cars occupy a large portion of the RoRo space.
49 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete. October 2001
2. FERRY PAYLOAD -M 2.1 Passenger capacity
Passengers with or without cars are the important target for ferries (fig 6). The large seasonal variations in the number of travellers demand flexibility from the ferry operator. On many routes the capacity needed during the summer vacation period Z is much bigger than that during the low ' / winter season. The passenger capacity and zg•- A, ' number of passenger cabins for ferries of & / " different type and size are shown in fig 7 / / and 8. Figure 6: Ferry Terminal 3000
2 500 - i - " ' .a,a.. Cr~Sq.FjrryH
1 000
50 00 a ' . • Ro.a•aII
0 C.) 10 000 20 000 30 000 40 000 50 000 60 0001 GT Figure 7: Passenger Capacity
1 200
1 000
600 =: ~~~Cruise Ferry,, . 400 _ " m__l _m
200
0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000 GT Figure 8: Passenger Cabins
50 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN. CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND) OPERATION - Crete, October-2001
2.2 Cars and cargo
Cars, trucks and trailers are typical cargo...... N carried by the ferries on the RoRo decks-
(fig 9). There are a few ferry routes where I. - railway trains are carried, but fixed links like the Channel Tunnel and the bridges . across the Danish Straits take more and more of the rail cargo away from the ferries. The RoRo cargo capacity for different ferry types is shown in fig 10 and 11. Figure 9: RoRo Payload
1 600 -
14001______I
a)80
600
400 Short____ RM______A
200
0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000 GT
Figure 10: Car Capacity
4000 ______
-350 0
c 2500 __ __
Žý 2000 C., S1 500 P"_____ gM1 000a 6 MShort Ioute5 3 *Cruise Ferry _____ S500 -_____
0. 0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000 GT
Figure 11: Cargo Capacity
51 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001
2.3 RoRo deck arrangement
The RoRo capacity of the ferries has grown significantly during the 90's. The number of car decks has increased from initially only one to two or even three full height trailer decks. Many ferries have also a lower hold to further increase the cargo capacity (fig 12). For trucks and trailers the slope angle of the shore ramps and the ramps between the decks must be kept below 8-9 degrees and the loading-unloading arrangement must be carefully considered. If double level linkspans can be built in the port, the loading of the upper cargo decks is much easier and the port time can be reduced.
One Cargo Deck Lower hold
...... -a YW.:&,W< ::7W :
Two Cargo Decks
...... trt fl~f
Two Cargo Decks Lower hold
Three Cargo Decks
Figure 12: RoRo deck arrangement
The access for the passengers from the car decks to the public spaces must also be considered. If a centre casing is used the arranging of stairs and lift is often easier than when side casings are used. A centre casing also divides the length of the deck beams and reducesthe vibration levil on the passenger decks above.
52 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete. October 2001
3. FERRY DESIGN
3.1 Technical possibilities
A lifting force must carry the weight of the vessel. Ferries are the only commercial vessel type, where all different ways to generate lift has been tried (fig 13). The static lift from the displaced water is used in both mono- and multihull ferries. The dynamic lift force from submerged wings is used in hydrofoil vessels and powered lifts in air cushion vehicles. In hybrid type vessels, like the SES, both static lift from the side hulls and powered lift from the air cushion are used. The dominating solution for ferries is, however, the use of static lift from a displacement type hull form (fig 14).
x
A=X+Y+Z X = STATIC LIFT Y = POWERED LIFT Z = DYNAMIC LIFT Y z
Figure 13: The lift triangle
..... ~~thW, ...,*9~t ......
* s o n, ......
Figure 14: Displacement type hull form
53 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001
3.2 System based design Performance EcononricsEcnoic " Building cost Hul Strutur " Operating cost / Machinery...
frequigtrated Seakeeping freight ratebi FINAL Safety
Mission Function " / " Transport logistics . Payload systems " Route • Ship systems j Form SCapacity - DWT/A - Geometric definition Speed Power - Speed Space balance 0 . Weight balance Figure 15: The system based design process
The starting point is the mission and the functons of the ship (fig 15). All systems needed to perform the defined tasks are first listed. The ship functions can be divided into two main categories, payload systems and ship systems (fig 16). The areas and volumes demanded in the ship to accommodate all systems are calculated. This design method does not need pre-selected main dimensions, hull lines or standard layouts. System based design is like a checklist that reminds the designer of all the factors that affect the design and record his choices. It gives the possibility to compare the selections with statistical data derived from existing, successful designs. The result is a complete system description for the new ship, which will act as the base for further design work Cargo RoRo decks Spaces Private car decks Cargo Rarps, doors Handling Lashing equipment Payload Cargo Ventilation Payload Treatment Heating and cooling Function aPassenger cabins Passenger Public spaces, stairways and halls Facilities Outdoor spaces w Crew cabins aclew Common spaces Facilities Stairs and corridors Passenger serces FSerice t Catering and stores R xFacilitiesHotel services Function .• ______Hull ___ Structure Poop, forecastle Superstructure Mitn and aux engines Machinery Casing and furnel Steering gear, thnrsters Ship I • cA rconditioning ShipCemfort water and sewage Function SFire safety. Stores etc . T~anks and Fuel and Lub Oil VoidsTaks adWater Ballastand and SewageVoid .Outdoor Mchoring and Mooring
Decks Life saving equipment Figure 16: RoPax functions
54 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete. October 2001
3.3 Design criteria for successful ships
There are three main factors affecting the technical feasibility and the profitability of ship design. The deadweight / displacement ratio indicates the carrying capacity in relation to the total displacement. The deadweight is low for ferries with large passenger facilities, like cruise ferries (fig 17). The speed and power should be judged in relation to the displacement of the vessel (fig 18). The ferry hull forms can be far from optimal, due to length- and draught restrictions in the ports. The third ratio is the lightweight density, which is an important indicator for an advanced design, like the use of high tensile steel or aluminium in ferries built according to the "High Speed Light Craft" rules (fig 19).
Ro)a
0,2 Ferries
0,7
0 5 000 10 000 15 000 20 000 25 000 30 000
Displacement [ ton ] Figure 17: DWT / Displacement
Fast ~ nn F*, - IC Q4.a..... I 1
0 500 000 0 100 100 200000 0054000 300 5000
_____ - 0IT c ,ot r*rysis I ° - / - -. • 25 i •_ __ _ _-,_ _
I5-5 C /Inrt MOM
"5 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October ,001
3.4 Selecting the main dimensions
The main dimensions follow similar trends for all ferries with displacement type hull forms, but the selected values show large variances. The variation in the selected length is due to large differences in the service speed of the vessels (fig 20). The breadth should depend on the number of lanes selected for the RoRo decks. There seems to be many ferries with 6 truck & trailer lanes, which leads to a breadth of 24...26 m (fig 21). All ferries built or on order have main dimensions that allow transit trough the Panama canal. 250 40 *
30 I•o i e "-e
" " ' 160 . .. _, 25 S •, 1o m 520I
50 [
0 ,0
0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000 0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000 GT GT Fig 20: Length Fig 21: Breadth
The draught of the ferries is small compared to other types of cargo vessels. The depth to the main deck indicates the freeboard needed to satisfy the safety rules for passenger vessels. If the Stockholm-agreement shall be followed the minimum freeboard is roughly 10% of the breadth. The depth to the upper deck depends on the free height wanted for the RoRo vehicles on the main deck (fig 22) 20 1: e.~: ec **
T 14 u _____*___, __ee-
a 12 ___ o) [o I _ .
0) =~ I...-. * . . *r-"* ,,a ~ Du t. _ _ o610 ,h Q** tnýA *
0 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60 00] GT
Fig 22: Draught & Depth
56 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete. October 2001
4. HULL FORM AND PROPULSION 4.1 Speed is relative
5 - Fn --1,0 (/ F a s t 50eeo' Cat Fn =0,60 _
40- ___000______0 30 M -- Fas nr
CF
`6 0 ______o I_ ,ao o ~l Fn =0_25_/
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 Length WL [m] Figure 23: Speed - length ratio
Displacement type hull forms are used for speeds corresponding to Froude numbers below 0,35. This means that a ferry operating at 30 knots should have a water line length of more than 200 m. The speed and length selected for most traditional ferries give Froude numbers between 0,25...0,35. The "High Speed Light Craft" ferries have Froude numbers between 0,5... 1,0 and operate in the semi-planning mode (fig 23). But for large, fast RoPax ferries operating at up to 30-knot speed, the displacement type hull form has proven the best choice. The mono hull vessel. has a simple hull structure and can be built of steel. Medium speed diesels, running on heavy fuel oil are used for propulsion. It is, however, important to carefully select the main dimensions and hull coefficient to reduce the resistance and power demand. The block coefficient used in ships built during the last 10 years is shown in fig 24. The selected values vary considerably, but a trend line based on the Froude number can be proposed.
1,0-
• ARRoPax •, •
0. 7- _ 0__ Other Shi Ferries z- E" types 0.e o 0 o -ast Cat
0.6 C-)
0,4-Cb ý t Mo01o10 0,3a
0'1 0.2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0.6 0,7 0.8 0.9 Fn Figure 24: Hull coefficients
57 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001
4.2 Propulsion alternatives
Twin-screw propulsion with CP propellers and twin rudders has been the dominating solution for displacement type fetres (fig 25). The demand for high speed combined with draught restrictions in the ports often require that the propulsion power is split on two propellers, which also improve the manoeuvrability. In cruise ships podded propellers are now the preferred solution. Podded propulsion is also very suitable for fetres (fig 26). The electric power transmission makes it possible to locate the machinery even in the bow of the vessel, which improves the access to the RoRo decks (fig 27). The high cost of the electric drive system has, however, restricted the use of this advanced solution in ferres.
Figure 25: Traditional twin screw arrangement Figure 26: Podded propulsion
Figure7: Diesl-electic maciney ranemn
The~ ~ ~ elcrcpo.ntmae.tposbet..... arrange...co tr roatn prp llr...... without...... com lic te m.. e...... h nia drv ge...... r and...... coc nti sh ...... f lines...... Th pod...... is placed......
FigureFiur 28: Contralecrirotatingy podnemn The odlectic uit mkesit pssibe 5t EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete. October 2001
5. MACHINERY ARRANGEMENT
5.1 Propulsion drive alternatives
RoPax ferries are almost exclusively equipped with medium speed diesel engines< This engine type has the advantage of compact size and low weight, but still can operate on heavy fuel oil. Three different propulsion drives have been studied for a fast RoPax vessel. Environmental friendliness is achieved by adding SCR exhaust cleaning units on both main and auxiliary engines and NOx emissions will be minimal.
0== . Mechanical Propulsion 50MW 4 Auxiliary Generators 6 MW . Total 56 MW
Figure 29: Diesel-mechanical drive with twin CP propellers
* Electric Power Plant 55MW
. 'Total 55 MW
Figure 30: Diesel-electric drive with twin pods
* Mechanical Propulsion 28MW * Electric Power Plant 25 MW * Total 53 MW
Figure 31: Diesel-mechanical CP propeller with contra rotating pod
59 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001
5.2 Machinery comparison
In a study a RoPax ferry is assumed to operate on a 250 nm route with many hours of high speed at sea. The initial cost of the major machinery components is lowest for the diesel-mechanical drive. The twin pod diesel-electric alternative is about 25 % more expensive and the diesel- mechanical with a contra rotating pod is in between (fig 32) There is no big difference in the machinery weight. The pod propulsion has about 8% lower shaft power than the traditional twin- screw ship with long exposed shaft lines, brackets and rudders. But due to the electrical transmission losses of the variable speed pod drive the fuel consumption is almost the same. The contra rotating pod arrangement, however, gives a considerable saving due to the much improved propulsion efficiency. Model tests indicates saving of more than 12% for the CRP and the total annual cost is lowest for this alternative (fig 33). The machinery layouts for the contra rotating version is shown in Fig 34.
35000000 14000000
30000000 12000 000
25000000 10000000
20 000 000 8000000 • NUrea
15000000 6000000 Fuel Oil and lubricants SCapital
10000000 4000000 *Catalytic converter * Auxiliaries 5000000 M Propulsion 2000 000{ II Engines"and Generators
0 0 Diesel Diesel Mech. + DE Diesel Diesel Mech. + DE Mechanical Electric CRP Mechanical Electric CRP Figure 32: Initial cost Figure 33: Annual cost
Hin n n -.n--•--
...... r -... 4 -
...... p!-,.'
Figure 34 Diesel-mechanical CP propeller with contra rotating pod
60 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001
6. CONCEPT DESIGN
6.1 Lay out alternatives
I;II ý - io A:Short route -Trucks and cars, doors in stern and at bow
B: Long route -Trailers and cars, door's in stern
C: Short route - Increased trailer capacity, diesel-electric Figure 35: Lay out alternatives for 30 knots RoPax ferry
Lightweight/ Displacesnent Building Cost
nulS. tJ~tr *grpan ~
(1 0 Ship oufiting
Figure 36: Weight distribution Figure37: Cost distribution
61 -"UROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete. October 2001
6.2 Design evaluation
The proposed design concept should now be evaluated against the design objectives agreed upon. The technical feasibility, like speed and power, weight distribution and available payload capacity are important criteria for all ferry design work (fig 36). The main factors affecting the building cost indicate where the designer should concentrate the development work to further improve the design (fig 37). Social values, like passenger safety and environmental considerations must not be forgotten. If the design does not fulfil these requirements it cannot be used at all (fig 38). Economical profitability is, however, the main criterion for selecting the design and construction of the next generation of RoPax vessels.
Design Objectives
FaiiiyProfitability I 'Technical ValuesSocial ( niomnaImpact
0~ E E -- U > 0 >
00
Figure 38: Design objectives
62 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN. CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete. October 2001
S. Krueger, Head of Ship Design, Flensburger SG Yard, Germany
"Competitive RoRo-Ships by First Principle Design Tools"
63 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION. SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001
Competitive RoRo-Ships by First Principle Design Tools Stefan Krueger, Flensburger Schiffbau Gesellschaft
1 Abstract
The shipbuilding industry has always been challengened to produce taylor made designs in extremly short product development cycles. For complex ship types such as RoRo or RoPax vessels, nearly 70 % of the total costs of such ships are set during the first four weeks of the initial design phase. Therefore, to be competitive in a global market, a shipyard has to develop sophisticated design tools for product optimization especially in the early design stage. Designs, wich used to be based on empiric formulae, nowadays have to be optimized by first priciple based design tools, such as numerical flow calculations, detailed FEM investigations or simulation methods for manoeuvering and seakeeping. These computations have to be performed many times during the initial design phase. It is shown that a shipyard has significant competitive advantages in the market if such methods are applied consequently.
2 Introduction
In recent years, cost saving activities in the shipbuliding industry have mainly focussed on the fields of production, the production planning and the organization. Improvements of production efficiency of more than 30% were acchieved. The shipyards still need to increase the productivity, and choices have to be made between reducing the number of employees and increasing the production volume. As the market nowadays is completely dominated by the customer's demands, the life cycles of ship designs are reduced significantly. In the past, shipyards could survive by producing standard series of ships, selling them to different customers, but now the series ship is replaced by the taylor made design. Consequently, a shipyard has to focus on shortening the product development phase to be able to cope with increased production efficiency and with individual designs. In addition. European shipyards will survive in a global competition only if they apply every possibility to optimize the product. And for product optimization, the early design stage is most important. Fig. I shows the delopment of costs versus time for our series of Ro/Ro- vessels for UND. It can clearly be seen that nearly 70% of the total costs are fixed during the first four weeks of the project. During this phase, a negliable amount of costs is produced only. As the series length is decreased, the total project time will decrease, too, and the cost gradient during the initial design phase will become even more imoortant.
cost level I. %/
•'* a hi e sgned costs
I ca. 70%Aof co level areAt M r.A Ship) -defed to -- fool ý-Jos the 11-1 /
1.1 A I I A a O -1I A M I A 2 0
Figure 1: Comparison between actual costs and cost level fixed by the design for one ship and all 6 ships of the series
65 EUUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete. October 2001
Obviously, increasing the efficiency of the early design phase will hold the greatest potential for the future. This task is the most important strategic demand for the shipbuilding industry. Means to make this phase more efficient are sophisticated first principle based design tools on one hand and increased knowledge of the designers on the other. From the above arguments, the following demands on competitive design strategies arise:
" Acceleration and improvement of the initial design phase " First priciple design in all relevant technical points
" Optimized product without unnecessary margins already for the first offer
* Designing for customers needs instead of recalculating
The application of these design strategies requires innovative design tools. First prinicip[e based design tools have to replace empirical or knowleged-based approaches. Those design tools are not available in the software market, they have to be developed individuallyvby the yards and their partners (universities, model basins, classification societies, etc.). If once the importance of the initial design phase is obvious, it is clear that a yard can'not design better ships tihan a competitor if they both use the same software tools. This will be demonstred by some examples from the daily business at FSG.
3 Hydrodynamics
3.1 Hull form design for minimum Resistance
Today, numerical tools are available to predict the flow aroud ships. For economical reasons, we use potential flow theory to predict wave pattern, wave resistance and viscous contributions to resistance such as the form factor. At present, these tools are more economical compared to RANSE-solvers, because only the boundaries have to be discretized. We automated the grid generation and the hullform. changes, and so, a complete calculation cycle takes not more than a few minutes. During a typical project development, more than 100 different hullforms can easily be examined before the first model test is performed. The CFD-results allow to do optinmizations that can not be performed with model tests alone. This is demonstrated by fig. 2. There, two Ro/Ro-Designs are compared at design speed in deep and shallow water. It can clearly be seen that the competitor has optimized away all waves that can be observed in the towing tank as wave elevation along the hull, but significant stern waves remain in the wake which are a result of the aftbody design. The FSG-design is characterized by some smaller waves remaining in the wake, but the height of the stern waves is drastically reduced. As a consequence, our ship achieves a service speed of 22.1 knots with installed power of 16800 kW, whereas the competitor requires 23600 kW to acchieve 21.6 knots. As the owner operates in restricted waters, the hull form should also be optimized for shallow water condition. From fig. 2, below, the fact can be derived that a hull form designed by CFD-techniques is superior. The wave pattern is obviously much more favourable. This allows to increase the speed on shallow water, which means less required service speed on deep water to keep the schedule, and this requires less installed main engine power.
66 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SmP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete. October 2001
....FSG-Design-~ \ (UND) '\ ..Competitor Design/ - \ v=22kn,/H=00•..: .\KI\. \ " \ v=22kn H=00
,Q \ , .,, / / .
r-20m
I .... ;1 ,
Figure '2: Hull Performance of two Ro/Ro-Designs in deep and shallow water
3.2 Propeller Design
Before a propeller design is analyzed in the towing tank and the HYKAT, numerical pre-optimizations are performed. Typically, one ore more propeller designers deliver their design via pff-file to FSG and there, the design is analyzed by numerical methods with respect to efficiency, cavitation and pressure pulses. Then, modifications are suggested, the design is altered and the next loop starts. Typically, we investigate three to five different blade designs per designer until the final decision is made.
1o CO - ,
Figure 3: VLM-Grid, pressure distribution and key blade free vortex sheets of UND-CPP
67 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October.2001
Fig. 3 shows the calculation result of.the final CPP-design for our UND-Ro/Ro-vessels including the location of the free vortex sheets of the key blade. The full scale efficieny of the propeller was found to be 0.746, which is quite a high value. As a good propeller is also characterized by favourable cavitation phenomena, we perform unsteady calculations in the wake field to determine the sheet cavitation extend and to judge upon the pressure pulses on the hull. Using these tools, the propeller design can be optimized for purpose.
Propeller 8087/8088 Propeller 8085/8086
/•... --- '' 160 Deg. ,7825k"w
tc175 rpm
H)IlT JISVA CakublfonL L K-AT HSVA • -18 ,, seg.D.. "7. - . / o=0.280 ,. , i7825 kW " "', 115 rpm 71TIvrVA C. 6. LIa o L'd HVyKATHSVA .-...... 02ooN
".:•' ! I'• d'l '::"] d "''115 rpm
IKi.AT HSVA LCAlo LM HVTISVA
Figure 4: Numerical and experimental cavitalon test of two propeller designs
Fig. 4 shows the comparison of the numerical and experimental cavitation test results of two different propellers for our 1500 Pax vessel for SMYRIL-Line. As pressure pulses are a dominating item for RoPax vessels due to comfort reasons, special care must be taken within this respect to optimize the design. The results show good agreement between experiment and calculations. The final design achieved pressure pulses of 1.3 kPa at blade rate and less than 0.3 kPa at the higher harmonics.
3.3 Course-Keeping performance
According to my opinion, the most important manoeuvering criterion to be achieved is excellent course keeping ability also in coupling with the rolling/yawing motion in a seastate. Course keeping ability is mainly achieved by an efficient hull form, and efficient rudders that have quick turning ability. We design rudders as full spade types with highly efficient profiles, adopted to the slipstream, using a direct panel method for rudders in the propeller slipstream. This method - togther with the propeller VLM-codes - is then used to determine all the necessary steering forces. If these are known, direct manoevering simulations for all types of manoevres are performed to judge upon the manoevring capability of the vessel. Together with the customer, it is decided whether the design is further to be improved, because the vessel can be operated easily in the computer.
68 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete. October 2001
.TrhlI Trip UND B-Nr 711 140Q~I:I.S~rad Rudderjmin -4
l0/lO-Ziý , "-22. kn
..- • ,.. 20a20-zi-Za•,. C.-,_ "*22.1 k_'! -- •_" t,
Figure 5: Zig-Zag tests and course keeping action for UND RoRo-Vessels
Fig. 5 shows the results of the numerical optimization: The overshoot-angles calculated by the simulation have been reached during trial trip with an accuracy of approx 0.5 Degree. Compared to the IMO- manoevering recommendations, the overshoot angles are drastically smaller. The rudder action required for course keeping was found to be approx. 0.5 degree rudder action per minute, as performed by the autopilot during the trial trip.
3.4 Seakeeping performance
When designing the hull form, special care must be taken to achieve good seakeeping behaviour. This may be expressed by the achievable speeds against, head seas on the one hand and by the judgement of accelerations on the other. To determine additional resistance in seaways, FSG uses a Rankine- source based linear strip theory combined with Faltinsen's method for additional resistance. The theory includes detailed determination of mass moments of inertia as well as damping (especially for the rolling degfee of freedom). Based on these evaluations, the power demand in a seastate and the achieveble speeds can be judged upon.
Especially for RoPax-Vessels, passenger comfort is a governing criterion. This is most important for the arrangement and location of public space areas. As design criterion for these public spaces we use the ISO-seasickness criterion. Fig. 6 shows the results of the ISO criterion for seasickness for a 25 knot, 2 00m RoPax- ferry which was designed for good seakeeping behaviour within a EU-funded research project. The time values state after which period of time 10% of the passengers suffer from sea-sickness. For these investigations, nonlinear treatment of the rolling motion is required to obtain realistic values for the vertical accelerations. Together with a probability distribution of the seastate parameters, probability that the public spaces can not be serviced can be determined, and these spaces can be arranged in such a way that this probability becomes a minimum.
69 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete. October 2001
*v.lustion oer sickness accordln2 to ISO 2631-1978 (tune until approx. 10% of the passengers are sea sick) conditionrts H 1/3 - 3. Int. T - 6.7s (corresp. to *pprox. 6 SAfl in limited fetc deck height - 28m. speed - 25 koot. durtion real t-. e 2..2h 45-n
LIs'
I.---. ....
Figure 6: ISO-seasickness criterion, Deck 28000 a B.L.
3.5 Evaluation of parametric rolling
Due to the fact that RoRo- and RoPax-vessels do have a barge type aftbody and a semi-submerged transom, they lose much of their initial stability on the wave crest, Therefore, these vessels are vulnerable to parametric rolling, which should definitively be avoided. Using nonlinear seakeeping simulations, the hullform can be designed for a minimum risk of parametric rolling. WVe use the Blume-Criterion to judge whether a ship is save in a certain seaste or not. As results, we get permissible wave heights as function of ship speed and encounter angle. Fig. 7 gives an overview about the improvements that can be achieved using such design techniques: The left picture shows the results for the initial design of a 200 m, 25 knots RoPax - ferry. It can clearly be seen that in following seas and slow speeds, the vessel suffers from parametric rolling. It capsizes in waves of approx. 4m wave height if wave length equals LbP. With the help of the simulation, the phenomena that lead to capsizing can be acessed by the designer and without impeding speed power performance or other governing criteria, a hull form can be designed that is safe against the risk of capsizing, as fig. 7, right, demonstrates. Within this context, it is important to note that the existing stability rules can not cope with this problem, as they are purely static. The only pseudo-dynamic criterion, the IMO-weather-criterion, draws the opposite conclusions than the dynamic simulation: The initial design fulfills the weather criterion well, the optimized design does not.
70 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete. October 2001
Figure 7: Evaluation of parametric rolling. Left: Initial Design of 200 m, 25knot RoPax Ferry, right: Design optimized for safety against capsizing
4 Concurrent engineering with first principle tools
4.1 General
If once fast and reliable design tools exist and if they can be applied during the initial design stage, this gives the possibility to couple different engineering disciplines early enough to optimize not only a part of the system. but the complete system itself. It is the multi-diciplinary, simultaneous enginering that makes a design competitive, as the following example will show. On the other hand: one has to be aware of the fact that new design tools do also have influence on the design process, which in some cases has to be reengineered itself.
4.2 Example for simultaneous engeneering
Product Development Supplier
Structural analysis ;•'.•.• i' ,•! ,. ,,N °
Figure 8: Slumltaneous engeneering during the initial design stage
71 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001
Fig. 8 gives an example of a typical situation during the develoment of our UND-vessels where simul- taneous engeneering principles are benefitial: The hull form designer wants to create a bull form for minimum resistance and uses CFD-techniques as already mentioned above. The flow analysis gives a hint where the hull form can be improved. In this case, it would be benefitial if the low pressure zone at the aftbody bottom could be improved, which would then mean that buttocks should be lifted. At this region, the engine foundation is located and it has to be check whether this is phyiscally possible. Typically, this region is sensitive to deflections, which might be harmful for the system propulsion train - gear box - main engine. In parallel to the CED- optimizations, FEM calculations are performed with models automatically generated from the same data model. These calculations give a hint whether there is potential for improvements or whether the limit is reached. In parallel, the engine room layout is determined. In this specific case, potential was identified by modifying the lube oil tank at the critical region, which gave potential for improving the hull form and at the same time desiging the steel structure for minimum deflections. The benefit is obvious: The improvement was made by combining several technical disciplines, and a competitor can acchieve the same improvement only by applying comparable design techniques. As a result, the UND ships have better speed performance than the competitor ships, and the light ship weight is 1800 t less. To acchieve these benefits, the design process has to be rearranged: The typical design spiral is replaced by the parallel applications of first principle based tools, which have to be tailored for design purpnses.
5 Conclusions
The competition in the shipbuilding industry forces shipyards to increase the competitiveness of their products as well as their productivity. If European Shipyards want to compete against the Far East. this can only be done by intelligent products, which require intelligent engeneering priniples and powerful design tools. Within this respect, Europe has a clear advantage due to a very active and ongoing research and development infrastructure. Shipyards have to cooperate with the researchers and to establish research networks to exploit the research results. If this is done consequently, a shipyard will have significant competitive advantage in the market.
72 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN. CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete. October 2001
C. Arias, F. Castillo, IZAR Group/Astilleros Yard
"New Concepts to Improve Safety to Conventional and Fast Ferries at Design Step"
Carlos Arias, IZAR Group/Astilleros Yard
Ph.D. Naval Architect and Marine Engineer. Polytechnic University of Madrid 1971.Technical Deputy for New Designs Direcci6n Innovaci6n IZAR 200 1-to date. Technical Deputy DCI Astilleros Espaioles 1995-2001. Professor of University Naval Architects and Marine Engineers. Polytechnic University of Madrid 1981-1983 and 1988-present. Member of the Panel of Experts of IMO after Estonia tragedy. Head of Designs Union Naval de Levante 1971-1981. Head of Designs and Structure of Astilleros Espafioles 1981-1985. Technical Manager of Union Naval de Levante 1985-1988. Professor at University of Civil Engineers, Polytechnic University of Valencia 1976-1981
Francisco Del Castillo, IZAR Group/Astilleros Yard
Naval Architect and Marine Engineer, graduated from Madrid Polytechnic University 1996. He has been working for Astilleros Espahioles and now for IZAR in cargo vessels and ferries as head of ship design since 1997. Mainly worked with passenger ship projects. especially involved in the subdivision, stability calculation and safety questions. Technical Deputy ROOPROB as Astilleros Espafioles and IZAR.
73 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001
NEW CONCEPTS TO IMPROVE SAFETY TO CONVENTIONAL AND FAST FERRIES AT DESIGN STEP
CARLOS ARIAS (*) PhD, Naval Architect and Marine Engineer Member of IMO Panel of Experts Head of new projects Direction for Innovation, IZAR Madrid.
FRANCISCO DEL CASTILLO (') Naval Architect and Marine Engineer Technical Office - General Design Direction for Innovation, IZAR Madrid.
ABSTRACT: The optimization of the subdivision is and it will be one of the key tasks in the design of a ship ferry. All ools, which helps to the engineer to optimize in a quick and effective way the ship subdivision, will be well received. This paper, focused mainly on this topic, presents new procedures that could be continued with object of optimizing he compartimentation of the vessel; as well as new concepts in order to improve safety in conventional and fast erries.
INTRODUCTION 2. STABILITY DIFFERENCES BETWEEN European Market CONVENTIONAL AND HIGH SPEED CRAFT of ferries is in a complete evolution MONOHULL PASSENGER VESSEL as design concept coming from safety reasons and an ncreasing of speed. If we are talking about stability for conventional and fast ferry vessels, Influence of a new safety culture by side of both types of vessel. the criteria to fulfil are similar for shipbuilders and shipowners after last big accidents in zuropean vessels that have produced a feeling to all Main differences could be a damage affecting ;hipping business to have in consideration safety to a as the big extension of vessel at a high close to the draft irst parameter Itobe improve in a new for vessel, fast ferries, raking damage (fig 1), and a study of damage with water on Most of ferries are faster by influence of existing new of Stockholm Agreement.deck for vessels as application :onventional ferries in the Greece area that have roduced a higher speed as a characteristic of new ýessel for European traffics.
Lightweightship lighter as consequence of a more N I t ýfficiency of pay load required by the side of shipowner hat have produce a high competitiveness between ______I_,._, ZONE pecialised shipyards to look for better solutions for to * RAKING. 1:L-5%Lfore.Tnsv.OIv.n);vetOSm ave a less weight of the vessel. • RAKING.2: L.-35U what•eer,,;l:.Ts-v.ý & VnesVRekigI Therefore monohull fast ferries and conventional ýrries are closer to be considered as a same type of essel and consequently the application of regulations J K L W N nd safety culture should be running by same way.
SIDE DAMAGE: L-3ýO 225 •VA1/3);Tnmv - .2'VA(I3):Vm no limit Fig. I - Raking damage
75 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001
Subdivision probabilistic calculation is applicable added $450. We could remember the most relevant through A 265, only as confirmation over other damage concepts written in this final report stability of POE. Most of calculation required by administrations (SOLAS these proposals have bebn included in both rules: 90) to ferries with lower hold. * Operational limitations Moreover is possible to demonstrate the stability of * Access to ro-ro deck. both types of vessel by model test and even for * Evacuation plan mathematical model in a next future *SAR plan As summary, fast ferries have a clear application of *Inner bow door damage stability while conventional ferries, especially *Watertight integrity with lower hold, don't have a clear way to procedure for subdivision calculation. *Discharge valves *Alarms on hull doors The normal specification required for a new ferryVetlio dealing with damage stability and subdivision~is:*Vetliopiendrnk psant.ruk " Two compartments, itesaetn * SOLAS 90 (If it would applicable Floodable Length *Fire safety calculations) *Life saving appliances * A265 -VIII (If the vessel has longitudinal subdivision) with complementary damage criteria It is also remarkable to mention two paragraphs to warranty the stability of the vessel particularly more written in this report as well, which have been required by each Administration. These particular included in the new HSC code. The following: requirements are different for each * Consideration with the double bottom Administration. for a high-speed craft or equivalent device to * Stockholm Agreement even if the vessel would not avoid a big accident result with an sail in the area of application of this agreement excessive racking damage. * Damage of structural device due fire by the Therefore the final regulations coming from the excessive use of aluminium. harmonization of damage stability promoted by IMO and dealing with Harder and Roroprob projects, are really Better solution would be to allow to Administration necessary to designers of conventional passenger ferries to issue a SOLAS International Certificate as soon equivalent to as possible. H-SC code or a HSC International Certificate equivalent to Conventional SOLAS. Note that harmonization calculation will be not applicable to monothull fast ferries. May be it would be the opportunity to take a consideration a similar research as have been done for conventional ferries to monohull fast 3. NEW TOOL FOR DAMAGE STABILITY AND ferries and introduce the probabilistic calculation also for OTHER CRITERIA these type of vessels. For fast ferries the doubt of application of a clear 3. LIMIT DAMAGE STABILITY LENGTH regulations are not coming by the interpretation of regulations of HSC code, doubts are coming about it Subdivision optimisation is one of targets of a ferry would be better to apply the Conventional SOLAS designer. Many aspects should be considered to have regulations to these type of ferries, a clear idea to produce a general arrangement taken in consideration all the project requirements, the May be the influence in weights and general implementation of latest safety criteria and with the implications in the project itself would not be very minimum weight and cost given a competitive concern; nevertheless, the knowledge and culture for the characteristics and performances of the product to shipping world is more understandable for Conventional revert the biggest benefit for shipowner and shipyaIrd. SOLAS than for HSC and as well it is not necessary to have any help from shore or to be restricted to sail to a Subdivision bulkheads' position, main fires certain distance to harbour. bulkheads, main escapes and stairs, together with cabins width, damage length are the first parameters to After Estonia tragedy the final report of Panel of be studied and combined to choose appropriated the Experts give some ideas regarding to the harmonization, web frame space to get the targets mentioned above. not only for damage stability but also for some differences with the Conventional SOLAS regulations. Therefore the subdivision bulkheads' position is Some of them coming from HSC to be added to SOLAS one of the problems to be solved in a first step. One of and others coming from Conventional SOLAS to be the possibilities is to study a similar vessel and
76 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION. SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001
comparatively with our design to get the solution to the problem, but this type of procedures is not very CASE 0:FERRY131.120zMLbp convenient way to get the optimum solution to the ReSULTADOS .-Tr '_-0.455 problem ......
Some years ago when the stability damage requirements were not so critical as today, floodable length curve was a good tool to have the optimum position of the watertight bulkheads for a ferry vessel. But this tool was very related to the margin line of the vessel. Today this tool is not very useful because the necessary freeboard to fulfil damage stability criteria is totally - -Kgrax = 12.00 - -Kgrax = 11.75 -- Kgmax = 11.501 different. L-Kgmax= 11.00 -- Kgmax= 10.50 -- Kgmax= 10.001 Nevertheless, when you study the maximum length of a compartment in damage, related to a vertical KG of a vessel for a constant freeboard and you represent in Fig. 2b - LDSL. Limit damage stability Length ordinates these maximum lengths corresponding to the for a constant freeboard in fuction of abscise of vertical the position of the centre of the length of a Kgmax according Stockholm Agreement. compartment given, you will get a curve with a aspect very similar to a shape of floodable length curves. But we should apply a correction factor if we have (Figures 2-a y 2-b). an asymmetrical damage case instead symmetrical, acccrdlng to our initial hypothesis. The factor will be If you study this curve of compartment length & dependent of: Vertical KG for the maximum KG allowed to the vessel to fulfil the damage stability criteria, you will have the * Residual freeboard after equilibrium solution with for the optimisation.of subdivision of the vessel. certain heel angle. Combining the permeability with these calculations * Moment of heel coming from the with the hypothesis of symmetrical damage cases we will asymmetrical flooding volume as a product have the representation of the limits of length of of this asymmetrical volume (Va) compartments for a vessel given. We will name to this * Density of sea water or other density or curve bellow "Limit Damage Stability Length" (LDSL) . difference of density of liquid after damage and before damage (8,)or (5afd - 8bfd) ICASE D: FERRY 131,120 MLbp 0 Stability GM of vessel function of maximum RESULTADOS (H-T)I - 0.SS0 KG allowed.
S. . .. CF= H* (Va) *(8,w)/ GM l~. or - -CF= H* (Va) *(afd - Sbfd)/ GM
IA/VVXAWhere "H"is a correlation factor depending of the Wvessel characteristics as lines plan, block coefficient . j .and water line coefficient. I • -Krnax - 12.00 -- -Kgmax I =11.75 "-.-Kgomax =11.501[ I Therefore when we have an asymmetrical I-Kgmax =11.00 -Kgmax= damage 10.50 -- Kgmax=10.00I case we would multiply the LSDL value in the centre of corresponding compartment by this CF.
Fig. 2a - LDSL. Limit damage stability Length for Moreover if we take one, two, three and more aconstant freeboard in fuction of vertical Kgmax adjacent compartments we would also have a clear according Stockholm Agreement. criteria to know if the vessel would fulfil the probabilistic criteria.
Finally if we combine this curve with other concepts mentioned before as main fire bulkheads, damage length, web frame space etc, we will have useful and safe tool to help us in the vessel design.
If we also would compare this LSDL with the traditional floodable length we will have a good experience to be use in future projects.
77 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001
22m 3.2 OTHER CRITERIA: PARAMETRIC EVALUATION TO 2
FULFIL PROBABILISTIC DAMAGE STABILITY ,.,______CALCULATIONS 10-~.-- Other concept that I would be to raise again is .' whether this analysis of damage stability adding the probabilistic 0 concept could be independent of the '/- deterministic calculation of damage stability. 03i/ It is possible demonstrate that the concept of the 'A" _____ index of probabilistic method, /I could be defined as a 010 11 12 13 i. Is W Is hyperbolic way as result of equation as follow:
X = [(M - N - y) / (C _ y), n"where Fig. 3 - "A index" defined by hyperbolic way X abscise is the ratio of the Depth to Main Deck 3.3 CONCLUSIONS and the Draft of a vessel (Hp/T) Y ordinate is the "A"index valour corresponding If we try to combine these two ideas we could have to normal calculation of probability, a good tools to optimise the subdivision of a vessel "A"would be the Z p" starting for a deterministic way and improving as MN, and "n" are constants depending of: probabilistic concept. We will work with this idea and invite to others to apply these * Block Coefficient ideas or may be introducing new ideas to improving its and to move in other direction with the * Intact Freeboard target to have more and more safer vessels. * Length/ Breath ratio * Breath/ Draught ratio * Minimum GM required for a Load Condition 4. DETECTED PROBLEMS IN SOLUTIONS THAT corresponding to a Draught ARE BEEN USED AT THE MOMENT. * Number of compartments of a vessel. 4.1 TRANSIENT FLOODING FOR SIDE TANKS As we observe in fig 3, we have one horizontal BELOW AND ABOVE DOUBLE BOTTOM TANKS tangent to infinite dealing with the highest index 'A" for a Transient flooding number of compartments is one of the problems that have given, with a damage length not been not studied till few years ago. The higher of 0.24 only tendency L; and one vertical tangent to infinite wst pl h eouinA26t corresponding to HP/ T ratio equal to 1. eosrt h time necessary for equalisation between two a These studies were carried out some years ago symmetrical spaces or tanks allocated at side in a applying the Resolution A 265 to a basic ferry vessel of vessel. 100m in length, 20 m in breadth and 5 m in draft for three One of the targets in a passenger different block coefficient, three vessel is to have different L/B ratio, three for the most of after damage cases a symmetrical different HpIT ratio and five minimum GM required. flooding without produce a heel of the vessel. The We Wecan appreciate the vessel without heel allow to have all lifesaving results of this analysis in the equipment as lifeboats and liferafts in both figures below sides of the vessel, moreover escapes ways and stairs are able to use with minimum difficulties.
The arrangement of the necessary cross flooding ducts for equalisation was solved with a connection of both sides through openings in the longitudinal structure of double bottom with a extension between two or three frames. The time to demonstrate the .equalisation calculated with A 266, normally is in between 30 and 120 seconds. There is not a clear criterion of this time for Administrations to consider a
78 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION -Crete, October 2001 symmetrical case as concept with some bad more dangerous directly with bigger number of spaces consequences for designers. for communication.
Therefore the tendency was to increase the number Other effect 6f this increasing frame space is that of frame spaces for communication with the intention of the equalisation phenomena is not very decrease clear because the time of equalisation that apparently would the water is going in when the buoyancy of the vessel allow to minimise it according with the application of the A is to the same side of where is the tank to be equalised 266. (The proposal was to have a result of 10 seconds or and going out of the tank when the heel of less the vessel to consider a damage case as symmetric), buoyancy is in the opposite direction (see figures 4 & 5). Nevertheless some model basin test have been done few years ago, to demonstrate this effect dealing with the These two effects together could produce the lost application of A 266. The results of the test were a of the vessel as was demonstrate in the mentioned complete surprise. The behaviour of the damage vessel model basin tests. The conclusion is that we must be and the tank communication was according with the careful to introduce a obligatory calculation for this time figures 4 & 5 shown below. dealing with the necessary frame space to have a ______instantaneously symmetrical damage. Before to say the way to calculate the time and the frame space we .1 ~.would found what is the real function .9 .1.teffect. that define the .9IMay '>A be the final idea will be to propose a lb requirement as. "The section required to have a instantaneously symmetrical damage case must be nor ______less than.., and neither bigger than...".
.9 I Other definition regarding to a clearer and faster communication between side tanks with a bigger and bigger section would be a big mistake.
4.2 BOTTOM ARRANGEMENT Fig. 4 -Water level & time for different duct 3ections-. .When we install in a vessel high side tanks between main deck and double bottom communicated ------though double bottom, there are some doubts about double bottom required for conventional vessels nearly I B for the all the length of the vessel.
I When we think in a damage in bottom and with a '=1 big extension, as some example of a passenger vessel CIII few years ago, we could have four or more compartments flooded. All the compartments would ES have water in the side tanks because the double . bottom is opened from bottom to main deck.
V " 'I Therefore we should take several measures to avoid this dangerous situation and define a clear .9..-.------criteria to study this problem. Bottom damage must be 1ý defined with a extension according with the experience Fig. 5 - Roll angle & time for transient flooding or probability after the investigation of this point. Lst. May if we introduce the bottom damage concept Whenishe rodcedamae w hav a ig eel and racking damage coming from mono hull I-SC we early instantaneously and a damping phenomena with colhaealarwytavitisiuton ifferent variations of heel. This variation of heel with Ohrcs hr ol evr ovnett uoyacyo mor s lesimortni acoring iththe define a same criteria to study the subdivision for a uoyancy period of the vessel. Combined this buoyancy conventional and fast ferry. rfth a transversal period of waves could amplify the ngle of heel of the vessel with a dangerous effect for the urvivability of the vessel. This phenomenon is more and
79 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001
4.3 EVACUATION But this regulations are not enough, the safety We believe that the main evacuation principles for culture at sea must be iriprovedl and promoted through both, monohull HSC and conventional ferries, should be of shipping world. Designers, shipyards, shipowners, harmonised as well and It may would be necessary to crews and passengers must think about safety. May consider the following points in common for these two crew and passengers must be training but designers, types of vessel. shipyard and shipowners should have not only rules, they must think more and more to improve safety, to * Main vertical trunk escape routes shall have study tools and solutions to have in a next future a direct access to the muster stations. SAFE VESSEL. * No passenger should climb more than two levels to reach the muster station, and muster stations 5.2 SINGLE FAILURE. on outside decks should be avoided as far as possible. A number of incidents have been reported where ships have lost their manoeuvrability due to loss of * The main vertical trunk escape routes should propulsion power or failure of parts of the ship's have direct access to the corresponding systems. The findings of investigations have shown lifesaving appliances, that such incidents are often caused by the failure of a single component.
4.4 LIFESAVING EQUIPMENT AND EMERGENCY To prevent single failure in a vulnerable GENERA TOR component we would avoid some serious maritime causalities and marine pollution accidents. One new idea independent of necessary lifeboatsPrmyanesntlssescodb: required by SOLAS for a passenger vessel, it would be to Primryoandlssentasyemcolb: have the ship itself as the better lifeboat. If we try to implement - Pteropliong this concept, we must also combine it with -Sern complementary concepts of emergency generator (see - Watertightness below) and enough space for main fire zones to admit - Auxiliary Engines each one the maximum number of passengers that are in - Emergency Generation adjacent main fire zone. - Communication - Essential Systems: With this philosophy, each main vertical zone should * Water-cooling maintain a power supply for a time to be determined for * Oil system effecting emergency and evacuation procedures or for * Fuel system remaining on board. This power supply shall ensure * Hydraulics an electrical. adequate living conditions on board both for passengers and crew during this period. The result of the analysis should document that no single fault in the system could lead to a major Sufficient redundancy should be establish in the accident or loss of the ship. propulsion system of the ship to ensure that will remain at least one compartment which permit the propulsion of the ship and its arrival in port or guarantee a sure rescue. 53CII AAEET This concept should be analysed by a risk study. 53CII AAEET The decision master on the bridge today has to consult a lot of information from several procedures and plans with different scales and layouts depending 5. NEW CONCEPTS TO IMPROVE SAFETY on the type of emergency.
5.1 DESIGN FOR SAFETY The examination of this information consumes a time and sometimes a irrational distribution of It is very clear that we should have very strict instruments displays on the bridge tends to add a big regulations to get a vessel safer and safer. These confusion during emergencies. regulations would be better and better when we had the physical phenomena that produce the lost of a vessel Therefore it would be very important to improve the more and more known and controlled. Therefore our aim basis for rapid decision in emergency situation, through must be to develop more and more studies and a integrated .monitoring system and a decision support researches to improve our knowledge and follow by the system for emergency management. way that we have seriously started from last ferry accidents as Estonia.
80 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001
The system should be based on signals, plans and Designers, shipyards and shipowners procedures cannot think dealing with: about new solutions or new ways to improve safety because there are writte'n regulations, administrations, - Damage control classification societies which have to supervise - Fire control stabilised rules without possibility to change one letter, - Evacuation colon or point of them. - Search and rescue - Collision and grounding The delivery time is very short and is nearly - Pollution impossible to submit to Administration other solutions that must be supervised by surveyors with their own All these things could be integrated in a computer interpretation. Only some time it is possible to study system that would comprise all the information in manual something different if shipowner, shipyard, designer procedures, cheek list and recommended actions to be and administration think together with long time in carried out in case of emergencies. advance.
Moreover would be necessary as a new idea to guarantee the supply of power and in any eventuality and to have spaces in the ship, independent of the damage compartment, which would permit 1 improvement of Madrid, September 18th 2001 stability and/or trim conditions, either with spaces expressly conceived for this function or with other existing spaces or tanks in the ship not affected by the damage This last concept mentioned in the paragraph above would have studied at design stage and would be applicable to a damage considered as critical (Perhaps following a criterion for assessment of damage risk). 5.4 SAFETY CULTURE.
Technical requirements alone, both constructional and operational, will not be enough. It is necessary that every person with professional interest in ships feels responsible of safety. This should be applied those working onboard of ships, in shipping companies, at yards in ports. International Safety Management (ISM), can be a big tool introduced few years ago. Safety cannot be established by regulations. All industry Governments should required to work together towards a maritime safety culture.
The set of regulations applied to our industry is often developed by Administrations. These regulations established a necessary base of safety but many times these regulations are criticise because interpretations are different with different Administrations and are criticise for being inflexible and hampering development. The feeling of shipbuilders, shipowners and seafarers to tend to comply with the letter of a given regulation that the safety wise best solution is devised. Then the regulations must be complied with, nothing more could or should be expected.
It should seriously consider whether a better safety could be reached, if shipbuilders, shipowners and all people involve were not only responsible from fulfilling regulations but also given a responsibility for ensuring maximum safety within their areas where they work. EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001
M. Kanerva, Deltamarin
"From Handy Size up to Large Cruise Ferries, Elements Required to Design & Build Successfil Configurations"
General Manager, Deltamarin Design, Finland
83 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN. CONSTRUCTION. SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete. October 2001
MODERN RO-PAX FAMILY From Handy Size up to Large Cruise Ferries, Elements Required to Design and Build Successful Configurations
Markku Kanerva I Esa Pbylid / Gustav Lindqvist Deltamarin LTD Purokatu 1,21200 RAISIO FINLAND
0. ABSTRACT
This paper describes some of the recent ferry developments, newbuildings and projects carried out at Deltamarin, starting from handy size through medium size categories up to large and fast night ferries. Configurations developed for the Optipod and NEREUS projects funded by EU will be briefly described.
Typical design features of a modern ro-ro/ro-pax/passenger ferry will be discussed together with some ideas of the future development. Numerical, simulation and safety based design methods will be briefly described and possibilities of combining these modern, efficient tools and innovative vessel configurations will be discussed.
1. INTRODUCTION
Today the world's ferry fleet is about 1,200 vessels, 1,153 pcs according to ShipPax Database and 1,176 according to Fairplay statistics. The size of the ferries has been steadily growing, figure 1 presents all ferries delivered since 1960 in gross tonnage. It all started from a range of a few hundred tons up to 5,000 gross tons and the range being today still from a few hundred tons up to 60,000 gross tons. The limit of 40,000 gross tons was exceeded only at the beginning of the 1990's. It is interesting to see that we have a lot of small ferries being built continuously, the square boxes at the bottom of figure 1, and most recently a lot of ferries close to 30,000 gross tons. But practically all sizes are being built at the moment.
85 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN. CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001
FERRY SIZE
600D0
50000 0
Z h100 A to 120 ox Z Ar* 12010150 .. 30000 ak V lp18 X 150 to 180
0 h X *St 1 180 00 X xfLinear•G •* (ALL) 20000
10000 AA" A
0 1960 1965 1971 1976 1982 1987 1993 1998 2004 year of delivery
Figure 1. World ferry fleet development in size.
Newbuilding contract activity was at its peak in 1972, close to 80 contracts. 1990 was also a top year, and the whole of the 1990's was an active period. Are we going to see a quiet period in front of us as was the case in the 1980's? This may not necessarily be the case as we have a different situation in the main ferry markets than in the early 1980's. First of all the market has been expanding, new markets and routes have been opened successfully during the 1990's. Secondly the new safety requirements are pushing out some of the oldest tonnage. Speed has also become more of the essence requesting fleet renewal.
The average age of the world ferry fleet is 21 years at the moment and it has been steadily growing. It was only 7 years in 1977. It is quite obvious that some scrapping will take place, which has not been the case in the ferry market before.
86 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION. SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete. October-2001
Average speed of ferries has increased through the years, but not for all sizes. The smallest ferries, below 100 metres in length, have kept their speed for the last 40 years whereas the biggest ferries, above 180 metres in length, have improved their speed from 21 knots up to 26 knots within 30 years time. Figure 2 presents the speed of ferries since 1960. The picture, however, becomes interesting when we study the speed in a non-dimensional form, i.e.
V 2, according to Froude number (Fn - ,where V = speed m/s, g = gravity 9.81 m/s L =
perpendicular length), figure 3.
SPEED of CONVENTIONAL FERRIES
30
eel Loa Jm) La (m
25 I be 60
%~ ~ 0 tolOC .1 A• e. ý. A 100to 120 S20 195 -r97 1982 =1 I 20o4 A
I a f UM t A , A aýZ 150W1801 0 A A~ . A' A.i 99A thA am0 aboeI180 15 110- C -" o ya Linar (aovel480)
Sa 0o 0* p 0. c0 M00 100
Fiue2 pedo ere since1960 51 19w0 1965 1971 1976 1982 1987 1993 1998 2004 ear,of delivey Figure 2. Speed of ferries since 1960.
87 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN. CONSTRUC.ION. SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001
Froude number of FERRIES
0.4 0 a a C3 A A Oa a 0a 0 •LOa (m) 0 A
0.35 A o
0 - X 1 80 a ° oD&C*' A=AD 6 •' A 96tao 19A6 O . -* -Ln a 10to IN
o 0
a1960 195 1971 1976 1982 1987 1993 2004 a998
year of delve'y Figure 3. Froude number of ferries since 1960.
The average Froude number of ferries has actually dropped through the years. The Froude number for the longest vessels has clearly increased, from 0.27 up to 0.32 during the last 30 years. But especially of interest is to look at the smaller ferries, from 60 metres up to 120 in
length; in the late 1960's and 1970's a lot of ferries were built with relatively high Froude numbers, practically at the same level as today. Have we learnt something from these days or have we just forgotten the lessons then learnt? Fuel efficiency of modern ferries is at least better than 30 years ago, hull forms are clearly different and obviously better.
Table 1 presents the world ferry fleet subdivided into different categories in size, length and number of passengers. The biggest group, as could be expected, is the ferries below lO0m, but the second biggest being ferries between 120-150~m, passenger number from 500 up to 2000 and above, meaning practically all kind of ferries included: ro-pax, ro-ro, night, day, combination, etc.
88 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN. CONSTRUCTION. SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete. October 2001
Table 1. World ferry fleet
Length oealBelow 500 50-00 10-50 15020 'Above Total Fe rr gr u u b r o s e t e s 1 0 - 5 0 ~ 5 0 2 0 20 0 0
Below 100 162 192 56 4 1 415 100-120 33 67 62 15 7 18_4 120-150 22 93 100 53 23 291 150-180 23 49 25 33 31 161 Above 180 734 26 18 17 102
247al __4_435 E 1 269 I 123 Jt9 ___d
2. HANDY SIZE FERRIES
Handy size ferries are typically used as day passenger ferries and as ro-ro ferries, but even as night ferries with some cabin capacity intended for short international voyages or for local domestic service. There are, of course, no definitions available of what is a handy, medium or large size ferry but following the table 1 definitions we consider ferries below 100 m as small ones, handy size ferries being between 100 and 150 m, large ferries above 150 m in length.
The Joint North West European project on Safety of Passenger Ro-Ro Vesselsý after the 'Estonia' catastrophe was studying in detail the damage safety, water on deck and possibility of cargo shift in ferries. The theoretical studies were verified through example designs and we carried out the design for the handy size ferry". The ferry is intended for short international voyages with a significant wave height of 2.0 m. The main particulars and capacities of the ferry are presented in table It. The vessel is only 102 metres in perpendicular length and 21 metres in beam. Small side casings, about 1.4 m, are designed to give additional buoyancy for damage cases and to help to fulfil the water on deck requirements. There is a lower hold for private cars through the complete feasible length, 74.6% of perpendicular length. The main deck is raised in the middle, within the area of machinery spaces, to give additional height for engines, but also to help in damage and water on deck stability. There are six trailer lanes on the main deck together with stern and bow doors. The lower hold is accessible through ramps at both ends of the hold. The height of the main deck does not allow a full trailer height for the lower hold and on the other hand the drive-through principle for trailers requires a vessel length of about 140-150 metres to keep reasonable ramp angles and operable hold. Figure 4 shows the principal arrangement of this handy size ferry.
89 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001
Table 2. Main particulars of a Handy Size Ferry, Joint Nordic Project.
Length overall 113.90 m Length perpendicular 102.00 m Breadth, moulded 21.00 m Draught dwl 4.60 m Draught scantling 4.80 m Depth to bulkhead deck 7.00 m Deadweight 1300 t Trial speed 18.5 knots Trailer lanes, main deck 474 m Car lanes, lower hold 230 m Cabins 102 pcs Passengers 800 2 Passenger public spaces 1400 m
-• ------I ------__
Figure 4. Principalarrangement of the Joint Nordic Project Handy Size Ferry.
90 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP1 DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001
Damage stability was calculated in accordance with the SOLAS 90 including also the lower hold together with all adjacent two compartment damages. Water on deck has also been calculated for significant wave height of two metres in accordance with the Stockholm agreement, no special arrangements -are needed on the main deck (flood preventing doors or similar). Damage stability has also been analysed in accordance with the Joint North West European proposal for damage stability of ro-ro passenger ferries based on probabilistic method.
The biggest difference to the existing fleet of similar size is the relatively large lower hold for private cars. Only a few of the existing ferries have a lower cargo hold for ro-ro traffic operated through a ramp, and the operation in this case is even with drive-through principle, i.e. a ramp at both ends of the lower hold enabling an efficient cargo flow. Cabin capacity is relatively high, which area can on the other hand be converted into public spaces for a day ferry version with high passenger capacity.
An other example of a compact handy size ferry is presented in figure 5; a commuter type ferry for limited harbours based on diesel-electric machinery and azimuthing thruster propulsion allowing introduction of lower cargo hold operated through an aft ramp for a really compact size ferry, with length overall even below 100 m.
F D
------
E ------
Figure 5. Compact size ferry with diesel-electric machinery and azimuthing thruster propulsion.
91 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001
Figure 6 presents a newbuilding for NorthLink, Caledonian MacBryne, under construction at Aker Finnyards, a typical handy size ferry developed for short coastal-island traffic specifically for harbours with limited dimensions and for harsh sea and weather conditions.
Passenger RORO ferry for Northlink * LOA 125mr "* TB 19.5Smrm.
" Hbulkhead deck 8.0 m
* GT c 12 000 ... " Trailer lanes 450 . * Car lanes 530 mi * Passengers 600 ...... , * Cabins (pax) 100 " Speed 24 knots n SM.E. Power 21.6 MW
Figure 6. Handy size ferry newbuilding for NorthLink, Caledonian MacBryne.
The ferry features a drive-through main deck, lower hold for private cars, side casings, and it fulfils SOLAS 90 damage stability requirements as a twin compartment ship including lower hold damages and Stockholm agreement up to four (4) m wave height.
3. MEDIUM SIZE FERRIES
Medium size ferries are typical 'workhorses' for shorter and longer routes. Overall length being between 150 and 180 m they still can call most of the typical ferry harbours, but due to the size request good manoeuvrability at low harbour entrance speeds and in crabbing. These ferries are called today as ro-pax ferries emphasising the importance of high amount of efficient and practical ro-ro lane metres with some passenger capacity.
M/S 'Mont St Michel' for Brittany Ferries, under construction at van der Giessen-de Noord is a typical representative of a flexible and compact medium size ro-pax ferry, see figure 7. It features large lower hold for trailers with drive-through ramp arrangement, open main and upper ro-ro deck with one pillar line only besides the ramps to the lower hold and upper trailer deck and with double level access. The ferry fulfils full SOLAS 90 even at all the lower hold damages together with any two adjacent to compartments. Side casings on the main
92 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001
deck guarantee the fulfilment of the Stockholm agreement up to. four (4) m wave height without any flood preventing doors.
The conventional machinery with four main engines and two shaftlines is compressed into a really compact engine room leaving space for relatively large lower hold, 37.0% of perpendicular length of the vessel.
MONT ST MICHEL for Brittany Ferries * LOA 173.4 mrn,-df . 8 28.0mr * T 6.2mr 1 * HhrltfAAH d.rk 9.0 mn
" Trailer lanes 2210mr Car lanes 3580 (without trailers) ------.
* Speed 21 knots __-______- •M .E. power 22 MW""-: " :' ":- " " ':"
Figure 7. 'Mont St Michel' for Brittany Ferries.
4. LARGE FERRIES
Large size ferries above 180 m in overall length can be categorised mainly in two groups: large ro-pax ferries and large night ferries. Ro-pax ferries of this size have lower hold and double trailer decks. Lower hold is either for private cars or trailers and operated via one ramp, elevator or double ramps, i.e. allowing drive-through capability. Night ferries for shorter routes do have limited amount of public spaces but the so-called cruise ferries have typically at least two full decks of public spaces.
Figure 8 presents the arrangement and main characteristics of 'Stena Hollandica'tStena Britannica' built at IZAR Puerto Real. A large lower hold of 34.3% of perpendicular length is operated through two wide ramps allowing a fast drive-through operation for trailers. The open deck with side casing arrangement allows good and simultaneous access to all three ro-ro decks via the main deck. SOLAS 90 two compartment damage stability requirements
93 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN. CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 200!
are fulfilled inclusive the lower hold together with all adjacent two compartment combinations. The Stockholm agreement is fulfilled up to four (4) metre wave height. Calculations indicated that two pairs of doors are required at the end of the longitudinal bulkheads on the main deck (no doors on the central part) as shown in the arrangement in figure 8. However, model tests confirmed that the vessel can easily survive and meet the requirements without the doors. The efficiency of side casings against water to the main deck was well proven in the tests.
Stena Hollandica, Stena Britannica , " LOA 188.0 m .- * B 28.7m ,r., .. - t•-- -.t , T 6.0m -...... •. * Htulheaddec k 9.0 m • , -. 'ni•., 4...... " Trailerlanes 2960m .. .
" Passengers 400 -- ,- * Cabins (pax) 187-. ~ M - * Speed 22 knots * M.E, power 23 MW . .
Figure 8. 'Stena Hollandica'/Stena Britannica'.
Figure 9 presents a large ro-pax/night ferry with a lower hold and three decks for trailers reaching an extremely high trailer capacity of 4000 lane metres. Lower hold of 48.2% of perpendicular length is operated via a single twin lane wide large ramp at the aft end of the hold. All the ro-ro traffic is operated through one wide stern ramp.
The side casings are arranged on the main deck, partially incorporating exhaust gas piping and stairways and partially only as a double hull with maximum width to receive extra buoyancy volume. The Stockholm agreement is fulfilled up to four (4) m wave height.
94 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN. CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001
z= • ------r Ro-pax /Night Ferry _ __ ._ SLOA 190.0 m . t:.. ' ."T6.5-m ------::::----....------* Hbuldlead deck 9.2 m ------* Trailer lanes 4000 m
* Passengers 360 -. _,:::::::::::_:: * Speed 22 knots
Figure 9. Large ro-pax/night ferry.
Figure 10 presents a typical cruise ferry incorporating a lower hold of 28.6% of perpendicular length for private cars, main deck for trailers and upper ro-ro deck for private cars only. Two public space decks and three cabin decks are arranged.
Cruise Ferry for Brodosplit * LOA 215.5 mr * B 30.7 m " T 6.7 m
* Hbuiýaed dOCk 9.5 m- " GT 58000 " Trailer lanes 1400 m * Cars 570 pcs (with trail)rls-",__=" * Passengers 2500
* Cabins (pax) 850 * Speed 22 knots * M.E. Dower 37.8 MW
Figure 10. Arrangement and main characteristics of a typical cruise ferry.
5. FAST FULL DISPLACEMENT FERRIES
The definition of fast full displacement ferries is not based on any code or regulation as the definition of fast ferries. However, it is useful to have a definition for this more and more popular type of ferry. We are using two criteria: speed above 25 knots or Froude number
95 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 200!
above 0.34. The first criteria is applicable for ferries above 160 m inlength and the latter one for small and medium size ferries.
There were a lot of fast full displacement small and medium size ferries built at the end of the 1960's and early 1970's, but the history of large fast full displacement ferries started actually from GTS 'Finjet', delivered in 1977. with a service speed of 31 knots and Froude number of 0.351.
It took about fifteen years before the concept of fast full displacement ferries was re- introduced. This happened in the early nineties in Japan and mid nineties in the Adriatic Sea. Today there are 46 ferries operating or on order fulfilling the above criteria. It is, however, interesting to see that quite many owners are carefully considering the possibility and feasibility of investing on new fast full displacement ferries. The main criteria is the possibility to operate at high speed, 28-30 or even 32 knots with reasonable fuel efficiency and acceptable passenger comfort. The high speed operation should also be possible on annual basis even in heavy weather conditions and on some routes in shallow water as well, without extreme wash effect. Good manoeuvrability is essential as well as fast cargo operation, otherwise the high steaming speed at sea becomes meaningless.
In the middle of the evolution process it is interesting to look at how quick the development has been; have we already learnt something and what could be the future.
Design for efficiency should be the target of every commercial ship design. Fuel consumption and speed-power performance are good indicators to show the adaptation of proper design criteria and state of the art know-how. The easiest to measure are the calm water figures and the most reliable to compare are the model test results. Concentrating on the hull and propulsion efficiency, one way to measure the degree of fuel efficiency is to use coefficients, e.g. Heickel coefficient at the same Froude number. The better the vessel's performance is the higher the coefficient is, also smaller vessels have higher coefficients.
When comparing this Heickel coefficient of some recently built ferries at equivalent Froude number surprisingly wide range can be found: differences up to 30%. The same differences exists in the fuel bill as well. That is of course an unnecessarily big difference especially if and when these ships may compete on the same market. A good example is the Adriatic route
Patras - Ancona where modem full displacement fast ferries are sailing with big differences in tonmile fuel consumption.
96 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN. CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete. October 2001
Figurel 1 presents Heickel coefficients for recently built ro-ro passenger ferries. The curves on the right hand side are for fast full displacement ferries with trial/operational speed between Froude numbers 0.34-0.38. The curve in the middle of these six curves is for a recently delivered ferry 'Mega Express' for Corsica Ferries with Lpp = 158.5 m, LWL = 160 m, B = 24.8 m, T = 6.45 m, propeller diameter 5.0 m, trial speed 28 knots and maximum speed about 29 knots. A pram type hull form with ducktail and trim wedge was applied. It is interesting to compare this newbuilding with a six years old ferry, Lpp = 158.0 m, LWL = 165.2 m, B = 24 m, T = 6.25 m, displacement 14,860 mi3 , and propeller diameter 5.0 m. Comparing the model test performance at the same draft of 6.25 m, 'Mega Express' having nearly the same displacement of 14,910 mi,we can find rather big difference in the powering requirement at 27 knots: 32,000 kW / 28,300 kW, i.e. a difference of 13%. The comparison becomes even more interesting as 'Mega Express' exceeded well the model test prediction in sea trials without any vibration or cavitation problems and with good passenger comfort whereas the older vessel has had some speed and cavitation problems.
Heick. l c/•1ficient 2551- ý------K .2.5 :, . .-...... -.. . . .-.--- -...-.....- - .-i:i- ....- -.-.-.-...... -... . 2,475f,.-
V=displacement in m3 2,425 ~ 7.3! : ',..__...... - . • .•.,:..... !...._.-•...... ,,...- .. .. 2...... \ .: 2g1. ,•-• -• .• .• .i .. ..-.. • .:...... :-... •\ . Z, -- " ------I - 0,19019 0202 0,220,230,24 0.250,260,21 020,29 0,3 0,310.320. 0,3 035 0,Z 703890,39 0.4 Figure 11. Heickel coefficient for ferries. The learning curve has been tremendous. And it can be stated that we have certainly not yet reached the top, i.e. hull forms and propulsion arrangements can still be further optimised. We have introduced and tested an improved bulbous bow and ducktail-trim wedge combination for several existing ferries and most recently on ferries built only 6-7 years ago, the best improvement being 22.1% reduction in required power or 1 knot improved speed. This was a sum of 7% from bulbous bow, 13% from ducktail and trim wedge and the rest from improved 97 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN. CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 openings in the hull, such as fin stabiliser and bow thruster. Figure 12 presents the bulbous bow and ducktail, original and modified. Ferry bulb modification, saving 7% Original hull form Modified hull form 4-m ducktail & optimized trim wedge (4 deg.), saving 13% Original aft body Modified aft body Figure 12. Modified bulb and trim wedge for a fast full displacement ferry Lower required propulsion power means not only lower fuel consumption but also smaller main engines. The smaller required engine room space and also the weight are giving larger service and cargo (ro-ro/passenger) spaces and smaller investment cost. Continuing with the Heickel coefficient curves on the left hand side the vessels included are from big cruise ferries of 60,000 GT down to small ro-ro ferries of 9,000 GT, a few ro-ro ships are included as well. With proper references it is easy to check whether the proposed design is of high quality or should it be reconsidered. It is advisable not to stick to predetermined configurations, open- minded approach gives typically better results, of course considering at the same time any possible risks. 98 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION. SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete. October 2001 The fast full displacement ferries are today built with LIB ratio not less than 6 and some even well above 7. Block coefficient is varying between 0.52 and 0.60; 0.57 being a typical value. Length is increased and width is restricted to get the block coefficient down and to reach a longer waterline, i.e. lower Froude numb er. Midship section coefficient is varying from 0.955 up to 0.988, the lower figure is from a rather short vessel (Lpp only 111.8 in), the longer vessels being between 0.98-0.988. LCB is varying from -2.6% with forward superstructure up to -3.6% with full length superstructure. The tendency at this moment is towards longer vessels to increase the length / beam ratio and to decrease the block coefficient which is the easiest way to reduce the power requirement and to keep the Froude number below 0.40, i.e. not coming too close to the second wave hump. The length is, however, a limitation in many harbours and the pressure is to find successful configurations which can reach the high speeds (Froude numbers) at reasonable length/beam ratio, about 6.0 or even below and to increase the deadweight meaning increase of block coefficient. A fast full displacement relatively short and beamy ferry capable to reach 30 knots is the future ferry and the challenge for the designers. Another important design and building issue is the lightweight, which immediately affects speed, power requirement and, of course, deadweight. Figure 13 presents volume weight of some recently built fast full displacement, size-wise comparable ferries, the lowest figures being 118kg/in3 and highest 148 kg/in3, a difference of 21%, average figures being 130 kg/in3. Ten percent difference in lightweight means twenty percent difference in deadweight! It is obvious that the difference is not only coming from different main equipment like main engines, but it is a summary of all possible items. The following is a list of typical items found when we have carried out weight control/saving projects at different shipyards: - lack of coordination between arrangement and structures, a lot of unnecessary steel structure - selection of main equipment - design of main structural elements - selection of structural dimensions - owner - architect - yard coordination - selection of steel material - steel production standards 99 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 - use of aluminium - selection of outfitting and interior materials and equipment - lack of purchase control - lack of subcontractor and supplier control - use of typical yard standards - lack of weight control procedure in production . lack of weight control culture. It should be obvious that every owner as well as every shipyard and every supplier working with fast full displacement ferries should have within their quality assurance system weight saving and control procedures. The vessel should not loose 500 to 700 tons of deadweight at the delivery. - WVt2r-l 4 P. ~ Ft Figure 13. Volume weight of fast full displacement ferries, built since 1994. Figures 14 to 16 present three different sizes of fast full displacement ferries 'Ithaki' of Blue Star Ferries, with 1300 passengers in 123.8 m overall length and with service speed of 23.5 knots, 'Chios'PMyconos' of Blue Star Ferries, with 2100 passengers in 141.7 m overall length and with service speed of 26 knots, and 'Mega Express' of Corsica Ferries with 1860 passengers in 172.2 m overall length and with service speed of 28 knots. 100 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN. CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete. October 2001 ITHAKI, Blue Star Ferries " LOA 123,8 m . B 18.9m ± * Trailer lanes 300m * Car lanes 480 m (with trailers) I A * Passengers 1300 " Cabins (pax) 5 " Sneed 235 knots " M.E. Power 16,6 MW a S- L" r,." "•'." •.,&-LA , ... ~• Figure 14. 'Ithaki' of Blue Star Ferries. CHIOS for Blue Star Ferries * LOA 141.7 m * B 21.0Om * Trailer lanes 530 m " Cars 130 pcs (with trailers) "* CabinsPassengers (pax 372100 * Speed 26 knots - M.E. power 31.7 MW ...... Figure 15. 'Chios'of Blue Star Ferries. 101 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN. CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete. October 2001 MPCflA FXPRESSc for Cnorsica-Rha-Sc;;rdiniaFePrries. * LOA 172.7 m * B 24.8 m ' I " Trailer lanes 790 m * Cars 550 ocs (without trailers) " Passengers 1860 * Cabins (pax) .296 * Speed 28 knots * M.E. power 46.8 MW Figure 16. 'Mega Express' of Corsica Ferries.. 6. FUTURE DEVELOPMENT The most dramatical development (improvements hopefully) will take place on the software side, especially in the regulatory and design areas. Alternative regularly approach will be common, i.e. instead of fixed design requirements alternative approach will be accepted for damage and fire safety. This means that the rule set limitations in design configurations could be passed without trying to find the loophole as per today's practice, but actually showing that the safety level of a new design configuration is at least the same as of existing designs. This will open up possibilities for new, more efficient and safer vessels. There are several ongoing EU funded projects targeting for new, numerical, safety based design methods and practices. Within two of them, Optipod and NEREUS, we have developed ro-ro passenger ferry designs to be studied within the projects. Figure 17 presents the arrangement and main characteristics of the Optipod ferry. The. ferry features diesel-electric machinery with four generator sets, well separated to avoid loosing of power in typical collision, grounding or fire incidents. An extended, long lower hold, 67% of perpendicular length, is arranged for private cars together with a centre casing. Pod propulsion is, of course, extensively studied and compared with conventional propulsion arrangement. Conventional and pod arrangement are both optimised for the actual arrangement in question. Comparison model tests have been carried out and the following conclusions can be drawn. The conventional propulsion arrangement and hull form is confirmed to be extremely good by the three participating model basins, i.e. comparison is 102 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete. October 2001 made with a best possible conventional arrangement according to the experience and references of the participating 14 partners of the Optipod project. "OPTIPOD"-PROJECT " LOA 194,4 M"rn_ " B 28Am - " T 6.6m " Hbduldeed deck 9.7 In " Trailer lanes 850 m * Passengers 1800 * Cabins (pax) 812 * Speed 29,0 knots SM.E power 52,2 MW . Figure 17. 'Optipod' project. Pod arrangement performs better in deep and shallow water, concerning propulsion and wave making. Pod arrangement requires at least 10% less power than the conventional arrangement. When comparing with the existing built similar size ferries the difference in propulsion power is at least 15-18%. But it is important to understand that we are now having the first generation of pods and related hull forms whereas conventional arrangements have been developed already for generations. There is obviously a lot of potential in both pods and hull forms especially for higher speeds. Three competing projects are developed in the NEREUS project, all being large night ferries with 25 knots service speed. Figure 18 presents the version developed at Deltamarin. Large lower hold for trailers, 52.3% of the perpendicular length, operated via two lane wide ramps at the aft and forward end of the hold. Four diesel generators are placed besides the lower hold in separate engine rooms. Electric machinery is subdivided into two independent lines, one for each pod unit enabling high redundancy. Side casings are applied on the main ro-ro deck, no flood preventing doors are required. No pillar lines are needed. The upper ro-ro deck is for private cars, and the side casings are utilised for passenger cabins. 103 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHlIP DESIGN. CONSTRUC•ION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete. October,2001 "NEREUS'PROJECT ' " LOA 200,0 m 'an•,-4%1 5M2I, 1N21'4 " B 27,5 m ------r-rQ- 6.7mIn. " H~uWýeed deck 9.5 m " Trailer lanes 1450 m * Cars 211 pcs (with trailers) * Passengers 1800 * Cabins (pax) 598 " Speed 25,0 knots SM.E. power 38,4 MWV ...... ,. .. ,- Figure 18. NEREUS project developed by Deltamarin. Figure 19 presents a modern fast full displacement ro-pax ferry of medium size, 160 metres in overall length, 1000 m trailer lanes in lower hold and main deck, upper car deck for private cars. Lower hold, 47.3% of perpendicular length, is operated via a two lane wide single ramp in the aft end of the hold. There is a tilting ramp to the upper deck and one wide ramp in the stern allowing simultaneous traffic to the lower hold, main deck and upper deck. Four generator sets are placed besides the hold in independent machinery spaces guaranteeing high machinery availability and redundancy. Side casings are applied on the main deck, and the only pillars are placed besides the tilting ramp. Passenger cabins are placed in the side casing on upper car deck. DELTAMARIN LOA 160.0 m T 61)-m • HbulJkhead dock 9.1 m Trailer lanes 997 m Cars 164 pcs (with trailers) Passengers 2000 Cabins (pax) 160 Speed 26 knots M.E. power 34.8 MW Figure 19. Fast medium size full displacement ferry with pod propulsion. 104 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN. CONSTRUCTION. SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 7. SOME DESIGN FEATURES 7.1 Ro-ro decks Efficient and fast ro-ro traffic requires wide ramps and as straight drive lanes as possible without any obstacles on the deck(s), such as pillars, partial bulkheads and similar. Open ro- ro deck arrangement with straight forward casings without any 'pockets' leads automatically to fast loading and unloading and all lane metres are practicable ones even with quick turnaround times. Turning of trailers becomes flexible as well if bow ramp is not preferred. Lower hold either for private cars or trailers has become an industry standard. Cabins are no longer placed below the bulkhead deck, main ro-ro deck. Being industry standard there are no common, general, widely used stability standards yet available for calculating the damage stability for lower holds. Following examples are gathered from recently built ferries in Europe: - B/5 and B/10 not strictly followed - A265 used as a loophole - Damages limited to B/5 (60% of recorded damages extend beyond B/5) - No lower hold damages included (1500 passengers!) - Floodable lengths with equivalent bulkheads within lower hold - One side compartment together with lower hold, i.e. single compartment only (1200 passengers!) - Three side compartment damages without lower hold - Two adjacent compartments with lower hold - Different parmeabilities - Different intermediate and final flooding stage criteria applied for different damage scenarios There is no common practice nor interpretation available. It all depends on the authority in charge! The new probabilistic approach will hopefully harmonise the messy situation, which is, honestly speaking, a shame to the industry. When we first introduced a large lower hold into a ferry design it was obvious that lower hold damages must be included in the damage stability study, and the basis was to be SOLAS 90, not A265. The first vessels we developed with this principle were M/S 'Normandie' and 105 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete. October 2001 'Barfleur' for Brittany Ferries in the early 1990's. TT-Line's MIS 'Robin Hood' and 'Nils Dacke' were the next ones to follow in 1993. Today the principle is accepted by several authorities and it includes SOLAS 90, full criteria, applied for lower hold damages together with all adjacent two compartments. There are basically three ways of fulfilling this requirement: increasing beam of the vessel, increasing bulkhead deck height or applying side casings. Increasing beam is an unwanted solution especially if the trailer lanes do not require that. Increasing bulkhead deck height reduces stability and requires either additional beam or reduced superstructure. Side casings remain as an attractive solution especially when considering water on the deck, Stockholm agreement, requirement. Model tests have proven that it is easier to fulfil Stockholm agreement with a side casing ship without any flood preventing doors on the main deck. As a result we can have a lower main deck height and/or less beamy vessel, and we do not need to have doors on the main deck. Typical arrangements are shown in previous figures 7, 8, 17, 18 and 19. Figure 20 presents results of a study in which the side casing width was systematically varied for a 170 m long and 28.7 m beam ro-ro passenger vessel with a relatively large lower hold and a design draught of 6 m. The impact of the side casing width is studied for the initial stability, GM, requirements. Side casing seems to be most efficient for the higher draughts (GZ range) and at higher draught at least 5% of the vessel's beam is required in side casing width before they really become efficient. Forward and aft ends are also more efficient than the central part of the vessel, i.e. instead of constant width of side casings a varying width may be more practicable. 25 E 2.3 C S Final GM reqluirement (mn! 2.2 VIM d•ugh of 5 m b Final GM reuirement (m) 2.1 w dhtol~m 00% 20% 40 W 6A41% A n% In11% 12ft% ltO% Sidocasing breadth I B Figure 20. Relative effect of sidecasing breadth for GM requirement. 106 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN. CONSTRUCTION. SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete. October 2001 7.2 Sea worthiness - bow flare - safety in heavy seas Extreme deck shape leads easily to extreme type of hull form and bow flare. Introduction of- wide bow door and ramp is a typical and good example of an utmost difficult design task: When are we going too far in the deck and bow flare shape? Greed for the last deck square metres or lane metres or ramp centimetres has led to poor or unacceptable performance in 'heavy or even in moderate head and bow quartering seas, heavy loss of speed, wave induced impact loads, noise and whipping vibrations occur. And to avoid this the master reduces speed or changes course and cannot keep the schedule. It is not a straight forward design task to combine a slender design waterline (low resistance) with a wide trailer ro-ro deck and ramp or passenger cabin and public deck. The bow flare tends to become extreme. Excessive bow flare means high wave induced impact loads, high accelerations, noise, whipping vibrations, involuntary speed loss and at the end also voluntary speed loss and difficulties in keeping the schedule. The most extreme case, unfortunately not very rare, is when the applied dimensioning loads are exceeded and structural damages are met. With bulky bow flare lines the applied sea margin becomes useless, it is not possible to use the installed power in heavy weather due to too high wave impact loads in the bow flare- But most of all when the dimensioning criteria and the actual sea loads are not far from each other a clear safety risk exists. A good rule of thumb is to avoid bow flare angle against waterline below 50 degrees in unlimited service (unsheltered waters) and below 45 degrees in limited service in sheltered waters. Unfortunately this good, simple rule is frequently forgotten until the sea reminds. Figure 21 shows a typical well performing bow flare, angles against waterline being high enough. A wide bow ramp of 6.5 m in operational width can be easily incorporated together with a modern long, above design waterline extending bulbous bow. 107 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete. October 2001 Avoid angle below 50 degrees for unlimited service Avoid angle below 45 degrees for limited service insheltered waters Figure 21. Example of well performing bow flare. The bow flare estimator gives a good guiding tool to access the bow flare design at an early stage of a new project, see figure 22. L•... --.--.-.--.-.-..---- ...•- ... ,.- -."...... •®i....' .....!.....-.....• ....j:....•.....L... •...... hip...... •• Non dimensional distance from midship ...... divided by ' the tangent of flare angle - -7 ...... Figure 22. Bow flare estimator. Model tests and full scale experience have shown that a value of 0.500 is a good overall limit. The maximum measured bow flare impacts in bow quartering seas stay below 220 kN/m 2 in typical wave conditions and below 300 kN/m2 in extreme wave conditions, measured in model scale with force panels. Passenger comfort requires a lower criteria, 60 kN/m 2 being a good value, not to be exceeded. 108 EULROCONVERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION. SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 7.3 Pod propulsion The pod propulsion configuration offers an interesting possibility for ferries, especially for higher speeds. Aftship hull form can be optimised for the speed without the obstructing shaft arrangement and machinery foundations. The propulsion power saving is between 10-15%. The difference in propulsion power is summed up from the optimised hull form, absence of shaftlines and rudders and optimised position and orientation of pods. The pod propeller shaft should be inclined towards the baseline at about 40-50% of the respective vertical angle of the hull form, i.e. with a vertical angle of 9 degrees the pod orientation should be about between 4... 4.5 degrees. The orientation in the horizontal should be as well towards the flow, a typical figure is 2-3 degrees leading edge outwards referred to th~e centreline, i.e. propellers are oriented properly against the actual water flow, which hardly is possible with conventional shaft arrangement. This also gives the propeller designer some additional freedom as the inflow angle is optimum. The pods are developing a quick change in the flow velocity around themselves as well as around the hull, they are working as stern bulbs and when properly located they will reduce the transom and aft ship wave system. This is a big benefit especially for higher speeds, Froude number above 0.27, when aft ship wave making becomes an important part of the total resistance. Propeller tip - hull clearance can be minimised due to the homogenous flow into pulling pod, i.e. due to no disturbances of shaftline, bossing and brackets and possibility for flow optimised hull form. The total aft ship displacement can be the same for pod configuration and the longitudinal centre of buoyancy can be moved even more aftwards without disturbing the good flow properties. Other hydrodynamic benefits are improved performance in shallow water, improved stopping capabilities and extraordinary manoeuvrability especially in harbour crabbing mode. Stopping can be carried out by just turning the pod units into an angle of 30-45 degrees without changing the propeller turning direction. This is especially important at lower manoeuvring speed below 12 knots. This is absolutely the fastest and most controlled way of stopping a vessel. Crabbing becomes efficient as propeller thrust can be steered exactly to the intended direction of motion at minimum power. 109 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONST•UCMION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete. October 2001 With proper setting of pods for manoeuvring mode reaction times can be dramatically reduced from those of conventional arrangement: 30 to 60%. A disadvantage, at least for the time being, is the height of the pod units inside the hull. They tend to protrude through the main deck. Pod makers are working on this issue and it looks possible to get even rather high powers, up to 25-30 MW within 3.5 m. And the main interest is if we can change into short beamy vessels with the help of wave damping of pods. 8. DESIGN FOR EFFICIENCY Ro-ro passenger ferries for tomorrow must be safer and more efficient and reliable in their task than the vessels in service today. How can we reach this demanding target? Figure 23 presents on simple method to check the space efficiency of a new ro-ro passenger ferry design, the horizontal axis presents ro-ro efficiency having the speed of the vessel, lane length and gross tonnage as parameters. The vertical axis presents passenger efficiency having the speed, number of passengers and passenger cabins and installed power as parameters. On the left hand side we have typical night and cruise ferries and on the right hand side typical ro-ro ferries, ro-pax ferries being in the middle. All presented dots are existing, less than 20 years old vessels. The spred of the dots is rather wide, some of the low dots can be explained due to some specific nature of the vessel, limits in dimensions, etc., but in general the graph tends to describe the ro-ro passenger efficiency quite well. PAt EPMlCiNCY INCREASO U.a•E NO. RKlSS.IOtN CURVE OF EXiTiNG VEW8EL2 1 11 ROPA4 IWICIENCVNICNEASES Fiur23 Spc eficeny 3,20 ______ 0.00 2,00 L2.2 2,40 2,60 1,00 2,60 ROSO Ely•¢cIanai1 flSat~lbflh ",,%1 4 T•ih Figure 23. Space efficiency. 110 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION. SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete. October 2001 To increase efficiency, reliability and safety at the same time is not an easy task, but today we have better tools than ever before. We are approaching the time when we can carry out a simulation and safety based design in virtual reality. Parametrised presentation of all the main characteristics is already possible, starting from the hull shape and through all the main components up to complete ready designed spaces are presented in parametrised form. CFD tools allow us to optimise hull shape at an early stage of the project. Simulation tools are no longer verification only but for design and optimisation purposes. Ro- ro simulation is already a design tool, as well as evacuation and passenger flow simulations can be utilised as design tools and not for verification only. Practical safety design and assessment methods are developed enabling us to leave the old deterministic methods but, of course, without forgetting the practical naval architecture. Rusaas, S., Spouge J. 'Recent Stability Regulations on Existing and New Ships, Impact on Overall Ship Safety.' Presentation of the Joint North West European Research Project; Third International Workshop on Theoretical Advances in Ship Stability and Practical Impact, Crete, October 28-29, 1997. P6yliO, E.'Handy Size Ferry', Joint Nordic Project, Safety of Passenger Ro-Ro Vessels, Task 7, Example Designs, 1997 Ill1 EIJROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN. CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 K. Spethmann, Abeking & Rasmussen Yard "Design of Mega-Yachts and Mini-Cruise Vessels" Born in 1944, Dr. Klaas Spethmann was educated to become a shipbuilder more than 30 years ago by the Shipyard Abeking & Rasmussen in Lemwerder, Germany. 1969 Bachelor of Science Degree at the Bremen University for Naval Architecture and Project Engineer at Rickmers and Fassmer Shipyard 1980 Doctor's degree, University of Berlin Assistant of the Board at MAN Augsburg and Senior Sales Manager. Managing Director of Turbocharger Branch at MAN Subsidiary Company 1986 Managing Director of Fassmer Boat & Shipyard 1995 Technical Director, Abeking & Rasmussen, Ship and Yachtyard 2001 Member of the Executive Board of Abeking & Rasmussen. In charge of Sales and Development; Head of Production for mine countermeasure vessels, patrol boats, mega-yachts, authority crafts. 113 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUOTION, SAFETI AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 DESIGN OF MEGA-YACHTS AND MINI-CRUISE VESSELS Dr.-Ing. K. Spethmann* 115 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 1. DEVELOPMENT OF MEGA-YACHTS 1.1 Personal Use Yachting made its debut in the history under Dutch influence with ship sizes of up to 25 m. The beginning of the 20th century saw the emergence of larger yachts, slim sailing yachts, increasingly also steam yachts and later motor yachts. With the exception of extraordinarily large yachts, a large number of medium-sized motorboats were built for personal use by the owner. Up into the 1970's and 80's these ships often had lengths of up to 40 m. The furnishing of the ships was done solely according to the owner's wishes and was influenced by famous architects and naval architects with regard to style and layout. Famous naval architects were often also the founders of the yacht shipyards. The styling, the concept and the construction of the yachts developed quasi under one roof and in collaboration with a select group of qualified craftsmen responsible for fabrication of the ships. Basically, the reputation of the respective shipyard determined the quality of the yachts. Generally, these ships were built in the absence of any regulations. To a certain degree, traditional shipyards developed their own standards for design, construction and fabrication. Only in later years, partly due to increasing ship size, was the hull often considered a characteristic for quality and delivered with a so-called hull certificate, that is, the ship assembly and welding process were executed in accordance with rules laid out by recognized classification organizations. Other rules and regulations in commercial shipbuilding were not applied because they would have stood in conflict with the luxurious purpose of the yachts. A lifeboat according to SOLAS, or stairways, ladders and interior decoration in accordance with norms for cargo vessels with fire protection, are not easily reconcilable with the desire for exquisite woods, decorative stairwells and representative saloons of a yacht. The typical size of such a yacht is shown in Figure 1 and the principal particulars are L x W x D = 40 m x 7.9 m x 3.8 m. Figure 1 SILVER SHALIS, Built in 1987, L * W * D = 40 m x 7.9 m x 3.8 m 116 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION. SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 1.2 Commercial Use The past few years have seen a growing trend towards larger yachts. Ship size as well as the number of yachts has increased so that today there are more than 100 yachts with a length of over 55 m in operation. Of course, the cost of new construction of such a ship increases dramatically with the increase of its size. It is well known that successful businessmen, who can afford such expensive yachts, are particularly careful, who not only enjoy owning a yacht, but also enjoy an innovative new construction, acquisition of the ship and negotiating the building contract- Although it may not be widely appreciated, there is precise budgeting and financial calculating even in the yachting business. It therefore does not come as a surprise, then, when these yachts primarily used for personal purposes are sometimes chartered out to cover the high cost. For this reason as well as for insurance-related reasons, commercial standards are applied increasingly in yacht building. In addition to this, a reasonable re-sale price of a yacht must be ensured. To the extent that yachts are not only built by specialized yacht yards but also by other yards traditionally concentrating on conventional cargo shipbuilding-, demand develops for increased certification and furnishing of newly built yachts with certificates to provide owners, associated consultants and banks with better documentation of the value of a yacht than simply the shipbuilder's good reputation. In addition to this, insurance-related concerns regarding passenger transportation grow with increasing ship size. Therefore, the more commercialized the yachting industry becomes, the more important it is to achieve safety standards as implemented for other ship types. Figure 2 EXCELLENCE, Built in 2001, L *W * D = 57.3 m x 10.7 m x 6.15 m 117 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN. CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 1.3 Safety Standards Approximately 10 years ago and parallel to the reduction of the fleet of merchant ships, the British Department of Trade (DoT) engaged itself with Safety Codes of Practice for ships other than traditional (cargo) ships. Such standards were to be developed, for example, for pilot boats, work boats, authority vessels and also for yachts. The development of these Codes of Practice, that is, safety standards adapted to the applications of various kinds of ships, ultimately lead to today's certification of yacht standards known as MCA. With increasing yacht size, the MCA framework approaches more and more the regulations for passenger vessels. It is only the increasing ship size that allows the application of these standards to motor yachts and to a certain extent also to sailing yachts. Conforming to these regulations poses new difficulties for shipyards. For example, the beautiful wood furnishings must be fire safe (certified as such). As opposed to passenger vessel construction, where imitations are used for reasons of cost-effectiveness, it is possible for yachts to obtain certified furnishings that do not seem to differ from "old-style' wood furnishings. This also impacts the layout of the interior. Classification societies such as Lloyd's Register formulated new requirements for stability criteria and partly adopted regulations from the MCA. These requirements also massively influenced yacht design. It is clear that after initial reluctance, the acceptance of the MCA regulations and the number of yachts built according to MCA or similar standards is growing steadily. Professional shipyards embrace this development. The familiarity of the shipyard's naval architects with these rules makes compliance possible with little difficulty. On the contrary, these regulations can help the owner and the naval architect as well as the developer during the construction of a yacht to avoid Standards Claims and regulate such complicated issues such as product liability during delivery and launch of yachts. Compliance with the standards on the one hand, and the construction of ships not adhering to the standards on the other, leads certainly to two categories of Mega Yachts. The additional costs must be accounted for, but will surely be accepted in not to compromise safety particularly on a motor yacht, compared to a commercial ship. 118 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 2. TECHNICAL DEVELOPMENT AND STANDARDS 2.1 Stability The certifying agencies require compliance with the intact stability criteria, and frequently also with the weather-criteria. Because yachts often have a small draft combined with a large area of superstructure and deckhouse, the weather criterion leads in many cases to changes of the hull's main dimensions and its lines. The damage stability requirements, which have been proven, quite positive in recent years, have affected the required watertight subdivision of ships. The main W.T. bulkheads and tanks of a 57 m motor yacht are shown as an example in the following figure. f./f,=1 IJ I F! i q M1 It 11IiIN.1• , I ii III IV V Figure 3 Watertight subdivision of 57 m Motor yacht 2.2 Fire protection An increased awareness of fire safety requirements has resulted from several smaller and larger fire incidents aboard yachts. On the one hand, decorative materials are being adapted to comply with the new regulations as mentioned earlier; on the other hand, precautions for fire protection must be taken during construction. Insulation of walls and decks to achieve BO to A60 fire protection walls is depicted in the following figure. 119 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 Figure 4 Fire protection areas of 57 m Motor yacht 2.3 Appearance A yacht must look beautiful and elegant. Because this is often a question of personal taste, the exterior design of a yacht will often be left up to the owner and the designer chosen by the owner, who delivers the design for the yacht's external lines and who knows "his" owner's preferences very well. This division of labor between the shipyard and the owner's architect is supposed to ensure that the so very important appearance of the yacht satisfies the owner's expectations. It may be good advice for a shipyard as well as a yacht-yard to retain the capabilities for the "naval architecture and mechanical engineering" tasks, if not even to execute tem. It is not uncommon that designs are provided by independent architects. But because the technical specifications of a yacht, such as speed, stability, fire protection, noise levels, and operational aspects are contained in the contract, the shipyard should be qualified to follow the technology. The retention of the design capability of a yacht-yard is a condition to advance the development of competitive and powerful design concepts. 2.4 Accommodation Interior design is as important as the external appearance of a yacht. The yacht is purchased by the owner because of its appearance, interior design and quality of life on board. It is therefore only natural that preference is given to the accommodations, only limited space is allocated to spaces such as engine room, tanks and stores. The main attention is directed towards the sophisticated interior design. Reputable interior designers typically execute the interior design. It is up to the shipyard to realize the designer's ideals and to place the technical systems such as air conditioning, vent ducts, etc., so that a maximum quality of interior can be achieved. 120 EUROCONTERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 ,4,- S " ... • Figure 5 Main Saloon of a 57 mn Motor yacht 2.5 Noise and Vibration Levels The most beautiful interior decoration and system functionality would be compromised if the ship is noisy or if vibrations occur. Noise and vibration levels will typically be defined ina yacht's specifications. The demand for low noise and vibration levels of the owner, who is paying more for his being on board of his yacht than a passenger on a cruise ship, is inversely proportional to the available space. Placement of rooms as far away from the sources of noise is necessary as well as applying means of soundproofing. All systems and requirements that occur on a much larger passenger vessel must be accommodated or accounted for in the very tight space of a yacht. The design of the smaller ship can therefore be more demanding of the engineer than the design of a ship with sufficient space and displacement. Guidelines have been developed for passenger ship design and construction in recent years, which define upper limits of noise and vibration levels for different classes of comfort (see the notation Harmony Class of the GL as well as Comfort Class of DnV). Both of these guidelines are not yet fully established and are only conditionally applicable to the evaluation of yachts < 100 m, yet in comparison they give an indication of the extraordinarily high standard of noise and vibration insulation that can currently be achieved on high-end yachts. 121 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 The limiting values according to GL Harmony Class Notation 1, are compared (in the table and diagram below) with the values achieved on a cruise ship and on one of the motor yachts just recently built by Abeking & Rasmussen. The numbers speak for themselves. 455 40" lilt- 30 Public Space, Zone A - C Standard Cabine, Zone C D FFrst Class Cabine, Zone C - D Figure 6 Noise levels, Sea Mode "" [UGL - HG 1 "--. r0P assenger V essel -".:" I!, Jr•.. :. ,- ," . ,G", " A&R 56m Motoryacht Public Space, Zone A -C Standard Cabine, Zone C -D First Class Cabine, Zone C - D Figure 7 Voibraio levels, Sea Mode 0.1 ,- 1122 Public Space, Zone A.- C Standard Cabine, Zone C - D First Class Cabine, Zone C - D Figure 7 Vibration levels, Sea Mode 2.6 Seakeeping and Comfort Modern motor yachts are outfitted with effective ride control systems. At forward speed fins are effective to reduce roll motion. The fin system has no effect at zero 122 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCrION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 speed or a ship at anchor, so that anti-roll tanks, preferably active ones are installed. These anti-roll tanks are also effective at slow speeds or being moored in the harbor basin or pier-side. No means have yet been found, however, to avoid pitching or slamming of relatively small ships in heavy seas. The only way to avoid these unpleasant ship motions is to voyage in regions that have good weather conditions or to omit travel on days with bad weather as far as possible. Inasmuch, a yacht of length under 100 m will experience motions in a seaway on certain routes. Vertical acceleration is commonly used as an indicator for motions and the effects on the human body which a normal person or a trained seaman can stand over a longer period of time aboard a ship with a certain probability of getting seasick. i~~iiiiiiiiik •; • ----•--•-•------•.' --- •--•.- ...... ------:•--- ...... --:....:.....----- • , < ------" ...... ------...... 0..Se.i..e...... ss."...---. . ------ ...... ------.--..--.. " ' " ------...•...... -. . ..--•-- :- ,--• ------. . . .: •...... -.•...... - - --.-.---.. -- ...... ------.-I - -. ...- "...... t -- :. . ------4,1 - E ...... --..--...... • _ ...... = ...... 0.L 0.1 1.0 10.0 100.0 Encounter Period (T] Figure 8 Seasickness as function of frequency and amplitude of acceleration 112 1233 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION. SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete. October 2001 2.7 Stowage and Launching of Tenders The increase in the numbers and sizes of yachts leads to increasingly crowded berthing space. It is common to accommodate so-called water toys on yachts, that is, smaller speedboats, equipment for water skiing and diving, and so on. The possibility therefore suggests itself to outfit the larger yachts with larger tenders. Of significance for yacht quality is the manner in which these large and comfortable tenders can be deployed and that they preferably can also be deployed in small seas states. In Germany, the system of a tender launched over a stern-ramp has been successfully employed with SARs, (search, and rescue ships). This system, in a somewhat modified form, has beerf also applied to yachts. Today, a yacht's aft-ship is greatly influenced by the desire to reach the shore from a yacht anchored at a protected harbor basin. -44 4124 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete. October 2001 'LEMWERDER O0 o Figure 9 and 10 Launching of tender 125 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 3. IMPROVED MEGA-YACHT DESIGN 3.1 Calculation and Simulation The launching of the tender, the behavior of ship at anchor and the behavior in wind and seaway can be predicted through calculations and simulation in the model basin. Various motion control systems can thus be identified, for example in the ship model basin or using theoretical simulations. Qualitative comparisons of different solutions can be made. The design of a motor yacht, which is substantially affected by budgetary concerns, leads to certain sizes and dimensions. All of the naval architects' calculation methods and rules of thumb have shown that the naval architect has only a marginal amount of influence on the ship's motions due to a seaway once the size of a yacht has been specified. Specified by the user TraopWblt funr1ionew cu on of 3ResponseMve s wiOp. lim. \T c Weave scatter boundaries diagram SPercentage operability \ Calculated Figure 11 One-way calculation of the ships characteristics 3.2 Ship's Size and Ship's Movements An indication of a yacht's motions in head seas is the vertical accelerations, which can easily reach 0.5 g in heavy seas. The acceleration values measured 126 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN. CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATIOY - Crete, October 2001 for ships in a seaway depend on the ship's length and clearly show that generally acceptable acceleration values to maintain passenger comfort on board can only be achieved on ships > 100 m. Similar relationships apply in theory to other relative headings and seaways. With few exceptions, a yacht that is substantially shorter than 100 m, will experience unpleasant motions and accelerations starting already at significant wave heights of 1.5 m. That means that seasickness aboard yachts can occur even in relatively good weather, unless seasoned sea-experienced crew is concerned. And it is not for this crew that ships are built and designed, but for the ships' owners. Seastate force 5, Hi/3 - 3.1 m, ship's speed 20 kn 0ý--round bilged boat, lower limit 0-.--round bilged boat, upper limit Emit for well traipsed crew 0. 2 0. ., ...... S i~~' * . . t limit for pass nger comf[ort Figur0, 12 Vertia ac...... tion. asV fucto of length.,~*> 0 20 40 60 so 100 Length of waterline [mIn Figure 12 Vertical acceleration as function of length 4. SWATH-CoNCEPT FOR COMPACT PASSENGER SHIPS AND MEGA-YACHTS 4.1 4.1 Service Experience SWATH Evidently, one needs to choose unconventional hull forms for smaller ships to achieve better seakeeping characteristics. Worldwide there are about 50 SWATH-vessels used for different purposes, implementing different technical solutions and having different propulsion concepts. Many of these vehicles are experimental vessels or so-called .non-document ships", i.e., vessels not certified by regulatory agencies or classed by classification societies or MCA. Based on the SWATH concept, the displacement is divided into up to six components. The submerged torpedoes/lower hulls make up 80% , the struts in the case of a twin-strut design make up approximately 5% each of the whole. Through computer-aided optimization of the size and shape of these components 127 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 it is possible to significantly reduce wave resistance for a- range speeds. The small waterplane area or, respectively, the small change of displacement with passage of waves, greatly reduces the wave excitation and hence the motion response of the ship to the seaway. Since further the basic inertia of the ship about its longitudinal axis is large on account of the large beam of the Swath, a roll motion with small roll angles and gentle accelerations results. Figure 13 The Principle of SWATH Technology The reserve buoyancy during heaving motions is practically linear, or expressed in even simpler terms the Swath ship is rather transparent to the seaway, the waves run under a Swath without exciting it much, by producing much smaller upward and downward forces on each section of the ship. The motions can be reduced to % of conventional ships of comparable size or displacement. This means that, while with conventional monohull ships only the rolling motions can be effectively countered, with a SWATH rolling motions do not even occur in the known order of magnitude;. further, the vertical accelerations are effectively reduced. Slamming can be widely avoided, pitching motions are barely noticed by passengers onboard and heaving motions occur at such long periods, that they can barely be perceived subjectively. A SWATH ship therefore offers a platform that is extremely well suited for ships of small size. Ships built to this design have been in operation for a number of years. In the stormy seas (in winter) of the North Sea, SWATH ships operate on a daily basis. 128 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCrION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 Frame Size 25 m 125 ts 50 mrn1500 ts -...... • ,,. Design speed 20 kts 3 - 9 kts, ax. 14 Is 1"Pnrirty Seakeeping. operating ability Hlf3 = 3.5 m Reduced motion M.diIe at open sea. H V3 =5 -6 m " 2n PnDonty High speed. Fn = 065 Topsde deign. Accorrwnodation, Platform Propulsion Electrical shaft All electnc ship In operation since 1999 2000 Figure 14 Example of built SWATH Ships These ships have practically no off-hire days due to weather and execute their difficult service in the North Sea daily despite their small sizes of 50 m length and 25 m length, respectively. There are practically no down days due to stormy weather for these ships. Several typical acceleration values are shown in the figures. The behavior at rough sea (Beaufort 7) of SWATH and Monohull on parallel course is demonstrated in the photo sequence to supplement measured figures. 4~ Figure 15 a 129 EIJROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 IFI Figure 15 b 50m Monohull and 25m SWATH on parallel course Measurements made in North 03 o025 o02 10 0.15 1324 H 113 2.0Om HI1/3 1.5 m 0 o 2 4 6 B 10 12 14 16 Is 20 forward velocity (kts], head seas Figure 16 Pilot Tenders, measured vertical accelerations 130 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete. October 2001 4.2 Design or a 400 Passenger Day Cruiser The Navatek I was designed for Hawaiian waters. This so-called Twin-Strut SWATH shows excellent, stable behavior in practically all seas occurring at their route offshore Diamond Head, Hawaii. The 40 m ship boards up to 400 day passengers and is usually fully booked for two excursions per day. Dinner parties are held on board in the long-crested swell environment occurring at that location in the Pacific. Restaurant operations on board this 365 t ship are not interrupted, even when the sea reaches 10 ft. Figure 17 NAVATEK I, Dinner ship at Hawaii 4.3 Design of a 175 Passenger Ferry Due to the requirement to avoid seasickness among passengers on the Western- Schelde ferry route, the Dutch County government Zeeland initiated a request for proposals to replace 3000 TDW-ferries for truck and passenger transportation with two 30 m SWATH-ferries. The maximum allowable vertical accelerations in the prevailing seas there were set at 0.1 g. This value can only be guaranteed by SWATH ships. The construction of these ships is to start next year. 131 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 Figure 18 Passenger and bicycle ferry for Western Schelde 4.4 Application of Platform Concepts The pilot vessels built by Abeking & Rasmussen, the 25 m Tenders (125 t) and the 50 m Pilot Station Vessel (1450 t), are used as a platform for the future Mega-Yacht applications and projects for smaller passenger vessels. The unusual form may be a reason that such ships are not necessarily considered aesthetic as yachts. The concepts have been developed and can be adapted to smaller passenger vessels, whereby excellent operational experience with both ships exists. The ships have covered a total of more than 20,000 hours of operation. The design of a mini-cruise vessel could be produced at any time. The design is thereby basically divided into the areas below the main deck and above it. The hull provides the hydrostatics, hydrodynamics, and the space for the propulsion machinery far down in the lower hulls and the machinery rooms. The platform above the main deck provides possibilities for generous space arrangements and design options for the architect/designer regarding cabins and public facilities. Furthermore, the deck line as well as shape of superstructure is no longer dependent on the ship type's shape and gives architects freedom for futuristic designs, if required. The SWATH ships therefore offer similar possibilities as catamarans, which have been widely accepted, whereby the SWATH ships can provide a greater beam. They are not quite as suited to high speeds as they are for exceptional seakeeping that is by far superior to that of monohulls and catamarans. 112 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete. October 2001 4L "-"T Figure 19 Navatek I (OEC-Design) Hull without superstructure. All ship functions included in platform. 133 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN. CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 A. Papanikolaou, E. Eliopoulou, NTUA-SDL "The European Passenger Car Ferry Fleet - Review of Design Features and Stability Characteristics of Pre- and Post SOLAS 90 RO-RO Passenger Ships" A. Papanikolaou Professor Apostolos Papanikolaou is Head of the Ship Design Laboratory at the Department of Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering, National Technical University of Athens. Professor Papanikolaou has been involved with fundamental and applied research in the areas of applied ship hydrodynamics and the design of conventional and unconventional ships for more than 25 years. He published and lectured widely on various areas of his expertise worldwide and was Visiting Professor at various Universities in Germany, Japan, USA and the United Kingdom. He headed and is directing a series of national and international, European Community funded research projects. Professor Papanikolaou is member of the ITTC Specialist Committee on the Prediction of Extreme Ship Motions and Capsize and the International Standing Committee on Ship Stability. He served as Technical Advisor to the Hellenic Chamber of Shipping and the Hellenic Association of Passenger Shipowners, the Greek IMO delegation and the Mediterranean Group of Passenger Shipowners in regulatory matters pertaining to the safety of passenger ships and bulkcarriers. E. Eliopoulou Ms. Eleftheria Eliopoulou is a graduate of the Department of Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering, National Technical University of Athens and currently Dr.-Eng. Candidate at the Ship Design Laboratory of NTUA. She is working on the development and synthesis of ship design software tools, focusing on aspects of ship's damage stability and survivability, with emphasis on passenger ship design. 135 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 THE EUROPEAN PASSENGER CAR FERRY FLEET - REVIEW OF DESIGN FEATURES AND STABILITY CHARACTERISTICS OF PRE- AND POST SOLAS 90 RO-RO PASSENGER SHIPS Apostolos Papanikolaou, Professor, Head of Ship Design Laboratory, National Technical University of Athens, papa~Chdeslab.ntua.gr Eleftheria Eliopoulou, Dipl.-Eng., Dr.-Eng. Cand., Ship Design Laboratory, National Technical University of Athens, elicRhdeslab.ntua.gr SUMMARY This paper presents an analysis of systematically collected technical data of Ro-Ro Passenger ships operating mainly in European waters. The data were derived from collaborative work within the EU- projects SAFER-EURORO [1] and ROROPROB [2] as well as from independent work of NTUA-SDL. The developed technical database enables a systematic analysis of collected data and a variety of conclusions on past, presently adopted and foreseeable pfactices in Ro-Ro Passenger Ship Design pertaining to various main ship characteristics, with emphasis on ship stability and safety. 1. INTRODUCTION The Ro-Ro concept is a very popular and efficient mode of transportation especially in Europe, where 50% of the world's Ro-Ro shipping fleet operates. From the economical point of view, the capability of carrying simultaneously a wide variety of cargoes with minimum infrastructure and shore-based equipment make the particular ship type most competitive. In terms of safety/stability, the vulnerability of large vehicle spaces creates a serious stability and floatability problem in case of flooding due to collision or other incidents leading to car deck flooding (e.g., bow door opening). A significant part of the presented work is within the scope of the EU funded project ROROPROB [2], aiming at developing and implementing a new formalized design methodology for optimal subdivision of Ro-Ro Passenger ships based on the probabilistic damage stability approach. 2. TECHNICAL DATABASE The present RORO Technical Database serves as a comprehensive and stand-alone reference of European Ro-Ro Passenger Ferry fleet of unique technical content and extent of collected data. It currently includes data of 780 European ships of the following types: Passenger/Car Ferries, Passenger/Train/Car Ferries, Vehicle Carriers, Ro-Ro Cargo ships. With respect to the Passenger/Car Ferries, the database is considered to be fully representative of the present status of the entire European Passenger/Car ferry fleet. 2.1 DATABASE STRUCTURE The database has been developed under MS Access 2000. The registered data refer to available information on the following ship characteristics: 137 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 " General characteristics of the vessels (name, former names, owner, flag,'area of operation, class, crew, builders, year of build, year of major modifications). * Main technical characteristics, such as main dimensions, lightship weight, displacement and payload, powering, life saving equipment. * Special devices such as: propellers, rudders, thrusters, stabilizers, sponsons, stern/bow doors. * Information on intact stability and loading conditions. * Basic subdivision below and above main car deck. * Damage stability information on worst case (equilibrium and values of residual stability) * Stability standard currently in compliance as well as the next relevant regulation to be in compliance. * Severe Casualties Records. * Outline of general arrangement. 2.2 DATABASE ANALYSIS The following analysis has been carried out with respect to category Ro-Ro Passenger/Car Ferries and attempts to relate technical and global economic ship characteristics to their stability and eventually safety. The sample of analysed data contains 498 ships and is given in Table 1. ]AveraeI Nin Ma. ISample Length Over All M 126.95 33.02 214.9 497 Length Between Perpendiculars ain 116.51 28.01 - 198 486 Breadth Moulded a 120.19 6.66 - 32 472 Sample of 497 ships Depth to the 1Main Deck i m 7.03 1.99 - 126 269 9% Draught m 5.14 1,25 - 8.22 486 1993-1996 Deadweight t 2716 39 - 15500 476 9 1991-1992 Lightship t 6904 317- 21800 252 %/. Displacement t 9465 196- 25300 264 V Gross Register Tonnes 12437 198 - 59912 498 Speed kn 18.98 8 - 31 478 Total Power of.Main Engines I HP 16772 4563 - 90500 496 Year of Built 1980 1952 - 2001 497 pe-1990 YearofMod/cation of~lajorChar.: 1990 1971 - 2000 80 78% Table 1: Sample of analysed Passenger/Car Ferry data Figure 1. Distribution of sample acc. to Year of Built For the study, a major breakdown into two main categories has been considered, namely: sample of' ships built before 1990 and ships built after 1990, Figure 1. This breakdown was essential, firstly because of the change of design philosophy in the last decade and secondly because of the request for compliance with higher stability standards after the introduction of SOLAS 90. Further categorizations have been also considered such as: ships built after 1993 or 1997, in order to have more clearly the possible effect of the SOLAS 90 and SOLAS 95 requirements and of more recent technological developments. Note however, that in some of these category cases, the differences are not significant, compared to the overall post-1990 results. Additionally, in some other cases, the sample data are not considered satisfactory, due the limited number of registered ships in those categories, in order to conclude with certainty. Finally, the analysis of data considers a categorisation with respect to the different stability standard in compliance for the entire sample of registered ships. 138 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 3. REVIEW OF RESULTS 3.1 SIZE OF VESSELS The last decade has witnessed a continuous increase of the size of vessels and additionally higher service speeds and powering requirements, leading to a new generation of Ro-Ro Passenger Ferry designs and reflecting the increasing demand for faster, more comfortable and safer sea transport, Figure 2 and Figure 3. U p" t990 0poSt 1990 D postl993 DOpost1997 51pre 1990 0 post 1990 0 post 1993 EOpost 19971 180 40000 160 35000 140 30000 120 25000 'e 20000 o 15000 E &t 184 233 - 10000 M20 0 LUa U Brea.h. Dmain Drought Seed D\WT LS DispL GT Po.rr Figure 2: Averages of main dimensions and speed Figure 3: Average weights, tonnage & powering 3.2 DIMENSIONAL RATIOS & COEFFICIENTS L/B ratio: there is no clear trend of the particular ratio. Analysis based on different Lbp categorisation indicates that the ratio decreases for ships built post-1990, especially in the range of Lbp up to 160m. This reflects the relative increase of beam for achieving the enhanced stability standards. On the other hand, length is a major parameter greatly affecting the building cost, but it also depends on harbour and route limitations. Ships Built L/B Ships of Lbp Ships of Lbp Ships of Lbp LB Ships Built Ships Built 100-130m 130-160m >160m post 1993 post 1997 post 1993 Pre 1990 5.0-7.4 4.7-7.4 5.8-7.4 4.9 - 7.4 i4.9l-7.4 Post 1990 4.9-6.9 5.0-6.7 5.3-7.4 Vs 24 5.1 -7,4 B/T ratio: Clearly increasing for the new vessels, an indication of increased stability requirements. Draft remains constant or slightly decreasing (shallower ships) for enabling docking of large ferries at existing port infrastructure and accounting for restricted draft routings. B/r Ships of Lbp Ships of Lbp Ships of Lbp "B/ Ships Built Ships Built Ships Built <130m 130-160m >160m post 1993 post 1997 post 1993 Pre 1990 2.9-4.9 2.9 -4.6 1 3.3 -4.7 3.2-4.9 3.6-4.9 Post 1990 3.6 - 4.9 3.7-4.6 1 3.2-4.7 Vs 24 3.6 - 4.6 T/D ratio: The T/D ratio is of particular importance for the damage stability, because of its direct relation to the ship's intact (and damage) freeboard. It is notable that this ratio obviously decreased (indicating increased freeboard), Figure 4. Ships built with enhanced stability standard have a T/D ratio within the range of 0.67-0.76. Regarding ships that are modified to comply with the enhanced regulations, i.e. SOLAS 90+WOD, 139 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 high T/D ratios are due to external or/and internal modifications suclý as sponsons, ducktails, barriers, etc. AMShips 0 SOLAS 90 sd.Fo.5 A SOLAS 90+WOD, modified -- ie., (mJ Ships) - - ier(SOLAS 90 st& F-0.5) 0.90 085 2 • **-•. . j•.' 4 0,70 0,65 owo 0 20 40 60 80 10 120 140 o60 180 200 220 Lbp (m) Figure 4: T/D ratio acc. to stability standard Block Coefficient: typically increased, in the average, indicating increased hull form efficiency in terms of space and floatability requirements, Figure 5. Regarding pre-1990 results, there is a wide spread of the analysed data, Figure 6. 30000 Ships post-1990 j V-.VE..oo,p rlo y - 628.44i. 186.13 25000 R' - 0.9940 3l-I06 I 20000 *4 Thipspre-1990 o0to Ak&,'Fon... ,2'1053 15000 -60 a Shi.Bspoffa.Iow 4 0 9ipsposo-1990 ,ol Ji.10000 ------0.55 5000 *ILI0I -Linesr (Sip sposrt- o o -- * --- Lm3A Vnsb 6 0 1990) j 0 10 20 30 40 04 06 08 0 .12 14 - LB171000 V0 royIUflHI-- y0,.O5105 Figure 5: Displacement vs. (LBT/1000) Figure 6: Cb vs. V/VL With respect to the minimum values of block coefficients, a notable point is that some registered values of about 0.45 for some older ships now disappeared. Ships Built Ships Built Ships Built post 1993 post 1997 post 1993 0.54-0.72 0.56-0.65 Vs Ž24 0.56 - 0.65 Powering and related coefficients: The coefficient of the English Admiralty, Cn, reflects the hydrodynamic efficiency of the ship's hull form. It can be noted that vessels built post-1990 have improved hydrodynamic efficiency, Figure 7, despite the fact that operational speeds (Froude numbers) and the block coefficients are in the average higher. For ships built post-1993, Cn varies as indicated in the next table. Cn Ships Built Ships Built Ships Built post 1993 post 1997 post 1993 112-312 126-312 Vs >24 202-312 140 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 For a given speed, the required horsepower per ton displacement of newe'r ships is less than for the older ones, Figure 8. - -LaeS~w.~akp,.isg~oa Ships -t slV 4 cs>An -Ue(P -19 Vszos) - - F--on (Post-1990 (Vs <2 kos)) - Poh'. (Ships uh Vs,-24Is) Sk p. p".a5'" 110.00 i tcoo - 0 ,00 7,5 100 120 150 17,5 WO 5 0 '75 300 325 Swsed (k.,|) 2 3 Figure 7. Power vs. [(Displacement 1 " Speed 3) Figure 8: (Power/Displacement) vs. Speed Figure 9 shows the installed main engines ,* horsepower, per passenger for ships:-' carrying more than 1000 passengers. 12 11 1 ,11 l i- Figure 9." HP/Passengers vs. Speed 30 y/,77s'. 3.3 MAIN DIMENSIONS 0.27461l""' _- I For the estimation of the main dimensions in the conceptual desiun stage, some formulae were deduced by greg9ession anatysis of the collected rehevant data, Figures 10 and 11. S All V ~ els Sh•ipsBo ll laf e 1990 All \'m ls 0 Ship, Bo ll al er199 psr. g Psl AAl All o IM Il -. , 2'- 0.8325 Figure HassDimengers vs.Spee So"99141 y: 0b s 1 0(0 I SOn) 4 20 40 60 s 0 100 120 140 160 ISO 2100 Figure 10: Main Dimensions vs. Lbp 141 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete. October 2001 Linear(All Vesels) -. Pw,(apil fe tl90 te~lVsesSp 901*AlVses0 ShipsBuilt after 1 9 90 -0 Power(All Vese~ls) -- Powe, (ShipsBu,11t. It WO) All Vessel, 30000 8.o y 0O029.z .802Al eel 70 R 0.7657 00 t 50 R'097 5000 K'0lt- 0.8361 3000-0.92ý 20 40 60 So 100 120 140 160 890 200 220 ______0______UbPrn 0 20 40 60 10 l1M 20 140 10 110 200 Figure I1I: Draught, Displacement vs. Lbp 3.4 DISTRIBUTION OF WEIGHTS Lightship Weigyht & DWT: For given main dimensions, a vessel built pre-1990 appears to dispose a largzer weight of lightship compared to the newer ones. Focusing on the post-1990 ships, lightship is increasing for post-1997 in comparison to ships built in 1990-1996, Figure 12. From another point of view, the required compartmentation td meet higher stability standards, leads to an increase of lightship weight due to the additional structural weight, proportional to the number of fitted bulkheads, [3)]. Figure13. 14000 ______3000 12000 j----.. * piusl993 9 :000 - - i rpost.1993 ) 0000 -U iness(p m-1993) Sijo( 9000 7000. 0 10 12 14 16 is 20 0 20 40 ~ SO 0) 120 Nof wrgt co. ps Figure 12: Lightship vs. LBDu/1000 Figure 13: Lightship vs. number of basic transverse watertight compartments The DWT/A ratio vs. DWT and speed as parameter is presented in Figure 14. Commenting on this figure it should be remembered that vessel speeds continuously increased, leading to an increase of powering and related machinery weights. However, some increase of machinery weights could be counterbalanced though the introduction of novel machinery units of reduced weight per installed HP. 142 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 * [s-wý(ýVp2Ob. 0c 0 wghVs>,24Km --L tow r(S ip, with VO20kr) - - Line" (SbisnhusVsg-I5.2O kml 050 045 035 O]O 0 IM0 209 300 4000 50 7MO 0 9000 tJ( D"T (t) Figure 14.: DWT/Displacement vs. DWT 3.5 PAYLOAD Lanes' lengthiLbp ratio: The ratio of the car lanes' Length/Lbp has significantly increased for the newer ships, indicating the higher efficiency of modem designs. Vessels built before the year 1990 dispose an average ratio of 7.3, whereas those built after 1990 have a 60% higher ratio of 11.6. For a given deck waterplane area, ships post-1990 can accommodate a larger number of lane meters than the older ones, Figure 15. In domestic, coastal voyages, service speeds have been kept at normal levels because it is either impossible by environmental conditions or non-economical to take full advantage of the higher service speeds, Figure 16. -%V 454 * ShortIntemational I l t ShipsB a f t..1ter 990 y.0093z ~ • •35 Intemational - WK-~: 30 ' " K w...a Donrotic 0 F,2 0 0 :n'* . *-~n~*.a -Lioea(Shon I ntern a'0tionl) * 10 Tinew.(InternationaJ) *15 IO 20 25 30 35 50 2050 2050 3050 4050 5050 5000 2 12p - Bred Speed (Kns) Figure 15." Lanes Length vs. Lbp * Bmld Figure 16: HP/Passengers vs. Speed, per voyage type 3.6 COMPARTMIENTATION BELOW MAIN CAR DECK The introduction of the longitudinal bulkhead concept inside the B/5 line has changed thoroughly the philosophy of design of the internal compartmentation below the main car deck. As a result, the considerable floodable volumes below car deck have been reduced, especially for shallow damages. The majority of older ships have only transverse bulkheads (TB), as a standard subdivision, to the 143 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 greater extent of their length, though in newer ships the combination of transverse and longitudinal bulkheads (LB&TB) is a common feature, except for the relatively small ships, Figure 17. 70 21Al Ship 6019 D E50 AA AC a. SOLASS 40 OIder Shs 17 0a DSLAS9.WO~b ~~~ 30~~~ z20 ONewrShIPS -LwA hi, A * a3 0 A -- L .(SLASgO)OD TB LB&TB 50 M go I10 130 15 10 90 210 Type oldesign 1engrh Ir) Figure 17: Distribution of type of internal Figure 18: Number of watertight compartment compartmentation below main car deck vs. Length The length of primary transverse watertight compartments has been reduced for the newbuildings (and accordingly the number of WT compartments increased) to meet the higher damage stability standards, Figure 18. In order to utilise the space below the main car deck, as this space cannot be used for accommodation purposes by the latest SOLAS regulations, large lower hold decks inside B/5 line are adopted in new concepts, that in some cases might be exceeding even 50% of ship's length, Figure 19. 060 I. All Vesels 0 Sips built post 993 055 24 050 i- I *[ 04 C 1leSlips a 20 040 NewerShips K166 Lie (Nev(Oae,Shipe) S 6 [101 030 120- 4 0 8 0 L2 06 0 s o40 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000 70000 Power (lIP) Figure 19: Lower hold Length/Lbp vs. Lower Figure 20: Length of Engine Room vs. hold Length installed power Although these large non-divided spaces under main car deck are considered intact in typical damage SOLAS conditions, there might be the cause of serious stability problems in cases of actual penetration beyond B/5, if not properly arranged. The length of engine room appears to become shorter, for given installed power, Figure 20. This attributed is to the consideration of novel machinery arrangements and the use of more compact machinery units. 144 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 3.7 INTACT STABILITY Freeboard is an essential parameter affecting the stability and safety of ships both in intact and damage condition. A comparison of the intact freeboards between vessels of different stability standard shows that SOLAS 90 2-compartment standard and A.265 ships dispose comparable and in general larger intact freeboard heights, Figure 21. 3.50 - SOLAS 74 3.25 " * SOLAS 60 3.00. SOLAS 9W92,F-05 2.75 V)' ,X.9 0 A 265 2.50 •2.25 *~X74 98SOLAS T71- SOLAS E~ ~ 2.50* FB -2.00 acc. To ILLC 1.753 •,d,• • - / " Ships modif. 904WOD [.50 90lO D -- [aea (SOLAS 74) 125F05) -- Lrear (SOLAS 9&W2, 1.00 60 1- Lotar (SOLAS 60) 0.75 - Liear (FB am. To 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 20 ILLC) - - La.ar (Shipsmo Lbp(m) I 9WOD) Figure 21: Intact Freeboard vs. Lbp Note that intact freeboards for the larger new ships are close to and over 2.5 m, what clearly calls for the provision of new docking facilities in some European ports, currently adjusted to freeboards in the range of 1.5 to 2.0m. Enhanced stability standards clearly require greater GM values, Figure 22. This should generally affect ship's sea kindness, as ships become stiffer in roll and passengers might experience higher transverse accelerations. However, this negative effect of GMt on seakeeping is commonly counteracted by the employment of stabilising fins and of antirolling tanks. I0tact Coftnbr 4 5 -_, 40 35 .3"M 4, t ._7 ,.:• .N • •0 SOLAS90std 20 . .- : ,-" 0 SOLAS90+n, di6cd 20 1.5 .Vi - - 05 00 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 B..dth/FB Figure 22: Intact GM vs. Breadth/Intact Freeboard 3.8 DAMAGE STABILITY Newer vessels have obviously improved damage stability characteristics due to their compliance with the enhanced damage stability criteria of SOLAS 90 and SOLAS 90+WOD, Figure 23. 145 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 45 SOLAS90 4,0 3.5 0 3.'a SOLAS 74-60 130 o 2,5 , . _o SOLAS90+W'OD, 2.0 • sponsons U 2.0 - -LI (SOLAS9O) 1.5 1.0 -- Linear (SOLAS 74-60) 05 i10 120 140 160 IS0 200 Li, Figure 23: Distribution of residual values of GM 3.9 POSSIBLE IMPACT OF STOCKHOLM AGREEMENT TO SHIPS OPERATING IN SOUTH EUROPEAN WATERS A dedicated study on the possible impact of the Regional Stockholm Agreement (SOLAS 90+WOD) on ships operating in South European waters has been recently carried out jointly by Ship Stability Research Centre - University of Strathclyde and the Ship Design Laboratory - National Technical University of Athens [4]. The objective of the particular study was, among others, to establish which ships operating in EU waters not covered by the Stockholm Agreement need to be upgraded to comply with the provisions of Stockholm Agreement and the possible extent of required modifications. The NTUA-SDL Technical Database was used to identify all affected vessels operating in EU waters along with their relevant technical details. Based on the inventory of the ships under investigation, their current stability standard of compliance, area of operation (typical operational significant wave height Hs) and corresponding subdivision index AIAmax values, it was concluded, that the techno-economical effort for the affected ships to be upgraded to SOLAS 90, two compartment standard will not much deviate from the effort to formally comply with the provisions of the Stockholm Agreement. In Tables 2, 3 the number of affected South European ships (SEU) and the anticipated dates of compliance are presented. 11 Regulation 8-1 Oct 1998 Oct 2000 Oct 2002 Oct 2004 Oct 2005 66 ships Not Affected 19ships F1= 3 4 3 4 5 54ships F=0.5 3 13 16 10 12 14 ships F = 1 1 6 5 2 148 s/il F = 0.5 33 85 25 5 Total 301 6 51 110 44 24 235 ships affected Table 2: SEU ships-Compliance with Regulation 8-1 146 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION. Crete. October 2001 Regulation 8-2 Oct 2006 Oct 2008 Oct 2010 Oct 20111 Oct 2012J I1I 1 9- 4 9 1 2 7 10 10 1 1 29 ships affected Table 3: SEU ships-Compliance with Regulation 8-2 The total modification cost for the whole South European fleet was estimated to range between a minimum of 106,325 k EURO and a maximum of 249,722 k EURO, depending on the finally adopted modification option (sponsons, ducktails, casings, buoyant tanks, cross-flooding, additional subdivisions and internal barriers on car deck, etc.). 4 HELLENIC FLEET Focusing on the characteristics of the Hellenic Fleet (national and international voyages), a significant improvement regarding the renewal of ships can be observed, Figure 24. Considering the data of year 2'001, the average age of the Hellenic fleet has been reduced to 21 years, being practically today identical to the average age of the entire European Passenger Car Ferry Fleet, Table 1. D~I~.~DH n Hellenic PCF Fleetj Hellenic flc tI:n 0ionIVoyages lol Average of Yearaoluil, (2000) - 1977(93 ships) .•50 26%% N • " pt yer J. %42% 20 10-2 21-2 6 21-2 yeas1 upto5 -10,I2ars 1 1-. 16-20 21-25 26year- y year. year, y.r, yrs 6 ;-i5yemrs 13% Savpleof3lhips Figure 24: Distribution of Hellenic PCF Fleet Figure 25: Distribution of Year of Built- International Voyages Note that according to relevant Hellenic Law, the upper limit of age for Ro-Ro Passenger ships operating in Hellenic waters (domestic voyages) was until very recently 35 years. However this limit was recently reduced to 30 years with an expected significant impact on the existing domestic fleet in the years to come. Regarding the Hellenic ships operating in international waters, it should be noted that 42% of this part of the Hellenic Fleet has an age of up to 5 years and the overall average age of the Hellenic international fleet is merely 11 years, clearly below the overall European Fleet average, but also below the average age of the North European Fleet, standing at about 17 years acc. to the study [4], Figure 25. About 85% of the Hellenic Fleet has two-compartment standard of subdivision, Figure 26. Regarding the one-compartment standard ships, 9% of them must have already proceeded for upgrade with 147 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 SOLAS 90, Regulation 8-1, though a significant part, namely 46%, has still time until October 2005, Figure 27. These ships must also proceed for compliance with Regulation 8-2 (two-compartment standard) at later dates. Regarding vessels with two-compartment standard of subdivision, 18% of them must have already proceeded to actions for compliance with SOLAS 90 Reg. 8-1 or they must have taken proper action to increase their A/Amax values in order to postpone the dates of compliance. Note that 27% of this category of ships is newbuildings in compliance with the EUROSOLAS provisions, Figure 28. Distribution of Factor ofSutjision Hlellenic PCFFleet - FWI 15% F=0.5I 85% Sample of 8I ships Figure 26: Distribution of Factor of Subdivision Hellenic PCF Fleet Hellenic PCF Fleet Distribution of A/IAmnx (Dates ofCompliance), Ships Distribution of A/Asnax (Dates ofComplianc), ith F=I Ships with F=0.5 Sample of!)1hips8 Sampe of62s/ps ]ROSOLAS < (85.1998)85s/•90. o0%0% 0 - (2000)9 3% 85i/-90% EUROSO LAS (2000) 97 909/'955% 27 2% 159%- 9(% (2 40605) (2002)27 "% 9 0 "/,9 5 "/ 18% 975% > 97.5% "/95 7.5 % (2005) (2004) 26% 11% Figure 27: Distribution of A/Amax value, Figure 28: Distribution of A/Amax value, Ships with F=I Ships with F=0.5 5 CONCLUSIONS Decisions in the early ship design stage strongly depend on the designer's expertise and knowledge from the past, but also on the knowledge of 'state of the art' technological developments. Technical ship data to the extent collected herein in a systematic manner are rare, though considered essential in the conceptual-preliminary design stage, that is the stage in which major technical and economic ship characteristics are determined following the owner's requirements and statement of work. 148 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 The collected data can be not only exploited in the conceptual design' stage, but crosschecking also for the the data of individual designs under consideration. Also, the derived regression formulae might be useful in the set-up of a computer-aided optimisation procedure, as planned in the EU funded ROROPROB project. The present analysis shows significant changes in the design of pre- and post SOLAS 90 ships and also in the demand of passenger shipping market. These changes reflect not only changes in safety policy, leading to stricter safety regulations, but also changes in the shipbuilding technology through innovation. As a result, new ships appear to be safer, at increased efficiency and economy. The enhanced safety requirements and the increased open market demands, especially after the complete lift of the 'cabotage' regulation in some South European countries, including Greece, will accelerate the renewal of the European Ro-Ro passenger ferry fleet and especially of the South European Fleet. 6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The work, presented in this paper, was partly supported by the EU-projects SAFER-EURORO (C.N. BRRT-CT97-5105) and ROROPROB (C.N. G3RD-CT-2000-00030) and the dedicated EU-DG VII study CN B99-B2702010-S12.144738. The authors are solely responsible for opinions expressed in this paper and the European Commission is not responsible for any use of the data appearing herein in any form. 7 REFERENCES 1. SAFER EURORO Ship Design Team, "Technical Database of European Ro-Ro Passenger Ship", NTUA-SDL Report, European Community - DG XII, Brussels, 2000. 2. ROROPROB. "NTUA-REP-TI.3.2&3-D9-D10", European Community - DG X11, Brussels, 2001. 3. Papanikolaou A., Eliopoulou E., Kanerva M., Vassalos D., Konovessis D., "Development of a Technical Database for European Passenger Ship", Proc. IMDC 2000 Conference, Korea, 2000. 4. "IMPACT ASSESSMENT OF STOCKHOLM AGREEMENT", SSRC-US & NTUA-SDL Partnership, NTUA-REP-PART B-2000, European Community - DG VII, CN B99-B2702010- S12.144738, 2000. 149 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN. CONSTRUCTION. SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete. October 2001 SESSION 3: Passenger Ship Economy & Operation Chairman: Y. Ikeda (University of Osaka Prefecture, Japan) Papers: A. Potamianos, Royal Olympic Cruises "Passenger Ship Operation and Economy" B. Dionisi, Grandi Navi Veloci-Grimaldi Group "Safe Ship Operations: Are We Confusing Regulation with what Makes Sense for Safety?" R. Kjaer, Color Line "Operational Aspects - Passenger Ships" A. Maniadakis, MINOAN Lines "Renewal of Minoan Lines Fleet" M. Mariakakis, ANEK Lines "On the Renewal of ANEK Passenger Ferry Fleet" 151 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 A. Potamianos, Royal Olympic Cruises "Passenger Ship Operation and Economy" Andreas Potamianos was born in Piraeus, Greece. He was educated at Athens University Law School, graduating in 1957 with a Degree in Law. He completed post-graduate studies at the London School of Economics in Shipping Law (1961-1962) Languages: Greek, English, French and German Career 1960 Secretary to Legal Constitutional Committee to Cyprus 1980 to date : President to the Greek Shipowners Association for Passenger Ships 1987 to date: President of the Hellenic Chinese Organization 1987 to date: President of Special Olympics in Greece 1995 Consolidation: Royal Olympic Cruises- Epirotiki Cruise Lines and Sun Line Cruises 1999 to present: Member of the board of the Red Cross 1999 to present: Member of the Hellenic Tourist Board 2000 to present: President of the Yacht Club of Greece- Founder of NOE Olympic Sailing Team for 2004 2000 to present: President of the Yacht Club of Greece Sports: Distinction is water Ski - boat Racing- Athletics. Member of Bid Committee for Olympic Games 2004 Other Activities Admitted New York State Bar Greek Law has been President/Vice President of other Welfare Organizations and V.P of Euro-Business Association, Member of the Board of Helmepa, Business Council (Greece-United States) and other organizations. Awarded with several Greek and other Foreign Decorations awarded the King George Cross (A') and holds title from the Patriarch of Constantinople and Olympic Trophy from Mr. Samaranch, President of International Olympic Committee. 153 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 Andreas Potamianos Royal Olympic Cruise Lines Speech to the International Maritime Multi-conference - Passenger Ship Operation and Economy Crete 16-17 Oct. 2001 Ministers, ladies and gentlemen, It is a great honour for me to be asked to address you today at this Euroconference on Passenger Ship design, operation and safety, organized by the National Technical University of Athens (Dep. Of Naval Architecture and marine Engineering) under the support of distinguished scientists and research centers from all over the World. As an operator of passenger ships and especially cruise ships for many years, I have gained some experience, which requires a great deal of time to elaborate upon. However, I will try, within the time limits set by the program, to expound upon the highlights and portray, the image of the cruise ship from an economic and operational side. The real starting point for cruises as we know them today was in the 1950's and in fact cruises began in Greece in 1953, with Epirotiki, in conjunction with the Greek National Tourist Board, which began operating cruises to the Greek islands with the MV SEMIRAMIS. During and before that period, cruising was the reserve of the elderly and affluent minority who had time and money to spend, on what were long cruises on such venerable ships such as the Queen Elisabeth and the France. In the early 1970's, it was foreseen by the more enlightened operators that there was a market for dedicated cruise ships offering short, 7 day cruises, catering to the vacationing professional. Purpose-built cruise ships were ordered which differed from the other models of the period, as they were one-class passenger ships, offering the same level of service for all on board, with the difference in price being determined only by the type of cabin booked. Anyone who has been on a cruise will understand the reason behind the phenomenal growth in the industry. When it is compared to a land-based vacation, it is quite inexpensive, with everything included, except bars, shopping and excursions. 155 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 Waking up to a new destination everyday, without the trauma of air travel, packing and unpacking, is one of the very special joys of cruising, especially if one considers that during the journey the passenger is able to dine at ease and in comfort, enjoy a sophisticated show, as well as many other activities offered on board. The major change taking place in the industry is that passengers tend to be younger and younger, many travelling with their families. This not only opens the market to a broader demographic sector, it dispels the negatives that have abounded in the industry: that cruises are expensive, too long and geared toward the elderly passenger. The industry has changed remarkably over the past 20 years. In 1986, the average cruiser's age was 56 years. Today, the average age of new cruisers is 46 years. Consumers view the cruise experience as an affordable, "high value" vacation that basically meets the needs for all walks of life, and it is felt that cruising is ideal for families. Every year a growing number of first time cruisers are attracted, which is good for the industry as a whole, as obviously it increases the passenger numbers, but also, as repeat cruisers are becoming more numerous, there is an overspill into all geographical sectors of the market which benefits all cruise operators. At present, 40% of cruise passengers repeat a cruise with the same operator or a competitor within six years, and this percentage is growing annually. According to data of the International Council of Cruise Lines and the estimations of valid analysers and organisations, the global demand for cruises has risen in the last 25 years by an average of 9% per annum. As a result, new shipbuilding orders reflect the tendency to construct huge cruise ships. Newly constructed cruise ships and those presently under construction, in their effort to benefit from the economy and minimise their operational cost, have literally gained the dimensions of "floating cities". The average size of these ships is of 1.700 passengers. 156 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 This development has intensified during the last several years, and has created a new category of tourist market, where the ship itself becomes the final tourist destination, and the passengers spend most of their time on board, as it is difficult for these ships to call on smaller ports. The economic philosophy of these ships is that the passenger remains onboard as much as possible in order to spend his money on the ship. Within the structure of the tourist markets and cruise ship enterprises, important changes have taken place during the last years as well, and are expected to continue during the coming 5 years on a smaller scale. Mergers and strategical alliances have led to the creation of several huge companies that act internationally under the tough competition of a limited number of companies. This evolution, which commenced mainly in the American market, has recently expanded to the European markets. s Although the current prospects for cruise demand are very positive, the 2l1 Century will however, bring intense international competition to the market. In this environment, Greek maritime tourism, that is closely linked to all categories of our passenger fleet, (the largest in Europe) must develop national strategies for the reinforcement of the international competition, through modernisation and development. This strategy requires the assistance and the contribution of the State by taking measures similar to those taken by other European countries. For example, the flexible legislation on the matter of manning, taking into consideration the IMO and the European Union Regulations and Directives requirements for safe- manning, allows the managing company to regulate the extra manning with assistant personnel - (basically hotel personnel) according to the functional needs of the ship. The Greek Shipowners have repeatedly declared that they are not afraid of the lifting of cabotage and of the competition, but they want the competition with foreigners to be "on equal terms" as it is regulated by the European Treaty and the law of competition. 157 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 As far as the further rise of the number of transported passengers is concerned, the prospects are positive and Greek Shipowners, with their methodical action and their experience in management, will be able to maintain Greek Shipping on the level that it has historically held, as well as its position in the international and local fleet. The needs of the tourist market and the consequential rise of employment of those occupied in the hotel department of ships (i.e. hotel managers, stewards, chefs etc.), as well as the competition in the area where the ships of our sector function, impose the need to upgrade the knowledge and qualification of this category of personnel. Looking nearer to home, the Mediterranean is fast becoming the new cruise growth area and it is predicted that it will experience the same growth pattern as the Caribbean. The reasons for this are many, but the main fact is that the Mediterranean, and in particular the eastern Mediterranean, offers perhaps the best cruising area in the world. The climate is ideal, culture abounds throughout, distances are fairly short and it is possible to visit the three very different continents of Europe, Africa and Asia on the same cruise, which is something that no other region can o ffe r. We at Royal Olympic Cruises believe that the way forward for the region is not through the introduction of the mega cruise ship, but through smaller passenger ships that can enter all the ports of the region without overwhelming the local population, allow the passenger to be close to and in touch with the sea and environment and to offer a more personalised and intimate service reflecting the flavour of the region, with the destination being as important as the ship itself. According to Jay Lewis, President and CEO of Market Scope Inc. U.S., smaller lines can compete with the larger lines, but what can smaller lines do to realize a decent profit? There are two possibilities: go international ultra-luxury (a high risk proposition today given the number and experience of the active players) or go regional. For the smaller lines and even for mid-sized lines, regionalization is a viable strategy for success. We believe that the Greek cruise industry can offer this type of cruise in our area giving to the passenger the real culture and atmosphere which created our 158 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRU•CTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 civilization. The Greek crew of the ship and the persons who lived in this country are the only ones who 'Can really pass on the vibration of our history to the passengers. It is with all this in mind that Royal Olympic Cruises ordered two new fast cruise ships at the Blohm+Voss shipyard in Hamburg, the first "Olympic Voyager", delivered in June 2000 and the second "Olympic Explorer", 2001, to be delivered later this year. The ships have a capacity of 920 passengers in total. They have a cruising speed of 28 knots, making them the fastest cruise ships in the market, based on a proven hull design that has been used extensively in naval vessels previously. This design allows the superior speed advantage with reduced fuel consumption, when compared to a conventional hull at the same speed. Officers and crew number 360 in 152 crew cabins. The ships have 8 decks offering a wide ranger of public rooms: a main restaurant with seating for 470 a garden lounge restaurant with seating for 2 10 a shopping passage and piano bar, card room and library an atrium over two decks with casino, casino bar and reception a big show lounge with seating for 420 va fitness/weilness centre of approx. 175 m2 including a beauty salon, Turkish bath and sauna a sky lounge with discotheque for 138 an exterior swimming pool with a big pool bar Much attention has been paid to achieve an optimum logistical solution on board with an ingenious separation of traffic ways for passengers and crew alike as well as for provisioning between hotel service stations and for the re- provisioning of cool rooms, galleys and pantries. A comprehensive waste management system takes the protection of the environment into account. For disembarkation, gangways and platformns (two each per side) help to ensure the all important fast tender services ashore; further separate shell doors being installed for provisioning, luggage and shore gangway. Another novel idea is the storage of the life boats and tenders in special davits, inside niches, for the passage through the Panama Canal. During normal service these boats hang half over the shell permitting a spacious promenade on the Boat Deck. 159 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 The size of these new ships is in line with our view of future cruising requirements and expectations of the Mediterranean, as outlined previously and the additional speed will allow itineraries that cover the three continents in the region in 7 days, as opposed to up to 10 days with a conventional ship. Our research has shown that the preferred optimum cruise period in the Mediterranean is between 7 and I11 days, especially for our important North American client. With the new ships we will be able to offer them more destinations than ever before, with more time spent in each pott, allowing them to enjoy and save their time ashore without the typical rush to move on to the next port. The ships have been built in a style that reflects the atmosphere of the region and will definitely not emulate the Caribbean style mega ships presently under construction. We will aim to provide ships that allow the passenger to be close to the environment, with some of the features of the more traditional days of cruising, while also providing the most sophisticated technology on the market today. This combination, we feel, is a winning formula that allows Royal Olympic Cruises to expand into the new millennium and be ideally placed to face the challenges of increased competition that will undoubtedly surface.We intend to meet the competition by offering our yacht style cruises at the same price as the much larger ships, although traditionally operators were able to charge a premium rate for smaller luxury cruise ships. This luxury may well be on the decline as the market is facing an ever more discerning cruising population, who are increasingly looking for quality and price as their main cruise choice criteria. As a long established and pioneering cruise company, Royal Olympic Cruises is always searching for the new cruising area, ahead of our competition. There is little, if any, of the globe not covered by cruise ship calls, although some areas are still only served by a small scattering of ships. The Mediterranean is still the domain of the medium sized companies, although, as mentioned, the mega ships used in the Caribbean are now emerging in the Med. This will begin to change the face of cruising in the region, bringing with it a whole new trend of passengers and creating serious challenges for the local operators. 160 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 We feel confident, however, and market research confirms, that the particular blend of Greek Style and personal service we offer on our smaller ships will always be popular with the more discerning, cultured and educated cruise passenger. We believe, therefore, that we can enjoy a strong growth period over the next five years at the very least, gaining not only from growth of cruising interest in the region, but also from the inevitable swing of our target passenger group towards smaller ships and away from the huge floating hotels that is their main alternative. Over the. last 150 years, the Greek passenger shipping industry has, without doubt, been one of the major factors behind the development of tourism in Greece. Without it, most of the popular islands would still only be places on a map. The confidence shown by Greek shipping to invest in new and faster tonnage will ensure that it will continue to be inexorably linked to the growth of the tourist industry in Greece, as the cruising season has now been extended to 8 months, with the intention to further extend this to a year-round Mediterranean cruising programme, as from the year 2000, with special emphasis towards religious groups. These are not deterred in their cruising expeditions by a drop in the temperature and can thus take advantage of the low fares during winter. The picture presented so far is based on present trends and does not take into account the positive effect that the Athens 2004 Olympic Games will undoubtedly have. However, in order to take advantage of the Olympics, we will have to concentrate on our country's infrastructure and on the quality of services offered. This is where our greatest challenge lies and where Greece can prove that it can deliver the right product for the next millennium. It has to be understood that there are only 3 years left and that there is an imperative need for harmonious collaboration to attain this goal. It can be clearly appreciated that the Greek shipping industry does much to enhance the local tourist industry. The cruise ships offer a service that is able to show many differing aspects of Greece and the eastern Mediterranean to the passenger in comfort, while the ferries connecting Greece to continental Europe bring the tourists into the country and the inter-island ferries distribute them to the many islands. The success of the Greek tourist industry is closely linked with the ships that transport its tourists and the facilities that each destination provides. Without an integrated shipping industry, it is doubtful whether the popular islands would 161 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN. CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 have been "discovered" and developed and tourism in Greece would have surely been mainly by-passed as a destination. The Greek passenger shipping industry is committed to the continued improvement in the services they offer, through a huge investment in new and more luxurious ships. This commitment can be seen in the same vein as other areas in the tourist industry in Greece, where great strides are being made to improve the overall quality of hotels and services offered. The use of modern technology in the maritime transport chain will continue to progress under the observation of cost benefit criteria. It has led to changes in work conditions and work contents for personnel on board and ashore (operational changes), i.e. reducing captain's autonomy because the ship can be reached by modem means of communication day and night. Additionally, labour cost is a major influence in considering European and international manning. On a straight-line comparison, the cost of manning a vessel fully-employed with Europeans will obviously be higher than manning her with an all Far Eastern complement. If a shipowner wishes to be competitive, his most important decisions are to choose a flag and a crew. However, we must admit the Greek flag gives a number of advantages which the passenger expects in this area of the world - tradition, Greek atmosphere, filoxenia at each port of call and a general warm reception from the islanders. Most of the Greek crew are coming from the Greek islands and practically all are now either bilingual or trilingual on the Greek ships they serve. We encourage, as a Greek Passenger Ship Association, together with the Greek Minister of Merchant Marine, the young generation to join the seamen's profession in order to keep the tradition of Greece as a seafaring country. The Greek unions in this respect are also assisting and we are trying together with the Ministry to develop a lot of new educational programs. The question- that arises is whether the whole Greek shipping industry is examined as one national enterprise or every ship-manager has to solve the problem on his own. The answer is that the state's maritime policy must adopt appropriate measures, i.e. establish a second registry, in order to offer comparative advantages to the whole shipping industry. 162 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AN-,D OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 The desire for a continuous reduction of ships' operating costs which is often the most effective short-term strategy of a competitive ship-owning company, affects in a negative manner the balance of expensive and well qualified Greek seafarers, when available. The availability levels of cheap labour, notably supplied from East Asia and East European countries, has substantially reduced the need for the recruitment of ship officers originating from European countries who more or less offer higher quality services. The large passenger vessel trade has increased dramatically in recent years and projections are for even greater increases in the future. This increase in business has been accompanied by an increase in vessel size and attendant public exposure. These factors have made the safety of large passenger vessels a growing area of public concern, not only nationally, but internationally as well. Ship safety, including large passenger vessels, has been covered in the past by a myriad of international, national and classification society rules and regulations. Large passenger ship safety is an issue that requires substantial attention. Trends are showing increasing ship capacity and size, substantially more passengers and increased travel to remote areas. Coupled with such issues as crew turnover, search and rescue (SAR) limitations, the dynamic nature of the industry and limitations of systems that focus on hardware and hardware solutions, the need for a better approach to safety is strongly indicated. A risk- based approach makes it easier to evaluate such issues and propose solutions both for their impact on risk and for their potential effectiveness. This approach can take into account different perceptions about risk, and is the best strategy to deal with the complexities associated with existing and emerging risks. The increasing tendency for orders of huge cruise ships, has today reached the capacity of 150.000 GRT, 5.000 persons on board, causing problems to the competent International organisations who took the initiative to study the issue of safety of these enormous floating cities. There are currently some 64 ships on order or under construction world-wide - 21 are in the 85.000-to-91.000 GR Panamax class, and 15 more over-100.000- GT. The largest of these is the 150.000-ton Cunard QUEEN MARY 2. At 345 metre length overall and beam of 40 meters, this ship chines closest yet to the hull dimensions of a United States Navy NIMIITZ-class aircraft carrier, with an overall length of 334.7m and beam 40.85. 163 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 In January 1999 after delivery of several cruise ships measuring in excess of 100,000 grt and carrying passengers and crew totalling over 3800 persons and with even newer ships able to carry over 5000 persons, the Secretary General of IMO expressed his concern regarding the recently delivered cruise ships of an ever increasing size. At the same time he expressed the hope that the operational safety aspects in such ships have been kept in line with the technical developments. The Secretary General of IMO in the opening of the 74 Session of Maritime Safety Committee last May, suggested that the safety of the thousands of passengers who travel by sea for recreation or business and of those who man the ships that carry them was of paramount importance. He emphasised that taking action to enhance the safety of large passenger ships would represent a significant move on IMO's part to implement the proactive approach policy, which had been given a highly prominent place in resolution A.900(21) ( Objectives of the Organisation in the 2000s). With regard to matters which affect both existing and future large passenger ships, the Maritime Safety Committee reaffirmed the view that efforts affecting existing large passenger ships would continue to focus primarily on matters related to the human element such as operations, management and training, taking into account that this would not preclude consideration of equipment and arrangements issues for such ships if deemed appropriate. The high standards of accommodation, service and entertainment offered by the cruise industry today have been achieved largely through economy of scale. Passengers, even in the luxury market sectors, have to be accommodated in large numbers aboard ships designed to provide each with enough space to accord a sense of individuality and to avoid the impression of crowding and sense of herding during boarding, and debarkation. Today, consumers view the cruise experience as being a contemporary, affordable «high value>> vacation that basically meets the needs of all walks of life. They feel that cruising is ideal for families, cruising is a great way to see a large portion of the world, and they view cruising as the ultimate < 164 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 The obligatory implementation of the ISM Code since 1st July 1998 as a part of rapid changes in the international regulatory system, along with the evolution of information technology onboard ships, have contributed to the quality and quantity levels of the seafaring profession. Also, the new-provisions of the International Convention STCW have improved the standards of education and watchkeeping of the seafarers. But the radical evolution of technology and the operating conditions of a modem ship require great effort on behalf of the seafarers in order to obtain the best execution of duties and above all in order to confront crisis situations. The Greek Shipowners Association for Passenger Ships, which is attending to this evolution on a national and community level, has developed a co-operation with other European Shipowners Associations, as well as with scientific research centres established in all sectors of ship safety, and has taken into consideration the state-of-the art research conducted by the University of Strathclyde in the U.K. and the National Technical University of Athens, under the direction of Professors Vassalos and Papanikolaou, the main organisers of this Conference. This co-operation has proven to be successful mainly in the application of maritime safety regulations. Thank you. 165 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN. CONSTRUCaION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 B. Dionisi, Technical Director, Grandi Navi Veloci, Grimaldi Group, Italy "Safe Ship Operations: Are We Confusing Regulation with what Makes Sense for Safety?" Mr. B. Dionisi born in 1949, completed studies at Nautical Institute in 1970 as Deck officer and as Engineer officer in 1975, when he completed also the studies as naval architect. During this period he spent some time at sea on board of various kind of commercial ships. After spending two years at the Italian Navy he started to work for the Grimaldi Group as technical superintendent first than as responsible for Hull and Machinery Insurance as well as P&I cover and related technical and insurance subjects. Then he became Director of the Technical Department and he is responsible for evaluation of second hand ship's purchasing, ship's modifications, new ship building as well as responsible for the day to day fleet management of the Group. As soon as the ISM code became mandatory he has been nominated Designated Person Ashore for all ships managed by Grimaldi Group's Companies. Mr Dionisi is also member of Technical Committee of LR. ABS, RINA and Confitarma. 167 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 Safe ship operations: Are we confusing regulation with what makes sense for safety? By Bruno Dionisi, Technical Director, Grandi Navi Veloci, Grirnaldi Group, Genoa, Italy 1. Introduction I have chosen to devote my presentation to issues of ship operational efficiency and safety and how they are affected by the existing regulatory regime. The main thrust of my presentation is that the current approach to regulation is unhelpful to the promotion of safety. I shall spell out my thoughts by touching on themes such as: > the dynamic link between ship operat'ional efficiency, safety' and regulation, what we really mean when we talk about improved self-regulation, responsibility and accountability > how a passenger shipping company fits in with current European safety and environmental policy and last, but not least > my personal plea for a more common sense approach to the regulation of safety. 2. The dynamic link between ship operational efficiency, safety and regulation The shipping industry can not thrive by concentrating solely on the economic dimensions of its activities in isolation from other dimensions, such as safety and environmental protection. In our capacity as ship owners, operators or managers we have responsibilities for safety at sea, as well as for the efficiency and profitability of our activities. Accordingly, we have to comply with laws, rules and regulations at the local, national, regional and international level. Compliance with safety regulations costs money. This we must, and do, accept - for safety's sake. However, this does not mean we should accept the cost burden unconditionally. As we have to run our ships as economic - efficient and profitable - enterprises, we constantly have to ask ourselves whether money spent on safety is money well spent. Notwithstanding the efforts of the International Maritime Organization (IMO) to harmonise safety regulations at the global level, there is lack of uniformity in their application. This is a perennial problem, and one that is very much part of human nature. 169 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION,- Cree October 2001 Different people may read different things in the same rules, no matter how clearly the rules are written, because they have different backgrounds, perceptions, expectations and priorities. This also explains why certain countries enact safety and environmental legislation in excess of the NO0 requirements. The US Oil Pollution Act of 1990 (OPA 90), for instance, has introduced a considerable amount of - expensive - regulatory duplication for the industry. In recent years, the mood in Brussels often has been similarly unilaterally inclined. The passenger shipping industry is an obvious target of regulation as governments are concerned with ensuring the safety of the travelling public. As a responsible industry, we fully share this concern for safety. We also recognise the essential role of regulation for other, practical reasons, however. Rules serve the useful purpose of telling us what is expected from us. Without any clear guidance on do's and don'ts, people can have little sense of responsibility and, in consequence, are more liable to causing harm - to themselves as well as to others. To the extent that regulations provide us with a predictable, fixed framework within which we can plan and conduct our activities, they serve our efficiency goal. Just think about the 'inefficiencies' caused - and suffered! -by parents who do not impose any discipline on their children! Rules help to promote orderliness by creating a climate of predictability. They help people go about their daily business confidently and with greater effectiveness. In contrast, when goal posts are moved constantly, the prevailing climate bf uncertainty will introduce considerable inefficiencies. By xvay of example, I might refer to the immediate aftermath of the Erika disaster. The French authorities and the European Commission launched into a whole range of politically charged, radical proposals that threatened to upset the proverbial apple cart at the IMO - eroding the continued viability of a single, global, NMO-led approach to the re~gulation of ship safety and pollution prevention. The real drawback of safety regulation becoming a disjointed process - that is to say, ill co-ordinated, disparate and piece-meal, and altogether inefficient and confused - is that those at the receiving end no longer can form a clear picture of what it is exactly that is expected from them. Yet their sense of responsibility urges them to try - as best as they can - to find out what they need to do in order to be in compliance xvith the law. To the extent that they get it wrong, they are landed with big inefficiencies - witness the wrongful ship detentions by zealous port state inspectors, for example. 170 EUXOCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTIONSAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, OctOber 2001 Furthermore, as we are preoccupied with finding a path through the regulatory labyrinth - effectively doing the job of the regulators! - we are distracted from what we should really be doing, and are best at doing - looking after the safety of our ships and the people on board. This brings me to the title of my presentation: "Safe ship operations: Are we confusing regulation with what makes sense for safety?" I strongly believe we have landed in a situation of being expected to ensure ship safety, yet the regulatory regime that is supposed to support us in this formidable task effectively is hindering us. This is a very unproductive way of going about our business. The sense of malaise is shared by the maritime community at large. Uncountable man hours are spent - in company offices, at conferences and also at the 1Ž40 - discussing the problem and sugg-esting ways to overcome it. 3. Self- regulation, responsibility and accountability: WVhat do we mean by it all exactly? Efforts to find a way forward have focused on the potential benefits of increased self- regulation with the aim to ensure that generally accepted rules of conduct are tailored better to the needs of the industry, thus avoiding wastage and inefficiencies. Proponents of self-regulation place their faith in the industry's sense of responsibility. Responsibility is a hotly debated topic in our industry today, But, what do we mean by it exactly? Concepts such as "chain of responsibility" and "collective responsibility" are findling favour among those keen to impress the need for the different players in our industry to. recognise - voluntarily - their respective responsibilities for safety and the environment. But, are these usefu~l concepts? In the absence of legally binding rules, the term "chain" leaves each player free to decide whether or not to assume a specific responsibility and, when things go wrong, to blame someone else for being the weak link in the chain. In a similar vein, the concept of "collective" responsibility leaves us in the dark on who should be doing what, when and how. In my view, a truly responsible person is capable of making rational decisions about do's and don'ts autonomously, that is to say, irrespective of any external pressures such as may be imposed by mandatory rules, regulations and standards. 171 EIIROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CO.NSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Cret, October 2001 In other words, it must be a matter of personal conviction, not of diktat. This is an important distinction, which I believe is insufficiently recognised. The general lack of appreciation that people need to feel they can embrace their responsibilities, and their legal obligations, wholeheartedly - as opposed to feeling alienated - is, in my view, a major cause of the unpalatable regulatory climate our industry finds itself in today. This is the main point I wish to get across to you in the course of my remaining presentation. Furthermore, if people can not identify with their responsibilities, how can they be expected to be accountable? There is indeed a further dimension to responsibility. It is called accountability. Responsibility involves much more than merely complying with the norms of the day or respectable conduct. True accountability has to do with trustworthiness. People who are accountable are people who wish thieir conduct and actions to be generally understood, i.e. transparent to all. They are at all times willing to explain themselves, for better or for worse. Even if they behaved badly, or took the wrong decisions or actions, they are prepared to face up to the consequences of what they did. Responsibility and accountability, then, are extremely difficult to enforce by means of strict, prescriptive measures. This is because they concern matters of personal awareness, beliefs, values, motivation, and, ultimately, commitment. 4. Engaging people is the key to safety The success or otherwise of our safety efforts hinges very much on the proper engagement of people. The reason for this is quite simple. Nobody likes to be told what to do, how to behave or what thoughts, beliefs or values to entertain. This is human nature. People are - and feel - most effective when they retain a minimum element of control. Above all, they must be able to believe in what they are doing. Proper education and training play an invaluable role in this process. They are essential if people are to be confident, and capable of acting on their own initiative, based on adequate knowledge, skills and experience gained. Learning is a gradual process that varies from person to person. It takes time for people to feel they are on the right track, doing the right thing and making the right decisions at the right time. Trying to force the pace is bound to cause alienation, to make people feel of marginal importance, and eventually to strangle their motivation. 172 EIIROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Ce., Otober Zooi The industry's experience to date with the International Safety Management (ISM) Code immediately comes to mind as an appropriate illustration of how well-intended regulation can go wrong. The vast majority of ships and company offices required to meet the Phase I compliance deadline of July 1, 1998 acquired the necessary Solas Convention certificates on time. However, according to numerous port state control reports and information communicated by seagoing personnel, fulfilment of this compulsory certification requirement can not be taken automatically as evidence of good safety management practices. In a similar vein, [SM Code auditors express real disquiet over ISM certificates due for renewal, reporting a lack of understanding of what the code is trying to achieve and an over-reliance on manuals and checklists. The latest warnings of the International Association of Classification Societies - that as much as two thirds of the ships and company offices which must meet the 1 July 2002 deadline of the code's second and final phase have yet to be certified - do little to inspire confidence in the future effectiveness of the code. It is wvell to remember that the lIMO's decision to incorporate the ISM Code as .a binding instrument into the Solas Convention (Chapter IX) was not taken lightly. There wvas a considerable body of opinion in the late 1980s and early 1990s, when the code was first developed in the form of non-binding IMO guidelines, that argued against making the code mandatory. In the light of experience gained so far with the implementation of Phase I - which includes passenger ships -the view is held in certain quarters that the potential for the code to precipitate the transition to a safety culture has been undermined by its mandatory status. According to this view, achieving Solas Chapter IX compliance has amounted primarily to a finite, paper-chasing exercise, whereas it should have involved a continuous learning process. 5. Portrait of the Grimaldi Group: Commitment to safe technical innovation and quality control The Grimaldi Group considers itself at the forefront of technical innovation in shipping. Not surprisingly, and like other responsible companies, it places the highest demands on human skills and on proper safety management systems and procedures. It is well to point out that our commitment to new technology has made our fleet one of the youngest in the world. The average age of the Grimaldi Group's cruise-ferry and multipurpose ro-ro vessels in service - which total 10 vessels - is seven years. 173 EUROCONFtERENCE ON PASSENGER SKIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 We have established our own, in-house developed Quality System for which we have obtained accreditation in a number of countries, including Lloyd's Register certification. Not having a proper - and rigorously applied and maintained - quality system would be akin to commercial suicide. Our Quality System is a dynamic system, subject to regular review in accordance with international standards, including those of the ISM Code. We view our Quality System as an essential tool to help ensure that new or improved, technical ship features are well understood by operational and management staff alike, both on board the ships and in the shore offices. For the same reason we attach the greatest importance to feedback from personnel of all categories and at all levels. The high demnands placed on our ships' crews in particular can not be underestimated. However exciting it may be to wvork on board the most modern ships, our crews are required to train - and re-train - to the highest standards. In the case of our passenger carrying vessels, hotel, catering and entertainment staff and other crew members with passenger responsibilities assume additional responsibilities with respect to emergency response involving large groups of people. This is in full compliance with the latest [MO requirements (STCW 95). As a true pioneer in the operation of fast ferries, we also attach the highest priority to navigational skills. In recent years, our expansion programme for our cross-Mediterranean vehicle- carrying cruise/ferry fleet has concentrated on the introduction of ever larger and faster ships - capable of speeds between 23-29 knots. To date, we operate six such fast cruise/ferries - Majestic, Splendid, Fantastic, Victory, Excelsior and Excellent - all of which offer sophisticated standards of passenger comfort and entertainment akin to cruise-type facilities. These vessels are operated and managed by Grandi Navi Veloci (GNV), one of the Grimaldi Group companies. The fleet expansion programme is based on conversions (e.g. Victory) and jumboisation projects, as well as on new buildings. In March next year [2002] we will take delivery of our largest fast cruise/ferry yet, of 50,000 gross tonnage (La Superba). She will be capable of 29 knots when running on all four engines and have a passenger and car carrying capacity of, respectively, 3,000 and 1,000. 174 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN. CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION.- Cre11. October 2001 In addition, we have plans for a second sistership with a target delivery date in early 2003. 6. The public dimension of passenger shipping It is worth pointing out that our leading role in the promotion of passenger shipping and the transport of goods and vehicles on coastal, shortsea and longer international routes in the Med has a significant, public dimension. Specifically, the Grimaldi Group's strategy of linking Italy's ports and those of other countries in the Med (e.g. France, Spain, Tunisia) fits in wvell with the maritime current transport policy of the European Commission. In view of increasingly intolerable levels of road congestion, the EC is keen on g-rowth in coastwise, shortsea and cross-regional shipping, in the interests of both safety and environmental protection. It is vital that governments recognise our public role, by ensuring that any regulatory measures - whether at the national, regional or international level - take account of the investments industry engages in, and must make in order to be competitive. Because of our preoccupation with technological innovation, my company depends on long-term planning to recoup its investment costs while remaining profitable. By way of illustration, during 2000 GNV substantially expanded its volume of transport. The 38.5% increase in passen :gers carried in that year - nearly one million people (969,000) - marked the highest increase. The company ended the year with a 30.9% annual growth of revenues (totalling 172 million EURO) from normal operations over 1999, and a - significant - 20.9% increase in net profit. It also improved its cash flow by 28%. This very encouraging performance was achieved notwithstanding much higher fuel prices - an increase in excess of 70% xvas recorded (the impact on the loss and profit statement for the year ending 31" December 2000 was over 10,4 million Euro). In addition, the company had to absorb the increased depreciation and amortization charges from its additional transport capacity. It also carried a heavier financial burden resulting from higher interest rates and an increase in average borrowings. Against this background, it should be clear that we are really worried about today's regulatory - or should I say political - climate which encourages the introduction legislation of with insufficient attention to either its practicability or affordability. 7. A plea for a more common sense approach to regulation As the title of my paper suggests, I believe, or I should say I fear, that the standard distinct, setting role of regulation is not properly understood. Above all, the approach to regulation which prevails today lacks common sense. 175 EIJROCONFtERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 I also believe strongly that the resulting confusion is detrimental to safety, not least because of the demoralising effect on the very people who have to live and work with the detailed content of rules and regulations on a daily basis. The gap between safety regulations and their full and effective implementation by all concerned seems ever wider and impossible to bridge, even in the eyes of the best and most responsible people and companies. In the view of many, the current approach to the regulation of safety has become seriously unhinged. Some would even say that we have gone off the rails completely, not just because of the sheer volume of regulations, but because we strive to achieve too high standards. In my view, however, the reason for the current malaise is not so much that the regulations are pitched at a too high level. The real problem is the constantly changing nature of regulation. People can not cope with constant change. Trying to make them do so creates confusion over the applicability of rules - to the detriment of safety. Ships' crews in particular need a stable level of regulation in order to be able to perform adequately, both as individuals and as a team. The IMO has committed itself to placing a greater emphasis on the human element, and its strategy for the next decade is built around a more determined undertaking to focus on the implementation of existing rules and standards. Yet, at the same time, amendments to existing regulations and new regulations are promulgated by the IMO with great frequency. This is not helpful. The IMO's - laudable - goals and objectives will not be achieved unless there is a greater willingness to set priorities and to stick to them. My company has no quarrel with the IMO for setting high standards, on the contrary, we welcome and adhere to the highest standards. However, now that major parts of the Solas Convention have been comprehensively revised, for instance, we need to have assurances that the updated Solas regime is sacrosanct, regardless of any remaining imperfections. The period of decision-making is over and my company, like no doubt many others, needs to be able to look forward. We have invested heavily in a new generation of fast cruise/ferries to serve busy Mediterranean routes. If we are to operate these vessels with maximum safety, we must know the cost of doing so. If we can not run them economically, safety will suffer. The consequences of an accident do not bear thinking about, given our vessels' very large passenger carrying capabilities. Operational experience is an essential ingredient of regulation. Regulators rarely take direct responsibility for implementation. Shipping companies and ships' crews, on the other hand, are the first in line to monitor the outcome of legislation. 176 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIEPDESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION.- Crete, October 7001 Specifically, they are the people who make regulations work, despite any shortcomings or inefficiencies. As practitioners, they are also the first to suffer the ineffectiveness of legislation. Their feedback is therefore essential in order to ensure that the original intent of rules and regulations - the promotion of safety - is achieved. In this respect a flexible application of the relevant rules is preferable to a rigid approach. Unfortunately, legislators can be their own worst enemy. They easily forget that the implementation of rules and standards has its own dynamic. In consequence, they are liable to blocking safety improvements, by being too fixated on the 'letter' of the law rather than its spirit. The 1M0 has now pledged to redress the balance by adopting a more pro-active, risk- based approach to regulation. It pins high hopes on Formal Safety Assessment. This is welcome news, not least because the application of the FSA methodology to the rule-making process involves expert judgements of practitioners - people with operational experiences of existing regulations, ships' designs and technologies. 7. Concluding remarks To conclude, modem society is expected to protect people and the natural environment. It seeks to do this by promulgating enforceable rules and standards. My message is that we must be less obsessed with writing everything down in rules and regulations or directives. Well-trained people should knowv what and how to do things at the right moment in time. As a shipping company, we are naturally preoccupied with operational efficiency. It is my firm belief that safety is a necessary investment to optimise operational efficiency. In other words, if we do not accept the cost of safety, we must be prepared to suffer operational inefficiencies. Governments have the responsibility, however, to ensure that safety costs imposed by their regulations are both predictable and commensurate with the targeted risks. In particular, they need to pay far greater attention to the impact of legislation, by looking at the facts rather than being preoccupied with what the rules say (or do not say!). The IMO, unfortunately, does not have a strategy to measure results. Instead, it struggles on under a constant barrage of differing and often conflicting demands for priority setting. A proliferation of regulations results, all addressing different targets, some overlapping, others contradicting each other. We can only hope that as more experience is gained with Formal Safety Assessment, a more rational, streamlined, systematic, consistent and reliable approach to regulation 177 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 will result, with clear priorities and firm timetables so that the chosen safety levels are sustainable in the longer term. Ships will always be exposed to dangers that can not be foreseen, or which can not be averted by even the most advanced technologies or the best people. However, there is a lot we can do - with regulation that makes sense for safety - to reduce the risks further. Thank you for your kind attention, and I welcome any questions you may have. 178 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION. SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete. October 2001 R. Kjaer, Color Line, Technical Director, COLOR Line, Norway "Operational Aspects - Passenger Ships" 179 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, doNsmucnON, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 Ct W-~ CM0- (to r:r:J ZOQ H0 2: a z 0 U H k 0 U 181 SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 EUROCONFERENCEO.N ?$.SSENCER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, CU) a C/) 0 CU 00 C) _ -0 aQ) a)c - Cu C Ec - 0 0) C)C 0 mC C 4- Cu 0) 0 x C) a- a Mc C >% 00-CU c 0 a) E4E4- 0uo X-o0 0 L c = 0 S 0 C/V 1820) EURtOCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 0 -c 0 -CzC 0 2) a 2) CL 4-0 4jaa 0 >1 E-C)~ 0. 0 L 0 _ C4.aD>w >>o~ 0 Q-) a0 c$~ ) 5E t'- 0 0 0 0 0 183 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 04 00 m o 0 0o Ca) L-, 0 U) C) o 0 4-jOw 0-C oo G 4-0> Q)) Ef 0t -0 o0 0a w 0 Z\ > CLO U-) (0co cc (N * 0 P- 0 0 0O 0u 0 184 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 CZi u) 05El uz LL >- Qi 4 i iwlý _q0 X jU .jLLJ LLUJ 185 *EUTROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIPDESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 0 Lu E a 4-1 0 0Qo4CU au 0 a U >< 0/ 0) C. a) a)~ n 0 0- CU 0 CU a 0 E- 0 E.00 2a 4a0E 00> kL a0 C: LL a) (Da)7 oo -a00o 0 00 186 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 o)u C-- C-) af. C-o 0 > 0 0 0Ž o Cu Co ui~V l Na 0 O _u a 0 0 0 0 4- E u) L) c: % Cu co®w0 0®C3L 0 Dc * ] 0 2 0u 187 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 U) L.. Q o .4-a Liji -Q >% /) aL 0 Cu 0 aco 0m0 a)CuC0 o 0 U)---- V4- CUo' to 0 0 C)0WW0 4- o W0 0wc a 0 16 aCf-a ac Q Q OO)o *0 *- 0 0 188 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 4-j ci)o ao 0 o 3 0a~~ 0 a)4-0 a- - a an 4 itj a) aCu cu E OE E cE * * 0 0 Q)0 0 C 189 SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete. October 2001 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSThUaION, Q) LL, 0o 0 40r So ACo0 -- aa)C a~- C >.z a- >1 ot 0 0t CU - 0 a0 0 U 0- E 0E 0- 0 0 190 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 4-4 70 U) -Q) C)0 04 0 C 0uoLL C -c0 =30 0: - ' -,0 a 0 2CM0 0 E 05 maw4a -0- 0 0-a- 0 0~ -raVS&-=3 000 0 _- Cu u 0- 0-C~~ O)Ca4" u. ~I-uCu 0OZCu >E E E ~ E0 * 0 m 0 0 191 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETYAND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 40 00C -10 L_ 0 -00 mU) 0 U) EO2a - c~ ~' CoOn O Q a)00-- oo (0 0C0 C: ~E (an CU04. ~Z 0 c4-a __ )0 0>20 0 0 o 192 2001 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGNCONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND) OPERATION - Crete, October c:j 0 CU 0 00 0 0 4_ U) 0 4-a E' Q)) _ -) > C) C ) C) 00 14 ( 0 Q)C) 0o>M 0 CD :) ooc0 4C0 193 EUTROCONFERENCE ON4 PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 0 4-0 0o 0 =P LU w E -i EoO 0) > Eo LU 0 U)CW c: E) >No x o) C 0 Co Co -1iC C tECu 0 C- 0 1. 4-0 CU OC Co 4-0 0) 60 194 'A I-! .t -VI* +~ f ___rtP~~)'S-'4M ~ g t ¾49 I zN -J. t'W ...* ... ...... pt# ...... )Sic TlT p 'k qg Larvik IT F" x *- otw Stosa V7,T V4 ~ ~ ~ ~.rT-.- I T N196 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 A. Maniadakis, MINOAN Lines "Renewal of Minoan Lines Fleet" Antonis MANIADAKIS, is the Shipping C.E.O. of MINOAN LINES, a position he holds since October 1997, after a successful career in several Cruise vessels and Ferries. Keeping the position of the responsible person of the company's shipping matters, he is also involved, in strategic planning and development of the company's new shipping business activities. He has been working in MINOAN LINES, since 1987 and he has obtained, by his basic studies the "Diploma of Master Mariner, class A"' (Distinguished). He has received additional education, in shipping management and marketing, maritime law and marine insurance, maritime economics and shipping finance, at the University of Plymouth, obtaining a MASTER OF SCIENCE (MSc) IN INTERNATIONAL SHIPPING. He was responsible for investigating and proposing to the B.O.D. of MINOAN, the selected yards for the new MINOAN Ferries orders and he is the man in charge, for the building of the vessels in technical and financial matters. 197 *EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 RENEWAL OF MINOAN LINES FLEET Ferry Lines in Med Sea The ferry market in the Mediterranean basin has had a Constant pace of evolution during the last years. Tourist destinations, islanders needs, the hostilities in Yugoslavia and the general economic growth of the Mediterranean countries have contributed to the ferry miracle of today. Nowadays the ferries form an essential part of an integrated EURO MEDITERRANEAN transport system and greatly contribute to the development of the Balkan countries. The definite abolition of cabotag6 restrictions in all European countries including Greece on November 1 St 2002, the rate of growth in passenger and car transportation and the demand for higher standards of services are the main factors for all major competitive movements in Mediterranean ferry lines. Ferry companies are making major investments in fleet and especially in high- speed ferries. There is a clear trend for ordering new ships, except for a few companies which continue to purchase second-hand vessels. The intention of ferry operators is mainly to strengthen their position in the market and at the same time to be able to face any future competitive movement, arising from the abolition of cabotage. To compete successfully the leading ferry operators demand the speed, efficiency and reliability of increased tonnage, new high speed, conventional ferries. These ships mainly offer increased capacity in terms of passengers and vehicles, and luxury cruising. As they afford fast connections to ports satisfy the needs of today's logistics. Ferry Lines Competition The high costs of acquiring new ships however and the recently imposed strict rules along with high operational costs, will allow only a few major operators in the Mediterranean ferry sector. Smaller companies will be absorbed by, or merged with the major players or will be compelled to stop operating. The-recent model of.Greek~erry.companies,- which shows the way for the future movements in the Mediterranean sea, is being represented today, by three main groups only. These three main groups;-,are the major players in the Greek ferry market and our expectations .for the next five years is, that further mergers, collaborations. and takeovers, are very likely between Mediterranean ferry companies. 199 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN,"CONSTRUCTON, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 Renewal of MINOAN LINES fleet - New routes The geographical position of Greece and the increase in integration with Europe, require the transportation by sea, to be well established, at home and abroad. With the purpose of creating innovative ships which are not only technologically advanced, fast and profitable, but also safe functional, environmentally friendly and elegant, MINOAN LINES with its five (5) year strategic planning ,has started gradually to renew their fleet and has ordered 8 new high-speed ferries :Four (4) of "The Palace Class" ships, have been ordered to the Italian shipyard of FINCANTIERI in GENOVA. Their cost, will exceed 425 Million EURO. The other four (4) vessels, have been ordered to the Korean yard of SAMSUNG, at the amount of 300 Million USD. Domestic lines The newbuildings dedicated to our home route of PIRAEUS - HERAKLIO, have been named KNOSSOS PALACE and FESTOS PALACE. Delivered and routed in December 2000 the first and May 2001 the second, reducing the crossing time from Heraklio to Piraeus, from almost 11 hours to less than six hours. Both ships are capable of making two single trips per day, one by noon time and one by night departure every day. The intention was mainly to strengthen our leading position between the island of Crete and the Greek mainland, facing effectively any future competitive movements arising from the abolition of cabotage. Their maximum speed is 33 knots while they are developing a service speed of 31,5 knots, keeping at same time the very low noise and vibration levels required by MINOAN LINES. The high speed of the new ships, which are the fastest conventional ferries world wide, offer the ability to everybody to travel faster to any other place in Crete, after arriving in HERAKLION. The transport characteristics of the new Cretan ferries allow for the summer season, 2200 passengers, of which some 760 are accommodated in cabins, 740 in very comfortable and reclinable easy chairs and the rest in the large lounges, cinema,-disco, pool barand-open decks; As per their vehicle capacity, one thousand five hundred (1500) lane meters for trucks are provided with a minimum free height of 4,6 m. In addition lower and hoistable decks are provided for passenger cars. 200 - EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 '4' Adriatic Routes FINCANTIERI, Newbuildings The other couple of new buildings OLYMPIA PALACE and EUROPA PALACE will be delivered by FINCANTIERI on October 2001 the first and March 2002 the second. Although both are sister ships concerning the hull and speed, with KNOSSOS and FESTOS PALACE, they have increased vehicle capacity. Offering same number of beds, luxury accommodation and ferry-cruiser facilities, the vessels will be routed in the line Patras - Igoumenitsa - Ancona offering the fastest connection in between these ports at the same time every day. OLYMPIA PALACE and EUROPA PALACE; have been partially modified for international service in Adriatic Sea and they show again an interesting and innovative ferry concept. Same hull lines and propellers design of KNOSSOS / FESTOS PALACE, were confirmed for the two new units of the series. Main differences with the two previous ones, are in the cargo deck capacity, where the lanes for trailers and trucks have been increased to 2000 linear metres and in the accommodations areas, where the previous areas for airtype seats, have been converted to cabins. As consequence of changes, the dwt of these last two units exceeds now 6.000 tons, trading with a commercial speed of 31 knots. The defining characteristics of the project was infact the solution of the noise and vibration issue in all the accommodation areas, where the limits of the Contract have been overcome. The results achieved while the ship is trading at over 30 knots are fully comparable with the high standard levels of a cruise ship (reference can be made to the "designing a 30 knots ferry for low vibration levels" published in September 2001 issue of "the Naval Architect". The "PALACE Class" ships for MINOAN LINES, are therefore the fastest and more comfortable full displacement cruise ferries ever built in the world. The ship is a twin screw, diesel driven, Ro-Ro passenger ship with a lower hold for cars with two levels of decks and two main garages on the main deck and the upper deck. To improve the loading / unloading operations, a ramp for trailers is fitted between the main deck and the upper deck, directly connected with the port stern ramp. This solution allows for a parallel and contemporary loading ! unloading operations from the two decks. The accommodation areas and the navigation spaces are located on decks 6, 7, 8 and 9. The ship is designed for a maximum of 2000 persons on short international voyages-whereas 1200 persons are allowed on long international voyages. 201 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 Propulsion is granted by four main engines (Wartsila 16V46C) developing a total of 67.200 KW at 500 rpm, resiliently mounted, placed in two separate rooms. Coupled through two Flender gearboxes, they drive two 4 blade KAMEWA cpp propellers. Port operation are enhanced by two stern thrusters of 1000 KW each and two fwd thrusters of 1300 kW each. Electrical power is from three diesel generators (Wartsila 6R32E) resiliently mounted developing 2430 KW each and a couple of shaft alternators of 2300 KW each. SAMSUNG HI, New Buildings As per our four (4) new sister ships ordered to SAMSUNG HI, their maximum speed of 32 knots and service speed of 30 knots, allows the company to be the only one connecting the Patras -Igoumenitsa - Venice ports in the fastest way, by deploying only the first SAMSUNG's HSFerries PROMETHEUS and OCEANUS. Gradually and Until the summer of 2002 in these ports will be routed our already delivered from Norway newbuildings IKARUS and PASIPHAE, which are first class ferries, as well. SAMSUNG ferries are much more orientated to the freight Market, though their accommodation consist of European standards public spaces and European designers have been appointed as architects for their interior design and external styling. The aft part of the main deck has a free height of 6,8M, which can be loaded with double stacked mafis or containers while their vehicles capacity is 2000 lane meters. As per their hull design great effort was made in hull form and propeller design, .starting at SAMSUNG' s own model basin. A modified hull form was then extensively tested at MARIN in Netherlands including cavitation test, manoeuvering and seakeeping tests. Four WARTSILA 12V46C Main Engines were provided, having a total output of 50.400 KW. The remaining two (2) SAMSUNG newbuildings, will be delivered gradually from the summer of 2002 and will be deployed in new routes, in the area of Western Mediterranean and especially on the South Europe - North Africa Ferry trade, in a joint venture with Dott Aldo.Grimaldi's Group. Their high service speed of 30 knots and their capacity for 1250 passengers and 2000 lane meters for trailers, allow for a highly competitive involvement in new routes. 202 EUROCONTERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 MINOAN LINES, will deploy "ARIADNE" which will be delivered in the spring of 2002, on the GENOVA -TUNIS run initially serving this route three times a week. Daily sailing will be scheduled in the second stage, when a sister ship SAMSUNG newbuilding for MINOAN LINES will be added, enabling the alliance service also to take in the French port of Marseille. It is obvious, that the policy of MINOAN LINES, is to expand by means of newbuilding only selling their remaining 3 second hand ships. For the necessary amortization, though of the enormous investments required for the total renewal of our fleet and for profitable operation and further economic development, we are facing serious barriers, such as the bunker prices, insurance premiums and the total high operational costs of the new ferries, but in addition and as per the domestic routes the non-rationalistic tariffs policy of the Hellenic state. However, we are determined to succeed despite the bars and we will stick to this task, until it is completed favourably. 203 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 M. Mariakakis, Chairman, ANEK Lines "On the Renewal of ANEK Passenger Ferry Fleet" Presentationonly - Paper not available tit the time ofpreparationof the Proceedings 205 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 SESSION 4: Passenger Ship Safety Chairman: Kostas Spyrou (NTUA, Greece) Papers: H. Hormann, Germanischer Lloyd "Selected Aspects of Passenger Ship Safety, a Classification Society's Point of View" T. Svensen, Det Norske Veritas "Passenger Ship Safety for Ferries: Simplicity, Reliability & Cost Effectiveness" M. Dogliani, F. Porcellacchia, Registro Italiano Navale Group "From R&D to Classification Services on Passenger Ship Safety: RJNA'S View on Short Term Developments" J. de Kat, MARIN "Passenger Ship Safety from a Hydrodynamics Perspective" S. Naito, Osaka University "Propeller Racing in Rough Sea"' L. Vredeveldt, TNO "Two Examples of Applied Scientific Research in Ship Safety" 207 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION. Crete, October 2001 H. Hormann, Germanischer Lloyd "Selected Aspects of Passenger Ship Safety, a Classification Society's Point of View" Hartmut Hormann was born 23 August 1939, Greifswald. Studied at Universities in Hanover, Vienna and Hamburg from 1959. Graduated in 1964 as Naval Architect. Joining GL's Ship Safety Department. After an intermission at Deutsche Werft (later HDW Yard) rejoined GL in 1969. Head of Ship Safety Division since 1982, Divisional Director - Statutory Functions and Ship Safety Division since 1983. Promotion to Director in 1994. Position implies responsibility for all statutory functions GL is entrusted to undertake on behalf of flag states, both for newbuildings and ships in service. Besides the line duties, through the entire career. Work within IMO in various functions, including chairmanship of a Sub- Committee and Member of the Panel of- Experts after the "ESTONIA" tragedy. Engagement activities in the of IACS (International Association of Classification Societies). 209 EIJROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIPYflESIGNi CONSTRUCTON, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 Selected Aspects of Passenger Ship Safety, " a Classification Society's Point of View Dipt. Ing. H.H-orm ann Director, Germ anischer Lloyd Itappears worthwhile to first outline some principles concerning the composition of the regulatory regime covering ship safety, the particulars of the various sets of regulations and the mechanics for developing them. These thoughts are not specific to passenger ships, but I think they are of some importance when discussing passenger ships as an industry which certainly has the highest profile, when it comes to the perception of maritime transport by the general public. The Regulatory Regime The regulatory regime for maritime safety comprises statutory regulations set forth by international conventions and rules of classification societies. There isone particular distinction between them: a closer look reveals that class rules intheir majority are based on physical facts, e.g. the material properties of steel. To come to a rule requirement, of course, a safety factor has to be chosen, but still the resulting rule can be rationally reasoned. Statutory requirements, on the other hand, inthe overwhelming majority result out of an inthe widest sense political decision process. To illustrate this: whether the survival of a ship after a collision should be defined by a 1-, 2-, or 3-compartment-standard, whether 1,2 or 3 radar sets should be installed, whether liferafts should be available for 1.5 or 2times the number of persons on board - all this iseventually fixed after "political" considerations, at least not based on indisputable physical facts. Ultimatdly'hete the question has to be answered: what issafe enough? That this question ishighly dependent on the time itis asked and on the circumstances can easily be demonstrated: at the time of the "Titanic', it was not common yet to require aseat ina lifeboat for every person on board. Let me for aminute attend to the process of development of rules (class) and regulations (statutory). Classification societies update their rules ina continuous process which combines experience gained, results of research, improvements intechnology and therewith insafety technologies, lessons learned by incidents (not only accidents), and the necessity to cater for novel designs, to which existing rules cannot be applied as they stand, This isa complicated but normally unspectacular process which leads, after having gone through a certain consultation phase, to aset of rules which are (legally) addressed as acknowledged technical standards. This enabled the governmental bodies to dispense with any detailed regulatory provisions for the strength of the hull and the reliability of all essential machinery and systems on board. and just to refer to the class rules inthe international conventions. Who ever has been engaged inamending a provision of an international convention knows what an asset it isto have this 'low key" possibility for improving safety requirements! Of course, this puts a high responsibility on the classification societies, which however, [~think, they are willing and able to commonly shoulder. Statutory regulations are also developed further continuously using more or less similar sources as outlined inthe case of classification societies, but here we still have accident driven jumps inthe process which should instead ideally be harmonious. Needless to name recent examples of passenger ship disasters which have caused such steps. Sufficient Safety Here I wish to return to the question: what issafe enough? Formally speaking, atechnical system is sufficiently safe, if it complies with the relevant recognized technical standards, defined by the common view of a representative group of professional experts inthis field. But these experts cannot disregard 211 EUROCOINFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 the views of the general public, which often leads to a situation - especially jafter ab'ýpectacular accident - that all over sudden acertain level of safety accepted as sufficient over years isno longer acceptable. Such situations have triggered voluminous rule-setting processes e.g. inIMO after the "HERALD OF FREE ENTERPRISE" and "ESTONIA" tragedies. It has to be realized that very few of all the new provisions, if they had already existed, would have had any influence on cause and consequences of the disasters , but the decision makers had to surrender under the argument: it would not be understood outside, if inthis or that area no additional requirements would be put up. Avery unwelcome phenomenon inthe context of public perception isthat the risk acceptance level of the interested or involved public isvery different for different means of transport and - even worse - can hardly be influenced by rational argumentation. For example, the loss of 2or 3 full size passenger aircraft istaken without public demand for fundamental changes, the loss of a ship with a corresponding number of fatalities not, Reflection on Regulatory Projects The classification societies act as afocus point for the maritime industry, as a means levelling all the various interests - normally deviating ones - of the different "players". On the basis of their professional expertise and with their relatively deep insight into the needs of the operators on the one side and the ultimately responsible flag administrations on the other they have always been, and should continue to be inthe role of a positively contributing mediator. From that position I wish to outline a few thoughts with respect to the present situation. - The industry at large, certainly not only the passenger ship industry, needs areliable basis on the regulatory side for planning. This means that inprinciple new requirements should always be applied to new ships only. Of course, for reasons outlined earlier, this "grandfathering" principle cannot be upheld inall cases. It,then, retroactive provisions have to be introduced, ithas to be done infull cognisance of the diverging arguments to find adefendable balance. A proven tool, used inmost such cases, isa timewise staggered implementation scheme. Looking at some more recent examples, I think IMO has achieved this balance. - It is afact, and I must say it isjust, that accidents are used as a vehicle to implement new safety technologies, which were available, which had, howevernot been used, because a consensus to make it compulsory could not be achieved earlier without the pressure of an accident, even if entirely unrelated to its cause. * The project to scrutinize passenger ship safety regulations vis-b-vis the development towards ever growing numbers of persons on a single ship isone for which IMO, especially its Secretary-General can only be praised. Itis hoped that substantial results can be reached and indeed implemented soon so that we do not have to go through the ordeal of a maritime disaster exacerbated by an unprecedented number of persons affected.An important step to achieve, success soon appears to be a clear schedule which timewise and contentwise defines consecutive steps: very large new ships first; then the consideration of tapered application to a group of new ships, still to be defined, inbetween very large and those of 'traditional' size, for which the present regulations are taken as adequate; only thereafter consideration of which provisions to' be made retroactive for ships built before the take-off date for new ships. Ifthis sequence, indiscussing the subject isnot strictly adhered to, atimely conclusion of the project for the originally targeted group isseverely hampered, I would suggest, it iseven not necessary to start with a definition for 'very large passenger ship", this can be done quickly ina preliminary fashion, setting tentatively a very high number.of~persons, and refine that definition, when attending to the second step, i.e. the transition area between very large and presently common sizes. 212 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 SOLAS at present Itmay be suitable to also discuss briefly the quality of the present set of statutory regulations; I refer here only to SOLAS as the most important convention for passenger ships. 1. Fire isthe major accidental occurrence on ships. The maintenance of preventive measures inthis field cannot be overestimated, but because still an initial fire isa rather frequent incident, also effective curative devices have to be inplace. Looking for improvements inthe prevention of fire and incombating it,one must underline the necessity for training on all levels; training for ageneral behaviour minimizing the fire risk, training of the crew to be alert indetecting possible fire dangers, "training" also for passengers - which can under the circumstances hardly be more than adequate information, and - of course - training of the crew infire extinguishing procedures. What regulations can provide interms of support to achieve the goal, I think, has been done by now with the newly revised Chapter ll-2.of SOLAS, which reflects the state of the art and is sensibly arranged to be easily understood and applied. Very helpful isthe split into main requirements inthe convention textand all executing and detailing provisions assembled inthe two related Codes (Fire Safety Systems Code and Fire Test Procedures Code) Additionally, as an alternative to the prescriptive set of regulations the proof of an equivalent level of safety can be produced through systematic risk-analysis and -evaluation; this alternative isaddressed as performance based requirements. 2. Asecond major safety-relevant area issubdivision or survivability after a damage. Here the present shape of the SOLAS requirements isnot satisfactory. Itis high time that a modernized composite set of regulations becomes available inwhich probabilistically defined survivability levels are supplemented by minimum deterministic requirements. The work iswell under way inIMO, it is, however, not quite satisfactory that passenger ships are by now almost the last group of ships for which the probabilistic approach will be required, after the entire development of this method and its introduction into the international safety regime started with just these ships some 35 years ago! 3. LSA and evacuation isthe next complex to consider. Here we are on the purely curative, no longer on the preventive side. The relevant Chapter III of SOLAS isalso inthe shape of basic requirements supplemented by a Code. - I cannot avoid mentioning the fact that one of the biggest individual steps inimproving safety of life at sea on the hardware side, the free-fall lifeboat cannot be used on passenger ships. - Aspecific feature just introduced into the regulations (which also relates to the fire danger) isthe evacuation analysis. The development of the tools isfar advanced and first relevant requirements are part of SOLAS (for RoRo passenger ships). Soon this will become of general requirement, and I think the insight into the movement of persons on board in an emergency as provided by systematic evacuation analysis will help improving the inherent safety of passenger ship designs infuture. The Way ahead; Problems to be solved Itis common place that the development towards better safety on the hardware side has come to a situation were normally only marginal improvement can be achieved and that at very high costs. Therefore Improvement inthe operation of the ships constitutes the biggest potential for higher safety. In short, safety management and ISM Code are the key words. Itis certainly still too early to judge the effect which the introduction of the formalized and checked safety management has on the passenger ship industry's safety record. I am sure, at present progress isnot statistically evident, but as everything which has t~odo with education and.training,.it takes time to have measurable effects. 213 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION; SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 As said inthe previous sections, much isunder way inIMO to modernize, imnprove~ 6nd augment the international requirements; and I wish to go on record insaying: the classification societies will play an important roll inthis. The projects under way cater for the general high sea shipping. Where I see acertain need for further international accord isfor passenger ships trading inthe 20 sm range. Of course, this isregulated in SOLAS as well, but the treatment of exemption options inthe 20 sm-service isinternationally not unequivocally regulated.-On the other hand this type of service isalready covered for genuinely national trade, namely by the European Directive 98118. Last but not least the security appears to become an issue which due to the dramatic recent events requires much greater attention than previously thought. This iscertainly an area, where classification societies can only be of very little help. Classification of Passenger Ships As a professional representing a classification society I would finally briefly tackle some aspects of genuine classification work, which are not particularly inthe limelight which, however, are also important from asafety point of view or at least for the passengers' well-being. Inpassenger ships there isoften adominance of ideas and desires inthe early design stage which can be compared with the process of appointing living rooms, before the house iseven designed, let alone built. And these demands are often set forth without paying attention to the ship-specific safety needs. This situation necessitates a very early engagement of the classification society to strike a balance between innovative wishes and best possible safety standards. (There is always a possibility also in safety of making it better than just meeting the minimum requirements). The later the classification society is consulted, the lesser the possibilities are to match the owners' or the interior designers' desires. Ideally the class experts should already participate inthe concept stage, i.e. before an owner even has selected ayard. There are a number of strength problems specific to modern passenger ship designs: - Present days' heights of cruise ship superstructures and the requirement for placing lifeboats no more than 15 mabove the waterline lead to cut-outs inthe side walls which result instress concentration inthe outer shell and inlongitudinal walls; combined with small corner radii this causes high notch stresses. Further, the upper decks are often not fully effective for the longitudinal strength due to insufficient shear connection. Similar problems are created by big atriums. 214 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 Strength Analysis - Special Aspects for Passenger Ships w Stress concentrations caused by a Effectiveness of upper decks to large openings in the outer shell Iongidunal strength and longitudinal walls n Transverse Strength (Racking) Is Buckling due to thin plates Gernmanischer Lloyd This problem inglobal strength requires also a very close look at several details, i.e. strength and fatigue analysis for highly stressed structures. Assessment of selected criticalareas ... in terms of deformations, * strength, fatigue and buckling by means of detailed local FE-models Germanischer Lloyd The forward and aft shear connection of the upper (superstructure decks) and lower (hull body) hull girders is one of the most critical structures. These structures must be determined by creating a model with a very detailed mesh of the relevant regions. The loads are realized by exposing the model to the deformation received inthe global strength analysis. 215 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 A similar analysis is also necessary for window openings or balcony (glass) do'ors inhull sections with high global shear. Fatigue Analysis for Window Openings 1. Global FE-Model 2. Deformation of 3. Detail model 4. Determination of window openings notch stresses Germanischer Lloyd Finally some remarks concerning noise and vibrations. Comprehensive services are available now to reduce the risks for yard and owner inthis sensible area. Noise prediction is performed by using semi-empirical tools and noise-FE models. It comprises prediction of structure-borne noise and its transmission paths; e.g. engine foundations can be optimized from the acoustical point of view; the structure-borne noise insulation index can be improved. 216 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 Prediction of structure borne sound intensity in a Blohm+ Voss cruise ship performed by GL 70hD. M0OW 3rdD0" 2nd D•d B.L -10-dB- Germanischer Lloyd Vibration analysis shall be illustrated by a look at a public lounge in its vibration mode shape. *...... --- t Vibration Mode Shape of a Public Space Germanischer Lloyd Insuch large public spaces often without any supports by walls and/or pillars (e.g. theatre area, entrance hall, etc.) deck panels are critical for panel vibration. Comprehensive vibration analysis are necessary inorder to optimize these critical-structures. Extensiveexperience in this highly specialized field is required to produce the effect wanted. I think that hardly any yard can accumulate this amount of experience for which permanent engagement of specialists the year round is conditional. 217 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 Noise and vibration problems ware not strictly safety related but certainly have its'Thdirect repercussions. A classification society has here a function which appears to be as unique as its traditionals classification areas. Harmony Class Some characteristicsof GL-Harmony Class Rules a Beside general requirements valuable design aspects with regard to noise and vibration are given in the correspondingRules * Different operating conditionsare considered a Sea inode a Harbour operation a Thruster operation a Tonal and booming effects are considered a Noise and vibration requirements (limit values, measurenments) for different inmtnision zones: ®sDr= = Germanischer Lloyd Conclusions Passenger ships constitute an area of activity of classification societies which is of prime importance, both on the rules- and regulations-setting side and on the practical side as partners of yards and owners. The tasks are demanding but at the same time they are an interesting area of professional engagement, which can be very rewarding for the individual expert working therein. 218 2001 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October T. Svensen, Technical Director, Det Norske Veritas, Norway "Passenger Ship Safety for Ferries: Simplicity, Reliability & Cost Effectiveness" 219 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION -Crete. October 2001 Passenger Ship Safety for Ferries: SIMPLICITY, RELIABILITY & COST EFFECTIVENESS By: Tor E. Svensen, Technical Director, DNW Karl Morten Wiklund, Head of HSLC and Passenger Ships, DNV Summary: Sea transportation, and ferries in particular, provide among the safest means of transportation. Nevertheless, accidents may occur and lead to large numbers of casualties in one single accident. In such a situation, it is impossible to argue that the safety level is good. Safety regulations are based on the accumulated experience of accidents and are today quite extensive. For the further development, it is essential to apply more risk analyses- to- prevent' new major accidents from occurring, and continuously strengthen the operational compliance with existing regulations. To reduce the risk for human failures, efforts should be made to simplify the safety systems and to provide more reliability in systems. The training and qualification of crew should be focused to avoid operational interruptions of the ferry services and accidents in particular. This is today the most cost-effective investment in safe ferry operations. Introduction Any regulatory body is faced with the challenge to set a safety level, which is acceptable within the community they serve. A safety level means that nothing can be zl 100% safe and some accidents will occur. A passenger ship accident always gets large publicity and may result in many casualties at the same time. The effect of a large number of casualties in one accident is quite different to many smaller accidents, although the total number of casualties per year is far more for other means of transportation, i.e. road traffic. Furthernore, it is difficult to make radical changes over night. We have to accept what we have and improve safety step by step in the most cost effective way. It is also important in this context to realise that operational means are probably -far more--effective than technical improvements in increasing ferry safety. If and when an accident happens, the people who are affected will not Ftransplortaiinon4,% ' -. 4 understand that this mode of transportation, NMEN ,k-:.... huss has an adequate safety level, although it Motorcycle 660 can be justified and compared to any other Light Aircraft 240 Car -57 means of transportation at sea,--and and in Train 5 the air. The ferries in most countries have a Bus 3 good safety record, but there is always a Ferry 2 Joint North & West European Research '97 221 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Cret, October 2001 possibility for improvements. The higher the present safety level is, the more difficult become the improvements. Large-scale accidents involving potentially large number of fatalities are less acceptable. The regulatory bodies, including IMO, will continuously strive to come up with new regulations as corrective actions to accidents. This becomes a demand from the public and the media, even when the cause is non-compliance with an existing regulation. Instead of strengthening the compliance with existing regulations, we see that new regulations come in addition to the existing which is not complied with. Over time this leads to a set of regulations based on the accumulated experience of accidents and the question which have to be raised from time to time will be: Will the requirements regulating the ferries provide the safety level in the most cost effective way? Can it be so that the way we regulate ferry safety is not cost effective and add less value to the safety than we believe, while we are missing other vital aspects? If a new accident is caused by an open door, as on Harold of Free Tdan (1912) 90soV(192'9) Enterprise, what kind of new Try Cu,.o•(1967) r'1I.(T).C(197s, regulations may come up? We have A,,,*a978)F SOIAS1I1POL,,98Pv all the control systems and hWrdofFmE07re(198OhI I,)/~kSl IM operational requirements already in IT "Vad *U= (I ) 719 OPA 90/MA MI•W place. Do we again just double up OPA with extra doors or should we start to s, (1,MtsQ SOIASKL .I-2 review the basic safety concept with RcM,,et,•-0 soIAS(II.xuw'm99 a ferry? Said in another way, there is UL4(190souOtcII-I(1995) no place for a new major ferry &( (999) 7 accident. If that happens the whole ferry business will be affected and, as a consequence, the fleet will probably have to be renewed. In practical terms safety improvements can today probably be better achieved in operational areas rather than on technical improvements. Consequently it is in this area that the owners and operators should put their main efforts. We will in the following sections discuss some of the main areas where improvements can be made that will contribute to the overall safety level in ferry operations. Risk Based Requirements and Formal Safety Assessment -4' ;j.' .. . .. For some time, DNV has used risk .. ½ .Y methods to assess any rule development ::'.2ir :. and always questioned if.the . rule ...... 222 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 the safety statistics. The IMO has introduced the Formal Safety Assessment, which hopefully will lead to a positive change in priorities over time. Still it is too early to document such an effect. Then, NMO has for the first time, declared that anyone who can prove that an alternative arrangement is documented to be belier than the present regulation, should be accepted. This is related to the NMO efforts towards revised regulations for Large Passenger Ships, but could apply to ferries as well for example related to the lifeboats. Applying risk assessments, we have to consider both the technical an d the operational standard. A ferry will never be safer than the crew, and it is often said that a good crew can handle a poor ship in a safe way. One has to start on the top of the safety principles and then analyse any effect that can contribute to the risk for a failure. The major safety principles are more or less similar: 'What can cause the ferry to sink? What can cause structural failure? What can cause engine failure? What can cause blackout? What can cause navigational' failure? What can cause fires? Etc.etc. Subsequently, each of these causes has to be analysed in detail, both with respect to the technical and operational aspects. When we do such analyses, we very often find that the safest concepts are the simplest arrangements. The risks of operational failures are low when the technical installations are simple. Mechanical arrangements arc more robust than electrical, and fixed electronic systems are more reliable than those that can be corrected by a PC keyboard. It is a significant safety risk, if the systems onboard are corrected during maintenance and the crew don't know what has been done or don't understand I the modifications which have been done. 7 ". '4 DNV believe that risk analysis is a very powerful tool for operators to identify where to focus in terms of safety k improvements.SHP From a class point of view, the safety status on the ferries within the framework ~ ' of the class rules is established at the 7t 5c annual surveys, but we are more and more concerned about what happens onboard the ferries between the surveys by external service and maintenance companies. It doesn'4 matter if-the systems-onboard are safe at the annual surveys, if they are modified and introduce a risk in between the class periods when the ferry is in operation. In this context DN-V is of the opinion that more efforts should be put into the operational control. This could include.a move towards more planned maintenance systems. Technical and Operational Regulations are Equally Important From time. to time we see that operational failures are corrected by new technical requirements. To provide a more cost-effective safety level, it should be possible to 223 EUROCQNFERRNCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 question one of the basic IMvO principles that a technical requirement can not be replaced by improved operational requirements. * Do we still believe that more and more technical requirements always improve the safety, or will we achieve equivalent and better safety with more investment in operational safety? Perhaps we are introducing more complex systems, which are more difficult to handle for the crew. There has to be a balance between technical and operational safety efforts. We experience that operational safety is regulated by more and more control systems. It is a concern that the focus may change to the function of the control systems instead of real checks that the safety is OK. Most airline passengers have probably experienced that on an aircraft, there is an operational procedure to lock all doors manually before departure. This example demonstrates that operational safety can be achieved through safe and simple procedures that are well implemented. To increase the operational respect for alarms is an important other area for improvement. As a first step, vital safety alarms should always be separated from all other types of alarms. Training and Type-Rating of Crew Today the available technology is such, that a ferry could be operated with an unmanned bridge from one port to the next. However, it is a big question if this would be cost-efficient and provide the required safety level. We often add new and often advanced technical equipment and still apply the ordinary crew without utilising the equipment that is onboard. For sure this is not cost-effective. It is similar to the investments in computer technology. Perhaps a company utilises 10% of the capacity of their PC potential unless sufficient training is provided. When a new, modem and technically advanced ferry fulfilling all latest technical safety requirements is to be introduced on a route, there has to be place, time and money for adequate Type- ~ i Rating training of the crew and t implementation of necessary operational arrangements to achieve N the intended safety level. Just take one example. A ferry fitted with electronic charts and way point radar, need a trained crew to use the new equipment before they set to sea. The electronic chart~has to be correct for the area in all details. Not all charts are so correct that they can be used in combination with the GPS system onboard the ferry. The. expensive technical equipment may instead reduce the safety, if the operational crew is not able to use it without any risk for misunderstandings or wrong interpretations. On the other hand, advanced navigational equipment can significantly reduce the risk for navigational failure, but only if all technical and operational aspects are well in place. Simplicity may add to safety 224 ~ S~" EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SE1P DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 When we do a risk assessment of the SOLAS requirements to bilge sý'stems, we find that the contributions to the safety from a fixed bilge piping system may be questioned. The bilge systems we have on passenger ships worked on wooden ship and riveted iron ship with leakage problems, but in dry compartments on a welded steel ship, we do not have a major leakage problem. The condensed water can be removed by portable bilge equipment as we have on the high-speed craft. The bilge capacity requirements will not be sufficient in case of a damage to the ship hull. In fact .the risk for damaging bulkheads and penetrating the double bottom is increased by the amount of bilge piping fitted onboard. In fact, the safety may be significantly improved by a complete sealed off compartment without ventilation piping. This we know from experience with ship having voids without bilge and ventilation and from investigations of grounding accidents. This is used as an example to illustrate that it is very difficult to take away old requirements such as the prescriptive bilge system in a passenger ship and introduce new principles, even when they can be proven to be better. Damage Stability and Survivability The basic principles of the SOLAS damage stability requirements have remained more or less unchanged since the first version, even though the survival criteria have become more and more detailed as a consequence of the well known disasters. The deterministic requirements are based on the ship's main parameters, such as length and breadth. Near all Ro-Pax and passenger vessels built today, at least when above a certain size, are calculated for a two compartment damage. IMO is currently in the process of harmonising the damage stability rules for passenger ships with those probabilistic requirements for cargo ships. It is to be noted that the intention is not to increase the survivability standard compared with today's standard. The harmonisation will be assisted by the EU project HARDER (Co-ordinated by DNV) and will be based on updated damage statistics and modem survivability principles, in order to arrive at more a reliable and consistent method for assessing the vessels survivability. The outcome of HARDER will also supply models for assessment of risk in certain operational areas and models for assessment of damage resistance and survivability. In these new models the effect of increase in operating speed, increased size of ships, new arrangements and new operating areas may be reflected, even if that is not within the remit of the harmonisation right now. The project HARDER will, however, provide the tools to include such effects should the need arise to establish a higher standard, e.g. for large passenger ships. The IMO HSC 2000 code requires 100% of the ship length-..-..... raking damage, while SOLAS ------gives one, two or three --- .>* compartment damage only, regardless of the speed of the ship. It should be obvious to everyone that a heavy steel ship at high speed can get a raking damage above the double bottom of more than two compartments. The tankers have got their double hulls, why should the ferries not have-double.side.below.the waterline?.A double side can be made simple and may add significantly to the safety of some fast ferry design. 225 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 Many owners specify such requirements. We can-assist those ownersl who use DNV class, but it is not for DNV to tell others what to do. DNV is for the time being running a project named ESC, Enhanced Survival Capability. The aim of the project is to establish this as a voluntary class notation for those owners that wish to have a documented higher degree of survivability after a damage caused by collision or grounding. The rule development is based on the FSA methodology, which -ensures that the options chosen to reduce the risks are the most cost-effective. Reliability by Redundancy Again rather simple safety principles apply. The single propulsion line needs many backup systems to be reliable. Still only one major failure will stop the ferry. Consequently, most ferries have two propulsion lines, but are they really independent of each other. A failure in one propulsion line should not have any effect on the other and the ferry should be able to proceed to harbour with the passengers in case of failure in one line. We see a number of ferries without our Redundant Propulsion notation, RiP. It should be discussed if such a simple principle should be mandatory for a ferry and that all ferries should undergo a Failure Mode and Effect Analyses, FMEA, to verify the redundancy of the propulsion system. Such analyses also contribute to the understanding of the system by the crew and can contribute to more simplicity of the propulsion line. DNV offer to assign a R-P class notation to those ferries who present a Redundant Propulsion FMEA, then DNV survey the ferry and the owner modifies the propulsion line based on the findings. The high-speed craft and the crew boats have taken this principle even further. They often apply 3, 4 and even 5 independent propulsion lines. They do this because they not only like to go to harbour with the passengers in case of a failure, but they like to do that on schedule. They also like to be able to operate the ferry even if they have problem with one propulsion line. This contributes to a good safety and availability image for the ferry service. The redundant propulsion system can even be redundant in case of fire or flooding in the engine room. The DNV class notation, RiPS, tells that the ferry has not only two independent propulsion lines, but they are located in two separate engine rooms with structural fire safe boundaries. Imagine the dilemma for a captain on the bridge,* of a complete full ferry withka, single engine..-- . - J room and the chief call the bridge and report j - ~ " fire in the engine room. If he releases the C02 rtdu,1 4~ into the engine room, he has a dead ship and is P' in emergency mode and has to evacuate thev..Stcf 4 ship. Every captain knows the dangers and :jt~ difficulties with a real evacuation of a . passenger ship in open sea. If he had two separate engine rooms, the captain can shut down one engine -room immediately and still go to harbour with the passengers. Most likely this will be a requirement for all Large Passenger Ship in the future. 226 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - CretemOctober 2001 The ferry fleet is old The safety records tells that the ,X'gtt e-W W to win a contract. In reality, this - reduces the second hand value of the ship, as it becomes more difficult to • perform a conversion later on, because there are no extra margins in the ship. The cost for a sound and robust ship hull is marginal for a new building as machinery, electrical system, ventilation, navigation and accommodation are the more expensive parts of the ferry. When designing a new ferry, it may be wise to add some extra margins to what is the minimum standard today. Most ferries will change route and owner over time and most likely be converted during the lifetime. Operator Guidance The intact stability requirements for ships have been basically the same for a very long time with minor modifications. Safety records are good so far, but do existing regulations take future designs into consideration? Using risk assessment, we find that the service speed is increasing and to save fuel, more and more slender hulls are being built. The high-speed craft, they normally have extra intact stability due to the lightweight and wide beam or multi hull. But the displacement ships utilise all stability to provide extra decks. Due to the competition from the high speed craft the .conventional ferries.have increased.-the, service speed. For- the first time they are capable of operating faster than the speed of the waves in heavy following seas. Speed For a fast ferry in following sea, the risk for 0 broaching becomes a reality. Anyone, who has experienced a broaching, will realise that this does not contribute to the safety image for the ferry operator. It is. impossible for DNV alone, to require more stability for fast ferries, but we 270 90 can set maximum speed versus wave height to 180 227 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 avoid such an event. The real safety risks will then be on the operational side. Do all captains understand the risk for broaching at high speed in following seas, or do the strict timetables force him to go faster than what is safe? The ferry industry should not wait for an accident with a fast ferry broaching, but should be willing to reduce this risk by increased stability or strict operational control, when the service speed is increased above 20 - 25 knots. DNV can provide Active Operating Guidance to the captain to avoid such risk. The simple ferry can do the job, and the tW& crew have to operate within the limitation of the ferry. The way ahead Ferry designs must inherently be technically safe from an overall risk point of view. Accidents like the "Herald of Free Enterprise" - and "Estonia" -- cclearly demonstrated that in the case of potentially large scale accidents involving substantial losses of life there must be a second barrier of defence against human failure. There is no single answer on how to focus and prioritise passenger ferry safety in the future. Recognising this, we have attempted to outline some of the most important areas where the industry should focus: * Increased use of risk based methods in both design and operation to identify and prioritise safety improvements. * Create a safety culture at all levels in the organisation. " More focus on operational safety aspects than technical improvements. * Make sure that the crews are Type-Rated for the technical safety standard of the ferry. * Implement. operational procedure for speed reduction of fast ferries in heavy following sea. * Improved reliability of technical systems through introduction of redundancy in the most safety critical systems. * New buildings should be as robust and simplified as possible. 228 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SniP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 M. Dogliani, F. Porcellacchia, Registro Italiano Navale Group "From R&D to Classification Services on Passenger Ship Safety: RINA'S View on Short Term Developments". Mario Dogliani, was born on the 3rd of December 1959. Married, one son, naval architect, joined RINA in 1985 as research engineer. In 1990 he assumed responsibility for RINA's hydrodynamic and structural R&D and, since 1998, he is thelHead of the Innovation, Research and Product section of the Ship Division being responsible for R&D and product development in the fields of risk analysis, fire safety, evacuation, comfort and environmentally friendly ship design and operations. Franco Porcellacchia was born on the 24th of April 1953. Married, two children, naval architect, joined RINA in 1980 as.a.plan approval engineer and later as field surveyor. In 1989 he moved to RINA's New York office as Country Manager for the US. In 1992 was appointed Area Manager for North and Central America, based in Fort Lauderdale. Since January 1997 he returned in Italy, RINA Head Office, as Area Manager North West Italy and eventually, since January 1999, as Manager for RINA International Marine Activities. 229 EUROCONFERENCEON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 FROM R&D TO CLASSIFICATION SERVICES ON PASSENGER SHIP SAFETY: RINA'S VIEW ON SHORT TERM DEVELOPMENTS M. Dogliani 'O) and F. Porcellacchia (2) (')Head, Innovation Research & Products Section RINA-Registro Italiano Navale Group, Genova - Italy (2) Manager, RENA International Marine Activities RINA-Registro Italiano Navale Group, Genova - Italy Abstract Today's passenger ships are the most complex, costly and technologically advanced ever designed, built and operated. This is the result of a continuous evolution started some 20 years ago and fuelled by a continuous push toward higher standards by operators, a growing market demand for passenger transport and a steadily increasing technological development. Research and Technological Development (R&TD) in ship science was one of the pillars of this success and will more and more be necessary in the future. The aim of this paper is to put current R&TD issues into perspective, from a classification society viewpoint, highlighting how R&TD results are injected into RINA's Rules and Services for passenger ships safety. Accordingly, after a short introduction on RINA's role in the passenger ship market, a short review of recent R&TD developments and their use in day by day classification work is given. Conclusions and recommendations include the topics which, in RINA's views, deserve the attention of the R&TD marine community for the years to come. RINA AND ITS ROLE IN THE PASSENGER SHIP CLASSIFICATION MARKET RINA, established in 1861 as an independent organisation, is one of the oldest International Classification Societies (CS) which establishes standards, through RINA's technical Rules, for the design, construction, testing and periodical surveys of merchant ships flying any flag. RINA is a founder member of the International Association of Classification Societies (LACS) and of the European Association of Classification Societies (EurACS) and is included in the ."Classification Clause" by the Institute of LoridbE Underwriters. Besides being delegated to act as technical body of the Italian Maritime Administration for carrying out technical checks and duties related to maritime safety and pollution prevention according to IMO's SOLAS and MARPOL international conventions, RINA offers a wide range of services to Owners, Shipyards and Industries, including, inter alia, design appraisal, technical assistance, ship classification, testing of materials, machinery and equipment, surveys of ships in service, certification of Quality Systems and of Ship Management Systems, and assistance to owners to respond to ship emergency (Vessel Response Plans). 231 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 RINA has carefully pursued strategic objectives in selected areas of interest and with selected ship types: by tradition RINA has focused its attention on the Mediterranean area, extended to Middle East as well as on the Caribbean and USA and the marketing strategy for the years to come will aim to strengthen this presence and position. Globally, RINA is the 8h player in the classification business in terms of classed gross tonnage. At present (data at 31 December 2000), RINA classed fleet amounts to 16.6 Millions GT, i.e. 3% of the world ocean-going fleet (558 Millions GT), while RINA's newbuildings order book totals 4.2 Millions GT, 5.8% of the newbuildings on order world-wide. Thanks also to the position of pre-eminence achieved by Italian shipbuilding industry in the cruise and passenger ship sector, RINA is world-wide recognised as a leading Classification Societies in this field as demonstrated by the fact that about 40% of the new cruise ships world-wide order book is RINA classed (see Table 1). SHIPYARD MULL NAME OWNER GT FLAG EXP. DIL CLASS FINC. MONFALCONE 6051 STAR PRINCESS PRINCESS 108.800 LIBERIA 30101/2002 LR/RI FINC. MONFALCONE 8057 CARNIVAL CONQUEST CARNIVAL CRUISES 110.000 PANAMA 30/09/2002 LR/RI FINC. MONFALCONE 6058 CARNIVAL GLORY. - CARNIVAL CRUISES 110.000 PANAMA 30105/2003 LR/RI FINC. MONFALCONE 6067 UNNAMED P&O 108.800 LIBERIA 30/1212003 LR/RI FINC. MONFALCONE . 6082 CARNIVAL VALOR CARNIVAL CRUISES 95.000 PANAMA 30/0912004 LR/RI FIND. MARGHERA 6075 UNNAMED HOLLAND AMERICA 82.000 BAHAMAS 30/0812002 LR/RI FIND. MARGHERA 6076 UNNAMED HOLLAND AMERICA 82.000 BAHAMAS 3010412003 LR/RI FINC. MARGHERA 6077 UNNAMED HOLLAND AMERICA 82.000 BAHAMAS 30112/2003 LR/RI FINC. MARGHERA 6078 UNNAMED HOLLAND AMERICA 82.000 BAHAMAS 3010812004 LRJRI FINC. MARGHERA 6079 UNNAMED HOLLAND AMERICA 82.000 BAHAMAS 30/0412005 LR/RI FINC. SESTRI 6086 UNNAMED COSTA CROCIERE 105.000 ITALY 3111012003 RI/LR FINC. SESTRI 6087 UNNAMED COSTA CROCIERE 105.000 ITALY 30/09/2004 RI/LR T. MARIO -T'I 982 SILVER WHISPER SILVERSEA CRUISES 25.000 BAHAMAS 30/06/2001 RI T. MARIOTrI 001 SEVEN SEAS VOYAGER RADISSON 50.000 BAHAMAS 30/12/2002 RI KVAERNER MASAYARD 500 CARNIVAL PRIDE CARNIVAL CRUISES 85.700 PANAMA 30/11/2001 RI KVAERNER MASAYARD 501 CARNIVAL LEGEND CARNIVAL CRUISES 85.700 PANAMA 30/07/2002 RI KVAERNER MASAYARD 502 UNNAMED COSTA CROCIERE 85.700 ITALY 30/05/2003 RI KVAERNER MASAYARD 503 CARNIVAL MIRACLE CARNIVAL CRUISES 85,700 PANAMA 3011212003 RI CHANTIER DE LATLANTIQUE V31 EUROPEAN DREAM FESTIVAL 58.600 ITALY 30106/2001 RI/BV CHANTIER DE LATLANTIQUE X31 EUROPEAN VISION FESTIVAL 58.600 ITALY 30/03/2002 RI/BV Table 1. Cruise ships under building classed by RINA (updated at I t June 2001) MARKET DRIVEN R&TD ISSUES The quest for innovation The cruise industry has been growing and evolving at a very rapid rate. Passenger ships are increasing in size and are offering increasingly sophisticated and complex features to capture and attract the market with comfort and innovation. The cruise ship industry has carried nearly seven. million passengers from U.S. ports in 2000 and projections claim that these ships will soon be carrying more than ten million passengers a year. According to various forecast, although the market expansion might be influenced by the slow economic growth, energy costs and other reaction to the world-wide situation, still the industry capacity will keep on growing, pulling older ships out of the market thus making the remaining fleet more efficient. Based upon currently deployment patterns, there are some 50 new ships scheduled to enter service before 2006. 232 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN.CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 In the near past there has been a growing interest for fast ships resulting in a number of high speed craft (HSC) of steadily growing dimensions entering in operations. As per today, HSC having length between perpendiculars in excess of 120 m travelling at 42 kn are state of the art. More recently, the shipping community has heavily invested in fast ro-ro passenger ferries which, although not matching the HSC definition, are considerably faster than traditional ro-ro passenger ferries: speeds up to 30 kn are normally considered and 35 kn is now a short term target. NAME OWNER FLAG GT YofB CLASS COSTA RIVIERA COSTA CROCIERE ITALY 30.361 1963 RI COSTA ALLEGRA COSTA CROCIERE ITALY 28.430 1969 RI COSTA MARINA COSTA CROCIERE ITALY 25.558 1969 RI COSTA CLASSICA COSTA CROCIERE ITALY 52.926 1991 RI COSTA ROMANTICA COSTA CROCIERE ITALY 53.049 1993 RI COSTAVICTORIA COSTACROCIERE ITALY 75.166 1996 RI COSTAATLANTICA COSTACROCIERE ITALY 85.619 2000 RI COSTA TROPICALE COSTACROCIERE ITALY 35.190 1981 RIALR VOLENDAAM HOLLAND AMERICA NETHERLANDS 63,000 1999 LR/RI ZAANDAM HOLLAND AMERICA NETHERLANDS 63.000 2000 LR/RI AMSTERDAM HOLLAND AMERICA NETHERLANDS 63.000 2000 LR/RI CARNIVAL SPIRIT CARNIVAL CRUISE LINES PANAMA 85.920 2001 RVLR CROWN PRINCESS PRINCESS CRUISES BERMUDA 70.285 1990 RI REGAL PRINCESS PRINCESS CRUISES UK 70.285 1991 RI SUN PRINCESS PRINCESS CRUISES UK 77.441 1995 RI DAWN PRINCESS PRINCESS CRUISES UK 77.441 1997 RI GRAND PRINCESS PRINCESS CRUISES BERMUDA 108.806 1998 RI SEA PRINCESS PRINCESS CRUISES UK 77.449 1998 RI OCEAN PRINCESS PRINCESS CRUISES UK 77,449 2000 RI/LR GOLDEN PRINCESS PRINCESS CRUISES BERMUDA 108.806 2001 LRJRI SILVER CLOUD SILVERSEA CRUISES BAHAMAS 16,927 1994 RI SILVER WIND SILVERSEA CRUISES BAHAMAS 16.927 1995 RI SILVER SHADOW SILVERSEA CRUISES BAHAMAS 28,258 2000 RI RENAISSANCE SEVEN RENAISSANCE CRUISES LIBERIA 4.200 1991 RI RENAISSANCE EIGHT RENAISSANCE CRUISES LIBERIA 4.200 1992 RI SEVEN SEAS NAVIGATOR RADISSON SEVEN SEAS BAHAMAS 28.550 1999 RI VALTUR PRIMA NINA ITALY 16.144 1948 RI MINERVA SWAN HELLENIC BAHAMAS 12.331 1996 RI RHAPSODY MSC ITALY 17.095 1977 RI STAR OF VENICE STAR OF VENICE NAVIGATION PANAMA 6.269 1953 RI SWITZERLAND LEISURE CRUISES LIBERIA 15.833 1955 RI AUSONIA AUSONIAMAR NAVIGATION CYPRUS 12.609 1957 RI GALAPAGOS EXPLORER II ENCHANTED ISLANDS LIBERIA 4.077 1990 RI AEGEAN SPIRIT TRADITIONAL CRUISE LINES GREECE 16,741 1950 RI SAPPHIRE LOUISE CRUISE LINES CYPRUS 12.263 1967 RI Table 2. Existing Cruise ships classed by RINA (updated at I" June 2001) An impression of how significant the developments have been can be get from Figures 1 and 2: such a rapid evolution, however, introduced significant novelties therefore faced designers and operators with several problems from the safety and environmental protections standpoints. In order to tackle these problems, considerable R&TD investments took place in the last few years. The most significant developments-are-shortly reviewed in the following. Cruise Ships The market growth and the interest of the whole cruise industry focused on the newbuildings gave a further boost to new designs. Passenger demand high comfort and often prefer the newest ships; Shipowners wish to accommodate more and more passengers in modem ships which feature enormous volumes of space dedicated to (external) cabins and public rooms. Moreover, the maximisation of profits in operation (the capital costs and the operating costs per passenger decreases when the ship is larger) is an important aspect of the wholepicture. 233 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION -Crete, October 2001 In short, we can say that "owners and passengers expect everything to function perfectly". Starting from this obvious assumption, the design of cruise ships has been the subject of a ceaseless R&TD aimed at continuous improvement, not only to ensure a prompt reaction to the changing market requirements, but also to guarantee safety and cost-effective reliability. FINCANTIERI CRUISE SHIPS 50OO 4750 4500 4250 3750 2250 15141 GROSS TONNAGE Figure 1. Trend in cruise ships' dimensions (courtesy of Fincantieri) ION O.. 1000 o1..o 1 a ra ro/total m onolo,,i Itpaxlcraftcalrooraf c 140 ______40 a _ _ _ 30Bo :2:_ _ _ ~~~~ - k Lt u';L j $gVP 10 300 957 t. 95 to 96 to 97 to 98 95 96 97 98 Figure 2. Trend in HSC capacity (passengers and cars) and speed from January 1995 Evacuation In the wake of the Estonia tragedy the evacuation process was seriously considered and eventually the 1995 SOLAS Conference issued a new regulation, namely SOLAS 11-2/28-1.3 which impose to ro-ro passenger ships built on or after I" July 1999 to undertake an analysis early in the design stage in order to identify, and solve by design, the potential critical points in the escape routes and life saving appliances. In January 1999, this requirement was likely to be a burden for designers: no direct experience and/or feedback was available within the maritime community and, notwithstanding several R&TD studies which were -initiated world wide shortly afterthe-ESTONIA accident' little' input was available for those designers who were already facing the problem of the evacuation analysis. 234 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN; CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 Therefore, the FP Sub-Committee of the IMO, decided, in January 1999, to develop interim guidelines for the execution of the evacuation analysis when designing a ro-ro passenger ship. The issue of evacuation eventually ws recognised to be of even greater actuality for cruise ships, in view of their increasing size and number of persons on board. Fire safety The already mentioned demand for larger and more complex spaces on board new cruise ships was not foreseen when current fire safety regulations were developed by the IMO. Moreover, fire safety provisions specified in SOLAS Chapter 11.2 are prescriptive, therefore those design solutions which significantly deviate from requirements can not be accepted. This aspect was addressed, from a regulatory point of view, in the revised SOLAS Chapter 11.2 (entering into force on July I't, 2002) which opens the way to performance based fire safety design. More specifically, Regulation 17 indicates that engineering analyses are requested to be carried out according to specified principles of fire risk assessment. Since fire is perhaps the most warring hazard on board a cruise ship (a large fire accident is likely to threaten the whole cruise industry), this new approach is leading to considerable R&TD as well to an opportunity to assess the fimess for purpose of fire safety provisions on board innovative ships. Availability of propulsion The possibility for a cruise ship to be able to satisfactorily continue to operate even in the event of a failure in either the propulsion orthe steering system is not only a question of safety (let's think to the Ecstasy case [1]) but also a business requirement: with some three thousands passengers on board, you would like to avoid stopping the cruise. Although cruise ship's are equipped normally with two propellers and up to four engines, availability of propulsion is not necessarily ensured. Environmental friendliness Shipping is often perceived as an industry which pollutes and which is run from shadowy tax exiles, shielded from regulations and retribution by flags of convenience. So shipping needs to be able to demonstrate to the public that it does care about the environment, and that it can be a sustainable industry. In spite of MARPOL's international requirements, several Local Authorities have introduced additional and more stringent environmental standards for the simple reason that they would like to preserve pristine geographical areas which are more and more become crowded by cruise ships. Roro-pax Most of the issues listed for cruise ships are of relevance for ro-ro passenger ships. Additionally, in the last few years, we have witnessed a major technological breakthrough in this segment of the market: the so called fast ropax, i.e. ro-ro passenger ships able to reach a speed of almost 30 kn. This requires considerable power and large and heavy charged propellers, a condition which threaten passengers' comfort. High Speed Craft- As already mentioned, the development of high speed crafts (HSC) has in recent years been significant. Not only are the dimensions of the vessels increasing, but also service speeds and expectations to performances tend always to increase. Furthermore it becomes also more common that HSC are operating along routes with harsh weather conditions. Therefore the craft's seaworthiness, in ,particular -with respect-to seasickness, are very important'in the research being performed within the HSC area. 235 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP1DESIGN, CONSTRUCrION; SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 It can be stated that the seaworthiness of an HSC is the combination of: " the vessel performance, influenced by e.g. hull shape, weight distribution, optimal use of ride control systems, such as e.g. t-foils etc. " the decisions of the shipmaster, influenced by his skills, experience and amount of information on the actual status of the vessel he is operating and of the surrounding environment. The vessel performance above is the part that received more attention in the past years while the operational part (master's decisions) can be dealt with by installing ad hoc navigation aids on the ship. This is the case, e.g., of some designers who equip HSC with some type of Seaworthiness Management System. Such a system consists on various sensors (acceleration) placed on board whose signal is given at the bridge along with proper indications if the comfort threshold has been overcome, so that the shipmaster can take appropriate, actions,..e.g. reduce speed or change course, and verify immediately their impact on the accelerations.. Other R&TD topics It is not the aim of this paper to present a thorough list of all the R&TD topics which are of relevance to passenger ships design and operations. In addition to those listed above, several other are currently being pursued and some of them could even be more important than the previous ones. For the sake of illustration let's just mention the water on deck issue related to ro-ro passenger ships [2], the Podded propulsion [3] and, of course structural aspects [4]. These are not going to be ddressed in this paper for the sake of brevity. USE OF R&TD RESULTS FOR PASSENGER SHIPS CLASSIFICATION PURPOSES The typical process of innovation in a Classification Society is to transfer, after proper validation, R&TD results into their Rules. This is normally made into two distinct ways: a) transfer into the main Rules, i.e. introducing new or modifying existing Class requirements; this way the requirement becomes compulsory; b) develop "voluntary class notations", i.e. develop Rules for specific ship design or operational features which are not deemed to be compulsory; these requirements will be applied only upon request of the shipowner aiming at verifying that the ship met an higher than normal standard in a specific field. In general, aspects strongly affecting safety belongs to the first category, it is e.g. the case of wave loading and structural arrangements, while aspect aiming at enhancing the ship commercial value belongs to the second one. RINA RULES 2000 Starting in 1.998 and for a period. of.30.months, RINA -undertook the complete and-comprehensive revision of its Rules for the Classification of Ships. The new Rule Book, firstly issued in June 2000 [5] (and the 2001 version in January 2001), includes a large amount of previous R&TD results the most significant of which are briefly described in the following, making reference to the topic listed in the previous section. Evacuation In 1999 RINA developed a Guide on the matter [6] which introduced in the maritime sector the so- called "macroscopic" or "hydraulic" method, widely.used in..the civil tbuilding.field...RINA's Guide was taken as the basis for the "Interim Guidelines" developed by the IMO which is still working 236 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION,'SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 aiming at improvingihem. and at enlarging their scope of application to all passenger ship types. In Appendix a short state of the art situation on IMO's developments is provided. As evacuability is a fundamental aspect for safety, the requirement of carrying out an evacuation analysis early in the design stage is a Class requirement for RINA. Fire safety This is still an R&TD issue for the moment. It is dealt with in the SAFETY FIRST project [7], which was initiated by RINA and other partners in March 2000, i.e. when IMO's guidelines on the matter were not yet issued in their final form. No doubt that this is a fundamental aspect for safety and therefore relevant class requirements will be included in RENA's 2002 Rules coherently with the fact that the new SOLAS Chapter 11.2 will enter into force on July Ist 2002. A short summary of the SAFETY FIRST project goals is provided in the following. " New SOLAS 11-2(fire protection) Into force on July 2002 * Alternative design guidelines: use of Fire Engineering Science and Fire Risk Analysis 9 Safety First Project * Project partially financed by the European Commission ( JSafety First Project * 3years duration (started March lst2000 ) 0 * Budget: 3 millions US$ Development of trialapplications of the Guidelines i. 9 Partners: Fincantleri, RINA, B.V., CE.TE.NA, Three Quays Marine DevelopmentoofatrialapplicationseofitheoGuidelines based on realistic case studies with involvement of designers, DAppolonia, ThO, AEA-T, University of Greenwich Authorities and fire safety experts * Involvement of Administrations (U.S.C.G., M.C.A., S.M.A.) through an Advisory Group Availability of propulsion As part of RINA's internal FSA (Formal Safety Assessment) developments and studies, this matter ws given priority and considerable attention. As a result, a voluntary Class Notation is available [8] since June 2000. Its main features are depicted in Figure 1. AVM: Availability of machinery If 'Figure 1 - RINA's AVM Class Notation 237 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 Environmental friendliness This was considered a major priority in RINA's R&TD and Rule development plan since early 1999. At the time a close co-operation between RINA, CARNIVAL and KWAERNER MASA YARD was initiated leading to the "Green Star" concept i.e. to the two voluntary Class Notations CLEAN SEA and CLEAN AIR [9], which were firstly awarded to Costa Atlantica in July 2000. The concept is shortly illustrated in Figures 2, 3 and 4. Further R&TD is ongoing on this matter [10] aiming at further improving the concept. Passengers comfort Since 1999 RINA offers a Class Notation specifically geared to passenger ships. R&TD results have been used for improving it further, as a result the COMF Class Notations have been made available [11] as shown in Figure 5. HSC Seaworthiness This is also a still on-going R&TD issue [12], tackled in partnership with RODRIQUEZ Shipyard. The expected result, which will likely be included into RINA's 2002 Rule Book as a voluntary class notation, is an advanced Seaworthiness Management System able to tackle not only passenger comfort but also the structural safety of the craft. An outline of the system's philosophy is provided in Figure 6. RINA's GREEN STAR LOGO I Q in addition to IMCYs requirements (some not yet compulsory) additional RINA's GREEN STAR LOGO requirements are emerging (e.g. EPA, Alaska) a CLEAN SEA and CLEAN AIR are two RINA's voluntary class notations dealing with environmental friendly ships 0 CLEAN SEA and CLEAN AIR are a mix of technical (design) and j Prevention of operational pollution by oil operational (procedures) aspects g Prevention of accidental pollution by oil ("double hull") a The GREEN STAR logo is awarded to ships complying with both of 03Prevention of pollution by noxious substances them and testify the highest environmental awareness of the a Garbage (MARPOL Annex V + additional requirements) shipowner a Sewage (holding tank for treated black water) d) Global wmnnIng &ozone depletion (EPA based) 1J Grey water (holding tank) 0 Emissions from engines (NOx,SOx) ($Prevention of transport of organisms in ballast water rJIncinerators 9 Tn-free antifouling paints 1J Prevention of emissions of vapoum from cargo Figure 2 - RINA's CLEAN AIR Class Notation Figure 3 - RINA's CLEAN SEA Class Notation FUTURE R&TD AGENDA In the previous section several issues needing further R&TD have been already mentioned. Besides them and of course from a Classification Society perspective, the main topic for the years to follow is the extension of the alternative design-concept from.fire safety to all the main aspects governing ship safety, encompassing structural safety, damaged stability and life saving appliances. Based on the significant innovation the passenger ship community experienced in the last 10 years, it is easy to forecast that in the next few years we will assist to other technological breakthroughs and eventually to a new generation of jumbo passenger ships. For this step to be safely undertook, design by first principles is not an option but a need. This also means that the time lag from R&TD and current practice will have to reduce significantly. 238 - EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 In particular this is the case for a Classification Society who is asked to verify, immediately at the early design if not in the pre-contractual phase, the feasibility of innovative solutions. A lot was asked in the past to the R&TD marine community and a lot more will be in the future. Figure 4-The Green Star Ship COME: Comfort on board * = tentative rules SFigure 5-= RINA's COME Class Notations CONCLUSIONS R1NA is a mayor player in the world classification market for passenger ships. This prominent position was achieved also thanks a careful R&TD policy and strategy which is based on considerable investments (about 8% of annual turnover), co-operation with R&D centres, universities and other Classification Societies as wvell as joint exploitation of R&TD results with the final users, namely shipyards and shipowners. The strategy seems to have .worked effectively~and will~be furthernpursued in the future. 239 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION -Crete, October 2001 DESIGN & VERIFICATION-]-- SHIP DESIGN: PROCEDURES: ' seakeeping M If.SSIONPROFILE seakeeping * * structures - sea• states * structures * comfort * comfort ------ ON OASSE M SHIP RESPONSE stessNAVIGATIONSENSORS D AT A DOTA •shipwave momons height 6 MODULEdNATHEMON ANALYSIS •pressures [3] P S AID MODULE ...... ------ 4U iaDATAR ANALYSIS&prjc [I] National TransportI 6] ationsaft, i Boarfmaintenance MOS)D FreoUor , p l design procedures CEINTRLISED heLbra asegrSi DATABASE OSORE Figure 6 - The MONITUS system REFERENCES [1] National Transportation Safety Board (tNTSi),"Fire on Board the Liberian Passenger Ship NTSBiMAR-01/01.ECSTASY, Miami, Florida, July 20, 1998", Marine Accident Report, PB2001-916401, [3][21] PODSAFER EURORO,EU funded Thematic Network. in SERVICE, EU partially funded R&D project. [4] DISCO, EU partially funded R&D project. [5] RINA RULES 2000, "Rules for the Classification of Ships", June 2000. [6] RINA, "Guide for the evacuation analysis of ro-ro passenger ships", January 1999. [7] SAFETY FIRST, EU partially funded R&D project. [81] RINA RULES 2000, "Rules for the Classification [9] of Ships, Part F, Additional Class Notations, ChapterRINA RULES 2", June 2000, 2000. "Rules for the Classification of Ships, Part F, Additional Class Notations, Chapter 7", June 2000. [10] [11] TRESHIP, EU funded Thematic Network. R1NA RULES 2000, "Rules for the Classification of Ships, Part F, Additional Class Notations, Chapter 6", June 2000. [12] E!2097 MONITUS, EUREKA partially funded R&TD project. 240 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 Appendix- Evacuation: state of the art at the IMO Regulating evacuation: WHAT? SOLAS 11-2/28-1.3 Regulating evacuation: HOW? "For ro-ro ships consiructed on or after 1.7.99, To be carried out very early in the design stage; results influence escape routes shall be evaluated by an evacuation heavily the structural design and the passive fire protection analysis early in the design process'" design: a quick approval by flag state is needed "The analysis shall be used to identif ..J congestion - ONormalmovement="idealised ocnditions' which may arise [.] due to normal movement o passengers and crew along escape routes, cludin the possibility that crew may need to move [.] in a The goal is toprovide a simple enough toolfor use in the early direction opposite the movement of passengers. design phase in order to highligth: '4shall be used to demonstrate that sw e - critical points arrangements are sufciently texibl& aidA - congestions the ossibi that certain escape routes, assembly - flexibility of arrangements i.e. effects of failure(s) in the stations, embarkation stations or survival craft ma evacuation system not be available as a result of a casualty" Not a simulation tool Present approach: ro-ro pax (MSC/Circ.909) A T Overlapping time Order to abandon ship Evacuation completed L )33+ Total time E + L Mustering phase I[ - i s p Calculated evacuation time Embarkation & launching Maximum allowed evacuation time = 60' A awareness time = 10' nigth scenarios, 5' day scenarios T- Travel time = calculated according to RINA's method • E+L Enbrakation and launching time (SOLAS IIU21 parl.4) Present approach: 1SC (FP45IVP.6) Future approach 1.Evacuation procedure: crew trained to marshall passengers cruise ships revision of MSC/Circ.909 Jan 2002 2. No cabins for passengers & compact spaces 3. Maximum allowed evacuation time = (SFP-7y3 (e.g. 17'40') existing passenger require evacuation analysis? Jan 2002 4. Alert signal + order to abandon the craft ships 5. Passengers are aware, wear lifejackets and are at the assembly stations 6. A practical demonstration is to be carried out microscopic model Guidelines for execution Jan 2002 of the analysis Actions carried out in parallel Travel time:similar to ro-ro pax, suitably simplified Unifomity of application isto be ensued 241 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SmIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 J. de Kat, MARlIN "Passenger Ship Safety from a Hydrodynamics Perspective". Jan de Kat is Head of the Research and Development division at MARIN, Wageningen, where he has worked since 1989. He has been, and continues to be, active in the field of seakeeping, safety and dynamic stability of ships. Other activities include chairmanship of the NSMIB-CRS (Cooperative Research Ships) consortium and of the IMO Working Group on the revision of the 1966 Load Line Convention. He received his M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees from the University of California at Berkeley, and a B.Eng. degree from the University of New South Wales, Sydney. 243 EUROCONFERENCE ON-PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN;.CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY'AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 PASSENGER SHIP SAFETY FROM A HYDRODYNAMICS PERSPECTIVE Jan 0. de Kat MARIN Wageningen, the Netherlands [email protected] ABSTRACT LIFE-CYCLE DESIGN FOR OPERATION This paper describes the hydrodynamic aspects that should Safety of ships is a multi-disciplinary matter by nature. For be considered as part of passenger ship safety assessment. this reason the fragmented approach in hydrodynamic The key issue is the necessity to develop a comprehensive research (and in other research disciplines as well)' and analysis approach, which would fit in a life-cycle design design applications affects the inherent safety as well. In for operation methodology. Hydrodynamic elements of addition a gap commonly exists between the ship design such a method comprise ship maneuvering, motions and and operation process. To consider ship performance (be it loads in waves and wind, related seakeeping aspects economic or technical) and safety as a comprehensive (propulsion performance in waves, green seas, slamming, matter, it is necessary to develop a longer term life-cycle motion-induced response: sliding of objects or persons, design approach. The life-cycle design approach depicted officer/crew fatigue, or sea sickness), dynamic stability of in figure 1 requires also an integrated view on intact ship (behavior in extreme conditions), on-board hydrodynamic analysis for safety assessment purposes. measurements, active operator guidance, nautical simulator for training of officers, behavior of damaged or flooded ship in waves and wind, mustering and evacuation, deployment of lifesaving appliances (LSA), behavior of LSA in extreme weather. INTRODUCTION In the field of hydrodynamics considerable advances have I Education been made in specific areas of application, including ship powering, maneuvering and seakeeping. Yet at the same time these developments have taken place largely in=a independent fashion - for instance, resistance and inspection propulsion have traditionally been corisidered fdi-calm On-board m easure water conditions, and likewise for maneuverability. A O ; m en ts consistent theoretical or numerical (and even Operator experimental) treatment of the combined problem of, say, Operator propulsion or maneuvering in waves, is still in its infancy. As a consequence, hull optimization typically- has been Guidance centered around the individual classical disciplines, and any integrative aspects have to be effected by the designer. Figure 1 Aspects of life cycle design for operation 245 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONgrRUC•iON, SAFETrY ANDOPERATION - Crete, October 2001 The role of R&D in this methodology should be to provide critical events, determination of consequences of certain science and technology in an integrated fashion to the events, and to risk control (reduction of probability of various stakeholders in the marine society. This implies occurrence of critical events and consequence mitigation). that R&D should deliver technology developed over the As is usual in safety assessment, risk associated with a longer term, which is fit for application in the design, certain event is defined as the product of the probability of operation or regulatory process. Figure 2 illustrates that a occurrence of the event and the consequence of that event. clustered R&D environment can contribute expertise to a range of stakeholders and can offer the advantages of This paper attempts to give an overview of the various technology development in integrative areas like safety hydrodynamic issues that may need to be addressed when and design innovation, assessing passenger ship safety in such an environment. Here we refer to safety of both the ship and of the t - ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ Q.ýggnwo ~ ir' ...... 14,'-ýniom -- ptý u" . 22 1ý" 'Uffnovattonc, Hydrodynamics Structures Univ. . Figure 2. Interaction of clustered R&D organizations passengers and crew. The list with issues given in the next with stakeholders chapter is hot exhaustive, but it should provide a fairly comprehensive overview. The role of research institutes specialized in hydrodynamics should be to provide expertise in specific hydrodynamics areas, but also in an integrated fashion. ROLE OF HYDRODYNAMICS IN SHIP SAFETY Hydrodynamic research can play a constructive role in design, operation,-training, and regulations. This'bplies to Ship powering ship powering (propulsion and resistance), maneuvering and course keeping, seakeeping and stability, interaction Hazards between hydrodynamics and other disciplines such as ship - collision structures and human factors, and interaction between - grounding human operator and ship. - drifting As regards ship safety, hydrodynamic research can Risk assessment contribute to the hazard identification process, probability of loss of propeller due to excessive determination of probability of occurrence of.potentially cavitation-induced vibrations or blade overloading 246 •EiROCONFERENCE'ON'PASSENGER'SHLiP DESIGN; CONSTRUCTION SAFETY.AND OPERATION- Crete, October 2001 probability of loss of effective thrust in waves Risk assessment probability of loss of power (e.g., machinery failure - probability of performance degradation in shallow or due to excessive motions or seawater intake) restricted water probability of insufficient astern thrust in crash stop - probability of lack of adequate maneuverability in deep water The application of steerable propulsion units like podded - probability of performance degradation due to propulsors (figure 3) has introduced a range of -new hydrodynamic interaction between ships developments: hull form design, engine room layout, - probability of damage (and extent) following collision improved powering performance, etc. or grounding '' 4?-.: w Risk control 4 -, -----: 'qzt,' jt"rudder design in combination with propulsion system 0 r• >twv-2Ž• "'engine control ' '!• 7,-.wt=•underwater hull design N. .. minimum turning circle and zig-zag characteristics #,°I.stopping ability collision avoidance systems •I. bridge layout " "training of officers: nautical simulators •.•!': .•!:'"•"• ,':: " ' " :. •"= • ;••: !;•'•:•regulations! Nautical simulators are an effective instrument with regard - . .to training officers on the bridge, as depicted in figure 4. Figure 3 Conventional propulsion and podded propulsion arrangement of aft body [11 The use of podded propulsion has significant (typically beneficial) influence on the maneuvering characteristics of a ship [2]. In addition course keeping and seakeeping are important related issues: steering algorithms (autopilots) and thrust allocation have to be optimized, which may have a-bearing on safety related matters. For instance, the 1; 1 . side thrust of a podded propulsor may induce heeling moments that have to be considered as regards extreme rolling behavior and stability. Figure 4 Master training in tug handling at MARIN's Risk control simulator centre MSCN - redundancy in propulsion system - - minimizepropeller designcavitation effects From experimental research carried out at MARl-N, we modify structural arrangements to. reduce_.vibration know that it is possible to improve maneuverability - characteristics with relatively small changes to the levels and increase fatigue life underwater hull form (especially of the aft ship), and with proper alignment of rudder and propeller arrangement. Maneuvering• Research carried out in the 80s resulted in minimum recommended requirements with regard to ship HazardsSloss of directional control, drifting maneuverability (IMO resolution A751(18)). These - collision requirements concern turning ability, course keeping -grounding ability and stopping ability in deep water. The values of -the criteria were, however,, determined mainly-for tankers 247 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 and bulk carriers. It is likely that for other ship types, such as passenger ships, other standards may be valid. For passenger ships the heel angle experienced during- maneuvers may be important. Rudder excursions made at A high ship speeds may cause heel angles of up to 25 'C, degrees. Such extreme angles must be avoided. Recently there was an incident where a cruise vessel listed sharplyt after a sudden rudder excursion (possibly caused by the autopilot, still subject of investigations). Maneuvering and course keeping in waves and wind Figure 5 Free-running model maneuvering in waves in Hazards MARIN's Seakeeping and Maneuvering Basin - collision - driftding The ability to complete a maneuver such as a turning circle - broaching depends strongly on wind speed and ship speed. For a capsizcing given wind speed, a certain minimum ship speed is - capizingrequired below which the ship will drift without being able Risk assessment to complete the maneuver [3]. Figure 6 shows an example probability of broaching of a marginal turning circle trajectory for a ship where in - poaiiy o derdto of mnueig extreme conditions; at a higher wind speed the ship would -perfobmability ofve dgandationd o aevrn not be able complete the maneuver and would run the risk - influence of human helmsman versus autopilot control of drifting broadside to the waves and wind. Risk control _____ - design of autopilot - design of steering control devices - hull design - rudder system - engine control - active operator guidance system - motions and wave monitoring on board - training of bridge officers: simulator For risk assessment it is important to be able to predict the maneuvering behavior in waves and wind. This area is still in its infancy; only a limited number of research institutes can carry out experiments with a steered model in waves and wind, see figure 5, for example. In spite of the lack of a complete theoretical description of the physics involved, numerical simulations can provide quantitative information on maneuvering performance in wind and waves. Figure 6 Example of marginal turning circle in extreme conditions (collinear waves and wind along XE axis, Hs = 10 m, Vwind = 50 Ion, Vship = 8 kn, rudder angle = 20 deg). The installed power, the way in which the throttle controls the propeller settings, and rudder arrangement have a 248 EUROCONFERENCE ONPASSENGER SHP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION; SAFETY AND OPERATION -Crete, October 2001 major influence on the maneuverability of a ship in waves Seakeeping and wind. Ships in severe wind at relatively low speeds will have difficulty keeping a safe heading. In 1999, the Hazards vessel Eendracht sailed away from an English coast - extreme rolling harbor. At a relative low speed, the pilot left the vessel, - down-flooding associated with green seas after which the vessel should gain speed again to sail away - broaching from the coast. At this low speed, however, the - impact loads environmental forces (wind and waves) were so severe that - local or global structural failure the ship could not maintain heading, drifted and grounded. - damage to portholes or windows The balance between installed power, possible rudder - loss of forward speed arrangement and wind loads should be always considered. - bodily damage due to sliding or tipping of passengers This event concerned a passenger sailing vessel. Also for or crew cruise liners and ferries with a large windage area this item - motion-induced crew fatigue is of importance. Risk assessment Recent progress has been made in the development of - reliable information on wind and wave climate wave monitoring systems, as has been discussed in [4]. - probability of exceeding large roll angles associated When available, such wave information can serve as input with e.g. resonance or parametric rolling to operational guidance systems. Ship motions in extreme - probability of shipping water on deck or through conditions (and probability of capsize) are sensitive to the openings actual wave height and period, so that accurate information loads due to water on deck on the prevailing wave characteristics is important when - occurrence of bottom or bow flare slamming loads making decisions on safe ship speed and course and hull girder response combinations [5]. .- probability of exceeding critical acceleration levels By means of extensive numerical simulations and The extreme motion behavior and related probability probabilistic analysis it is possible to derive polar plots distributions can be predicted using model tests or indicating safe and unsafe areas of operation for a given numerical simulations. For example, parametric rolling has ship in a specified sea state, as a function of ship speed been observed in model tests for a cruise ship [7], in which and relative heading angle, as illustrated in figure 7. Work case this mode of motion occurred in irregular head and to determine a suitable format for use on the bridge is following seas at low speed. Due to hull form and loading ongoing [6]. condition - leading to significant GZ fluctuations during the passage of critical wave groups - and the inherent low roll damping (without active fins), maximum roll angles of around 35 degrees were observed. See figure 8. POLAR RISK PLOTS LON•,P• LT inCenter n eStp 0% S Red WSv, 10e g eer show sfop sps z spind ý 12 49,. Ship Spn~dover z~~~e,ý, ,- r'm 20%kt Figue68Cruse hipundrgong araetrc rllig a Typinal Co..venaonalahip Figure 7 Capsize risk polar plot for a naval destroyer in Sea State 8 [61 Figure 8 Cruise ship undergoing parametric rolling at -zero speed in following seas 249 October 2001 * EUROCONFEitNCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, - local and global structural strength - location and protection of openings Numerical simulations can provide a reasonable indication - weather routing of the conditions that may lead to parametric rolling with or without active fins, but an accurate prediction of the related probability distribution of roll angles and accelerations for a range of sea states is still difficult [8]. N High accelerations caused by ship motions may lead to fl sliding or tipping of passengers or crew. Based on research 315" 45 10-3.O '80s i.0 carried out by a group of navies in the and '90s it is P 00o.o- 1. possible to predict the probability of such events when the10 vessel motions are known. A tipping or sliding event is referred to as a Motion Induced Interruption (MII). Figure w27a7 .e 9 illustrates the predicted MiI occurrence in real time as a function of the lateral acceleration, where three MII levels are used: MII High refers to a typically inexperienced person, whereas MII Low represents a person who is seafarer. skilled at MII avoidance, i.e., an experienced 180Y S Figure 10 Predicted incidence of MNI for a combined -- wind sea and swell with 40 kn wind [91 S- ..- •.....Stability Intact shin Figure 9 Example of real time MIu prediction Hazards - capsizing tipping In analogy to the operator guidance plots indicating safe - bodily damage due to sliding or areas of operation in terms of broaching or capsize risk, - loss of life similar type of plots can be generated related to MIE [9]. Figure 10 shows an example of an MII polar plot derived A comprehensive hazard analysis in relation to capsizing for a naval ship. and foundering is given in [I I]. Besides MIT, motion induced fatigue (MIF) can be an Risk assessment important issue as regards effectiveness of officers and - reliable information on wind and wave climate crew [10]. Fatigue will lead to an increased probability of statistics human error, but it has proven to be difficult to quantify - probability of capsize due to static loss of stability fatigue and establish the exact causes and conditions - probability of capsize due to dynamic loss of stability: leading to.MIF. -Work in this area is still ongoing;,- - broaching - resonance Risk control - parametric excitation and resonance - hull design - 6 coupled dof - mass properties - impact excitation, breaking waves - service margin for propulsion system - wind - motion control devices (bilge keels, anti-roll fins or the tanks, rudder system) Model tests provide the most complete way to simulate - steerable thrusters behavior of a ship in extreme conditions. Numerical - operator guidance models, however, have made significant progress and are - training 250 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY-AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 capable of providing useful information on potentially dangerous conditions. e i v°F Using extensive numerical simulations it is possible to obtain short term and long term capsize probability ý No information [5], resulting in roll angle distribution ol" properties as shown in figure 11. 1/- 0.0N 0 30 60 9 Maximum roll for randomly generated seaway (deg) Figure 11 Distribution of extreme roll angles for a •v. , , frigate in severe sea state [51]oF. . No Risk control - hu ll d esign (un d er and ab o v e w ater) F g r 2 S m l c e a i f S f ~ a s l g c f o o - mass properties Figle 1voSimpe oftoh oeraticon usirnslgiMlont Carlo - watertight integrity of hull and superstructure sin g-, o a e o ow o e ai n uin o t al - operator guidance Simulator 1121 - training intact stability regulations - weather routing •••• _• Through complete scenario simulations, invohving wave .v• and wind climate, routing information, ship behavior, and • " captain's decision mimic, it is possible to derive a p~robabilistic assessment of the safety of shipping operations. This goal has been achieved within the SafeTrans project [12f aimed at the safety of towing operations. Figure 12 illustrates the flow of information leading to risk assessment; figure 13 shows a route for which simulations have been carried out. Figure 13 Route display used for simulations of shipping operation [12i 251 EUROCONFElRENCE ON PASSENGER S1HI DESIGN, CONSTRUaCION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 4, Damaged (floodedc) shin Hazards - Flooding REFERENCES - Faulty ballasting - Loss of buoyancy [I] Valkhof, H., "Podded propulsors, it has all just - Foundering, sinking started", Proceedings The Motor Ship - Marine Propulsion - Capsizing Conference 2001, London, March 2001 - Global structural failure Bodily damage due to sliding or tipping [2] Van Terwisga, T., Quadvlieg, F., and Valkhof, H., - Drowning of passengers or crew "Steerable propulsion units: hydrodynamic issues and - Inadequate mustering process design consequences", Paper presented on the occasion of - Insufficient time for evacuation before capsizing or 80"' anniversary of Schottel GmbH & Co, August 2001 sinking - Non-functioning of life saving appliances [3] De Kat, J.O., Brouwer, R., McTaggart, K.A., and - Failure of deployed LSA Thomas, W.L., "Intact ship survivabiilty in extreme waves: - Capsizing or sinking of deployed LSA new criteria froma research and navy perspective", Proceedings STAB '94 Conference, Melbourne (Florida), Risk assessment September 1994 - probability of damage location and extent - probability of flooding [4] Koning, J., "On-board wave measurement - probability of survival time systems", Proceedings 5" International Workshop on Ship - probability of capsize Stability, Trieste, Sept. 2001 Risk control [5] K. McTaggart and J.O. de Kat, "Capsize Risk of hull design Intact Frigates in Irregular Seas", SNAME Transactions, subdivision Vol. 108, New York, 2000 - compartment layout - watertight integrity of hull and superstructure [6 Alman, P.R., McTaggart, K.A., Minnck, P., and - cross flooding arrangements Thomas, W.L., "Heavy weather guidance and capsize dewatering system risk", Proceedings 5$ International Workshop on Ship - operator guidance Stability, Trieste, Sept. 2001 - training - structuralstrength [7] Dallinga, R.P., Blok, estmcrurtres h J.J., and Luth, H.R., "Excessive rolling of cruise ships in head and following - escape routes waves", Proceedings International Conference on Ship LSA Motions and Manoeuvrability, RINA, Feb. 1998 - Damage stability regulations [8] Luth, H.R., and Dallinga, R.P., "Excessive rolling of cruise ships in head and following waves", Proceedings CONCLUSIONS PRADS '98, The Hague, 1998 This paper proposes .to... approach the assessment of [9] Graham, R., Baitis, A.E., and Meyers, W.G., "On passenger ship safety by means of a life-cycle design for the development of seakeeping criteria", naval Engineers operation methodology. It provides an overview and Journal, May 1992, pp. 259-275 discussion (albeit incomplete) of a variety of hydrodynamic issues that are of importance to ship design, [10] Baitis, A.E., et al, "1991-1992 Motion Induced operation, training and regulations. Interruption (Mii) and Motion Induced Fatigue (MIF) Experiments at the Naval Biodynamics Laboratory", Report No. CRDDKNSWC-HD-1423-01, Naval Surface Warfare Center Carderock Division, Hydrodynamics Directorate, Sept. 1995 (Unlimited distribution) 252 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN;CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION -Crete, October 2001 [(1] Alman, PR., Minnick, P.V, Sheinberg, R., and Thomas, W.L., "Dynamic capsize vulnerability: reducing the hidden operational risk", SNAME Transactions, Vol. 107, New York, 1999 [121 Aalbers, A.B., Cooper, C.K., Nowa*, S., Lloyd, JR., Leenaars, C.J., and Vollen, F., "SafeTrans: a new software system for safer rig moves", Proceedings City University Jack-up Conference, London, Sept. 2001 253 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 S. Naito, Professor, Osaka University "Propeller Racing in Rough Sea" h Shigern NAITO was born on the 5" of June, 1944 in Shizuoka Prefecture, Japan. He is a Professor at the Dept. of Naval Architecture & Ocean Engineering. Graduate School of Engineering, Osaka University. Graduated from Osaka University, 1969. Dr. Eng., from Osaka University, 1974. Associate Professor at the Dept. of Naval Architecture & Ocean Engineering, Osaka Univ., 1986-1995. Full Professor at the Dept. of NAOE, Osaka Univ., 1995- present. Honors, Prizes 1/1977...The Best Paper Prize of The Kansai Society of Naval Architects, Japan l/1986...The Best Paper Prize of The Kansai Society of Naval Architects, Japan 5/1998...The Best Paper Award of International Society of Offshore & Polar Engineers, Canada 1/1999.. .The Best Paper Prize of The Kansai Society of Naval Architects, Japan Memberships in Professional Societies: The Society of Naval Architects, Japan. The Kansai Society of Naval Architects, Japan. The West-Japan Society of Naval Architects. The Japan Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics. Japan Society of Energy and Resources. Japanese Association for Coastal Zone Studies. The Society for Science on Form, Japan. International Society of Offshore & Polar Engineers. Board member of Kansai Society of Naval Architects, Japan. Board member of Society of Naval Architects, Japan. Technical Program Committee of ISOPE. 255 • EUROCONFERENCE'ON PAS9ENGERSHIP DESIGNý CONSrRUCrION, SAFETYVAND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 Propeller racing in rough sea Shigeru Naito Department of Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering, Osaka University 2-1 Yamada-oka, Suita, Osaka, 565-0871, Japan - October 17-19, 2001, KNOSSOS ROYAL VILLAGE, Crete : Abstract When ships navigate in rough sea, a very large motion occurs. As the results, the ship bottom revolution sometime emerges. And also a part of propeller appears over free surface, therefore the number of propeller increases immediately. This phenomenon generally is called the propeller racing, investigated which affects on the main engine strongly. On this problem, author shows the some results. 1 Introduction disc is a Under the self-propulsive condition in moderate sea state, an inflow velocity into a propeller velocity is not main cause of a propeller thrust, torque and revolution fluctuation. To estimate the inflow racing but a difficult by using the strip theory of ship motions. This fluctuation is not called a propeller load fluctuation generally. sometime On the contrary in rough sea state, because a large ship motion occur, a part of a propeller occurs, which is emerges from water. That time a very large revolution, thrust and torque fluctuation and the propeller called a propeller racing. This phenomenon must be considered for the main engine, cause of fluctuations immersion is a key parameter. In rough sea state this immersion becomes the main Therefore than the inflow velocity into the propeller. This fluctuation is not good for a main engine. orders to reduce captains want to avoid it. For preventing the sever racing caused by ship motion, captain a ship speed and/or change a ship courses. that the 1/3 of However the definition of the racing is not clear yet. Fukuda[1] proposed the condition that a propeller propeller diameter exposures over free surface. Other researcher proposed the condition it is defined from the torque fluctuation is the one third of the torque in still water. On the design side, side, it is defined from ship motion point of view like whether the tip emerges or not. But the navigation the racing. Those the main engine point of view. Making a point of saying is important for considering on the marine engine different opinions must be unified by the discussion of the large load fluctuation characteristic plane. • 2 Propeller racing. records of the container ship ship[2] in Pacific ocean At the first, author shows the data of actual propeller racing for 175m container know the mutual relation in fig.(1). If our intension focus on the point indicated with a vertical line, we bow is down, because a part among ship motions, engine torque and revolution very clearly. When the increases. That phenomena of propeller emerges, immediately propeller torque decreases and revolution torque and revolution is doesn't have a time lag. Furthermore, we know that each time history of the a propeller, other the propeller consisted of two components. One is caused by an inflow velocity into exposures. Those results will be confirmed with experiments mentioned below. 3 Propeller immersion and racing in experiments on the thrust and torque When a propeller is acting near a free surface in wayes, the free surface effect in fig.( 2 ) and fig.(3). appears. The experiments on it were carried out and the examples are shown 257 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 (is Bow Oown 8e(Pitch A •I 2fV.8[,<' .- V,, A /f.{ A ¢(o,V Vv-,./ I'Vvv • V, (Bow Vertical Ace.) 150rpm. Increase / N (Revolution) 75[ 250T-M / Figure 1: Actual ship measurements of motion, revolution and torque at 2nd voyage of the container ship in very rough sea. Pay attention (1)Fluctuation wave forms (2)A phase relation between motions and fluctuations Fig.(2) is the phase plane between the immersion of and thrust of propeller at forced pitch oscillation. If we would draw a phase plane of the revolution and torque like shown in fig(l), we get the same one as fig.(2). To extract the essence of racing, propeller open test in regular waves under the shallow immersion condition were carried out, and we could obtained the mutual relation clearly between the propeller immersion and racing shown in fig.(3). By comparing the fig.(1) and fig.(3), we know that even model experiments can reappear the essential characteristics of the racing of actual ships. 4 Calculation model of racing Let's I be the propeller center immersion depth in waves and Rp be a radius of propeller. In fig.(2), the tendency of the relation between the vertical axes thrust and the horizontal axes I/Rp is very clear, namely it indicates that a modeling of the free surface effect is simple. Considering those figures (1),(2),(3), we uunderstand-the racing time histories consists of two different components, one is an inflow velocity into the propeller disc, other is the propeller exposure effect. This explanation is shown in fig.(4). Let's Tý, Qc and S. be a thrust, torque and propeller disc area when a propeller operates without free surface effect. Based on this discussion, the relation between T/TO,,Q/QO and I/Rp is modeled as following relation. This model relates to the propeller exposure effect only. T/T.,Q/Q. a(I/Rp) +)3, for I/Rp <5 A 1, for I/Rp,ŽA (1) -Where a, )3 and A are determined with the experiments carried out previous studies. Usually A is about 1.2 and a is obtained by the propeller disc area ratio as S/Soo. Other racing component is the orbital velocity of waves, which can be calculated easily if a wave potential is givený In very rough sea condition, this component is smaller than the exposure component. The calculated results based on this assumption are compared with experiment one which are carried out in the propeller open condition. The good agreement are obtained as in fig.(5). This results indicate that the simple prediction method of racing described above is proper. 258 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN,'CONSTRUfl ON, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 ThrusI NO O•-I ater " 0.6 1.0 1.4 1.8 22 Figure 2: Phase plane of thrust and propeller immersion in forced pitch oscillation in still water. Effect of propeller immersion on thrust fluctuation. : IolIp = 1.17 I0=distance from propeller boss to free surface without advance vel. : Rp=propeller radius Trough .w4l N 0e rps A~~>AA 4 N10 J=03 JzO.6 J =0.5 V=O 45,v, V=O.9m,, V = 0.75 /sn Figure 3: Propeller open tests in regular waves under the shallow immersion condition. : J=Advance velocity coefficent After estimation of propeller torque, we can calculate an engine revolution (as the same time, it is a propeller revolution). The equation of the revolution fluctuation is shown as following. 27r 1d = - Q (2) 9 dt v Where 1, is the moment of inertia of propeller engine shift system. q, is a fluctuation of an engine torque, which is a driving force. And qp is a fluctuation of a propeller, which is a load. n, is a fluctuation of an engine revolution. If the right hand side of eq.(2) are given, the solution-can be obtained. Eve if it.is a nonlinear term, by using the numerical method the solution can be got. 5 Immersion of propeller behind a ship At the above mentioned discussion we know that the estimation of I is important for predicting of racing. When ships have an advance velocity, the static swell up around ships is generated. Its effect must be 259 EUROCONFEHENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 11 wave .l.vation •) : ' •L2) Fluctuation of thrust ddue to change of propeller lnu.er.lon 3) Fluctuation of w revolution due to 2) 4)5) Orbt c tual n attowave o ft r s N ,torque and revolution •due to 41 6) Fluctuations of thrust and torq.ue 3)5) Roo Figure 4: Concept explanation of racing Two components of the fluctuation 1. Fluctuation of inflow velocity into propeller disc. : In case a moderate sea condition, this component becomes major. 2. Propeller immersion : In case a rough sea condition, this component become important. J=0,6,Nl=IO~rps, tw=8.4¢m 20D Se 0 1.0 -02 J =0.5. N =100,0 ps, ýwe==14,6 cmn r0 .0 2.0 sec -OAV -06rT (kg) Figure 5: Comparative results of racing in open test between experiments and calculations 1. When a propeller load is large, namely advance coefficient J is small like J=0.3, time histories of the racing become asymmetry. 260 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIl DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 2--8 .....[h. "Rp 7.5 cm --e.•--Etxp. rA --- &1 L =20FW11 1 7 5 Ls = i 1---4wit--' . 0Fný01F .0 I 1.5 I 2.0 F 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 Figure 6: Comparison of static swell up at the propeller position behind the ship between experiments and Tazaki's empirical formula The swell up measured at the inside measurement point A is higher than the one at the outside point B. included in 1. The empirical formula of the static swell up 6h obtained with experiments by Tazaki[3] is 2 6h = 20 F-' Lnodel (3) This formula is very simple. To confirm this, we measured the static swell up at the propeller position. Comparative results on 6h between experiments and the formula is shown in fig.(6). It showed that the empirical formula can estimate Jh at the propeller position well, and that quantities is not small. We know this static swell up can not be ignored to estimate the propeller immersion. This fact moreover indicates that because the propeller immersion is in proportion to the square of F, number, for avoiding the propeller racing, it is not a proper decision to reduce ship speed. Namely to reduce ship-speed is to reduce 6h. According to under some circumstances, the changing ship course is better decision than the reducing ship speed. This fact is an important information for captain. Now, let's 1, be a static part of I, then 1, is presented by including 6h as 1, ho + Jh I,= h +6/h + RP =1+1 - : I0 = h0 +Rp (4) The ho indicates the distance between the propeller tip and the free surface at stationary state and 6h is shown in eq.(3) When ships navigate in waves, the relative motion at the propeller position must be added to I as follows. i 1= I4+ r : r = r~ewt : r is a relative motion at propeller position (5) The relative motion at the propeller position were also measured shown in fig.(7). Around .A/L - 1.1 and the condition wave height ( = L150, the propeller tip appears over free surface. Anyway the calculated results can predict the relative motion well, namely eq.(5) can predict the fluctuation of propeller immersion in waves. 6 Engine characteristic plane The large load fluctuation, that is propeller racing, affect on the engine performance strongly. Therefore the effect must be considered on the engine characteristic plane, which is defined as that multiplying result a value of a horizontal axes and one of a vertical axes indicates the power of the system. In case of a main engine, usually the vertical axes is the engine torque and the horizontal axes is the revolution, the product of them indicates the break horse power(BHP). 261 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 Propeller Immersion ¼RP * Exp. - Col. F002 0 I I 0.5 1.0 15 2.0 25 Figure 7: Fluctuation of propeller immersion in regular waves : L/• =1/50, L = 4m , C.• = 8cm , 10/R, = 1.17 Rp+ho+6h-r 0 > I > Rp+h,+6h+r0 : r0 =Amplitude of relative motion at propeller position(Strip theory) Diesel engine Turbine engine lM% - 100% 6del C 4020• AMERICA-NAHu W LU f 'A NTanker 50% model 50S,E SAWA-MARU Working ran e f restricted time nly Imax. 2000 hours) Optimum ran I 0 f f9 r continuous operat in O I t 50% 100% 50% 100% Engine speed Engine speed Figure 8: Actual racing in the main engine BHP-N plane The region drawn by slash line is the working range for restricted time only. Under the large load fluctuation, an operation point enters the region many times. This can be named as racing. This definition is simple. 262 EUROCONFERENCE••N PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 1 10- Effect of I on prop. renolutiorn crpsif consfon* 6 Sr•Q030 (cxr s 2 ) i j T, =0.91 34 s ( sA-1.0 ) •:. t . . F=0.30 0 T0 2T, 2-2 01 -20- J. -30 Figure 9: Calculated results of revolution fluctuation Effect of moment of inertia of the main engine shaft system and changing the propeller performance by the emergence over the sea surface on the revolution fluctuation of propeller. De=Effective diameter : Pq,=Propeller performance coefficient for torque-revolution. In case of racing condition, D, and Pq, are changing during one period shown in the figure. This plane is a kind of the phase plane. By considering the fluctuation of engine torque and revolution on the plane, it becomes clear the effect the racing on the main engine. The examples of racing dynamic behavior on the characteristic plane of actual ocean going ships are shown in fig.(8). It is known that the racing behavior of the Diesel engine on the plane is different from the turbine engine. The fluctuation of them depends on the engine performance. Usually it is said that the Diesel engine has a performance of the torque constant and the Turbine engine the power constant. In light sea condition, its opinion on the performance is right. In heavy sea condition, that is not simple. Especially in case of including the governor system, its dynamic behavior becomes more complex. 7 Calculated results-of -racing Model self-propulsion test to investigate the propeller racing in rough sea condition is a difficult test, because the model-ship correlation is not clear even now. Concerning the correlation, it is especially uncertain to predict a moment of inertia of rotating system, the effect of water splash by a propeller and an engine dynamics etc. But the essence of the phenomena can be examined by the model experiments mentioned above. By solving the nonlinear differential equation of racing shown in eq.(2) numerically based on those investigations, we can predict .the racing of actual ships in severe sea condition. Examples are shown in fig.(9). By comparing these results with the actual ship data, we can understand that a moment of inertia-of the model motor for our experiment system is larger than the one of actual ships. T By reducing M to 1/5, we can get a good estimation results of the violent revolution fluctuation. Actual data in the rough sea condition shown in fig.(1), a very large fluctuation occurs. In spite of the ship has the governor system, as you know which has a role to make engine revolution constant, the governor effect can not be seen in the figure. The dynamic performance of it is not known well for naval architects. Anyway the effect of a governor on the revolution fluctuation must be studies more. 263 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 revolutiona.i propeller rociug / lo X0/16 j.Cai ROWE.,fbnI.,. d... 5--- -2 0 .2 .4 * ,• N/HJ"C I I I 50 100 Figure 10: Comparison of racing on the main engine characteristic plane between calculation and actual measurement. 1. Including the concept of effective diameter shown in figure. 2. Calculation is based on the engine torque is constant. 3. Hikawamaru data is drawn by using propeller torque not engine torque. The longest horizontal line is equivalent line to compare the calculation based on the engine torque constant. 8 Conclusions Following conclusions are obtained. 1. Racing is a large load fluctuation caused by propeller emergence over the sea surface. 2. It depends on the main engine that whether how large the load fluctuation is acceptable or not. 3. For reducing a violent fluctuation of revolution, that is the racing, it is an effective decision to change a ship course than to reduce a ship speed according to under some circumstances. 4. The cooperated work with the an enigineer of the main engine is necessary to make the allowable load fluctuation and the governor effect clear. References- [1J J.Fukuda : Journal of WSNAJ, No.33, 1967 [2] SR125 Committe report No.211, 1975 [3] R.Tazaki : Report of SRI, Vol.11, No.8, 1961 264 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 L. Vredeveldt, TNO "Two Examples of Applied Scientific Research in Ship Safety" Alex Vredeveldt graduated as naval architect at the Delft University of Technology. He was employed by Wilton Fijenoord shipyard in Schiedam The Netherlands. There he developed design software related to ships. He also designed the mechanical system of a sub marine simulator. He now works with the Netherlands Organisation for Applied Scientific Research, TNO. Initially he continued with the development of design software. Gradually he became involved in structural design of ships. He is now active in both theoretical and experimental analysis. Field test' are an important aspect in his professional career. Most remarkable in this respect is his strong involvement with full scale ship collision tests, which are now being done by TNO at a more or less regular bases over the past ten years. He is member of the ISSC. 265 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 PASSENGER SHIP SAFETY Two examples of applied scientific research in ship safety A.W. Vredeveldt TNO The Netherlands Summary The paperpresents two examples of how results of scientific researchcan be exploited to improve the safety of ships. One example shows how simulation techniquesfor ship motions and internalwater flow can be exploited to enhance the probability of survival of a ROPAX vessel with respect to damage stability. This example also shows how the assessment of crashworthinessof the considered vessel plays an important role. The second example shows how crash simulations can be used to exploit the crashworthinessof a side structurefor improving the survivability of cargo ships with respect to damage stability. This example reflects an ongoing, EU funded, research effort known by the name Crashcoaster,carried out within the thematic networks SaferEuroro and Prodis. The way aheadfor the future, both in terms of research and application is briefly outlined. Introduction Over the years many exciting research projects concerned with safety of passenger ships have been carried out, are in progress or have been proposed. Currently most projects are initiated and carried out in the European Union. This is probably due to the fact that passenger ferries are widely used and built within the EU. Moreover the most important shipbuilders for cruise liners are European. In order to avoid overlap between projects and in general coordinate the research efforts, several thematic networks have been established. The networks most relevant for passenger ship safety are SAFEREURORO, led by prof. Dracos Vassalos and PRODIS, led by mr. Patric Person. The Networks are sponsored by the European Union. When proposing or indeed conducting research the big question always arises of the exploitation of the-research results. This paper presents two examples of how research results could be exploited in a practical sense to increase the probability of survival with respect to damage survivability. One example refers to a ROPAX vessel, which recently has been subjected to its mid- life upgrade. The other example is a small general cargo ship designed in accordance with [MO resolution A684(17) [1], exploiting the crashworthiness of the side structure for reducing the probability of flooding of the hold. The latter example is still speculative because no approval is obtained yet from authorities to consider safety, with.respect to damage--stability in this fashion. Both examples show how unconventional measures can dramatically improve safety of ships. They also show that assessments are only possible by-analysis based on first principles. The examples have,-at least partly, been described in earlier papers. 267 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 Example 1, simulation of ship motions and internal water flow Qualitative description At the moment flooding due to collision damage is assumed to be impossible to prevent. Therefore flooding scenarios must be identified and assessed. When, for example a ROPAX ferry is hit by a vessel with a bulbous bow, damage will occur to the side shell of the stuck vessel. This damage may look similar to an 'exclamation mark' as observed when the RO-RO vessel EUROPEAN GATE-WAY was struck by the RO-RO vessel SPEEDLINK VANGUARD (Figure. 1). The actual damage that will occur depends on the shape and structural rigidity of the penetrating bow, the crash behaviour of the struck side structure, the striking location, the incident angle, inertias of both vessels involved and their speeds at the moment of impact. In general the structure of the struck ship will dent, buckle and tear while the bow of the striking ship may dent and buckle. Bulbous bows will often prove to be rather rigid when compared with side structures. Through the damage area, water will flow into the damaged compartment, spread over this compartment and may flow into connected compartments if any. Since the water will usually enter through the side, initially a heeling moment will be acting on the damaged ship. Therefore the ship will respond in terms of roll, as well as trim and sinking. q4:~44.f~e~-Ul \ ...... W9 Figure.] Side damage on European Gateway (top), damage below the water line (bottom). 268 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 It should be remarked here that the actual area of the ingress openings nor the shape of the damage can be determined from any damage statistics because only damage extent, i.e. damage length, damage penetration and damage height, are reported. Another interesting remark is that in case of a collision it is worthwhile not to withdraw the striking ship from the struck ship. The striking ship's bow will act as a plug, so water ingress will be slow. Moreover the striking ship provides additional stability to the struck ship. No guidance or 'best practice' exists on this matter. After some time a hydrostatic equilibrium may be found when sufficient buoyancy remains and no unstable situations occur during water ingress and flooding of the ship. The struck vessel will assume a new draught, trim and heel. When the damaged vessel is in a sea state further water ingress may occur due to waves and ship motions. Especially water accumulation on a vehicle deck often proves to cause an unstable situation after some time of exposure to-the waves. Mathematical model Ship motions due to sudden waterringress and waves can be described by >6',{(M,?v,6 +A,.j)xj(W)+ fB,j (-c)Xi(t -)dr+ Cjj)j(t)}=X,(tW1 j=l a These equations are the well known 'Cummins' equations. The index i runs from I to 6, referring to the six rigid body motions of the ship. x1 (t) is the parameter for the translational and rotational displacement in direction j at time instant t. M 3.j and A,.. describe the solid and hydrodynamic inertias respectively. B,.j describes the retardation functions and CQ the spring coefficients. X, (t) describes the external loads in direction i at time t. These external loads may be wave loads but can also include inclining moments due to water influx through damage openings. The water influx can be described by a simple Bernoulli differential equation using input data such as water levels inside and outside the ship, air pressures in tanks/compartments and flow areas representing damage openings, openings -related to progressive flooding and air vents. It is also very straight forward to include compartment permeability. These differential equations are solved by numerical integration in the time domain. Calculatedresults The table below shows simulation results on a ROPAX ferry with two voids and the vehicle deck open to the sea. The motions and progressive flooding of the vessel in a irregular seaway, (in accordance with..the. Stockholm Agreement) are simulated. Survival boundaries are determined for various permeabilities of the void spaces. It can be seen that permeability has a dramatic effect on the survivability of the vessel. Decreasing the permeability can be achieved by stowing permanent buoyancy in the voids. Model experiments have confirmed the trend. A practical solution for reducing permeability is stowing, relatively large, expanded polystyrene blocks (EPS) in the voids. Table 1 Effect of void permeabilityon survival boundaries (courtesy Strathclyde) Condition Perm. Perm. Survival Damaged intact boundaries Side side ht 269 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 I 0.95 1 0.95 I 4.00-4.25. 2 0.1 0.1 5.75-6.00 3 0.2 0.1 5.75-6.00 Other aspects When stowing EPS foam blocks two other aspects must be considered, i.e. fire safety and the behaviour of foam under crash. Fire safety may be impaired by the introduction of combustible material. Since the EPS foam blocks will be stowed in closed voids and will take most of the space available, not much space is left for air. Therefore the amount of oxygen available will be very limited. Thus the start of a fire will tend to extinguish rather than fully develop. In order to investigate this aspect, tests had to be carried out, since simulation tools are not fully convincing yet. Figure 2 shows a fire tests where a longitudinal bulkhead of a foam filled void is subjected to an engine room fire. Figure 2 Fire tests with foam in a confined space The upper picture shows the box, with its right hand side exposed to fire. The lower figure shows a view from the other side, upper part only. The exposure is now on the left. The smoke emission through the air vent is clearly visible. The foam partly. decomposes and melts, no fire starts within the The .other compartment. aspect is -crash -behaviour of the foam. A mechanism where the foam crumbles due to the collision and will wash out of the compartment after retreating the penetrated bow has to be ruled out. Calculation tools where the foam crushing is simulated properly are still under development. Therefore this aspect had to be investigated experimentally as well. Figure 3 shows the results of crash tests carried out for this purpose. 270 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAPETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 Figure 3 Results of crash test on empty andfoam filled void The damage on the left refers to a collision into an empty void. The test was done to establish the collision energy required to fracture the longitudinal (1/5 B) bulkhead. The damage on the right is caused with this reference energy when a foam filled void is struck. The tests showed that less than 10% of the foam was lost after the test. The inner bulkhead was deformed but nut fractured. Example 2, crashworthinesssimulations Background In general the damage survivability of a ship is assessed by analysing a large number of cases where various compartments'are flooded. The number of flood cases where the ship survives, i.e. does not sink or capsize, is related to the total number of conceivable flood cases. Thus an indication is obtained for the probability of survival in case of a collision. The probability that a given compartment will be penetrated is, in the current regulations, fixed. Obviously the probability of a compartment being flooded can be reduced by taking protective measures, in terms of providing crashworthiness. Effect of crashworthinesson damage stability survivability The only proper approach for the assessment of the effect of crashworthiness on survivability is comparing the crash energy absorbing capacity with probability distributions of available collision energies in the area of navigation. However, this approach requires a rigorous statistical analysis of ship navigation, ship sizes, relative headings and speeds in the considered area. Results fron such analysis are not readily available yet. For the time being a pragmatic approach is possible by using a formulation published in IMO resolution A.684(17) [1]. Though questionable, it does give an indication of the effect of crashworthiness on survivability. The outline.is given below. In case of a collision, damage will be inflicted to the struck ship and energy will be absorbed. The deformation energy is a good. measure for the resistance against collision. Comparing two identical vessels, of which one has a crashworthy side structure; it can be stated that, in the case of equal collisions, the amount of energy absorbed by both ships must be equal. However the ship with increased crashworthiness will be penetrated less deeply. This implies that a ship with a crashworthy side structure has a lower probability of exceeding a given penetration than the conventional ship. Figure 6 shows an example of the energy dissipating capability of an inland waterway tanker as a function of penetration. The capability of a carefully designed crashworthy side structure is also shown. When the ship is subjected to a collision with a damaging 271 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 energy of say 12.5 MJoules, the conventional structure will be penetrated up to b=2.4 m. The crashworthy side structure will be penetrated up to b*=1.3m. The ratio b*/b is a measure for the improved crashworthiness with respect to the conventional structure. This ratio may be represented by a factor c, called the strengthening factor (or crashworthiness factor). Strengthening factor c = b The non dimensional collision penetration for the probabilistic damage stability calculations according to the IMO resolution [1] is determined using collision data of 296 known cases. From this data two observations can be made (B is ships beam): - The non dimensional collision penetration b/B is independent of the ship's breadth. - The non dimensional collision penetration b/B is dependent on the non dimensional damage length J. These observations are reflected in the IMO formulae for r (see (2) and (3) ), where r reflects the probability that a given penetration depth is not exceeded. The parameter r is the only factor in the damage stability calculations which relates to the penetration depth. In order to evaluate the effect of a crash resistant structure on the results of the probabilistic damage calculations, a method has been implemented which explicitly includes the strengthening factor c within the formulae for r. The IMO formulae for the calculation of r are: b(2.3+ 0.08 ),0.1 if b<=02 (2) B J+ 0.02 B b 0.016 b if b>0.2 (3) J w+(0 a.02 + - + 0.36) B With r the probability reduction factor that penetration will exceed b, b distance between longitudinal bulkhead and side, B ships beam, J non dimensional damage length. Substituting b* (crash worthy ship) by c x b yields: r=c b (2.3+0 )+0.1 if b <= 0.2 (4) B J + 0.02 B r =(( +c b+0.36) -f > 0.2 (5) 0.016 b' if->. (5 J+U0.02 Bi B These new formulae for r can be applied in the probabilistic damage stability assessment, with the note that the probability r of not exceeding a certain penetration depth obviously can never be larger than 1. 272 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 Predictionof crashworthiness The crashworthiness calculations can be carried out with an explicit finite element method. In the explicit finite element method the governing partial differential equations of the discrete system can be expressed as X" = M-1 (n) -F(n) (6) ( ) where M is the diagonal mass matrix, F0x the applied load vector at time t n , Fint the stress divergence or internal load vector at time t(n), and x" the vector of nodal accelerations in a global co-ordinate system. The load vectors may depend on nodal displacements, nodal velocities or other internal variables. A straight forward integration scheme yields a solution in the time domain. The dissipated crash energy can easily be calculated from the collision force versus penetration diagram. Some analysis results In order to show the potential of incorporating crashworthiness as a means of improving damage stability survivability, various analyses have been carried out. The result of an analysis of the attained subdivision index, a measure for the probability of survival, is shown inFigure 4. 0.1o 1 1.2 1.4 1,6 1.8 2 Snngthenlng factor c- Figure 4 Required subdivision index (hori-zontal line) and attainedsubdivision index (inclinedline) versus strengtheningfactor c The calculations were carried out for a small dry cargo, single box hold, vessel as shown in the next figure. 4- -~.:_if. .- Figure 5 Dry cargo ship, Lpp 80 m 273 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTIQN, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 It shows that for this vessel a subdivision index is required of 0.41. It also shows the effect of the .strengthening factor c (crashworthiness factor) on the attained subdivision index. As can be seen a crashworthiness improvement with reference to conventional structures of 1.85, yields a sufficient increase of the attained subdivision index. Figure 6 shows the result of a crash calculations for a single side shell inland waterway tanker. Dissipated energy, inland wateray tanker 3.003•-tv ____ Qb- b 2.50E+07 , 2C -c gonel dtein S1.50S-iCV 1.003407 7 5.00E:406 5;W___ 0.05.OOE-CO 0D"K:O 0.00 0.50 [.00 150 2.00 2.50 3+00 Penetratio [IM] Figure 6 Energy versus penetration,conventional structure and crashworthy structure The deformed conventional structure is shown in Figure 7. The conventional side structure features webs with plate strip longitudinals. For this ship an alternative structure has been designed with Y-shaped longitudinals replacing the plate strips. 274 - EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION -Crete, October 2001 A1 Figure 7 Deformed structure as predicted by computer simulation Moreover the webs do not extend to the shell anymore. The energy dissipation curves for the conventional and the Y-type side structure show that a substantial improvement in crashworthiness can be achieved. It is interesting to mention that the crash calculation on the Y-type design has been validated against full scale tests. The results of both the subdivision analysis and the crash analysis show the potential of incorporating crashworthiness as a means of improving damage stability survivability. The way ahead Current practice for passenger ships is that when everything else fails, the ship must be abandoned. Various mustering and evacuation systems have been developed. Like with the concepts presented in this paper, only limited data exists which can be used to validate or even judge these systems. Therefore several research programs are set up to fill in this lack of data. The project MEPDesign has recently been completed. It has provide data on human behaviour during an emergency on board ships. It covered the mustering process,_including simulation tools and~lifeboat/raft launching. Escape is a more or less logic continuation of MEPDesign. SafeCrafts aims at the actual process of embarking lifeboats/rafts.. It will take into account the actual behaviour of humans. The adequacy of hardware will be assessed. Many other projects exist or are proposed addressing the issue of ship safety. A few are mentioned here. EROSII is a project that has its focus on risk assessment aspects. The SAFETY FIRST project directs its attention to the physics of fire on board ships. It aims at actually predicting fire development and progress, taking into account the amount of combustible material and the available oxygen. Like the examples given in this paper, the projects are characterized by an adequate equilibrium between theoretical tools and experimental data. 275 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 More details on the projects and a full overview can be obtained through the thematic network coordinators. Conclusion It is illustrated how design and analysis by first principles can significantly improve ship safety. The current research initiatives with respect to ship safety are all based on exploiting first principles. All ship safety related aspects seem to be covered by the various EU projects References [1] Resolution A.684(17), Explanatory notes to the SOLAS regulations on subdivision and damage stability of cargo ships of 100 metres in length and over, IMO 1991. 276 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 SESSION 5: Passenger Ship Regulations & Policy Chairman: Tom Allan (Chairman of MSC-IMO, United Kingdom) Papers: S. Rusaas, Det Norske Veritas "Harmonisation of Rules and Design Rationale - Project HARDER - A Report on Current Status" C. Mains, Germanischer Lloyd "Updated Probabilistic Extents of Damage Based on Actual Collision Data" R. Tagg, SU-SSRC "Subdivision and Damage Survivability of Passenger Ships - the Regulatory Framework at IM11" Y.Ikeda, University of Osaka Prefecture "Japanese Research Activities on Damage Stability of a Ship to Support International and Domestic Regulatory Works" D.Vassalos, SU-SSRC & A. Papanikolaou, NTUA-SDL "Impact Assessment of Stockholm Agreement on EU Ro-Ro Passenger Vessels" 277 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 S. Rusaas, Project HARDER, Det Norske Veritas, Norway "Harmonisation of Rules and Design Rationale - Project HARDER - A Report on Current Status" 279 - EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY-AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 Harmonisationof Rules and Design Rationale - Project HARDER NO A report on currentstatus Sigmund Rusas Det Norske Veritas, Hovik, Norway ABSTRACT: The work on harmonisation of damage stability regulations in NMO is assisted by the EU sup- ported research project HARDER - Harmonisation of Rules and Design Rationale. The aim of this 3 year project is to systematically investigate the validity, robustness, consistency and impact of har- monised probabilistic damage stability regulations on the safety of existing ships and on the design evolution of new ship concepts for various types of cargo and passenger ships. Furthermore, to pro- pose and demonstrate appropriate measures for improvements through the development of typical demonstrator designs. This paper reports on the status and progress of the project to date. 1 INTRODUCTION Following introduction of the probabilistic damage stability requirements to (dry) cargo ships (SOLAS Part B-I), WO put on their work programme harmonisation of all damage stability re- quirements in SOLAS using a probabilistic concept of survival. The main framework of these new harmonised regulations should follow the concept of Part B-1, but including the main features of IMO Res. A.265 and the current (deterministic) regulations of SOLAS Chapter 8, as amended (also referred to as SOLAS 90). It soon become clear that this was a very challenging task, mainly due to the different approaches used in the deterministic SOLAS requirements and the probabilistic concept found in Res. A.265 and Part B-1. Another problem was to harmonise regulations for a wide range of vessels with dis- tinct different characteristics. The probability functions were generic formulated and did not allow for different arrangement and structural features and.did not include-any provisions to study novel designs. In order to overcome these problems, and in parallel with the activity within NMO, a European Consortium of industrial, research and academic institutions, including members of the IMO work- ing group, initiated a joint research programme entitled HARDER ("Harmonisation of Rules and Design Rationale"). There are three main reasons for launching HARDER: 1) To assist IMO in validating the method. This is the primary goal of HARDER. 2) To-be able-to calculate-in a consistent and controlled manner a large (and representative enough) sample of the existing fleet in order to establish the equivalent level of safety, given by the re- quired index. 3) To study how the new method affects the design evolution of new ships. It was felt very impor- tant that time should be allowed to study the impact of the harmonized regulations on the design evolution of ships before the whole process was irreversibly affected. 281 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 2 PROJECT ORGANISATION There are 19 different organisations involved in HARDER. The organisation and participation of the project is shown in Figure 1. IV, @a a er a- nP1P 6' -sase ofI ots, *erfiao I Partners: PROJECT CO-ORDINATOR : Det Norske Veritas (DNV) N PARTNERS: Germanischer Lloyd AG (GL) D Technical University of Denmark (DTU) DK University of Strathclyde (SU-SSRC) UK Danish Maritime Institute (DMI) DK National Technical University of Athens (NTUA) EL Howaldswerke-Deutsche Werft AG (HDW) D Maritime and Coastguard Agency (MCA) UK University of Newcastle upon Tyne (UNEW) UK Maritime Research Institute Netherlands (MARIN) NL WS Atkins Consultants Ltd. (WS ATKINS) UK FINCANTIERI - Cantieri Navali Italiani S.p.A (FC) I Carl Bro als, Dwinger Marineconsult (CARL BRO) DK Kvaemer Masa-Yards Inc. (KVMY) FIN Deltamarin Ltd. (DELTAMARIN) FIN Pelmatic Knud E. Hansen A/S (KEH) DK CONS.A.R. - Italian Ship Owners Research Consortium (CONSAR) I Hellenic Register of Shipping (HRS) EL Ship Design and Research Centre (CTO) PL Fig, I - Organisationandparticipation of the project 3 PROJECT STRUCTURE The structure of the Work Packages within HARDER follows the main concept of the probabilistic concept, and may be illustrated as follows: 282 ,EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER'SHIP DESIGN" CONSTRUCrION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 A=E p'v's>R WP4 WPI+2 P3 WP5 WP6: Design WP7: Regulations Work Package I and 2 together will determine the probability of damage, represented by the "p"and "v"factors. Given a collision has taken place, the "p" factor represent the probability that a portion or portions of the ship, restricted longitudinally and transversely, are damaged. The v-factor repre- sents the probability that the damage is restricted to a certain vertical limit, often represented by a watertight deck. WPI deals with collection and analysis of actual damages, with the aim to update the existing IMO damage database containing damage location, length, breadth, height etc. WP2 determines the energy to be absorbed during a collision using a worldwide equivalent traffic route with associated traffic intensity and composition. Further distributions of the expected damage in terms of height, length and penetration are to be derived from computer simulations of numerous collision scenarios. The outcome is to be validated by comparison with the results of work package 1. WP3: The behaviour of a damaged ship in a real seaway is to be studied by means of model tests and numerical simulations, and rational boundaries for the survival of damaged vessel is to be de- rived. The result is to be a general formulation of probability of survival, addressing relevant types of ships. WP4: Assess the found distributions of damage extent, penetration, height, etc. and test the validity, robustness and consistency of the factors derived within the project for a working sample of at least twenty ships. WP5: To find equivalent levels of safety between the requirements resulting from deterministic sta- bility rules (SOLAS) and the harmonised regulatory framework of HARDER, expressed by the at- tained and required-subdivision indices; WP6: Implementation of the probabilistic concept in naval architecture software and investigation of its impact on new ship designs. WP7: The new and validated procedures for probabilistic damage stability are to be written on a format that may be submitted to IMG as a rule proposal. 283 EUTROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION . Crete, October 2001 4 OVERVIEW OF TECHNICAL STATUS 4.1 General The work performed in the first year and a half has been mainly concentrated on damage distribu- tions and damage survival. Work on validation and verification, as well as equivalent level of safety has recently started. New and updated damage distributions have been established, by searching 'old' IMO0 data as well as more recent data from US, Greek, German Sources and Norwegian data. At the moment, the database contains 2946 casualties collected from 7 different sources, in all 1851 collisions, 930 groundings and 165 other incidents. Studies of bow heights of the world fleet have been done in or- der to arrive at an updated formulation of the probability distribution of vertical extent of damage. Based on the ship characteristics for the world fleet, distributions of ship types and lengths, as well as empirical relations for length versus breadth, draught, displacement, service speed, etc. are developed. This information is used to calculaite the external dynamics in order to derive distribu- tions for the energy to be absorbed during a collision between a given struck ship and a ship of the world fleet. Further, traffic route data for e.g. the Strait of Dover has been acquired and analysed to make a comparison between the world fleet distribution and the distribution in specific waters. Based on the distribution on collision energy, the expected size of damage is to be calculated by simulation with computer models. Model tests for in all 7 different ship types has been performed in order to study their behaviour after damage in a real sea-way. These results are used to develop numerical simulation models with the view of developing generic models for assessing the capsizing resistance and survival capability for any type and configuration of vessel. The outcome of these studies will then be used to develop static equivalent methods, wvhich can be used for development of rational survival criteria to be used in a probabilistic damage stability framework. Validation and verification of the probabilistic concept has been started. A draft version of up- dated Guidance notes has been developed, and databases for test ships covering a wide range of ship types have been prepared. Specification of sample data for calculation of an equivalent level of safety has started. This sample will consist of all ship types covered by SOLAS, with representative size and arrangement lay-out, making it possible to calculate a required subdivision index representative of the existing SOLAS standard. Detailed technical status of this work has been reported in several papers to Conferences as well as INTF papers to LMO (See references). In addition the deliveries from the projects are posted on the HARDER external web site: http://proiects.dnv.com/harder ext (password protected and available to external partners and associates to the project). In the following a short summary of the highlights of the development of the different-work- packages is given. 4.2 Work Package 1: Damage Statistics This task has been completed and a preliminary report has been issued. A review of existing dam- age data from the 'old' IMO data as well as more recent data from US, Greek and German Sources. has been made. With help of DTU some of the Norwegian data (from DNV) have been entered into the database. The database now contains 2946 casualties collected from 7 different sources: 284 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN; CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 Data source Number of casualties Det Norske Veritas 195 Germanischer Lloyd 1434 DSRK (former GDR) 96 Hellenic Register of Shipping. 19 IMO 1069 Lloyd's Register .133 Total 2946 In this database there are registered 1851 collisions, 930 groundings and 165 other incidents. The database is given in form of MS Access database, thus enabling various statistical studies to be made from the data. A general observation is that the update on the damage statistics tend to recon- firm and validate many of the original assumptions from the 1960's, but there is a trend towards lesser damage extent. /4/. One explanation to this could be under-reporting of lesser damages in the past. For vertical extent of damage several studies have been made and new formulae have been suggested in an tNF-paper to SLF /3/, which is quite different from the existing linear distributions proposed. This work package is lead by Germanischer Lloyd AG (GL) 4.3 Work Package 2: Probabilityof damage The work on derivation of collision energy distribution is finalized and the main conclusions may be found in /6/. A database containing ship characteristics for the world fleet has been purchased from Lloyds' Maritime Information Services, London. It has been analysed to derive distributions of ship types and lengths and to find empirical relations for length versus breadth, draught, displace- ment, service speed, etc. This information is used in conjunction with a computer program which calculates the external dynamics to derive distributions for the energy to be absorbed during a colli- sion between a given struck ship and a ship of the world fleet. Further, traffic route data for the Strait of Dover, the Strait of Gibraltar and local Danish waterways has been acquired and analysed to make a comparison between the world fleet distribution and the distribution in specific waters. Further work will then be to use the distribution of collision energy to derive expected damage in terms of length, penetration and height, and derive the well-known probability factors "p", "r" and "v" therefrom. This work is underway and results are expected with end of this year. This work package is lead by Technical University of Denmark (DTU) 4.4 Work package 3: Probabilityof survival Model tests for in all7 different models have been completed, and the analysis of the results have started. The tests comprise the following ships to be tested in three model basins: 1. PRROI .....Large Ro/Ro Passenger Ship - 2. PRR02 .....Medium sized Ro/Ro Passenger ship 3. PCLS ...... Large Passenger vessel 4. DCCS ...... Containership 5. DCRR ...... Cargo Ro/Ro vessel 6. DCBCO 1.. Cape Size Bulk Carrier. 7. DCBC02.. Panamax Bulk Carrier The preliminary results indicate that the so-called "Static Equivalent Method" (SEM) /9/ may be generalized to non-RoRo ships, i.e. that a dominant factor for survivability of a damage ship is wa- ter on deck, Ref. /7/ and /8/. These studies continue and a general formulation for rational survival 285 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION. SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 criteria expressed as critical wave heights and corresponding proposal for probability of survival ("s"-factor) is expected to be finalized within the end of this year. This work package is lead by University of Strathclyde (SU-SSRC) 4.5 Work Package 4: Validation and Verification This is a key activity as it will test the validity, robustness and consistency of the proposed formu- lations. The first task has been to select 20 vessels of different types: 4 Passenger/RoRo, 3 Con- tainer vessels, 3 Cruise liners, 2 Car Carriers, 2 General cargo, 3 Cargo/RoRo, and 3 Bulk carriers. In addition, a standard box ship is defined for calibration and testing of new software and formula- tions. The idea is that each of the vessels are to be calculated by two different companies, and that each company is involved in all types of ships. In this exercise we want to invite companies outside of the Consortium to do participate in the tests. The first test is related to the consistency, i.e. making sure that the same answer is produced by different institutions. For this purpose there are worked out a new draft guidelines, and the outcome of the consistency test shall be new guidelines making sure that the regulations can be applied in a consistent manner. For this test the current SLF formnulation of the 'p', "r", 'v" and "s" factors are assumed, but applied in accordance with the new draft guidelines, which may be made available upon request to those interested to participate. The next test would be a robustness check, i.e. checking that small variations in data do not pro- duce large effects on the results. An important result from this exercise would be to determine pa- rameters which should be looked more closely into, e.g. permeability, draught range, trim, GM etc. If the results show to be sensitive to any of these parameters, the choice of these parameters should be paid closed attention. It has to be mentioned, however, that the choice of these parameters are not directly included with the scope of HARDER, we will merely produce advice on which parameters to look more closely into. Lastly, each calculation has to be verified by calculation by two different companies for each ship in the sample. This work package is lead by Danish Maritime Institute (DM1 4.6 Work Package 5: Equivalent level of safety. This work has started somewhat earlier with the view to presenting an interim status of the work- ing sample to the next NMO SLF meeting /2/. A key issue here is to determine the size and distribu- tion of the sample to make sure an acceptable confidence of the result. As a preliminary idea it is proposed 50 passenger ships and 150 cargo ships, distributed between ship types according to the distribution of the world's fleet. This will be discussed further at the forthcoming SLF meeting in September 2001, and the plan will be revised after statistical analysis of the proposed sample has been made. An important message to bring forward is that the project has of course not enough resources (have never planned) to calculate all these ships alone. What is offered is recommendation on the sample to be calculated, calculation of selected test cases, statistical analysis of the results, and pro- posal for the required subdivision index. SLF has to rely on the respective administrations to take their share of the calculations, e.g. by repeating the test ships back in 1998, but now with a frilly verified and validated method. It is, however, a recommendation from HARDER that companies which want to do calculations validate their software by participation, in Work Package 4. This work package is lead by National Technical University of Athens (NTUA) 286 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN; CONSTRUCTION; SAFETY AND OPERATION -Crete, October 2001 4.7 Work Package 6: Design Implementing such a new method for so many ship types without testing it out on actual designs " would clearly be a risky business. Neither would we have attracted many partners in the project without the possibility to learn something by making real designs. A main target would be to evalu- ate and document the consequences of the new harmonized probabilistic approach, including a gen- eral assessment of the impact of the concept on future ship design. A total of 11 different ship de- signs will be studied, with heavy involvement of experienced ship designers and yards. This work package is lead by Howaldswerke-Deutsche Werft AG (HDW). The work will start early November this year. 4.8 Work Package 7: Regulations Clearly the SLF has the responsibility to work out the regulations, but in order to make the project self-contained, a special work package aimed for working out a ready made text to be proposed for SLF has been designed. The task leader here is MCA, and participants will be all the other task leaders. This task will be run in very close contact with the relevant working group within SLF, with the aim of having the proposal ready at the time of finalizing of the project, which is set at February 2003. 5 CONCLUSIONS The HARDER project is has now finalized most of the basic research, and the results are now be- ing used in the practical work with the probabilistic concept. The main achievements may be sum- marized as follows: * The damage statistics update of the damage statistics tend to reconfirm and validate many of the original assumptions used in the formulation of the probabilistic standard in the 1960's, but there is a tendency towards lesser damage length and penetration. * Reliable data for vertical extent of damage achieved. " Data for grounding damage included * Collision energy probability function based on world wide generic routes as well as for specific trades developed. a •The Static-Equivalent Method (SEM) principles seem to be feasible also for non RoRo's. Fur- ther studies to ensure generalisation for all types of ships and damages remain. . Draft guidelines for application of the method worked out * Plan for validation and verification worked out * First proposal for sample for calculation of required index worked out The close communication with the SLF working group will be continued, with the view of imple- menting the results by 2003. Especially for calculation of sample ships, it is required that close communication with SLF is maintained. 6 REFERENCES /I/SLF 44/3/] Annex]: Extractfrom HARDER I" year report (May 2001) /2/SLF 44/INF.1O: Selection of Sample Ships for Evaluation of Required Index R /3/ SLF 44/I-NF.11: UpdatedStatistics for Extent of Damage 287 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 /4/ L. Laubenstein, C. Mains, A. Jost, R. Tagg, N. K. Bjorneboe: "UpdatedProbabilistic Extents of damage based on actual Collision Data", 2"a InternationalConference on Collision and Grounding of Ships, Copenhagen, 2001. /5/ R. Tagg, P. Bartzis, A. Papanikolaou,K. Spyrou, M. Litzen: "Updated Vertical Extent of Colli- sion Damage", 2"d International Conference on Collision and Grounding of Ships, Copenhagen, 2001. /6/ M Liitzen, S. Rusaas: "Derivation of Probability Distributionsfor Collision Energy for use within a HarmonizedProbabilistic Damage Stability Framework", 2nd International Conference on Collision and Groundingof Ships, Copenhagen, 2001. /7/ J.O. de Kat: "Mechanisms and Physics leading to the Capsize of DamagedShips ", 5th Interna- tional Workshop on Stability and OperationalSafety ofShips, Trieste, 2001. /8/ R. Tagg, C. Tuzcu, M Pawlowski, D. Vassalos. A. Jasionowski: "DamageSurvivability of Non- Ro/Ro ships", 5th International Workshop on Stability and OperationalSafety of Ships, Trieste, 2001. /9/ D. Vassalos, M Pawlowski, 0. Turan: "A Theoretical Investigation on the Capsizal Resistance of Passenger/Ro-Ro Vessels and Proposal of Survival Criteria",Final Report, Task 5, The North West European R&D Project,March 1996. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The Author would like to thank all partners for their contribution during this first half period of the project. The work presented in this paper has been partly supported by the EU project HARDER (G3RD-CT-1999-00028). The Author is solely responsible for the contents therein, and it does not represent the opinion of the Community. The Community is not responsible for any use that might be made of data appearing therein. 288 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 C. Mains, Germanischer Lloyd "Updated Probabilistic Extents of Damage Based on Actual Collision Data" 289 • EUROCONFEnRECCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 pdated Probabilistic Extents of damage based on actual Collision Data utz Laubenstein ermnanischer Lloyd, Ship Safety Division hristian Mains ermanischerLloyd, Ship Safety Division eliese Jost erman FederalMinistry of Transport,Building and Housing obert Tagg niversity of Strathclyde, Ship Stability Research Centre anna Katrine Bjorneboe echnical University of Denmark STRACT: In March 2000 project HARDER was launched compromising a consortium of 19 rganizations from industry and academia in Europe. This project aims to systematically investigate the alidity, robustness, consistency and impact of harmonized probabilistic damage stability regulations afety on the of existing ships and on the design evolution of new ship concepts for various types of assenger cargo and ships. This paper presents the preliminary findings related to the review and updating of damage xtent statistics. Results from the reanalysis of a database of collision statistics from the original IMO amages statistics have been combined with updated data from more recent collisions, comprising asualties. over 2,900 An analysis of this data considering the location of damage along the ship length, as ongitudinal well as the and transverse extents of the damage penetration, is presented. Various statistical correlations e database are in examined and updated damage probability distributions are proposed and compared to the ormulations in the existing IMO regulations. passenger ships this task was intended to provide data on all ship types available 1 INTRODUCTION today and, if possible, to include modem ships covering the larger sizes that are missing from the earlier data. In March 2000, a 4.5 ME 3-year project, entitled HARDER was launched compromising a consortium Developing and providing this information of 19 in a organizations from industry and academia in statistical electronic format creates the opportunity Europe, "pooling" together major resources to to continue to generate graphical views of evaluate in the depth and re-engineer the probabilistic information, and thereby generating a concept of damage more stability. The project aims to sophisticated approach when interpreting that systematically investigate the validity, robustness, information. The efforts to date will remain consistency and very impact of harmonized probabilistic limited unless continued efforts to amend the damage stability regulations on the safety of existing database are undertaken. ships and on the.. design evolution of-new-,ship concepts for various types of cargo and passenger ships. 2 BACKGROUND The purpose of the Damage Statistics task within the The current damage statistics were developed in the HARDER project is to update and re-analyze the late 1960s and covered ships commonly damage statistics used at that that form the basis of the more time. These ships were considerably different from modern probabilistic damage stability regulations. the common ship designs of today. At that time The statistics used up to now have not been up-dated many ships had oneor. two -cargo holds. for-more only~and then 40 years, while ship design as well as were often designed with more than one deck. ship types have continued to develop through this time period. In order to make the utmost use of these The statistics were statistics developed for the first and support the development of international probabilistic based damage harmonized damage stability stability standards for cargo and standard (IMO Resolution A.265) which was 291 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUMTON, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 accepted by NMO in 1971 for passenger ships as an damages observed and a requirement for an inner equivalent to the SOLAS Chapter 11-1 requirements. bottom for almost all ship types. Since that time the same statistics have been used as However, when addressing survivability in general it the basis for the introduction of the damage stability is quite clear that the larger portion of incidents with standard for cargo vessels in 1992 even though the hull damage should not be excluded and the shortcomings of these statistics were well known, grounding statistics should also be re-examined. These shortcomings arise mainly from the lack of Thus the work described in this paper reflects all updating the statistics, but also from the observation those grounding damage incidents that were made that the 296 ship collisions covered in the current available in the context of damage cards available statistics no longer represent the typical design of even though the main thrust in the IMO had tbeen today's trading vessels which are the ships currently previously put into collision damages only. at risk. When developing the damage statistics for the 1971 In the 1990s IMO began to undertake the task of passenger ship regulations, member nations of NMO harmonizing damage stability .standards for were urged to submit specific technical information passenger ships and cargo ships in general. This was about casualties which had occurred to any ship mainly to serve the purpose of providing a more flying their Flag. A first set of such data was transparent criterion that could serve the particular evaluated when defining the requirements contained risks involved in the operation of either type of ship in said IMO Res. A. 265. but also to verify the existing standard in a more modem way. Within the HARDER initiative, however, a small number of more recent NMO damage cards had Within the scope of the HARDER project it was felt become available and were subsequently entered that such an exercise must include a thorough review into the database. and update of the "back bone" of the probabilistic approach, i.e. the damage statistics themselves, since Efforts were made to find other sources of technical reservations on the continued use of the small and data relevant to damaged ships due to collisions-and old statistics had been voiced continuously and with groundings. Another source for data on damaged increasing emphasis at the IMO. Within this larger ships was sought from classification societies. At European initiative of HARDER the work on the this time data became available from Lloyd's statistics was considered a high priority task and was Register of Ship Repair Statistics, Germanischer begun at an early stage in the project. Lloyd's damage data statistics as well as relevant files of Det Norske Veritas and Hellenic Register of Shipping. 3 DAMAGE STATISTICS ______Data source Number of In order to develop the specific probability curves casualties for the evaluation of the damage survivability of Det Norske Veritas 195 ship designs member nations of the IMO were DSRK (former GDR) 96 invited to submit "damage cards". These damage Germanischer Lloyd 1434 cards represented the necessary technical Hellenic Register of Shipping. 19 information needed to specify the extent of damage M40 1069 observed in the casualty. The collected damage Lloyd's Register I133 cards were evaluated and statistics of the ýTotal - I2946 probabilities of the damage extents used weire developed. Although this data collection happened Table 1 -Data sources (all types of casualties) in the late 1960's the same statistics are still in use to evaluate damage survivability of all cargo vessels, Sources from member Flag States themselves were and for passenger ships if the probabilistic approach also investigated. But even where data files on of A.265 is chosen. damaged vessels seemed to exist, these did not necessarily contain details on the hull's openings The previous damage statistics analyses only observed after the damage. In two independent consider, collision damages* even though grounding projects, one by the authors Jost and Laubenstein incidents occur more frequently. This has been with a database of the German Democratic Republic generally regarded as acceptable since collision (GDR), and one by author Tagg with the Lloyd's incidents represent a much higher capsizing risk than Register database, actually collected all relevant groundings due to the nature and location of the information on ship's repairs which also included relevant technical details of repairs after damages. it 292 'EIJROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRucrioN, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 is a tremendous effort to extract the specific data 4 COLLISION STATISTICS needed in this context from ship's files. Thus the effort allocated to this exercise was limited to the From the developed database, the data for defining a most recent years. probability density function are extracted for the independent damage variables to subsequently 3.1 DATA develop proposals for damage probability density functions. A detailed description of a sample data sheet is shown in Figure 1. The number of data cards used for the individual damage assumptions varies for each variable since D 4 •1 d-g-..dr not all damage cards had been completed to id6itify • • • all damage extents. Some general observations about G;nC•:o tI•t• ia l, ,- e14• the collected data are shown below: ..- • --- "-- 4.1 RELATIVE LONGITUDI7NAL LOCATION tle&~doatuaatt , 0 ...... When trying to establish the distribution of the non- Sdimensional location of damage, it was noted that jj----r data contained in the database could not always be _• ted to those being the "struck" partner dIi--'a. - collision, since the established IMO damage cardsin a S...... did not explicitly ask for this piece of information. Fig. 1 - Typical data sheet of the database. F , Number of casualties versus nondim. damagelocation For the data analyýis of the combined set Of all L relevant data a number of figures representing the • preliminary results of this task within the larger Fo scope of the HARDER project are presented. Different figures will be described for both collision Theand groundingcollected damages.data covered some 2,900 damage AA Mt cards representing a number of different ship types. I A The ship type representation within the world fleet is *. ..somewhat different but -compared with data from Lloyds' Statistics on today's total world fleet; it ! Lpp seems to indicate similar portions. Fig. 3 - Collisions, number of casualties versus non- dimensional damage location (1005 collisions) [6Fs5.0 ] sI p type representation In Figure 3 all observed collision damages versus a 41500 in thediatabase nd non-dimensional length are drawn up. The large 40 4the worwide..leet. peak of damage occurrences at the forward end of ~w tl"st the ship is considered to be triggered by the lack of World wide l oot Databaso 2•.32M information as to whether the respective damage 014.0 card relates to the "striking" or the "struck" collision •ss. 0 .sec. partner. In order to eliminate the "striking" partners 4.51 which typically only have minor bow damage, it is a proposed to neglect all collision damages describing GO 4 0 penetrations that are located such that the aft most f, part of the damage is located forward of half the 9(• ct (9 distance -between-the collision bulkhead and the bow. The location of the collision bulkhead in turn Fig. 2- All damages, ship type comparison of the has to be estimated since the requirement for the database and world fleet. location had been amended throughout the years. Thus any damages located entirely forward of "x"% of the vessels length were considered to be initiated 293 EUROCONFERENCE ,ONPASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 by a striking collision incident. These are not Comparison of these graphs emphasizes the considered relevant when investigating impacts for importance of the cut-off assumption. When trying struck vessel in a collision, to extract data only for struck vessels, the 95% or 97.5% limit is considered most appropriate. Where this "x" is taken to be 97.5% a large portion of the large forward peak of the likely to get The trend of the relative location of damage damaged is cut off. previously established a greater likelihood of damage towards the forward half of the vessels length. The probability of damage to the aft end Number ot casualtles versus nondim. damage location sloped down. This kind of discontinuous or ~io I knuckled distribution trend cannot be confirmed by any of the three shown graphs. The updated database 5,, indicates a fairly of linear trend with a more even distribution between the bow and the stem, with slightly increasing probability towards the forward end with a clear indication that incidents including 14< bow damage occur more frequently than others. density of non-dimenslonal damage location :j" "•lstributlon xjt-pp I : R~OER 2104+ ThA:1O Ret. AZOSI" XSOLAS IN- sous Fig. 4 - Collisions, number of casualties versus non- dimensional9 7 .5 % o f L ) damage location (773 collisions up to 1.0 .F42J/ • z 12 0• t . - " " " " It should be noted that this peak vanishes completely OAS when defining the "x" (the allowance for striking hfi damages) is extended to exclude all damages ,.. . . forward of 90% of the ship length. This is felt to ,e0 overestimate the portion of striking collision partners in particular where the collision bulkhead Fig. 6-Collisions, distribution density of non- should be near 95% of L. dimensional length (HARDER data up to 97.5% of Lpp, 773 records) S Numberof casualties versus'nondi. damage locatio As can be seen in Figure 7, the longitudinal distribution of damage location is fairly independent of ship length. This matches a similar observation from the original IMO data. St SO 4 . "= -,. .• . t • • ••=t •t-"i,=,i~'! -* 0.,0 ""V ''.$'7'i- -.": , Fig. 5 - Collisions, number of casualties verss non- 0.0 dimensional damage location (600 collisions up to 040 a , SO IS. ~.~___, IS 20 M ____ 301 ISO!! 0.20- t,* [.1 2o 2* 90% of L) &M® •0 L . In all of these figures a trend line is introduced to Show the effect of these considerations on any future Fig. 7 - Collisions, non-dimensional damage location proposal for the expected damage location( versus ship length (773 records) 294 , ' E UROCONFERENCE'ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN; CONSTRUCrION, SAFETYAND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 .2 RELATIVE DAMAGE LENGTH lengths between -150 m or -75 m. It is therefore not .surprising to see these ship lengths are well One of the most important variables is the length of represented in the resulting graphs. for the penetration. In order to derive a formulation probability of a certain length of damage to occur all Figure 10 also shows a plot of the non-dimensional damage cards where the length of the hull damage length for a given ship length. As can be penetration was recorded were considered and seen from the linear regression line there is a slight summed up for increasing non-dimensional damage trend for larger ships to have proportionally smaller extent. The distribution function is subsequently damages. This observation was also seen in the derived by integration of the observed occurrences. original LIMO data and may due to the relatively small number of incidents covering the longer-ship The trend indicated in Figure 8 shows a likeliness to lengths. However, it can still be concluded, as was observe small damages while damage lengths of the case for the original IMO data, that the more than 12% of the ship length are rather seldom, probability distribution of damage length can be This trend is similar as to that contained in the considered to be generally independent of ship "explanatory notes" for the probabilistic regulations length. where the histogram is labeled as IMO. However, the frequency of the shallow damages is much more evident in the new HARDER data.•Nondlmnonal damage length verus Lpp 030- 10 0~.25. - Dfstrfl~t~on density of non-dlmenslon] damage length 0.20 * 7 R;IA R D CR ( Z n7 ...... s sall~l M...... d .) -* * fl* s )* * • * • I 050 10 150 200 250 300 _35 Ln Fig. 10 -Collisions, non-dimensional damage length 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 versus ship length (575 records) App Fig. 8 - Collisions, histogram of non-dimensional 4.3 RELATIVE DAMAGE PENETRATION damage lengths (773 records) Figure 11 indicates the probability distribution of relative damage penetration. While the general trends are similar, this histogram indicates that the too •new data shows a greater probability of the very cmO shallow damage penetrations. 0.70 Distributlon function of nondin,. damage length 0,77 WIArDERV7 tsual l CM HAMER 570 records 0.40IM A.265" ,. = NO da 020 oi- - SOLAS 0.10 0 0 0 ; . 0 2 Fig. 9-Collisions, cumulative distribution function of non-dimensional damage lengths (773 records) 0 Z/B Another matter investigated is the non- dimensional damage length versus ship length. The Fig. 11 - Collisions, histogram of relative damage database does not cover evenly distributed ship penetrations (570 collisions) lengths. It contains rather few incidents with long ships (Lp>p250 m) and very many data cards on ship 295 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 5 GROUNDING STATISTICS 5.2 RELATIVE DAMAGE LENGTH The current TheSOLASSLASreqiremntsdo urrnt requirements do notnt covercver Figuredamage 13length. is a Whilemrosthistogram ofof thethe damagesnon-dimensional are less grounding damages in a probabilistic way. For both dmen length.l t f ithe estar les then 20% of the ship length it is interesting to note the passenesenger shipsisuvvbltcreiand survivability criteria an the that there are a significant number of raking bottom cargo ship requirements it was believed that damages tat are very long, even up to 100% of the typically grounding incidents do not impose the threat of capsizing of the vessel. Thus even though ship length. occurring more frequently than collisions common interest in these incidents is rather small. 6.0 1,0 0.9 It is only where marine pollution is considered that 5,0 0.8 IMO has introduced survivability criteria for 4o 0.7 grounding damages, i.e. for tanker designs. The most 0 as recent requirement in this respect is the probabilistic 3.0 0 HARDERe recds 0.5 damage concept for alternative tanker designs, and - 0.404 the pending regulations for probabilistic evaluation 2 o0, of hypothetical oil outflow. 110 0,2 •0,00.1 When developing a general probabilistic scenario for 0.e o@ ship damages, however, even without particular ULpp interest in grounding damages there is a need to at least confirm the deterministic formulae for Fig. 13 - Grounding- histogram and distribution function innerbotom requirements by means of relevant on damage lengths. (569 casualties) statistics. For this purpose some indications as to damage size and locations might be drawn from the following curves even though the number of 5.3 PENETRA TION DEPTH incidents included in the database is much smaller than that for collisions. It might also be useful to use In the context of groundings there are slightly this limited data by itself when considering different parameters of greatest interest. One of the survivability approaches. more important ones is the penetration depth upwards from the keel. In a deterministic framework it would be regarded as the requirement to cover the 5.1 RELATIVE LONGITUDINAL LOCATION double bottom height. Where the longitudinal damage location of grounding damages is investigated a particular peak Although there is a marginal increase in the average of the forward most extent of damage occurrence penetration depth with increasing ship length, 'figure would be expected to be observed near the bow. In 14 confirms that a double bottom height of Figure 12, the database confirms this expectation of approximately 1.5 to 2.0 m seems a reasonable a trend with a higher likelihood of groundings requirement to cover a majority of the grounding happening at a vessel's forward end. penetrations. Approximately 88% of the penetrations are within 2.0 m. from the bottom shell. 3,0 -1 0,9 ' /_1,01, 1,0 2.5 ,.9 0,9 HARDER 288 records - 0,8 1 0,O 0.7 2,0 -"0,6 0,8 0.7 0. C03HARDER 158 records 0,6 e 1.5 04 ... 0" , --. 0 , 0,4 .1.0 t030.4 0,3 0.5 0,200 0. 0,1 000 0,0,7 0 000 0 0.0 R. z(m) X, 0./Lpp and distribution function Fig. 12 - Grounding, longitudinal location of forward Fig. 14 - Grounding- histogram penetration depth. (158 casualties) extent of damage versus length versus 296 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETYl'AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 Figure 14 is based on a relatively small number of the data also indicate that existing ships' damage cards with a large number of deterministic regulations for innerbotomn casualties observed for ship lengths of --70 mn. heights may by, adequate in light of the casualty and capsize risk from groundings. Due to this very limited number of incidents with information on groundings covered in this database Most of the goals for the re-analysis of the damage should only be used to a very general extent unless statistics have been reached. There are, however, further work in the continued development process some areas where particular attention should be is put into this part of the database. given to not over emphasize trends, which are not substantiated, due to the limited numbers of damage in general, 5.A CON~lTTCLUSIONS cards. The number of damage incidents and grounding damages in particular, are still This work is intended provide a more detailed and considered somewhat limited. more substantiated basis for a probabilistic damage survivability framework. It aims at updating the One of the major strengths of probabilistic based statistical "back bone" of damage survivability regulations is that the basic framework of the regulations in order to insure its validity for modern regulations can be retained while both risk level and ship types and ship designs. It is intended that this the safety standard can be updated based on new update should represent today's world fleet. ~~ information. Continued efforts will be needed to maintain and continually update this damage It is very encouraging to note that, in general, this database as the trends in ship sizes and their update of the damage statistics tend to reconfirm and operational characteristics change over time. validate many of the original assumptions used in the formulation of the probabilistic standard in the 5. ACKNOWLEDGES 1960's. In particular, the following observations and conclusions can be made: The work presented in this paper has been partly supported by the EU project HARDER (03RD-CT- * The updated data represent a significant 1999-00028). The Authors are solely responsible for addition and extension to the original IMO the contents therein, and it does not represent the database, more than doubling the size of the opinion of the Community. The Community is not collision database with significantly more of responsible for any use that might be made of data the larger sized vessels, which were absent in appearing therein. the original data. * The previous assumptions, that both the 5.6 REFERENCES collision damage location and the non- IMO Resolution A.265 (VilI), Regulations on dimensional damage length are Subdivision and Stability of Passenger Ships as an approximately independent of the ship size equivalent to Part B of Chapter II of SOLAS are also generally confirmed with the updated data. IMO Res. A.684(17), Explanatory notes to the SOLAS regulations on subdivision and damage " The distribution of the longitudinal position stability of cargo ships of collision damage along the ship length is similar to previously observed trends (higher SOLAS 74 as amended, International Convention probability-~in towards the bow) and can be.: on Safety of Life at Sea, IMO reasonably approximated with a linear distribution. MARPOL 73/78, International Convention for the fPluinfo hp " The updated' data indicates that collision Peeto damage size distributions, both for damage Lloyds Maritime Information Services, Ship lengths and damage penetrations, are of characteristics 2000 similar characteristics to the previous data. However, in general there is a larger IMO-SLF "Development of Revised SOLAS probability of the minor damage extents. Chapter 11-1 Parts A, B, and B-I - Report of the SDS Working Group", Submitted by the Chairman * The database of grounding damage extents of the SDS Working Group, SLE 42/3/2, 1998. has been analyzed and there may now be sufficient data to develop a generalized probabilistic model for grounding. However, 297 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 R. Tagg, SU-SSRC "Subdivision and Damage Survivability of Passenger Ships - the Regulatory Framework at IMO" Research Fellow and PhD candidate, the Ship Stability Research Centre, The Universities of Glasgow and Strathclyde, UK. Post-graduate Research, University of Glasgow, 1982 & 1983; B.S., Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering, University of Michigan, 1975. Over 20 years of practical experience in the conceptual and preliminary design of ships. Member of United States delegation to the IMO SLF Sub-Committee for 14 years, and chair of the Subdivision and Damage Stability (SDS) working group for the past 5 years. SNAME (The Society of Naval Architects and Marine Engineers) activities include, Fellow and Life Member, Past member of the Executive Board and Council, Member of the Marine Technology Editorial Committee, Member and past chair Electronic Media Committee, Member of Ad Hoc Research Panel on Ro/Ro Passenger Ship Safety, Member of Technical & Research Panel SD-3 on Ship Stability. Member, RINA (Royal Institution of Naval Architects). Member, Society for Risk Analysis. Member, Standing Committee of the International Conference on Stability of Ships and Ocean Vehicles (STAB). Research interests include Risk-Based Ship Design, Ship Stability and Damage Survivability, Oil Spill Mitigation and Environmental Tanker Design, Ballast Water Management and Shipboard Ballast Treatment, Global Ship Structural Reliability, Ship Casualty and Salvage Analysis. 299 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 Subdivision and Damage Survivability of Passenger Ships - the Regulatory Framework at IMO Robert Tagg The Ship Stability Research Centre (SSRC), The Universities of Glasgow and Strathclyde, UK, rtagg@,na-me.ac.uk SU1LMMARY The paper describes the general background of the regulation of passenger ship subdivision and damage-stability. The IMO is currently involved in developing new regulations in two specific areas regarding the subdivision of passenger ships; the harmonization of the cargo and passenger ship probabilistic regulations, and the recently introduced consideration for large passenger ship safety. The progress to date on these two issues; as well as the possible way ahead at IMO are discussed. 1. BACKGROUND & INTRODUCTION The International Conferences on the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS) have been the primary initia- tors of international regulations regarding the subdivision and damage survivability of ships. The first SOLAS conference in 1914, convened largely in response to the loss of the Titanic, never offi- cially went into force do to 'the onset of World War I. Since that time several SOLAS conferences (1929, 1948, 1960, 1974, 1990, and 1995) have been held, with several adopting significant en- hancements and additions to the subdivision regulations. Many of the present passenger ship subdivision regulations date back to the SOLAS 1929, with the significant enhancement of stability standards, which were added in SOLAS 1948. Following the SOLAS 1960 conference, the International Maritime Consultative Organization (IMCO), recogniz- ing the deficiencies in the regulations, established the Sub-Committee on Subdivision and Stability to research and reconsider the subject of damage stability.. In 1971, this committee completed the new passenger ship rules based on probabilistic principles, and these rules were adopted in 1974 as Assembly Resolution A.265, as an equivalent alternative to the deterministic provisions of SOLAS 1960. Following the loss of the Heraldof Free Enterprise in 1987, new regulations with considerably in- creased damaged stability standards for hew ships were adopted in SOLAS 1990. Following the tragic accident of the Estonia in 1994 the 1995 SOLAS conference considered proposals to account for water on deck effects, which were believed instrumental in this casualty. While improvements in watertight integrity and bow door standards were adopted in SOLAS 1995, the water on deck component of the damage stability regulations was approved as a regional standard only applicable to the northern European nations. While the probabilistic-rules for passenger ships (Resolution A.265) and for dry cargo ships (SO- LAS Chapter 11-1, Part B-1) are similar, there are significant differences between the two regula- tions. Bearing these differences in mind, in 1995 the International Maritime Organization (IMO, renamed from IMCO in 1982) launched an effort to harmonize the passenger ship and dry cargo ship --subdivision regulations into a gingle standard that might eventually be extended to all types of ves- sels covered by IMO regulations. 301 - Crete, October 2001 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION 2. HARMONIZATION OF DAMAGE STABILITY REGULATIONS The harmonization of the passenger and cargo ship regulations is an ambitious project authorized by the IMO's Maritime Safety Committee (MSC) and carried out by the Sub-Committee on Stability and Loadlines and on Fishing Vessel Safety (SLF). This effort seeks to harmonize the probabilistic criteria of Resolution A.265 and of the Part B- I of SOLAS to the greatest extent possible in order to have a common basic formulation of the regulations and a common method to calculate the Attained Subdivision Index. Once the SLE agrees to the basic formulation of the regulations, the overall safety level, as specified by the Required Subdivision Index, will be established at a level to retain the same average safety level as SOLAS 1990 standard ships. In addition to the probabilistic damage stability analysis procedures, the harmonization effort also seeks to harmonize all the margin line, bulkhead deck, and immersion limit definitions as well as the watertight, weather tight, and other standards for bulkheads and closures, between the passenger and cargo ship regulations. Further research and work on the harmonized regulations remains an ongoing task at IMO's SLE Sub-Committee, and it is anticipated that these harmonized regulations will be completed by late 2003 in time to be ultimately considered for adoption at the upcoming SOLAS convention scheduled for 2006. 3. LARGE PASSENGER SHIP SAFETY Within the past year the IMO has begun a new overall review of the safety issues related to large passenger ships. Recently delivered and newly proposed passenger ship designs continue to break the bounds of convention in terms of overall size as well as the total numbers of crew and passen- gers on board. The most recent deliveries, such as Royal Caribbean's Voyager of the Seas are ap- proaching 150,000 gross tons with nearly 5000 combined passengers and crew on board. In May of 2000, the IMO Secretary-General William O'Neil initially raised concerns that "the trend toward ever larger vessels could lead to new giants of the cruise world which might pose safety- related questions unforeseen by existing regulations."[lI] At its recent seventy-fourth session (June 2001) the Maritime Safety Committee (MSC) considered the overall regulatory framework for large passenger ships. What has now emerged from IMO is "a plan for a body of work that will constitute one of the largest ever investigations into the safety- related aspects of a particular ship type ever carried out"[1]. The MSC developed a guiding philoso- phy, strategic goals, and objectives to help direct the development of future regulations related to the safety of large passenger ship. The overall-regulatory framework and any fuiture regulatory propos- als are intended to be linked to the following guiding philosophy: [2] * The regulatory framework should place more emphasis on the prevention of a casualty from occurring in the first place. * Future large passenger ships should be des igned for improved survivability so that, in the event of a casualty, persons can stay safely on board as the ship proceeds to port. * The regulatory framework should permit alternative designs and arrangements in lieu of the --pesciptveregulations provided that at least an equivalent level~of safety is achieved. * Large passenger ships should be crewed, equipped and have arrangements to ensure the' safety of persons on board for survival in the area of operation, taking into account climatic conditions and the availability of SAR functions. 302 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 Large passenger ships should be crewed and equipped to ensure the health safety, medical care and security of persons on board until more specialized assistance is available. Were a linkage to this guiding philosophy cannot be made, such proposals would not be considered. Following the development of this philosophy the MSC then made specific assignments to the vari- ous technical Sub-Committees for Fire Protection (FP'), Radio-communications and Search and -Res- cue (COMSAR), Safety of Navigation (NAy), Ship Design and Equipment (DE), Stability and Load Lines and Fishing Vessels Safety (SLF), and Standards of Training and Watchkeeping (STW). This guiding philosophy has spawned a large number of specific tasks and objectives for the MSC Committee and the various technical Sub-Committees as indicated below: [1] SLF- Objective: To improve ship survivability in the event of grounding, collision or flooding with a view to minimizing the need-to abandon the ship. Tasks and considerations include: Subdivision criteria; damage stability criteria; measures to limit the spread of flooding through watertight bulkhead penetrations and doors; character- ize the designed survivability of the ship to be able to link the design of the ship to the avail- ability of SAR functions and the area of operation; how the survivability can be improved and the implication this would have for the design of large passenger ships of increasing size; ranking damage issues; reliability of equipment, structural integrity of the ship after damage. DE Objective: To review lifesaving appliances and arrangements requirements with a view to improving evacuation and recovery measures. Tasks and considerations include: Number, capacity, design and effectiveness of survival craft; launching systems; arrangements for boarding and launching of survival craft; safety of crew during drills and equipment testing; demographics of persons on board (children, eld- erly, etc.); IMO and industry standards for PFDs; reliability of equipment. Objective: To consider measures to ensure ships can safely proceed to port after a fire or flooding casualty. Tasks and considerations include: Segregated machinery space concept and vital system redundancy issues; measures to en Isure ship can safely proceed to port under its own power after fire or flooding in any one compartment or zone; emergency towing arrangements; damage control systems; secondary command and control issues and communications capa- bilities; emergency power requirements. DE and SLF Objective: To develop measures to assess alternative designs and arrangements so that new concepts and technologies may be permitted in lieu of the prescriptive regulation, provided that an equivalent level of safety is achieved. Tasks and considerations include: 1-ow to facilitate new concepts such as the use of new survival modules in lieu of traditional survival craft; measures to provide functional require- ments for the approval of alternative designs and arrangements. F'P Objective: To consider fire protection and prevention measures with a view to improving -ship -survivability. Tasks and considerations include: Main vertical and horizontal zone requirements; fire boundary penetration requirements; means to keep smoke and fire from spreading beyond the 303 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 space of origin; specifically addressing emergency response by crew; shipboard safety Sys- tems and boundaries; means to link fire prevention and protection measures to the fire risk of laundry areas, carpenter shops, solvent cleaning rooms and other specific spaces not gener- ally covered by the existing general categorization and regulations; the "safe haven" concept and development of functional requirements; rapid mitigation strategies such as fast initial response measures, automation of fire dampers, integrated systems technologies, etc; meas- ures to prevent fire casualties; fire and smoke protection for medical facilities; review of smoke and toxicity criteria with regard to new materials which may be used; equipment reli- ability issues. Objective: To consider escape, muster and evacuation issues with a view to ensuring the safe and orderly movement of persons during an emergency. Tasks and considerations include: Methods to link evacuation time to vessel's survival time including use of evacuation analysis early in the design process and simplification of escape route arrangements; crowd management issues; passenger and crew notification is- sues; passenger demographics; -properly accounting for persons during an emergency; fa- miliarization of passengers with the ship; the number and location of extra lifejackets; meas- ures to improve evacuation while alongside in port; measures for child safety; family separa- tion and persons with special needs. COMSAR Objective: To evaluate recovery and rescue techniques and equipment and propose measures as appropriate. Tasks and considerations include: Measures and techniques to transfer persons from sur- vival craft and recovering persons from the water to other ships which may include the use of rescue boats, scramble nets, means of rescue, pilot boarding ladders and helicopters; com- patibil ity of ships of all types for use as possible SAR facilities; evaluation of techniques, fit- tings and equipment to recover survival craft; reliability of equipment; new concepts as well as adequacy of current requirements. STW Objective: To review human element issues with regard to operations, management and training with a view towards improving safety. Tasks and considerations include: Communication and language issues including, crew to crew, crew to passengers and ship to SAR facilities taking into account signa~ge and that the use of multiple languages is typical for large passenger ships; training issues including addi- tional fire-fighting training for senior officers, frequency of drills and STCW requirements; crew fatigue issues. NAV Objective: To consider measures to improve prevention of groundings and collisions. Tasks and considerations include: Awareness of water depth and squat issues; review availability of international aids to navigation for vessels operating in remote areas; review pilot and bridge team interface management issues; review bridge team resource manage- ment measures; quality and availability of hydrographic information for operation in remote areas; voyage planning issues; reliability of equipment issues; need for requiring modern navigation equipment to avoid collisions and groundings. 304 EtJROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SWI DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 Maritime Safety Committee Objective: To review medical management practices including facilities, equipment, per- sonnel qualifications and staffing levels. Tasks and considerations include: Pharmaceuticals carried on board; training, certification and manning issues; telecommunications equipment; room equipment issues; secondary medical facilities in the event of loss of the primary facilities in the event of a casualty. Objective: To evaluate measures related to ship security. Tasks and considerations include: IMO guidelines with a view to harmonizing various na- tional standards; clarification of vague words and phrases in existing security guidelines to ensure consistency of enforcement. Objective: To review measures related to health safety on board. Tasks and considerations include: Fresh water supply and safety issues; food safety is- sues; diseases in relation to swimming pools and Jacuzzis; structural requirements for food preparation areas with sanitation requirements, as well as construction guidelines; equipment reliability issues; ventilation issues. 4. THE LATEST DEVELOPMENTS - SLF44 The SLF Sub-Committee held its forty-fourth session just a few weeks ago (17 to 21 September 2001). The two primary work items of the Sub-Committee related to the survivability of passenger ships continued to be: * Harmonization of SOLAS Chapter 11-1 * Large Passenger Ship Safety Harmonization Regarding the harmonization of the damage stability provisions for cargo and passenger ship in the revised SOLAS Chapter 11-1, the Sub-Committee and specifically its Working Group on Subdivi- sion and Damage Stability (SDS) continued to make progress on the draft of the new Chapter. This working group is closely integrated with the efforts of the European research project HARDER. The 1-ARDER initiative, begun in 2000, is concurrently working to systematically in- vestigate the validity, robustness, consistency, and impact of all aspects of the harmonized probabil- istic damage stability regulations. Several specific components of the harmonized regulations are being directly researched and refined within the HARDER project and the Working Group has de- ferred discussion and resolution regarding several of these items until the relevant results of the HARDER project can be considered. Large Passenger Ship Safety The SLF Sub-Committee considered the objectives and task related to subdivision and damage sta- bility of large passenger ships and decided to include the following additional consideration in the work programme of the Subdivision and Damage Stability (SDS) working group: * Consider how an analytical relationship between the "time to sink" and residual damage sta- bility could be developed for all non-survivable damage cases. " Consider the global and local structural performance of the ship after damage. * Make recommendations on how to address bottom-raking damage within the framework of the revised damage stability regulations. 305 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 The SDS working group briefly discussed these items at the recent meeting and referred all of these items for discussion and consideration of the SDS intercessional correspondence group, which will report its findings prior to the next SLE meeting in late 2002. 5. THE WAY AHEAD The way ahead at IMO regarding the subdivision and damage survivability regulation of passenger ships is not completely clear. Until recently the priorities were exclusively focused on the comple- tion of the harmonization effort in time for consideration in the next scheduled SOLAS conference, anticipated in 2006. However, the new issue of the large passenger ships and revised priorities may change this direction. Harmonization Barring a substantial shift in priorities at the Marine Safety Committee, the next two sessions of the SLF Sub-Committee (SLE 45 in 2002, and SLF46 in 2003), with the assistance of the HARDER re- search project, should complete the harmonized regulations and the revised SOLAS Chapter 11-1. These revised regulations could then be approved by the Marine Safety Committee at their meeting in March 2004, which would permit the amendments to be considered at the proposed SOLAS con- ference in 2006. Large Passenger Ship Safety The recent introduction of the reconsideration of the overall framework for regulation of the safety of large passenger ships will significantly impact the way ahead at IMO in ways that cannot yet be foreseen. At present the target for completion of these new issue is two years, which appears very ambitious. Each of the issues to be taken up the SLE subcommittee (time-based survival, structural integrity after damage, and bottom raking damage), as well as issues under consideration by the other Sub-Committees, are highly complex topics that will require significant newv research to ade- quately resolve. We here at the Universities of Glasgow and Strathclyde, as well as many of our colleagues in the regulatory, industry, and academic fields, applaud the efforts of the 1MG and support the principles established in the MSC's guiding philosophy for the safety of large passenger ships. We share the Secretary-General's concern about the trends in the new passenger ship designs, and we believe that a rational, risk-based, regulatory framework that would promote and nurture risk-based design and operational practice will ensure the appropriate level of safety for passengers aboard these ships, now and in the future. 6. REFERENCES I "Larger ships, new safety challenges", IMO Web Site, 26 September 2001, http://www.imo.ora- 2 MSC 74/WP.6, Annex 1, 1MO-Maritime Safety Committee working paper, June 2001. 306 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 Y. Ikeda, Professor, University of Osaka Prefecture, Japan "Japanese Research Activities on Damage Stability of a Ship to Support International and Domestic Regulatory Works" 307 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETYAND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 JAPANESE RESEARCH ACTIVITIES ON DAMAGE STABILITY OF A SHIP TO SUPPORT INTERNATIONAL AND DOMESTIC REGULATORY WORKS Yoshiho Ikeda and Toru Katayama Department of Marine System Engineering Osaka Prefecture University 1-1 Gakuen-cho, Sakai, Osaka 599-8503 Japan [email protected] Abstract In this paper, Japanese passenger ships, regulations for them and their casualty statistics are briefly introduced at first. Then research activities on the damage stability of a ship in Japan are introduced and some results obtained by these activities are reviewed. Japanese Passenger Ships complicated and not easy to understand even for Japanese Although passenger liners for long distance route, like naval architects. To a ship operated in international routes, trans-Pacific and Europe mutes, disappeared because of the same regulations as IMO's ones are applied. To the ships rapid development of airplane networks all over world, in domestic routes, the regulations, which are not always the many Japanese passenger ships are still operated. Now five same as IMO's riles, are applied. For examples, Japanese Japanese cruise ships in medium size are operated around intact stability rule is slightly different from IMO A265(D). Japan and in world-wide area. Five Japanese passenger-car And no damage stability rule is applied to Japanese ferries are operated in international routes between Japan passenger ships operated in domestic routes except and the neigjhboring countries, like China, Taiwan, Korea passenger-car ferries. and Russia. In domestic routes in Japan, more than 2500 passenger ships including about 400 passenger-car ferries of The casualty statistics published by Japanese Government RoRo type are operated. Therefore the safety of the said that for these ten years, 134 collisions between a passengers and the passenger ships is very serious concerns passenger ships and another ship occurred. This means to the society and the governments, about 13 collisions forpassenger ships occurred in average a year. Comparison of casualty statistics between All passenger ships of Japanese flag are inspected by passenger-car ferries and pure passenger ships showed that Japanese Government (Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and probability of collision occurrence of passenger-car ferries is Transport) on the basis of Japanese regulations for ship almost double of that of pure passenger ships. The reason safety (Senpaku Anzensei Kijun). Therefore they are has not been clarified yet Fortunately the damages due to sometimes called "JG ship". The regulations are there accidents were not serious, and no ship capsized or 309 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 sank in these accidents, passenger ships in waves in Ship Research Institute (Now, National Maritime Research Institute) and Osaka University, Damage Stability Researches in Japan a research project on intermediate stages of flooding of a Not so many researchers are interested in research works on pure passenger ships in Osaka Prefecture University, and a damage stability of ships from the academic point of view. research project on safety of a damaged FCC in Osaka Regulatory works, however, requires some research works Prefecture University. In following chapters, the results to reveal the causes of accidents and to determine a obtained by the research projects carried out by the reasonable safety level. Therefore former Ministry of laboratory of the author will be briefly introduced. Transportation, now Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and. Transport, organized many panels to do investigations Intermediate Stages of Flooding relating to regulatory works tunder the Shipbuilding The research project was originally established to evaluate Research Association of Japan. Now, the association the proposal by the Netherlands for SLF41 (SLF41/5/1), organizes two kinds of cooperative researches on because the proposal seemed to be very severe to apply to ship-related technical problems among industrial, existing Japanese passenger ships. The experimental studies governmental and academic organizations. These consist of in the project demonstrated that the results obtained by the industrial research and development projects, and Netherlands are reasonable or underestimated as shown in regulation-related projects. In a regulatory field, 13 panels, Fig.1 [1]. In the studies by the Netherlands, however, a very called RR panels are working to give technical advices to large damage opening was assumed and water rushed into regulatory works by Japanese government the damage compartment in very high speed just after the opening was suddenly released. Then dynamic behavior of The RR71 panel has a responsibility to the problems a damaged ship just after flooding is significant, and makes relating to SLF sub-committee of IMO. Prof M. Fujino of the ship capsize. In the investigations and discussions in the .Tokyo University is the chairman of the panel, and the RR71 panel, it was concluded that the scenario that such author is working as the chairman of Damage Stability large damage openings suddenly opens might be unrealistic Working Group in the panel. The annual budget of the panel in cases of collisions between two ships. is about 12,000,000yern The panel consists of researchers and engineers from universities, classification societies, 40 -:predicted maX. roll angle shipbuilders, shipping companies, national research using proposed forula institutes and Japanese government (Maritime Bureau of 0 by the Netherlands nr mesured Mlinistry of Lands, Infirastructure and Transport). In the A Model A: 0 panel, new proposals in submitted SLF are regularly 20 ModelAx: 0- * A A ModelAxy: 0 investigated and evaluated. Ad-hoc research projects on so A Model BI: 0' 0 0 ModelM Bly: A important themes relating to activities in SLF are also established to contribute to international regulatory works. 01 0 0 0.01 0.02 GM(m) 0.03 In these three years, three research projects have been Fig.1 Comparison of maximum roll angle in flooding carried out; a research project on safety of damaged RoRo process between measurements and predicted values. 310 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 Therefore, experiments for various sizes of openings were ,12 - GAM14.5mm also carried out, and showed that the ship motions hi 8 A intermediate stages of flooding sometimes affect on the final 4 •2 condition of the ship [2]. In Fig. 2 some examples of the - T MCI experimental results are shown. A mid-ship symmetrical 4 compartment was assumed to be flooded. GM values were systematically reduced to when capsize occurred. Most 08 GM=12.2mm experimental results show that the ship has lare heet angle - _14 _ _,A -412 at the final stages. The reason why the damaged ship heels 010 can be explained as follows. Usually a damaged ship heels 6 4 in intermediate stages of flooding due to stability reduction 2 . o , 0 -- , caused by shallow water on the bottom of a flooded -2 14 139 23 :0 comparmnent, and the damage opening sometimes comes up above water surface. Then flooding to a damaged o25 G~.mG compartment stops, and the ship floats in heel condition in -15 the final stage even if the damaged compartment is .1o symmetric. 5 0 T tsec' 5 10 15 20 25 C -5 - 30 GM=7.7mm 25o 1 20 10 5 -piz GMA=36.4mm $20 ~is 10 5 0 T e -528 i -0 Capsize GA#-3.5mm;; Fig.2 Roll response curve due to sudden water ingress to mid-ship symmetric compartment of 5000gt cruise ship. 311 - EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETYAND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 In the present regulations in SOLAS, however, such an flooding stopped in intermediate stages and the final effect of intermediate stages of flooding on the final permeability, which is defined as a ratio of flooded water condition is not taken into account although there are volume to the volume of the compartment, was much requirements for the maximum heeling angle and the smaller than unity. In most cases in the experiments, an stability in intermediate stages of flooding. The ship motion upper horizontal compartment did not submerge, although in the stages depends on GM value, width and area of the the compartment could be submerged if the ship sunk in bottom of a compartment, opening size and its vertical upright condition and flooding proceeded to one hundred location (particularly location of the lower edge ofa damage percents of permeability. It should be also noted that even opening may be important), arrangements in a compartment, when the ship sunk in upright condition the final and so on. permeability was lower than unity because some air was trapped in the compartment PCC-Safety Research Project It was revealed that the values of attained index calculated The results of the research projectdernonstate that the static by the proposed draft in SLY as a revised harmonized rule concept does not always give real attitudes of a damaged for subdivision and damage stability was significantly PCC in the final stage of flooding. different from those calculated by the present SOLAS rules for some cargo ships. A Japanese study on the proposal of Introduction of International Rules to Domestic Ones the revised regulation in the RR71 panel clarified that the As mentioned before, except for passenger-car ferries, no stengthening of v-factor for vertical extent of damage and damage stability tile is applied to a passenger ships in permeability in the proposed draft of the regulations caused Japanese domestic routes now. For passenger-car ferries significant reduction of the attained indexes for these ships. there is a requirement to guarantee the safety when the ship is damaged and flooded. The requirement says that ships Particularly, differences of the attained indexes between the longer than 79m should be in two-compartment standard, revised regulation and present SOLAS for pure car carriers ships shorter than 45m should be in one-compartment (PCC) are significant, and the present design of a PCC standard, and ships between them should be in should be significantly changed if the proposal would be two-compartment standard in bow and stem parts. accepted. To overcome the problem and advance the harmonizing process in NMO, the RR71 panel started a For these three years, in the RR48 panel, an assessment on research project on the safety of a damaged PCC in 2001. applicability of the.present damage.stability regulations in SOLAS to all Japanese domestic passenger ships including In the project, experimental studies using a model of a PCC passenger-car ferries has been carried out Five mono-hull were carried out.The damage openings with different sizes ships, six catamarms and three SWATH were selected, and and locations on a side hull of a damaged compartment are damage stability assessments for these ships were caried released, and ship motions, roll, heave and pitch, are out on the basis of the present SOLAS regulations(Chapter measured from the start of flooding to the final stage. C-1, Regulation 8). The investigations revealed that the safety level of existing Japanese passengerý ships in domestic The experimental results [3] showed that in many cases services are slightly lower than the level of the SOLAS 312 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 standard ships, and that some Japanese passenger ships canying 400 persons or more cannot meet the requirements References by Regulation 8-3 in 90 SOLAS standard. [1] Y.lkeda and Y. Ma: An Experimental Study on Large Roll Motion in Intermediate Stage of Flooding due to It was also found for a SWATh that the requirement of heel Sudden Ingress Water, Proc. of 7" International angle criteria of " 7 degrees" for one-comparunent Conference on Stability of Ships and Ocean Vehicles, flooding at the final condition couldn't be met This may be Feb. 2000, Tasmania, pp.2 7 0 -2 85. caused by a firmdamental characteristic of the stability of a [2] Y Ma, I Katayama and Y Ikeda. A Study on Stability SWATH to improve its seakeeping quality by reducing the of Damaged Ships in Intermediate Stage of Flooding stability in small angle. An example of GZ curves of a (in Japanese), Jour. of Kansai Society of Naval SWATH and a convensional catamaran is shown in Fig.3. Architects, Japan, No.234, Sept 2000, pp.179-186 [3] Y.Ikeda and T. Kamo: Effects of Transient Motion in Conclusions Intermediate Stages of Flooding on the Final Condition Japanese researches on damage stability of a ship are not so of a Damaged PCC, Proc. of 5,h International active because most of researchers in the field of Naval Workshopon StabilityandOperationalSafetyofShips, Architecture are not interested in such regulatory works. Sept. 2001, Trieste Also the research fund for such researchers is much lower than those for other research fields, and only an association is supporting such research activities as mentioned before. However the safety of transportation systems is one of most important issues in the 21' centuries. The authors hope that research activities in this field will be promoted to contribute to keep high safety level of passenger ships and other ships all over the world. GZ(m) 6- 4- 2 / coAgnveW ...... ionalc - 0,1 0 20 40 60 Heel angle (deg) Fig.3 Difference of characteristics of stability between SWATH and conventional catamaran. 313 EJJROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 Table 1 Experimental results of a damaged FCC. ___oceninq size smal half of SOLAS(medium LSO~larce) GM initial heel ooenin heidT heel I P IFMAL heel I P IFW heel I P IFV\L 23.5mnr -1.5 deg hi 2O~ &M±... No ý67%28.1hi~iiI I-___ t-2.0dei !:4,238%tg L28:8rryiV rndddle MW4!QIdU ý83$~E23.'VffniI I___ I______low EM.O5.0 ;bý'M56&%'if ý2-l~rffiiW':3dciM83W o deg h!t..0.... 69A4% 21.Srn--iO e -2,8041 4,31.2frrn V%10rd&JO:'6%-'-31i6ffiii middle 0 a 69.4% 21 Srrm ______low -8.0ded A16.7%,i ýl2.2hrvtv 5. JM?8.3%/7, ý19.6rnm. 1.5 deg hi~ 6. e 69.4% &-2rrm rriddle l~ow . 13. deg 50.00/ - 5.9rmn 14Tmm -1.5Sdeg high... 1.0ldeo 69A4% 19.2rrr riiddle_ '.40~d& Zý8:3%'.4 .'23NAffim;______low "5.0r-d'3I 5.6%61. 7a2t'3nfwii!___ 0 deg high. 1.0 dec 69.4% -19,2nr _-:3'0deo 2.8% i26.5mn* L-A45C. i0t5.6'%'4 ý22:5mn rriddle 0 e 69.4% 21.Srrm ___ 0 ____ low 0 69.4% 21.Snr t-3.0 de4.ý tZ8%ttý -26mm- t-,.d5 ýZMBO2.8/ ý,fl9:4ih 1.5 deg hi ______4___ i58:80V"', ý25.5hrri- rinddle ______ _____ low - 5___d5fl-,, 71 .51-e 420.3r rm L=amag opening is below water surface at final stage £iýarrage opening is above water surface at final stage 0C 9 LEFn3ai water line from horizontal loading deck (+\bter line is below the deck) 314 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 D.Vassalos, /SU-SSRC & A. Papanikolaou, NTUA-SDL "Impact Assessment of Stockholm Agreement on EU Ro-Ro Passenger Vessels" D.Vassalos Professor Dracos Vassalos is the Head of Department of Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering of the Universities of Glasgow and Strathclyde. He is also the founder and Director of the Ship Stability Research Centre, a research centre of excellence comprising 50 researchers that deal with wide-ranging aspects of dynamics, stability, safety and design of ships and advanced marine vehicles. Professor Vassalos has been involved in research, development and application on the stability and safety of ships and advanced marine vehicles for 23 years and has published and lectured widely in the area, compiling 5 patents, 3 books and over 250 technical publications as well as various prizes and awards. Professor Vassalos is the co-ordinator of the largest EU Thematic Network, "Design for Safety ", involving 92 organisations from 16 European and Associated Nations spanning the whole spectrum of the marine industry. He is also the Chairman of the ITTC Specialist Committee on Ship Stability, Chairman of the hfternational Standing Committee of the STAB Conferences and International Round-Table-Discussion Workshops, Chairman of the Executive Committee of WEGEMT (a European Association of 43 Universities in Marine Technology and Related Sciences) and member of the UK delegation to IMO for ship stability. A. Papanikolaou Professor Apostolos Papanikolaou is Head of the Ship Design Laboratory at the Department of Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering, National Technical University of Athens. Professor Papanikolaou has been involved with fundamental and applied research in the areas of applied ship hydrodynamics and the design of conventional and unconventional ships for more than 25 years. He published and lectured widely on various areas of his expertise worldwide and was Visiting Professor at various Universities in Germany, Japan, USA and the United Kingdom. He headed and is directing a series of national and international, European Community fimded research projects. Professor Papanikolaou is member of the ITTC Specialist Committee on the Prediction of Extreme Ship Motions and Capsize and the International Standing Committee on Ship Stability. He served as Technical Advisor to the Hellenic Chamber of Shipping and the Hellenic Association of Passenger Shipowners, the Greek IMO delegation and the Mediterranean Group of Passenger Shipowners in regulatory matters pertaining to the safety of passenger ships and bulkcarriers. 315 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION,SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 Impact Assessment of Stockholm Agreement on EU Ro-Ro Passenger Vessels Dracos Vassalos* and Apostolos Papanikolaou** *The Ship Stability Research Centre, NAME, Glasgow, UK **Ship Design Laboratory, NTUA, Athens, Greece ABSTRACT This paper provides a succinct summary of the findings ensuing the undertaking of a dedicated EU- funded research project aiming to address the impact of the Stockholm Agreement on the EU Ro- Ro passenger ships. This is achieved by utilising the experience gained, the data and knowledge accumulated through the adoption, of the Stockholm Agreement in NW Europe to form the basis for predicting the likely impact of introducing this Agreement to vessels operating in EU waters not covered yet by it. INTRODUCTION Concerted action to address the water-on-deck problem in the wake of the Estonia tragedy led IMO to set up a panel of experts to consider the issues carefully and make suitable recommendations. However, the complexity of the problem and the need to take swift action to reassure the public that appropriate steps are taken to avoid a repeat of the Estoniadisaster influenced to a large extent both the initial and final proposals. Following considerable deliberations and debate (obviously unresolved), a new requirement for damage stability has been agreed only among the northwestern European Nations to account for the risk of accumulation of water on the Ro-Ro deck. This new requirement, known as the Stockholm Agreement [1] demands that a vessel satisfies SOLAS '90 requirements (allowing only for minor relaxation) with, in addition, water on deck by considering a constant height calculated as shown in Figure 1. The dates of compliance with the provisions of the agreement range from April 1, 1997 to October 1, 2002. However, in view of the uncertainties in the current state of knowledge concerning the ability of a vessel to survive damage in a given sea state,an alternative route has also been allowed which provides a non-prescriptive way of ensuring compliance, through the "Equivalence" route, by performing experiments in accordance with the SOLAS '95 Resolution 14, [2]. Height of do5i Water on Deck //•4 0 m o•=°perational :,0 0ý1H,=].S5m .._Residual.Freeboard (m) Figure 1: Stockholm Agreement (Height of water on Deck) 317 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 Deriving from the above, numerical simulaition models developed on the basis of systematic research over the past 15 years, [3] and capable of predicting with good engineering accuracy the capsizal resistance of a damaged ship, of any type and compartmentation, in a realistic environment whilst accounting for progressive flooding were also used, offering the ferry industry the attractive possibility of utilising such "tools" to assess the damage survivability of ferry safety, the so called "Numerical Equivalence" route. Numerical simulation readily allows for a systematic identification of the most cost-effective and survivability-effective solutions to improving ferry safety and hence offers a means for overcoming the deficiency of the physical model tests route in searching for optimum solutions and an indispensable "tool" for the planning and undertaking of such tests. October 1 2001 has therefore marked the beginning of the final year of the period initially allowed for compliance with the Stockholm Agreement (SA) requirements, a period during which almost 80% of the Ro-Rp fleet in North West Europe has been subjected to calculations, model testing and numerical simulations on the way to meeting the new requirements pertinent to the Agreement. The experience gained has been invaluable in understanding better the problem at hand and is being utilised to shape new developments for future Ro-Ro designs. The North-South divide, however, continues to cause unrest, particularly at European level. Efforts to assess the status quo in North West Europe and use the information amassed so far as a means to predicting the potential impact of introducing the SA in the South, led to a dedicated call by the Commission and to a contract being awarded to two closely collaborating research teams in the North and South Europe, one at the Ship Stability Research Centre of the Universities of Glasgow and Strathclyde and the other at the Ship Design Laboratory of the National Technical University of Athens. This study was finalised in March 2001 and a detailed technical report produced, describing comprehensively all the work undertaken, a brief account of which is presented here following an outline description of the background and aims of the study and of the methodology adopted in completing this work. THE SSRC-NTUA COMMISSION STUDY Background and Aims of the Study At the conclusion of the second Stockholm Conference at which the Agreement was adopted, the Commission services issued a statement, taking note of the Agreement concluded and expressing the opinion that the same level of safety should be ensured for all Ro-Ro passenger ferries operating in similar conditions. Noting that the Agreement is not applicable to other parts of the European Union, the Commission announced its intention to examine the prevailing local conditions, environmental and operational, under which Ro-Ro passenger ferries sail in all European waters and the Agreement in the_ -..... that this examination will include the extent and effect of the application of region covered by it. The statement concluded that in light of this examination the Commission would make a decision with regard to the need for further initiatives. This Commission statement was confirmed at the 19071b meeting of the Council, on Itf Match 1996, during which the Ministers of Transport discussed the outcome of the Stockholm Agreement. The Council also agreed to enter a similar statement into the 2074$ Council meeting of 17 March 1998, during which Council Directive 98/18/EC on safety rules and standards for passenger ships was adopted. In this statement the need to ensure the same level of safety for all Ro-Ro ferries operating in similar conditions was -more~precisely defined by referring to both international and domestic voyages. 318 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SWIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 Furthermore, in its latest proposal for Community legislation governing the safety of Ro-Ro passenger ships, the Commission included a draft provision that Ro-Ro ferries shall fulfil the specific stability requirements adopted at regional level, when operating in the region governed by such regional rules. This proposal was endorsed by the Council through article 4(l)(e) of its common position (EC) No 5/1999, with a number of adaptations to clarify that host States shall check that Ro-Ro ferries "comply with specific stability requirementsadapted at regional level, and transposed into their national legislation in accordance with the notification procedure laid down in Directive 98/34/EC of the European Pdrliamentand of the Council of 22 June 1998 laying down a procedure for the provision of information in the field of technical standards and regulations and of rules on information society services, when operating in that region a service covered by that national legislation, provided those requirements do not exceed those specified in the Annex of Resolution 14 (Stability Requirements Pertainingto the Agreement) of the 1995 SOLAS Conference and have been notified to the Secretqry-General of the IMO, in accordance with the procedures specified in point 3 of that resolution." Taking fully into account the above elements, the Commission invited tenders to a study to examine the extent and effect of the application of the Stockholm Agreement concerning specific stability requirements for Ro-Ro passenger ships, and the suitability of extending its scope to European waters not covered by it. The contract to undertake this study was awarded to the NAME- SSRC/NTUA-SDL partnership. More specifically, the overall aim of the study was to assess the impact of the Stockholm Agreement on European Ro-Ro passenger ships by targeting the following two objectives: A. JImpact assessment on the extent and the effect of the application of the Stockholm Agreement concerning specific stability requirements for Ro-Ro passenger ships in the area covered by it. B. Impact assessment on the extent and the effect of the application of the Stockholm Agreement concerning specific stability requirements for Ro-Ro passenger ships in European waters not covered by it. Proposed Methodology The methodology adopted in completing this work is shown in Figure 2, explaining for each of the two distinct areas A and B the scope and approach to be followed to attain the results sought. The study took one year to complete and produced two comprehensive technical reports addressing each one of the two areas separately, [4], [5]. The key findings of this work are summarised here for areas A and B respectively, following the format of the adopted methodology. 319 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 ½SPiCmaaieanalysi's ýofNati naIk1'. Soe:,Susweyý.ofýpr'evailingý9sealconditiong#r,ý Legislatxon,~particu~rly~w-rt rfide -andsafety--crlticaI Ohrl'~tdiIi~W PPt W~-t0t~ icareascovrdbSA~ -a Natonab i!i op:nventor~y of'RýRopsea6ý,:tiIP ~, assengeI~ covering ½keofd~~i inaraorsti -i!R -R I- 1 .. 4t1 -' g t~ t tj;A~) "'coplsaboraing Irwoerao Scope iInv'ent~oryo~ Rof R 'St eEsashwih shipsmeedtbe¼ tý31F/12/'99ýand isqiatdcss 4;xýtffdfitosf~4'~hti -1 'N rrr '~ M % V*, -~~,~S- 5~~~ AixahNaIona1...... r 4 A c gIhowVderjvingfrI- p¶io. (c ýýeachýA/Amax categoryV_ý, - Jtt"M?4' ______DatbaesofSSRCF an d,, 4ý n geheew hý!ow andeprtmL V-ZVIl MM kcmp~inewitIss tsXs b eaýfi4%o Co tosaolý 17the es lsxecu essarfS! odificat onsimuw ,2'Annoich:Use-'a erageicostsotogetlf4-.' 4-~itti Figure 2: Adopted Methodology for the SA Study 320 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 AREA COVERED BY THE STOCKHOLM AGREEMENT Key Findings As shown in Figure 2, the study comprises five tasks, each forming part of the methodology adopted as explained therein and summarised here below: Comparative Analysis of National Legislation A(a): The National Legislations of the counties being parties to the SA were elaborated upon, aiming to: ascertain if the application of the SA is extended to Ro-Ro passenger ships entitled to fly the flag of States non-parties to the Agreement; assess the extent to which parties to the SA are bringing one-compartment Ro-Ro passenger ships in compliance with technical requirements of the SA as a matter of priority; identify if Contracting Governments to the SA apply earlier implementation dates than those specified in Annex 2 to the Agreement for ships trading between their ports. The main results from task A(a) showed that, in the main, all countries affected by the SA have applied it without alterations. Exceptions to this are the UK and Norway. In the first case, it is interesting to note that the UK also applies the Stockholm Agreement requirements to Ro-Ro passenger ships operating on comparable domestic seagoing routes (Class 11(A)). In addition the UK decided that every ship to which the Merchant Shipping (High Speed Craft) Regulations 1996 apply in so far as it implements Chapter 2 Part B of the High-Speed Code shall comply with the .requirements of the Agreement relating to specific stability standards. In the second case, the Stockholm Agreement requirements apply to any Ro-Ro passenger ship to which SOLAS apply. As a result;-every Norwegian Ro-Ro passenger ship should comply with the requirements of the SA on any voyage whether or not it is within the geographical area of the SA. Furthermore, additional requirements apply on the design of deck barriers. In all cases, no pertinent information can be discerned addressing specifically issues pertaining to bringing either one- or two-compartment vessels in compliance earlier than the compliance dates specified in Annex 2 to the Agreement. Also, it is to be noted that France is the only EU country, which whereas it is not one of the signatories of the Agreement, it is partly affected by the latter, taking into account that a large number of French vessels operating in the channel were to be modified to comply with SA requirements. Inventory of Passenger Ro-Ro Vessels A(b): General information on Ro-Ro Passenger ships was collated, along with relevant technical data, including information on compliance with relevant stability standards. The vessels were categorised by A/Amax and operational Hs. A comparison between the databases corresponding to North EU (NEU) and South EU (SEU), respectively, led to the following conclusions: the NEU fleet is generally younger (Figure 3) and has on the whole higher stability standards than the SEU (Figure 4); it is also shown that the value of A/Amax of the North European fleet has risen considerably during the last five years, as a result of about 30% of the -relevant vessels having alreidy been upgraded to SOLAS '90 and to Stockholm Agreement standards by the beginning of the year 2000; by contrast, operational significant wave heights values are generally evenly distributed throughout the EU fleet and are marginally higher in than the SEU (Figure 5,-to.be NEU 1 contrasted against Figure 10). As a general comment, it has been noted that the experimental route to compliance with the Stockholm Agreement is normally preferred (77% experimental route to 23% calculation route based on 79 upgraded vessels), since opting for this alternative enables ship owners to obtain a margin on the attained Hs for their vessels, without increasing the complexity or cost of the upgrading. This margin .is particularly .valuable to'ship owners, as it is likely to'influence positively the resale value of their vessels. 321 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 Inventory of Passenger Ro-Ro Vessels Upgrading and Related Costs A(c): A comprehensive inventory was undertaken of the technical modifications and adaptations carried out to all ferries, which had to comply with the SA by 31/12/99 or earlier, and of the associated costs. This part of the study showed that although a large number of the ships affected by SOLAS '90 and SA need major modifications in order to comply with these stability standards (80% major, 13% minor and 7% none based on 61 vessels), a good part of these is due to the specific requirements related to SOLAS '90 standard. Although this is not necessarily the case if larger values of operational Hs need to be attained, in practice this indicates that the main effect of the SA in the NEU has been to .accelerate the schedule of compliance with SOLAS '90 requirements. Distributions of major and minor modifications are shown in Figure 6 whilst the cost distribution is presented in Figure 7,this varying from E60k to E5.5M with an average of E2.1M per vessel, based on 58 vessels. Average SA Compliance Cost for NEU Ro-Ro-Vessels A(d): Studies aiming to establish average compliance cost per vessel as a function of the operational sea state and A/Amax category for a given vessel were undertaken, based on the experience accumulated by the application of the SA in the NEU. Statistical trends in this respect were established, which provided a useful input for evaluating the extent of modifications required by the SEU fleet. The results of this task (Figure 8), showed that: in the NEU there are comparatively more ships belonging to the lower upgrading cost brackets than to the higher ones; there is good correlation between average overall cost of upgrading and GDP per capita (GDP per capita referring to the country in which the ship was upgraded or - in absence of this information - the country where the ship operates from); cost of upgrading and A/Amax values are well correlated and since there is good correlation between age and A/Amax, it is reasonable to use the first as an indicator of a ship stability standard, all other data being unavailable; the variation of cost of modification with ship size is generally best represented by a logarithmic law, GT seemingly giving the best fit to the data available; it is virtually impossible to detect a trend of variation of cost of modification versus significant wave height. It is to be noted that since the sample data available for achieving this task was limited, the regression linking the cost of upgrading to GT and A/Amax implied an unacceptably large error. For this reason, this analysis was repeated and verified in greater detail, as explained next. Assessment of Overall SA Compliance Cost for NEU Ro-Ro Vessels A(e): In this task it has been attempted to further demonstrate and better quantify the link between upgrading cost and relevant parameters such as A/Amax and GT, continuing from the results presented in A(d) by using a sample representing about 70% of the NEU fleet that needs to comply with the SA. On this basis, statistical trends were established, representative of the present status of the implementation of SA in the NEU, to be used for estimating on the whole the possible effect of introducing the SA to SEU. Furthermore, an estimate of the_cost of.the modifications still required to complete the SA-- up.grading in NEU was provided. In general this part of the project corroborate all the findings of part A(d), offering a better regression formula linking A/Amax and GT to overall cost of upgrading (Figure 9). Moreover, a detailed analysis of the cost of each type of modification has also been attempted, leading-to similar results in terms of overall cost of modifications per ship. On the basis of this analysis and estimating that about 28 vessels were still undergoing upgrading in the NEU, the total cost of the outstanding upgrading was calculated to be approximately El 1.7M. This raised the total cost of upgrading of the NEU fleet to about E85M, with 36% of the fleet not requiring any upgrading and about 69% of the vessels having been upgraded for less than El.0M. 322 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 EU WATERS NOT COVERED BY THE STOCKHOLM AGREEMENT Key Findings As shown in Figure 2, the study comprises five tasks, each forming part of the methodology adopted as explained therein and summarised here below: Survey of Prevailing Sea Conditions and Safety-Critical Local Conditions B(a): The prevailing sea conditions and other safety-critical local conditions in SEU geographical areas not covered yet by the SA were investigated. The wave heights were determined following two alternative, yet essentially complementary, approaches. In the first approach the main ferry routes between ports involving at-least one SEU state were analysed. In the second approach, whole geographical regions have been associated with characteristic wave height values. Results of this study show (Figure 10) that relevant significant wave heights (Hs) in the Mediterranean are generally lower than 3.0m, with the exception of.the regionwest of the island of Corsica where the obtained Hs was approximately 3.25m. However, larger wave heights, even exceeding 4.0m, were noted in the Atlantic routes to Madeira and the Azores. Concerning other, possibly safety-critical local conditions, such as wind, air and sea surface temperatures, visibility, traffic densities and other similar conditions it can be concluded, based on the collected data, that the local sea conditions are less safety-critical, when compared to the corresponding conditions in NEU waters, due to the higher average air and sea surface temperatures and the generally less significant traffic densities in the pertinent local areas. Inventory of Passenger Ro-Ro Vessels in SEU Waters B(b): A comprehensive inventory was undertaken of Ro-Ro passenger vessels operating in SEU, along with relevant technical data, including information on compliance with relevant stability standards. The vessels were categorized by means of a variety of technical, stability sensitive characteristics and economic indicators. It is to be noted that since information on A/Amax values for several registered vessels was very limited (not available or not reliable), the relevant analysis was mainly based on the stability standard of compliance, thus providing indirectly an indication of the actual A/Amax values of the vessels under consideration. Results are shown in Figures 3 and 4, where they are ,contrasted against results from NEU vessels. Ships to be upgraded to Comply with SA B(c): The scope of this task was to establish which of the ships that operate in SEU would need to be upgraded to comply with the provisions of The SA and the possible extent of required modifications. Based on the inventory of the ships under investigation (Task B(b)), their current stability standard of compliance, area of operation (Task B(a)) and corresponding A/Amax values, the results provided a categorisation of the affected ships according to their current stability standards of compliance, relevant A/Amax values and year of -built or major modification. On this basis, it was established which ships need to be upgraded in order to comply with the SA, the extent of the required modifications in relation to relevant provisions of the SOLAS regulations and the expected dates of compliance (if formally the requirements ofthe.presently valid SOLAS '90-2 compartment standard are met independently of a possible extension of the provisions of the SA to EU regions not covered by it), (Figure 11). Based on the technical characteristics and the area of operation of the affected ships it was concluded that the techno-economic effort to upgrade these ships to SOLAS '90, 2-compartment standard, would not deviate much from the effort required to ensure compliance with the provisions of the SA. 323 EULROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 Assessment of Overall Cost of SEU Vessels for Compliance with SA B(d): The objective of this task was to assess the costs associated with the necessary modifications of SEU Ro-Ro passenger ships, identified and analysed under B(b) and B(c), for compliance with stability requirements similar to those of the SA. Taking into account that SEU Ro-Ro passenger ships are generally operating in waters of comparably lower Hs and also available scientific evidence indicating that ships complying with the SOLAS '90 standard will survive SOLAS damages of at least 2.5m Hs, as derived from model tests according to the "Equivalent Model Test Procedure" of Resolution 14, SOLAS '95, it has been concluded that the modification cost of SEU ships for compliance with the provisions of the SA will be approximately the same as the associated cost for compliance with the requirements of the SOLAS '90 2-compartment standard. Based on the results of a detailed cost analysis of modifications for the NEU ships (task A(e)) and the derived regression formulae therein, the A/Amax values and GT values of the inventory ships and the GDP of the flag state, the itemised cost/ship as well as the overall cost for the SEU ships has been deduced. Based on this, the total modification for the whole SEU fleet (264 ships) is estimated to range between a minimum of E106M and a maximum of E250M. It is to benoted that these estimates do not consider the possible removal from service of aged SEU ships, which is to be expected since it might prove economically more advantageous for ship owners to replace some of these ships with new buildings instead of undertaking onerous extensive modifications. Assessment of Modification Time for Compliance of SEU Vessels with SA B(e): The objective of this task was to assess the time required to execute the necessary modifications for the affected SEU ships, identified and analysed under B(b), B(c) and B(d), considering the capacity of European shipyards, anticipated delivery times and the need to ensure continuity of service. Taking into account the fact that the process of upgrading the affected ships is not a continuous function of time and that the relevant shipping companies will rather choose to wait until it is absolutely necessary to modify ships, it is concluded that the time required for the modifications will be strictly following the 'phase in' procedure for compliance with the provisions of Stockholm Agreement, to be decided by the European Council. Therefore, the present task has been based on the assumption of an accelerated compliance schedule for the affected SEU ships with the full provisions of SOLAS '90 (Reg. 8-1 and Reg. 8-2) based on the deduction outlined in B(d) above. The assumed time schedule, ranging from 1 October 2002 for ships with lower values of A/Amax, to 1 October 2005 for those in the highest A/Amax category, appears feasible in all respects, as this compliance schedule does not deviate from the existing compliance with Regulation 1 of SOLAS '90 (provisions for one compartment standard compliance). More importantly, this holds true for the large majority of existing vessels (78.1%, 235 out of 301 existing ships), whereas for the remaining ships already complying with Regulation 1, SOLAS '90 (21.9%, 66 out of 301 ships) the impact is considered to be less severe and feasible within the set accelerated time schedule. From the point of view of availability and capacity of European shipyards in order to accomplish the requested modifications and the seamless continuation of" se rvice,. it-can be concluded that, since the time schedule for, compliance with the provisions of SOLAS '90 is practically unchanged, no additional negative effects would result from the introduction of.Stockholm Agreement in SEU. However, the feasibility of the first compliance date being 1 October 2002 would need to be critically examined, considering thatS59% of the ships identified for upgrading would be affected. 324 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors would like to express their gratitude to the European Commission DG Transport for the financial support of the research described in this paper under Contract No. B99-B2702010- S12.144738. The work was undertaken by two collaborating teams: the Ship Stability Research Centre team of the Universities of Glasgow and Strathclyde, comprising Prof. D. Vassalos, Dr. 0. Turan, Dr. L. Letizia and Dr. D. Konovessis; the Ship Design Laboratory team of the National Technical University of Athens, comprising Prof. A. Papanikolaou, Ass. Prof K. Spyrou, Ms E. Eliopoulou and Ms A. Alissafaki. REFERENCES [1] IMO Resolution 14, "Regional Agreements on Specific Stability Requirements for Ro-Ro Passenger Ships" - (Annex: Stability Requirements Pertaining to the Agreement), adopted on 29 November 1995. [2] 1MO Resolution 14, "Regional Agreements on Specific Stability Requirements for Ro-Ro Passenger Ships" - (Appendix: Model test method), adopted on 29 November 1995. [3] Vassalos, D, Pawlowski, M and Turan, 0, "A Theoretical Investigation on the Capsizal Resistance of Passenger/Ro-Ro Vessels and Proposal of Survival Criteria", Final Report, The Joint North West European Project, University of Strathclyde, Department of Ship and Marine Technology,.March 1996. [4] D. Vassalos, 0. Turan, L. Letizia and D. Konovessis, "Impact Assessment of Stockholm Agreement on EU Ro-Ro Passenger Vessels Covered by it", (B99-B2702010-SI2.144738), Final Report Part I, NAME-SSRC, March 2001. [5] A. Papanikolaou, K. Spyrou, E. Eliopoulou and A. Alissafaki, "Impact Assessment of Stockholm Agreement on EU Ro-Ro Passenger Vessels not Covered by it", (B99-B2702010- S12.144738), Final Report Part II, NTUA-SDL, March 2001. 325 It U C .¶Y2"22 o C. E - U 4) u C c~) s-I 0 04 C Jo LI C z 0. F-. z C a 2: (0 - C O~CO 0. ~'1 C B C 0 0- -~ o'r. -C. C -C (0 .2 (0 A-' .~ U _ o o C) (0 0 0 C) 0~ o (0 .0 '0 (N C I-- C C C' 0N 00~' C' ~ V C 0. 0. C 326 7 MM 0 &ZPt CC - ~ , x EZ ____ I, I LŽ Ž;ý. CoolW ! , sS&&P&2 Lt 5,4,n 17Z 11 zzq CS 9,1 iC -,j z 00 Cau Co327 MCI §N, WVNlg M, o mo 4$VA 2CZ a~ ZM Cow IZ Ma I jx MIT lop MAN 328&K# I> Z4 _ )U > wO f 0 -k (NA w C co - ._.- __ >0.__ 6 L C -i--"N0 ~ g 0. *z u W.- vt& Lo1 _ _ u 'M- z z- wt%~____ z D > < et LD-a UU Z3- U) 0 m - DD 0 U) 329 I 9 ME00 o4 4 em ' R~NIlNO RYEO II CdV a5 t 18 V 0 E-5 ooni 4 9 t g dCOJOOV Cd,330 >n C)) C) - ~ -A f' 7 5 c CCIO _ Lf 2*pKlklt-R__ 0 M-5 t~p O3PTjC Ala ~o 0 4t-2% -M 4 075 ~~ M- 4.4~~~~~M 'A~l<'R4pZZ#A * - ~ CD U~~a CD~uf~~ ý -W~z'½ýv 4 C. '~4~ a-CD 411 A Ag'Y.4m9 4';N49'0 Cl 0j~~j~a o~~~g ~tn u)t~'~~¾it V gig.~ a ~ t4-~ OR 0D 0Y~ C) CD~vCDt CD CD -o oD 0D 0 0 0 0D 0) 0 0 00 0 L) 0 C ) L 0 LO 0 LOU C3 331 t- A -1'W &-~ .r' C t%~-. ig.t Yd. ,,to:~ IMIN ohow -L' MI saw ANa >-Cc2 C U I- ~ t 00 00 - - 0 0 - - - - U Li C U -~ C ~ o U ~ ao~ C U toON C ~0~ ~**~0Ct~ o C.) V o U L. C 5. C U '-I C~? 00 ~C ~C V -~ o C C Li ______ci-' C ci- C C -i - ______z ______- C ______C 0 00 ~0 Li, - -~ C F- L-. V -t Cd, = C~ CO Cd, 00 F 5 E o ~ t H . -U Cd, n. C. z - E o CL~r C U ,~. ~. - 0*~ 0 i - U jE o 01 Ca 'U Cd C- Ci, 0 ~'0 Cd C) CO C- 0 ______c0 ______Cd, E E -~ Vt U -~ C) z I- Q CO C) 0) C - C - . eN 0 0 o C eN - Ci, C. ~ C C- -~ ~S Co ;r4 eN ~0~ >1 00 Ci Li ON - c~ 1- a. 20 o C flrfl tr~ C C 333 oN ýZvZ oz r z on~ Sito -S: 0.o - 0~A - e '334 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 WEGEMT invited paper: H. Nowacki, Tech. Univ. Berlin "Archimedes and Ship Stability? Horst Nowacki is Professor emeritus of Ship Design, Technical University of Berlin. Born: 1933 in Berlin, Germany. Academic Education: Diploma (1958) and Doctorate (1963, Dr.-Ing.) in Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering, TU Berlin. Full-Time Emplovment: Inland Ship Model Basin, Duisburg, Germany: Research Engineer, 1958-59. Techn. Univ. of Berlin: Scientific Assistant, 1959-64. The University of Michigan, Dept. of Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA: Assistant Professor, Associate Professor, Full Professor, 1964-74. Technical University of Berlin: Professor of Ship Design, 1974 - 1998, Professor emeritus: 1998. Main Areas of Interest: Ship Design, Ship Hydrodynamics, Computer-Aided Design and Optimization, Geometric Modelling for Ships. 335 Archimedes and Ship Stability Horst Nowacki Technical University of Berlin Abstract The principle of Archimedes for the equilibrium between buoyancy force and gravity force acting upon a floating body at rest is universally acclaimed. But his equally fundamental work on the hydrostatic stability of a body floating in an equilibrium condition is much less widely known. In fact, however, the original idea of stability criteria based on the lever arm between buoyancy and gravity force resultants is also found in his famous treatise "On Floating Bodies". This paper will revisit his original treatises, review his approach to the physical definition of stability of floating objects and will explain how he was able to calculate "righting arms" for the simple shape of a paraboloid without the availability of calculus. The paper will also address by what circuitous route this long forgotten knowledge finally resurfaced again in the beginning of the modem scientific era of ship theory. This will serve to indicate how the insights from antiquity formed the roots of our modem understanding of ship stability. AcAM Fig. 1: Archimedes Meditating (from [6]) 1. Introduction Archimedes (ca. 287-212 B.C.) is by many regarded as the most eminent mathema- tician, mechanicist and engineering scientist in antiquity. But it also remains true what the French geometer Taquet said about him in the 17th century: "All praise him, few read him; all admire him, few understand him". This article will strive to help to save his fundarmental contributions to ship stability theory from oblivion. 337 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 An historical reconstruction on Archimedes is necessarily based on lean sources. Much of our knowledge on his life and works stems from historians and biographers who lived several centuries later. But luckily several of his own scientific writings have survived in copied manuscripts, though not a complete set of his works. But what is known fortunately for us does include an almost complete reconstruction of his treatise "On Floating Bodies", in which he deals with both the equilibrium and the stability of bodies floating at rest on the surface or in the interior of a liquid. Thus his insights into the basic laws of hydrostatics of floating bodies are well documented by his own preserved writings and can be examined in their physical and mathematical foundations from our modem viewpoint. Current public interest has also been stirred up again by a recent rediscovery (1998) of an old palimnpsest from the tenth century which also contains the treatise "On Floating Bodies" in its only still preserved Greek version. The relation of this new find to an earlier Latin translation which existed since the 13 'hcentury will have to be examined though it is known that the same palimpsest had been discovered before in 1906 and was transcribed at that time. Archimedes was certainly influenced by his immediate precursors, by Aristotle with his interest in physics as well as by Eukid, his ideal in geometric rigor. But he developed his unique scientific approach by combining Greek logical discipline with practical observation and creative inductive reasoning. On the one hand his approach might be characterized by the statement: "Given some axiomatic premises on the proper-ties of liquids and solids and given the shape and arrangement of certain objects, then it is possible to deduce from these first assumptions with the same rigor as in Eu/c/id's "Elements" of geometry, using geometrical reasoning alone, the physical performance of mechanical systems like levers in their given scenario". By this approach Archimedes laid the scientific foundation of rational mechanics. On the other hand Archimedes undoubtedly also was a most skilful experimentalist and creative engineer who carefully observed natural phenomena before enunciating a physical law. In his treatise "The Method of Mechanical Theorems", rediscovered as late as 1906, he openly describes his methodology as proceeding from observations of mechanical systems to a generalized hypothesis which he then seeks to deduce by means of experiments of thought and geometrical arguments alone. His published and preserved works, except for "The Method...", comprise only the deductive proofs from first. premises. This is also how he presents the laws of hydrostatics of floating objects in his treatise "On Floating Bodies". This article will concentrate on Archimedes' lasting contributions to the hydrostatics of floating objects and will address the following main issues: o How did Archimedes deductively derive the principles of hydrostatics of floating objects from a few basic premises? o How did he do so without calculus? o How general were his results? Do they hold for bodies of arbitrary shape? o How was his knowledge recorded,.copied and preserved through the Middle Ages until it resurfaced in the renaissance? o When the modern foundations of the theory of hydrostatic stability of ships were laid by Bouguer and Euler in the 18th century with the aid of calculus, how much were they influenced by any knowledge directly inherited from Archimedes? In its two main parts the article will thus review Archimedes' own contributions to hydrostatic stability and the effects of his inheritance upon his successors. 23 8 EUROCONTERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 2. Archimedes' Life and Scientific Works 2.1 Short Biography Archimedes' scientific work is quite authentically, if not completely, preserved in copies of his own writings, but much less is known with certainty about the facts of his life and his practical achievements. This information essentially stems from historians and other writers who were not his contemporaries, but lived at least one, but generally several centuries later. These sources include Polybios, Livy, Diodorus of Sicily ("bibliotheka historica"), Vitruvius ("de architectura"), then essentially Plutarch ("The Lives of Noble Grecians and Romans" [1]) and even later commentators like Pappos of Alexandria ("Mathematical Collections", around 320 A.D.), Proclus and Eutokios of Askalon. Table 1 shows how these historians and commentators span a period of about- eight centuries after Archimedes' death. Thus many reports are not verifiable and some border on legend. I will present only a certain skeleton of those facts which are widely accepted. Archimedes was born, lived and died in Syracuse, a Doric-Greek colonial town on Sicily, from around 287 B.C. to 212 B.C. The year of his tragic death is accurately dated: When during the second Punic war Syracuse, who fought on the Carthaginian side, after a long siege in 212 B.C. fell to the Roman army under consul and commander Marcellus, Archimedes was slain by a Roman soldier. His birth year is known only indirectly if we follow Tzetzes, a 12th century Byzantine writer, who in his long hexameter epos "Chiliades" claims that Archimedes was 75 years of age When he died. Table 1: Chronology of Precursors, Contemporaries, Historians and Commentators of Archimedes Thales of Milet (624-544 B.C.) Polybios (201-120 B.C.) Pythagoras (580496 B.C.) Cicero at tomb in Syracuse: 75 B.C. Demokritos (ca. 460-ca. 360) Livy (59 B.C.-17 A.D.) Zeno of Elea (490-430 B.C.) Vitruvius (ca. birth of Chr.) Plato (427-347 B.C.) Diodorus of Sicily (ca. birth of Chr.) Eudoxos (410-356 B.C.) Plutarch (46-120 ADD.) Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) Pappos of Alexandria (290 A.D.- ?) Euklid (365 B.C.- ?) Serapeion library burnt: 391 A.D. Alexandria founded: 332 B.C. Proclus (400-ca. 485 A.D.) Mouseion in Alexandria: 286- 47 B.C. Eutokios of Askalon (530-600 A.D.) Archimedes (ca. 287-212 B.C.) Tzetzes, Byzantine writer: 12w cent. Eratosthenes (284-204 B.C.) -Archimedeswas the son of Phidias, an astronomer, whom he mentions in his treatise "The Sandreckoner". He appears to have received a well-founded scientific education, especially in philosophy and mathematics, which in the age of Plato and Aristotle and in the early Hellenistic era, when Archimedes grew up, were one coherent discipline. 339 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 It is very probable that Archimedes spent an extended period of study in Alexandria, the Egyptian city founded by Alexander in 332 B.C., as is explicitly mentioned by Diodorus of Sicily. Alexandria in the emerging Hellenistic age had rapidly developed into the leading scientific center of the ancient mediterranean world. The Mouseion, founded in 286 B.C., where many famous scientists lived and worked together, was developing a famous library collecting many ten thousands of scrolls, and also served as a center for collecting, copying and distributing this body of knowledge within the ancient world. Euklid reportedly served there as the director of the mathematics department of the library. His tradition was maintained by his pupils whom Archimedes met there during his visit. Among others he became acquainted with Conon, Dositheos, Aristarchos and Eratosthenes, famous mathematicians and astronomers of this era, with whom he established personal friendships and lifelong communications.- He sent them his manuscripts and thus probably made these accessible to the scientific world via Alexandria. In his mathematical work Archimedes' thought was thus firmly founded on the tradition of Greek logical rigor- in the footsteps of Plato, Eudoxos, Aristotle and Euklid where only strictly deductive proofs from first premises counted. But in addition Archimedes, feeling also as a physicist and engineer, was able to bring his creative imagination to bear on scientific problems by allowing at least tentative conclusions from careful observation of nature and from heuristic, inductive reasoning prior to rigorous proof Thereby Archimedes in his unique style was able to reconcile two methodologies and to combine observations with logic, inductive with deductive reasoning in applications to mathematics, mechanics and engineering. Although in his written work Archimedes largely shared the Platonic aristocratic disdain of matters of practical usefulness, he certainly excelled in engineering applications of scientific principles. He is famous for the invention or skilful application of numerous mechanical, hydraulic and other technical devices, attributed to him with more or less certainty. These include: o The Archimedean screw (endless spiral, helical pump, cochlia), used in the irrigation of fields or e.g. as a scavenging pump on ships or in mining pits. o A system of windlass and compound multiple pulleys, used to launch a large ship single-handedly, reputedly the large size royal galley Syrakosia of king Hieron (2]. o A hydraulic musical organ. o Systems of levers and cranes, used to lift small enemy ships out of the harbor water during the siege of Syracuse in order to drop and wreck them. o Catapults for short-range,,and long-range deliveries of single and multiple projectiles, used in the defense of Syracuse during the Roman siege. o A mechanical planetarium (orrery), displaying against the celestial sphere the orbits of the sun, the moon and the planets, realistically synchronized and accounting e.g. for the phases of the moon. Cicero claimed to have seen two such devices in Rome (around 75 B.C.) stemming from the booty of war taken from Syracuse by Marcellus. The accounts on Archimedes' death differ in many details, but there is essential -agreement on the fact that he was slain-by a Roman soldier during the looting following the seizure of Syracuse (in 212 B.C.) despite orders by the Roman commander Marcellus to save his life. Most accounts agree that he was absorbed in his study in analyzing a figure drawn in the dust, probably in his sandbox ( Fig. 2), when the soldier entered. Whether he then spoke: "Let me finish my proof' or "Do 340 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 not ruin my circles" or "Hit my head, but not the diagram", belongs into the realm of legends and their embellishments. Fig. 2: Archimedes' Death, Mosaic from Herculaneum, before A.D. 79 (from [10]) 2.2 Preserved Treatises Archimedes' scientific treatises have been transmitted to us from the Hellenistic era via the Middle Ages and through the Archimedes revival starting in the renaissance by means of handwritten copies in Greek, by Arab and Latin translations and after about 1500 also by printed reproductions. Fortunately a significant share of his work was thus preserved, but several other treatises are also known to be lost. The history of these sources will be given in moresdetail.in Section 3.2. t Philological research, mainly in the late 19 th and in the earlier part of the 20 century, has carefully documented the preserved Greek and sometimes translated Latin source texts and has provided rather complete translations of Archimedes into modern languages. Collected Works, especially in English, German and French, have appeared. The transcriptions and translations provided by JL. Heiberg, T.L. Heath, P. Ver Eecke and A. Czwallina are classical references today ([3],...,[8]). All of these editions except [3] are still current and do include the contents of the palimpsest rediscovered by .L. Heiberg in Constantinople in 1906, as they were reconstructed and-transcribed by"him [9] -The same palimpsest resurfaced again in 1998 and is under new evaluation at the Walters Art Museum in Baltimore. For more details see Section 3.2. Table 2"gives Alisting of the preserved treatises of Archimedes based on compilations by Heiberg, Heath [5], Ver Eecke [6] and Djksterhuis [10]. The numbering in the first column corresponds to the order in which these treatises usually appear in Collected Works. The last column contains a reconstruction of the probable chronology of appearance of these works (based on [5], [10 ]). The following sequence of treatises is relevant to this article on ship stability because the methods covered therein are leading up to the deduction of stability criteria for floating objects: 341 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 o "On the Equilibrium of Planes", Books I and II, where Archimedes deals with the law of the lever and its application to geometrical and mechanical problems, especially the determination and shift of centroids. o "Quadrature of the Parabola", where an example is given of how quadrature is performed with the aid of the method of exhaustion. o "The Method...", where Archimedes reveals his approach based on mechanics and geometry for problems of stereometry (volumes and their centroids). o "On Floating Bodies", Books I and II, which establishes Archimedes' principle of hydrostatics and deduces "righting arms" as a stability criterion for a floating object. It is evidently no coincidence that these.logical steps toward the stability measure also correspond to the chronological sequence of these treatises. Archimedes needed the methods from the earlier treatises to derive his results on hydrostatic stability. We will now follow the same course and extract some of the main ideas from the earlier work before we will arrive at his criteria for hydrostatic stability. Table 2: Archimedes' Preserved Treatises Item Title Probable Sequence I On the Sphere and Cylinder, Books I and HI (5) 2 Measurement of a Circle (9) 2 On Conoids and Spheroids (7) 4 On Spirals (6) 5 On the Equilibrium of Planes, Books I and II (1)and (3) 6 The Sandreckoner (10) 7 Quadature of the Parabola (2) 8 On Floating Bodies, Books I and 11 (8) 9 Stomachion 10 The Method of Mechanical Theorems (4) 11 Book of Lemmas 12 The Cattle Problem 2.3 The Law of the Lever The principle of levers-in-mechanical tools was certainly known since prehistoric times as the existence of many primitive lever devices for exerting strong forces and moving heavy weights will attest. Balances of equal arms for weighing purposes were known in Egypt and Babylonia in the third millennium B.C. Balances using unequal arm lengths with shifting weights or movable fulcrum are mentioned around 350 B.C. as occurring in Greece and about simultaneously in China. The law of the 342 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 lever as a fundamental principle of mechanics is also first allu4ed to in treatises of that period. A good recent account on that aspect of early science history is given by Renn and Schemmel in [11]. Thus Archimedes was able to build on existing knowledge on the law of the lever, but he is also certainly among the first to formally pronounce this principle and to make extensive use of it in solving problems in mechanics and geometry. The main preserved treatise by Archimedes on this topic is the "On the Equilibrium of Planes". This treatise deals with the equilibrium of weights (or homogeneous solids) on a balance of unequal arm lengths, but by analogy likewise with the equilibrium of planar areas, as the title suggests, treating geometric areas as if they were solids of given, constant thickness and gravity so that they are subject to the same lever laws. Thus a uniform treatment is achieved for solids and areas in dealing with their equilibrium and their centroids. It should be noted that the lawof the lever is tantamount to what is in our current terminology is called "equilibrium of moments". But the concept and hence terminology of a "moment of a force" was not in use in antiquity and was not applied by Archimedes anywhere. Thus in any context where he uses this physical principle he did not apply the concept of "moment equilibrium", but rather the law of the lever. Whenever this article on occasion may speak of "moments", it uses modem terminology, not Archimedes' words. Fig. 3: The.Law of the Lever, System with Unequal Arms (from [7]) Book I, §§ 1-3, of this treatise qualitatively illustrates the law of the lever by referring to weights on a balance of unequal arms (Fig. 3) stating e.g. in §3: "If unequal weights are in equilibrium, then the lever arms are unequal, viz., so that the smaller arm corresponds to the greater weight (Fig. 3)". In §§4-6 theorems are, stated for-combining quantities (i.e., weights, solid volumes, areas) in a common centroid for the compound quantity, e.g. as in §4: "If two equal quantities do not have the same centroid, then the centroid of the quantity compounded from them will be at the center point of the distance connecting the two given centroids". The extension of these considerations leads to generic rules for finding the compound centroid of multiple objects (I, §§3-4). In I, §6, Archimedes pronounces the fundamental principle pertaining to "moment equilibrium"'.in .a system,. initially as ,follows: "Commensurable quantities are in equilibrium if their weights are inversely proportional to their lever arms". 343 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 Quantities are commensurable if they are integer multiples of tho same base quantity. This assumption in the above statement is later dropped by Archimedes so that the law holds without this restriction. In order to prove this law Archimedes presents a purely geometrical argument deducing the result from his methods of compound centroids demonstrated in the earlier paragraphs. This proof has been criticized as fallacious by Ernst Mach and others because it is based on a circular argument. The method of compound centroids is only valid if the principle of the law of the lever from §6 holds, thus it cannot serve to prove it. If instead the law of the lever in §§6-7 is accepted as an axiom, then the earlier results can be derived as consequences. A 8 Fig.4: Centroid Shift at Area Removal Another important result to be used in dealing with ship stability is derived in I, §8, for the displacement of the centroid of a system when some quantity is removed from it. In Archimedes' words (Fig. 4): "If from some quantity (rectangle AB) another quantity (rectangle AD), which does not have the same centroid, is removed, then the centroid of the remaining quantity (Z) will lie on the straight line connecting those first two centroids (C and E) extended beyond the compound system centroid (C) and will be determined as follows: Its distance from the compound system centroid (CZ) is to the distance from the centroid of the removed quantity to the compound system centroid (CE) as the removed quantity is to the remaining quantity". I.e.: CZ : CE = (Area)removed : (Area)remaining This rule is equivalent to the equilibrium of "statical moments", as we would state today, of the two subsystems about their common centroid. Similar rules apply to the centroid shift when adding quantities to a system or shifting them within a system ("centroid shift theorem"). To summarize the most important concepts pronounced by Archimedes in this treatise- and -leading up to the stability of floating bodies, we underscore the following: o The law of the lever o Associating quantities with their centroids ("lumping") o Finding compound centroids of system components o Removing (or adding or shifting) quantities and its effects on system centroids ("centroid shift theorem") 2.4 Geometric Proofs 344 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 The ancients Greeks were able to solve problems of planiniery and stereometry without the aid of an adequate system of numbers. The had no developed concept of real numbers, let alone irrational or transcendental numbers. Nor did they dispose of a standard, consistent system of units for measuring length, area and volume. This dilemma was resolved by comparing the geometric measures of figures to those of known figures, i.e., by studying the ratios of geometric quantities rather than their absolute values. Thus the question : "What is the area of this circle?" had 'no meaningful answer. But it was a legitimate question to ask: "What is the ratio of the area of two circles?" And the correct answer would have been: "The same as that of two squares erected over the diameters of the circles!". (See C.B. Boyer [12] for a full account). In this context real numbers were expressed by ratios of integers; irrational or transcendental numbers (like 7r) had to be approximated by such ratios. The area of a square, the volume of a cube could be simply constructed from given base lengths, thus these figures served as practical references. This led the Greeks to seek conversions of other planar figures into squares by geometric construction or approximation, the famous quadrature- problem. Simple conversions existed for the triangle, parallelogram, trapezoid and regular polygon. Archimedes succeeded in an approximate, yet quite accurate quadrature of the circle ("Measurement of a Circle"). The methods of geometric quadrature were therefore more than an intellectual game for esoteric geometers, they were in fact a key prerequisite for the practical measurement of the area of figures - or its ratio to the square. Similar methods were applied to volume measurement. Within this approach the Greeks were also able to perform the evaluation of areas, volumes and centroids of curvilinear planar and spatial figures without the aid of calculus. This is of crucial interest also for Archimedes' work on hydrostatic stability. The foundations for the classical Greek method for geometrically proving results on the proportions of areas of dissimilar figures are usually ascribed to Eudoxos, a pupil of Plato, although he has probably had precursors (see Boyer [12]). The method of measuring the area of a circle by its proportion to an inscribed (or circumscribed) regular polygon is a well-known example of this approach., which was used in antiquity by Eudoxos and several others before Archimedes. In this case the polygon is refined by continually doubling its number of edges until it can be shown that the magnitude of the remaining error between the given figure and the approximating polygon becomes smaller than any desired error bound. After a finite number of steps the error remains finite, though it can be made. as small as desired. The method is thus a* rigorous geometrical proof for the proportion of figures to any desired accuracy, but it falls short of a limiting process with an infinite number of steps, hence it is methodically no equivalent to calculus. In special cases, when it is possible to estimate the magnitude of the remaining error, the method can also be extended to yield exact results. This approach much later in the 17 th century became known under the name of "method of exhaustion", because the errors between figure and approximant are "exhausted" in a continuing progression of steps. The hidden premise in this approach is that the process of polygon refinement will be monotonically progressing because the approximant remains on the same side of the figure and that it will indeed make the error arbitrarily small. This general postulate was stated by Eudoxos and later adopted by Eu/c/id, Archimedes and other Greek geometers [12]. It was pronounced as an axiom by Eu/c/id (in Book X, ): "Given two unequal magnitudes, if from the greater there be subtracted a magnitude greater than its half and from that which is left a magnitude greater than its halt, and ifithe process be -repeated- continually, there will be left some magnitude which will be less than the lesser magnitude set out". In other words, in our context of approximation, however small some error bound s and however large some initial error E, by continually more than halving the 345 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 remaining error (factor q A -- E D K G Fig. 5: Parabola Segment and Inscribed Triangles (from [7]) Let us illustrate this by an example from Archimedes' "Quadrature of the Parabola", §§21-24. A parabola segment is given (Fig. 5) and it is asserted that its area is equal to (4/3) times that of the inscribed triangle ABC, which has the same base line AC and height BD (from base line midpoint to apex B). The major steps of the proof are as follows: 1. The additional triangles AZB and BHC are constructed between the parabola and the original triangle by drawing parallels to the diameter BD through the quarterpoints E and K. This places the apices of the new triangles at Z and H. Referring to properties of the parabola and earlier proofs it is shown that each of the new triangles has an area equal to (1/8) of triangle ABC so that the two new triangles together add (1/4) to the area of the original one (§21). If.this process is continued by further subdivision of the parabola segment, then in each step the area increases by (1/4) of the increment in the preceding step. 2. It is demonstrated (§22) that the sum of the triangle areas in the continuing progression, whose quotient is q = ¼ remains less than the parabola area because the contour of all triangles remains inside the parabola. 3. It is shown (§23) arithmetically that for a geometric progression of quotient q = ¼ after a finite number of terms, say, A,B,C,D,E, the sum of all terms augmented by 1/3 of the last, smallest term is equal to (4/3) times the first, greatest term A: A+B+C+D+E+1/3E = 4/3A Note: Archimedes proves this for any finite number of steps. We know today that for an infinite geometric series of q = 1¼ the result is the same. The term 1/3 E thus plays the role of a truncation error in the finite series relative to the infinite series. 4. It is now asserted (§24) that the parabola segment ADBEC has an area Ap. equal to K (4/3) times the area of the inscribed triangle ABC: K = 4/3 AABC 346 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 'The proof is based on reductio ad absurdum. Let us first assume that the assertion is not true and instead Apar > K, Then by continually inscribing refinement triangles into the parabola segment, making the error arbitrarily small, it will be possible to let the polygon area get so close to Ap3. that it will exceed K. But this is impossible, for the geometric progression of triangles with quotient q = ¼. (without the augmentation term 1/3 E above) must be smaller than K =A Ac. The case of Ap < K is refuted by similar arguments (§23). The example of the quadrature of the parabola segment has thus served here to illustrate the classical method of orthodox geometrical proofs for the proportions of figure areas (or volumes): A progression of polygonal approximants is constructed which will monotonically reduce the error to as small values as desired ("method of exhaustion"). A proposed result is then asserted and is confirmed by reductio ad absurdum by bringing any differing results into contradiction with the conclusions from the method of exhaustion. This method is logically rigorous, the proof of the assertion is based purely on deductive principles, and the method has been very successfully applied to many geometrical problems. But it is also quite cumbersome and tedious to use. A simpler, inductive and hence less rigorous approach was therefore desired as a shortcut, at least for generating propositions, and was developed by Archimedes for this purpose. 2.5 The Method of Mechanical Theorems In 1906 an old palimpsest was rediscovered in a Greek monastery in Constantinople by JL. Heiberg, who was able to reconstruct from it, transcribe and translate large parts of works by Archimedes. The history of this palimpsest and its quite recent renewed reappearance are discussed in more detail in Section 3.5 of this article. Among other valuable findings, including also a Greek version of "On Floating Bodies", the most important enrichment came from the first modem appearance of Archimedes' famous treatise "On the Method of Mechanical Theorems. (to Eratosthenes)" [9], [4]. Heiberg succeeded in a transcription which despite some lacunae over large portions is rather coherent and intact. H. Fig. 6: Paraboloid and Inscribed Cone (from [5]) 347 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTUCrION. SAFETY AND OPERATION.- Crete. October 2001 In this treatise Archimedes explains to Eratosehenes how he applies principles of mechanics in geometrical reasoning to obtain inductive conclusions on geometrical facts. Mechanical theorems, like the law of the lever, are based on observation, hence inductively founded. Thus Archimedes himself uses these methods only to help discover and propose geometrical facts, but does not regard these findings as equivalent to geometrical proofs. Once a proposition is obtained in this mechanically based way, a strict, deductive, purely geometric proof will have to follow. In several cases Archimedes has left us also with such strict proofs, on which his other treatises are generally based, but in other cases they are lost. To illustrate this method by an example relevant to his later work on ship stability we will quote from "The Method" [5] his Proposition 5 on the centroid of a segment of a paraboloid of revolution (Fig. 6). The proposition is "The centroid of asegment of a right-handed conoid (here a paraboloid of revolution) cut off by a plane at right angles to the axis is on the straight line which is the axis of the segment, and divides the said straight line in such a way that the portion of it adjacent to the vertex is double of the remaining portion". The major steps in the proof are as follows: o The paraboloid of revolution is cut by a plane through its axis in the parabola BAG. Also inscribe a cone BAG with the same base circle and height (Fig. 6). .o Extend DA, the axis, to H, where HA = DA, and regard DH as the bar of a balance with H as the fulcrum. o Intersect this figure with a plane parallel to the base at some height DS, which will cut the paraboloid and cone in circles of radii SO = SP and SQ = SR, respectively. o From the properties of the paraboloid and the cone we obtain the proportions (Heath [5]): BD 2 :052 =DA: AS- = BD: QS= = BD2 : (RD x QS) Therefore OS' = RD xQS BD : OS = OS : QS or BD: QS =OS2%QS2 But BD: QS =AD:AS =HA: AS 2 2 Therefore H-A : AS = OS : pS M* On the right-hand side the ratios of the squared radii are equivalent to the ratios of the corresponding circle areas. Thus eq. (*) can be reinterpreted in mechanical terms as the equilibrium of "moments" about the fulcrum A between the circular cross section of the paraboloid (radius OS) at its current position with lever AS and the circular cross section of the cone (radius QS) shifted to point H (lever arm HA). o Thesameproportions hold for any other planar cross section perpendicular to the axis. Thus all circles of the cone and hence the whole cone can be assembled at H, while all cross sections of the paraboloid remain where they are. In net result the whole cone placed at H is in "moment equilibrium" with the paraboloid in its current position or concentrated at its (unknown) centroid K. 348 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 o Thus the lever arms about A of the cone and the paraboloid segment are inversely proportional to the volume of these objects: HA : AK = (Volume)p.se,,g. : (Volume)cone The latter ratio is known from earlier proofs to be 3/2. Thus HA = (3/2) AK The centroid of the paraboloid segment is thus located at 1/3 of segment height above base line or 2/3 below the summit. This example has aptly demonstrated how Archimedes was able to develop propositions for geometrical facts by means of theorems of mechanics and without resorting to the methods of calculus. 2.6 Archimedes' Principle The principle of Archimedes for the equilibrium of floating bodies in a fluid at rest is universally accepted as the basis. of ship hydrostatics, but only few can tell how he derived it. The famous "Eureka" legend does more harm than good in explaining it. Let us therefore review the approach taken in his treatise "On Floating Bodies", Book !. His premise on the properties of a liquid in hydrostatics is simply stated in his own words: "It is assumed that the fluid has'siuch a character that of the parts in the same location and in contact with each other those which are more pressed drive the ones which are less pressed, and that each part of the liquid is pressed by the fluid vertically above it unless the liquid is pressed by a container or other causes." He further assumes the liquid to be at rest. The famous principle is then stated in Book I, §5: " A body submerges in a specifically heavier liquid to that extent that the volume of liquid displaced by it weighs as much as the entire body". A D, Fig. 7: Proof of Archimedes' Principle (from [7]) 349 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 The proof is illustrated in Fig. 7: o The surface of any liquid at rest is a spherical surface whose center point is at the center of the earth (section ALMND). o The body EZTH be specifically lighter than the fluid. o We consider two neighboring equal sectors of the sphere, bounded by the surfaces between LM and MN. The first sector contains the floating body whose submerged part is BHTC. The second sector instead has an equal volume RYCS filled with the liquid. o Since the liquid is at rest, the surfaces between XO and OP experience identical pressing loads, thus the weights of the volumes above these surfaces are equal. But the weight of the liquid in the first sector, aside of the space BHTC, equals the liquid weight in the second, sector, aside of the space RYCS. Therefore clearly the weight of the body EZTH equals the weight of the fluid volume RYCS. It follows that the liquid volume displaced by the body weighs as much as the whole body. Note that this elegant proof of the principle of Archimedes, based entirely on an experiment of thought, holds for floating bodies of arbitrary shape in an arbitrary type of liquid and was derived for liquids at rest without explicit knowledge of local pressure anywhere. (The Greeks had no concept and hence no term for pressure in our way of thinking). The famous "Eureka" legend about Archimedes' discovery in the baths does not help to elucidate his approach to finding this principle. According to Vitruvius ("de architectura", Book IX.3, published around the birth of Christ) Archimedes was challenged by king Hieron of Syracuse to determine whether a wreath, made for the king by a goldsmith for a thanksoffering to the gods, was of pure gold or fraudulently made of gold mixed with silver. Archimedes is said to have observed how the water displaced by his body in a rimful bathtub was a measure of the displaced volume, which he regarded as a breakthrough in solving the king's wreath problem. Vitruvius goes on to report how Archimedes then discovered the fraud. The wreath and two equally heavy pieces of pure gold and silver were each sunk in a bowl full to the rim of liquid. After removing the object its volume was determined by refilling the bowl to the rim and measuring the weight of the replacement liquid. This indeed gives a clue on the ratio of the densities of the two metals and the wreath. But this method for measuring the volume or density of a homogeneous solid is by no means sufficient for establishing equality of gravity and buoyancy forces of a body floating in equilibrium. 2.7 Stability of Floating Obiects In his treatise "On Floating Bodies'" Archimedes also dealt with the stability of bodies floating on the surface of a liquid, especially of homogeneous solids of simple shape. The basic ideas are already shown for a segment of a sphere in Book I, §§8-9. The approach is even better illustrated in the example of the axisymmetric paraboloid segment in Book H, §§2 ff. Let us therefore discuss this case for the paraboloid shown in Fig. 8. The stability criterion for hydrostatic equilibrium is based on the experiment of thought to incline the body from its upright condition and to determine whether the resultants acting on the body in this condition will tend to restore it to its upright condition. The angle of inclination is finite, but so that the base of the paraboloid 350 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 does not get wetted. For the stability of this floating body Archimedes asserts in Proposition 11.2: "A homogeneous solid paraboloid segment cut off perpendicularly to its diameter, whose axis is not greater than 1.5 times the paraboloid's halfparameter, whatever its specific weight, if it floats in a liquid so that its base does not touch the liquid surface, will not remain at rest unless its axis is vertically oriented, but will restore itself to the upright condition". CC 6/ 8 SK P T Fig. 8: Inclined Paraboloid (from[8]) The proof is based on finding the centroid of the homogeneous solid R through which the gravity force is acting downward, i.e., the center of gravity in our terminology, and the centroid of. the submerged volume, i.e., the center of buoyancy B, through which the resultant buoyancy force is acting upward. The lever arm between these two forces must be of such orientation that a positive restoring tendency ("moment") results, which corresponds to our familiar positive righting arm stability requirement. However there is a subtle difference in his demonstration for the homogeneous solid: For the submerged part of the inclined solid alone its center of gravity and its center of buoyancy are identical so that this submerged part produces no lever arms (unlike in a ship). Thus it is sufficient to show that the gravity force of the above surface part of the solid and its equal, but opposite counterpart, the incremental buoyancy force, which acts through the center of.buoyancy B, have~a positiverestoring arm. It is easy to show' for the solid hat whenever its "incremental righting arm" is positive, our conventional righting arm: between the full gravity and buoyancy forces is also positive (Fig. 9). The actual proof applies the mechanical and geometrical principles we have discussed in earlier sections.: o The paraboloid is intersected by a vertical plane in the parabola APOL with the axis and is inclined by a finite angle. The horizontal plane of the liquid surface intersects the pariboldid in JS. A tangent parallel to JS touches the parabola in P. o A parallel line to the axis NO which is drawn through P bisects the chord length JS in midpoint F (proven in earlier work, "Quadrature of the Parabola", § 19. PF is thus the axis of the submerged part of the paraboloid. 351 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 o Archimedes now makes use of his theorem on the centroid of the paraboloid segment lying on its axis at a point 2/3 of the axis length above the summit. Let therefore PB = (2/3) PF, thus B is both the center of buoyancy and the center of gravity of the submerged part. And let OR = (2/3) ON, thus R is the center of gravity of the whole solid. o Using the centroid shift theorem the center of gravity of the abovesurface part JALS is constructed: If the submerged part JPOS, centroid B, is removed from the whole solid, centroid R, then the remaining abovesurface part has a centroid C on the same straight line BR, extended beyond R, such that RC : RB = (Volume)submeged : (Volume)abovesurface In any case C lies on one side, B on the other side of R. o Thus the vertical gravity force through C and the equal and opposite buoyancy force through B are not in the same plane, hence not in equilibrium of "moments"; but will tend to restore the paraboloid to its upright condition. yV = +A, All1 A =Al + A2 Fig. 9: Conventional and Incremental Righting Arms Fig. 9 gives a comparison between Archimedes' result, the "incremental righting arm" (for A2 between the action lines through B and C) and our conventional righting arm (for A= A11-A2 between the action lines through B and R), where A = weight of whole solid A, = weight of submerged part of solid A2 = weight of abovesurface part of solid -To summarize, ýthe-essential results achieved by Archimedes on ship stability (in modem terminology) are: o He recognizes that the upright floating condition of a body at rest in a liquid requires the equilibrium of forces and moments. 352 E UROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 o For stable equilibrium it is required that the resultant gravity and buoyancy forces, when the body is inclined to a non-equilibrium condition, will exert a positive restoring moment. o He knows how to determine centers of gravity, either as compound centroids of multiple weights or for a homogeneous solid as volume centroids. o He defines the center of buoyancy as the volume centroid of a submerged shape in a liquid. o He is able to evaluate centroids for homogeneous solids of simple shape (segments of a sphere or paraboloid) by means of his mechanical theorems or the strict method of geometric proofs. o. He does not carry these stability methods to ships of arbitrary shape due to limitations in his evaluation methods.for volumes and centroids. o But his physical insights in the hydrostatic stability of floating bodies have remained the foundations of stability analysis for ships until today. Archimedes nowhere claims to be dealing with actual ships or systems of non- homogeneous weight distribution. Surely he might have applied his methods to find centers of gravity of compound weights and volume centroids of arbitrary shapes, which without calculus would have been very cumbersome, but possible. But he confined himself to basic principles for simple shapes and homogeneous solids. Yet he laid the physical foundations of hydrostatic equilibrium and stability. This knowledge was-apparently lost for many centuries. It was not rediscovered and applied in practice to actual ships until about two millennia later. The next section will sketch out by what adventurous route Archimedes' insights were at last inherited and brought to practical application by modem science and engineering. 3. The Heritage 3.1 Early Historians and Commentators Historians and writers like Polybios, Cicero, Livy, Vitruvius, Plutarch and others recorded many of the biographical facts and legendary achievements of Archimedes in the centuries following his death, as discussed in Section 2.1 (Table 1). Mathema- tically better founded commentaries of his work are preserved from much later writers, especially Pappos of Alexandria (after 300 A:D.) and Eutokios of Askalon (ca. 530-600 A.D.). Archimedes' own works were preserved in great scarcity, but fortunately still enough for several successful later reconstructions. I will base my excerpts of this history mainly on the thorough overview by Diksterhuis [10]. Archimedes, -as we know, submitted his treatises to his scientific friends in Alexandria, thereby in effect also to the library at the Mouseion, where they probably were copied and distributed furtherto-other scientific centers during the Hellenistic era. It is evident from remarks by Heroon, Pappos and Theoon of Alexandria that in th the 3 rd and 4 centuries A.D. more treatises were still available than we know today. A great fire in the famous Serapeion in Alexandria in 391 A.D. probably destroyed many of the unique manuscripts. Eutokios, a famous mathematical commentator in the 6th century A.D., refers only to three of the more basic treatises of Archimedes (items 1, 2 and 5 in Table 2). There is no mention in any of the commentaries in -- antiquity of-Archimedes:.treatises-on hydrostatics: Whatever may have-been left in original form, did not reach posterity, though some copies must have been scattered around, perhaps in libraries or monasteries. 3.2 Manuscripts and Printed Copies 353 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SPIl DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 The history of the preserved manuscript copies of Archimedes has been thoroughly researched and documented, especially by Heiberg [3], later somewhat updated by Dijksterhuis (10] to include the essential findings by Heiberg in the palimpsest of 1906. This overview will concentrate on the historical background of the manuscripts on the hydrostatic treatise "On Floating Bodies" and will herein again essentially follow Dglcsterhuis [10]. In the ea rlier Middle Ages the Byzantine Empire was geographically and culturally best positioned to resurrect the classical Greek traditions. In its blossoming period of the 9 th and 10"' centuries A.D., in fact, the task was consciously tackled there to collect the scattered works of Archimedes. At least three copies of Archimedes' manuscripts in Greek appear to have originated in Byzantium in this period. They are reported to have become the master sources of all later preserved copies and translations. During the Norman and later Hohenstaufen rule on Sicily in the 11Ith and 12th centuries a revival of classical culture and science occurred there in close contact with Byzantium. Two of-the, Archimedes master manuscripts are reported to have found their way to Sicily in that era. When the Hohenstaufen rule ended after their lost battle of Benevento (1266), the manuscripts ended up in the possession of the pope, at least temporarily. The first of these Greek master manuscripts, called codex A by Heiberg, went into private ownership around 1400 and is found in the library of the Italian humanist Giorgio Valla in 1491, who wanted to prepare a Latin translation, which was not completed. A table of contents exists and shows 7 of Archimedes' treatises, but not "On Floating Bodies". After Vol/a's death (1499) codex A was bought by the Pio family, princes of Carpi, where it is still recorded in their possession in 1550, but was irretrievably lost by 1564. However several copies and translations of codex A had been made during the centuries when it was accessible; thus for several centuries these copies, corrupt as some of them certainly were, had to serve as the only available references to the former Greek original (Heiberg [3I]). Fortunately a Flemish Dominican monk, Willem van Moerbeke, who had served for a while (1268-1280) as a translator of classical Greek texts into Latin at the papal court in Viterbo. undertook a Latin translation of Archimedes' preserved works, which was published in 1269. This translation, named codex B by Heiberg, was based in large part on codex A, but the Latin version comprises one treatise, viz., "On Floating Bodies", Books I and 11, not contained in codex A. It is recorded that a second Greek original copy with slightly different contents, also from Byzantium and via Sicily, had reached the papal library. It still existed there from 1295 to 1311, but left no traces from there on. For many centuries Archimedes' work on hydrostatics was thus available only in Latin in codex B and the text had several lacunae and minor errors. But through this source during the renaissance and until the age of enlightenment West-European science had.. access. to Archimedes' foundations of hydrostatic equilibrium and stability. Codex B itself had been in the possession of the German monk Andreas Conerus in 1508. in Rome, who was an important humanist and noted down several corrections on the copy. Its further history is described in detail by Heiberg [3]. In 1740 it got to the Vatican library where it slumbered until it was rediscovered in 1884. Meanwhile several copies of it existed and were accessible to the scientific world. After 1500 to satisfy the growing interest in classical science soon several printed editions -of Archimedes' work appeared. To name only some of the 'first few: Tartaglia (1543, Venice); Curtius Trojanus (1565, Venice): Both were Latin translations based on codex B, the former with Book 1, the latter with both books of "On Floating Bodies"; Thomas Gechauffe (1544, Basel): Editio Princeps, in Greek and with Latin translation, based largely on codex A, without "On Floating Bodies"; 354 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION -Crete, October 2001 Commandino (1558/1565, Venice: Latin translations based on codex B, 1565 edition with "On Floating Bodies". After 1600 many other editions have appeared in Greek, Latin and in translations to modem languages (Diksterhuis[10]). 3.3 Stevin, Pascal and Huygens In the 17 th century access to Archimedes' work and familiarity with his results had much improved so that scientists became able to build on this knowledge and to extend it for their own applications. Here I will only give three examples from this period in all brevity, although they would each deserve their own detailed discussion. Simon Stevin (born 1548 in Bruges, died 1620 in Leyden), a famous Flemish-Dutch mechanicist and hydraulic engineer, had worked on fundamental problems of mechanics and on the reestablishment of hydrostatics, where he introduced the concept of pressure. Among many other subjects he also dealt with the stability of ships in his section "Theorem on the Floating Top-Heaviness" (1608, in [13]). His reasoning resembles Archimedes' method in that he deals with centers of gravity (CG) and buoyancy (CB), but it is flawed so that he comes to the erroneous conclusion that for stability the CB must always lie above the CG. Blaise Pascal (1623-1662) with his new fundamental concepts and applications of pressure also belongs to the modern refounders of hydrostatics. His father, Etienne Pascal,an enthusiastic mathematician, had introduced his young son to the scientific circle around Pare Mersenne in Paris, who played a key role in the communications among. scientists of this period. The same Pare Mersenne is cited as the editor of Archimedes' texts [14]. There is no doubt therefore that Blaise Pascal was well exposed to the lines of thought of Archimedes. Christiaan Huygens (1629-1695), the famous physicist, is little known for his excursion into hydrostatic stability. He never published his three volume treatise "De iis quae liquido supernatant" [15], which he wrote in 1650 at the youthful age of 21, because he regarded it as incomplete, later (1679?) as "of small usefulness, if any, although Archimedes in Book II of "On Floating Bodies" spent work on not dissimilar topics". (Incidentally the modem editors claim that Huygens used Commandino 's version of the Latin translation of Archimedes, based on codex B). He wanted most of this work of his to be burnt. The manuscript was found in his legacy and was first published in 1908 [1,5]. The modem reader is bound to admire Huygens' deep insights into Archimedes' work as much as his own creative extensions. Huygens rederived Archimedes' results for the stability of the sphere and the paraboloid using his own method and he provided original solutions for floating cones, parallelepipeds and cylinders. He studied some of these solids through a full circle of rotation. He recognized that for homogeneous solids their specific weight and their aspect ratio are the essential parameters of hydrostatic stability. 3.4 Bouguer and Euler With the advent of calculus before the end of the 17th century new concepts and processes more or less suddenly became available that enabled scientists to review classical problems and to restate and solve them in new, original ways. The concepts of the infinitesimal, the processes of differentiation and integration, but also the development of analysis, the notion of functions of one or several variables, all contributed to a new, uniquely modem scientific approach in mathematics, mechanics and'many other sciences (Boyer'[12]). Pierre Bouguer and Leonhard Euler - independently and almost simultaneously - were the first who applied the new perspectives of calculus to the theory of ship stability. This enabled them to restate the stability problem for infinitesimal angles of inclination ("initial stability") and to solve the hydrostatic stability problem for arbitrary ship shapes. The details of 355 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 their original work merit a thorough discussion elsewhere. (For Bouguer see e.g. Dhombres [16], Ferreiro [17]; on Euler see Habicht [18]). This article will concentrate on the relationship of their work to Archimedes, both in commonalities and in differences. PierreBouguer (1698-1758), the famous and versatile French scientist, first applied calculus to ship hydrostatics and thus became the founder of modem ship stability theory. He thoroughly occupied himself with matters of ship theory, especially during a long expedition to the Peruvian Andes from 1735 to 1744, and as a result soon after his return to France published his pioneering work "Traitý du Navire"[ 19] in 1746. In this treatise Bouguer also invents the idea of the metacenter and of metacentric height (GM) as the decisive criterion for the initial stability of ships. Nowhere in this comprehensive work is Archimedes mentioned by name. But his spirit pervades all justifications and proofs leaving no doubt about Bouguer's familiarity with Archimedes' work. Quoting e.g. from Bouguer's Book II, section I, chapter I, where the force of buoyancy is explained: " The principle of hydrostatics, which must serve as a rule in this whole matter and which one must always-have'in mind, is that a body that floats on top of a liquid is pushed upward by a force equal to the weight of the water or liquid whose space it occupies". In the following chapter the same result for better appreciation of the physical causes is also derived by integration, using calculus, of hydrostatic pressure acting on infinitesimal surface elements with the by-product of defining the center of buoyancy as the point through which the buoyancy force (= pressure resultant) is acting. * ",:.•.: .3t 1 V .. C * . ••.(?% .* ~ji " Fig. 10: Bouguer's Figure for Derivation of Metacenter (from [16]) For initial stability, i.e., for infinitesimal angles of inclination (Fig. 10), .Bouguer derives the metacenter of an arbitrary ship shape by an argument of shifting centroids in the submerged volume, which sounds in a familiar way like Archimedes' centroid shift theorem. However Bouguer goes his own unique way in evaluating the submerged volumes and centroids by means of calculus and numerical approximation (trapezoidal rule). Leonhard Euler (1709-1783) studied the hydrostatic stability of ships during his years at the Imperial Academy in St. Petersburg, and according to his own comments during the years of 1737 to 1740 wrote his two volume treatise "Scientia Navalis" 356 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 [20], which however was not published until 1749. Although huler's work was in part simultaneous with Bouguer 's, it is undisputed - also by the two scholars - that they worked independently and did not know of each other's work until it was published. In the introduction to Scientia Navalis, however, Euler pays tribute to Archimedes. Euler reformulated the laws of hydrostatics for the distribution of pressures in a liquid at rest and had the pressures acting perpendicular to the body surface elements. From this he derives the buoyancy force and its line of action through the submerged volume centroid by pressure integration expressed by calculus (Part I, chapter 1). He defines hydrostatic ship stability for small angles of inclination as follows (chapter 3, proposition 19): "The stability, which a body floating in water in an equilibrium position maintains, is measured by the moment of the restoring force if the body is inclined from its equilibrium position by a givenr-infinitely small angle". Note the deviation from Archimedes by limitation to infinitesimally small angles. Given a planar ship cross section at some small inclination (Fig. 11, proposition 20). The local shift of volume in this cross section from the emerging side to the immersed side is accompanied by a centroid shift from the removed to the added triangle and this causes a corresponding shift of the submerged volume centroid, parallel and proportional thereto. This new centroid is evaluated in the manner of Archimedes' shift theorem. Stability of this cross section requires a positive restoring moment or righting arm between gravity force through G and buoyancy force through the new center of buoyancy. Fig. 11: Euler's Figure for Centroid Shift in Inclined Cross Section (from [20]) 3 7 357/ EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 Fig. 12: Euler's Figure for Derivation of Stability Criterion for a Body of Arbitrary Shape from [20]) The application of this cross sectional approach to a complete three-dimensional body of arbitrary shape (Fig. 12, proposition 29) in an approach based on calculus leads to identical analytical results to Bouguer's for metacentric height as an initial stability criterion, although Euler never applied the word metacenter. In conclusion it seems fair to state that the physical principles of hydrostatic stability from Archimedes have passed the test of time and were again adopted by the founders of modem stability theory. Evidently the practical evaluation of stability criteria for arbitrary ship shapes became conveniently possible only by means of calculus and modem numerical methods. 3.5 The Rediscovery of Codex C We have discussed that from the renaissance on only two master copies of Archimedes' treatises wereknown, codices A and B, from which all later editions were derived. The latest critical editions of these preserved texts stem from Heiberg [3] and Heath [5]. This situation changed suddenly when in 1906 a palimpsest from the I Oh century with some known and several heretofore unknown Greek treatises by Archimedes was rediscovered by Heiberg in a monastery in Constantinople. This palimpsest also contained a reasonably complete version of "On Floating Bodies". It also brought to light the first ever preserved text of "The Method..." since it was lost in antiquity. The story of this rediscovery is full of suspense and almost incredible. It is best to quote Heiberg literally from the beginning of the preface of his German translation of "The Method...", which first appeared in 1907 [8]: "Last summer I have examined a manuscript at the Metochion (in Constantinople) of the Monastery of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem that underneath a prayer book (euchologion) of the 13"' century contains treatises by Archimedes written in the beautiful minuscula of the l0th centuiy, which is only rinsed off, not scraped off, and is reasonably legible with a manifying glass. The manuscript, no. 355. 4to, stemming from the monastery of St. Sabba near Jerusalem, is described by Papadopoulos Kerameus ... (N.B.: This was found in a Greek document of 1899 which was brought to Heiberg's attention by a colleague), who gives a sample of the writing below; from this it was immediately clear to me that the old text was Archimedes." He now mentions a few already known treatises in the palimpsest which he has compared with existing texts, but with only minor new results. He then goes on to say: "It is however more important that the manuscript contains the nearly complete text of "On Floating Bodies", from which in the past only the Latin translation by Willem van Moerbeke was available; its numerous lacunae and grave corruptions can now be healed completely". Heiberg's preface goes on and praises the value of the first ever rediscovery of "The Method". The new findings from this palimpsest were soon transcribed and documented in Heiberg's new editions and used in subsequent translations [4]. On-the basis ofthis~new evidence it is encouraging to note that we may safely assume that we are now using a reliable and accurate, if perhaps not totally complete, record of "On Floating Bodies". Archimedes' contributions to the hydrostatic stability of floating systems are thus undisputable. 358 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 This is important to remember to avoid any misunderstandings resulting from current press reports (e.g. in [21]) about a very recent resurfacing of codex C in America where it is under new examination by advanced optical and computational methods at the Walters Art Museum in Baltimore. Codex C apparently disappeared when the Greek Patriarchate was evacuated from Constantinople during the Greek-Turkish war (1920-1922) It was in French private hands for some time until in October 1998 it was sold for $2 m. at an auction to an anonymous buyer in the U.S. Yet there is no doubt it is the same palimpsest Heiberg carefully studied with the human eyes of an expert and transcribed by hand. What surprises may the new evaluation bring? 4. Conclusion Archimedes established the physical principles of hydrostatic equilibrium and stability of floating bodies and thereby laid the foundations for the hydrostatic stability of ships. While Archimedes' principle holds for bodies of arbitrary shape, his demonstrations on stability are confined to simple shapes. To prove his theorems he used the method of exhaustion' in conjunction with rigorous geometric proofs, to justify propositions he developed his own method of mechanical theorems. The law of the lever played the role of an axiom underlying also his work on stability. By these methods and by the use of geometric progressions with a finite number of terms he was able to obtain his results without calculus. Many of Archimedes' manuscripts were lost, but among the treatises which were preserved "On Floating Bodies" survived in a Latin translation of the 13"' century and was also rediscovered in a Greek palimpsest in 1906. This evidence establishes Archimedes' contributions to hydrostatic stability beyond any doubt. The founders of modem ship stability theory, Pierre Bouguer and Leonhard Euler, who used calculus, were able to build on Archimedes' physical insights and on his method of centroid shifts, but also extended the theory to include infinitesimal angles of inclination and arbitrary ship shapes. Contrary rumors not withstanding Archimedes' merits in hydrostatic stability are not apt to be questioned on grounds stemming from the recent reappearance and ongoing reevaluation of the palimpsest. References I. Plutarch: "The Lives of Noble Grecians and Romans", the Dryden translation, edited and revised by A.H. Clough, The Modem Library, New York, 1949. 2. L. Sprague de Camp: "The Ancient Engineers", Ballantine Books, New York, 1960. 3. J.L. Heiberg: "Archimedis Opera Omnia cum Commentariis Eutocii", in Greek and Latin, Leipzig, 1880-1. 4. J.L. Heiberg: "Archimedis Opera Omnia cum Commentariis Eutocii", in Greek and Latin, including "De Corporibus Fluitantibus" and "De Mechanicis Propositionibus ad Eratosthenem Methodus", Leipzig, 1919, 1913, 1915. 5. T.L. Heath: "The Works of Archimedes", in English, translated and annotated by T.L.. Heath, 1897, with a supplement "The Method of Archimedes", 1912, reissued later by Dover Publications, New York. 6. P. Ver Eecke: "Les Oeuvres Completes -D' Archim&de, suivies des commentaires d' Eutocius d'Askalon", in French, translated s and annotated by P. Ver Eecke, I ' edition by Descldes De Brouwer, Bruges, 1921, 2nd edition by Librairie Scientifique et Technique Albert Blanchard, Paris, 1960. 359 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 7. A. Czwalina-Allenstein: "Abhandlungen von Archimedes", in German, translated and annotated by Czwalina-Allenstein in 1922, Ostwald's Klassiker der exakten Wissenschaften, Band 201, Verlag Harri Deutsch, 1996. 8. ,Archimedes Werke", in German, translated and annotated by A. Czwalina, with an appendix including "The Method", translated by J.L. Heiberg, republished by Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, Darmstadt, 1967. 9. J.L. Heiberg; H.G. Zeuthen: "A New Treatise by Archimedes", in German, Bibliotheca Mathematica, B.G. Teubner Verlag, Leipzig, 1906-7. 10. E.J. Dijksterhuis: "Archimedes", Part 1, in Dutch, Historische Bibliotheek voor de Exakte Wetenschappen, P. NoordhoffN.V., Groningen, 1938. 11. J.Renn; M. Schemmel: ,,Balances and Knowledge in China", in German, Max Planck Institute for the History of Science, Preprint 136, Berlin, 2000. 12. C.B. Boyer: "The History of Calculus and its Conceptual Development", 1939, reprinted by Dover Publications, New York, 1949. 13. S. Stevin: "Hypomnemata Mathematica", Leyden, 1608. 14. P&re Mersenne (ed.): "Archimedis Opera Mechanicorum Libri, Apollonii Pergaei Conicorum et Sereni de Sectione Cylindri", Paris, 1636. 15. C. Huygens: "De iis quae liquido supernatant libri 3", 1650, published in (Euvres Completes de Christiaan Huygens, Vol. XI, 1908, reprinted by Swets & Zeitlinger N.V., Amsterdam, 1967. 16. J.Dhombres: "Mettre la G~omdtrie en Crddit: Ddcouverte, Signification et Utilisation du Mdtacentre Invent6 par Pierre Bouguer", Sciences et Techniques en Perspective, I leme s6rie, 3, fasc. 2, pp. 305-363, Paris, 1999. 17. L.D. Ferreiro: "Bouguer in Peru : How Naval Architecture came down from the Mountain", Colloque Bouguer, Le Croisic, France, 1998. 18. W. Habicht: Introduction to Vol. 20 of Euler's Collected Works, "Commentationes Mechanicae et Astronomicae ad Scientiam Navalem Pertinentes", in German, pp. VII-LX, Base!, 1974. 19. P. Bouguer: "Traitd du Navire, de sa Construction et de ses Mouvemens (sic !)", Paris, 1746. 20. L. Euler: "Scientia Navalis seu Tractatus de Construendis ac Dirigendis Navibus ", St. Petersburg, 1749, from Opera Omnia, Vol. 18/19, Zurich, 1967. 21. W. Peakin: "The Sum God ", THE SUNDAY TIMES MAGAZINE, pp. 28-37, June 17, 2001. 360 EUROCONFERKNCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crte.,October 2001 Information about the Annual Conferences of the European Thematic Networks SAFER-EURORO, MARNET-CFD, PRODIS & CEPS and WEGEMT: The European Association of Universities in Marine Technology and Related Sciences 363 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 SAFER EURORO "Design for Safety: An integrated approach to safe European RoRo ferry design" About Safer Euroro "SAFER EURORO" is a network of organisations from across the whole spectrum of the maritime industry in Europe closely involved with current public and private research,and/or who have complementary expertise in the priority areas of the Maritime Industry R&D Master Plan, "DESIGN FOR SAFETY".This network has been funded as a "FPIV - Thematic Network" through the Industrial and Materials Technologies: Programme of the European Commission's Directorate General for Science, Research and Development. .(DGXII.1997. 2001) .. The strategic objective of the network is to facilitate the development of a formalised design methodology for safer ships. This is being achieved by promoting an integrated approach that links behaviour prediction through the utilisation of appropriate technical "tools", risk assessment deriving from risk-based methodologies for assessing ship safety and disparate design .activities and issues. Specific objectives relate to the co-ordinated development of a series of quantifiable, readily available and evolutionary "tools", that enable the analysis, interaction and interface of all the organisational, procedural, operational, technological, environmental and human related factors concerning the occurrence of accidental or extreme events at sea. It needs to be stressed that a methodology on safety improvement need not necessarily be particular to a specific hazard or one type of vessel. However, considering the effect of recent tragic accidents, passenger Ro-Ro ferries are an obvious candidate for closer examination. This Thematic Network is scheduled to run for four years - it began operations in October 1997 and is expected to complete in September 2001. 365 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 Project Acronym: PRODIS Title: Product development and innovation in shipbuilding Subject Index : Aerospace Technology; Industrial Manufacture; Materials Technology General Information: The persistent growth in world trade has led to more and more stringent needs for efficiency, flexibility and reduced cycle duration in transport chains. Additional influence on these developments is exerted through the urge to bring about a cargo shift from road transport to waterborne transport in Europe, thereby reducing road congestion and the impact on the environment. Today the shipbuilding industry constitutes -an important sector in Europe's industry in acting as an integrator of different technologies. It also plays an important role in implementing EC-policies on transport, environmental sustainability and competitive and.sustainable growth. In June 1996 the European Maritime Industries Forum (MIF), presented The Maritime Industry R&D Master Plan which addressed the R&D needs in the maritime field and indicated its key technological priority areas (RPA's). The shipbuilding industry, led by COREDES (the R&D Committee of the European Shipbuilders Association/CESA) started an R&D Structuring Action devoted to the coordination of the Master Plan implementation. The Master Plan identified four research priority areas (RPA's). The present network stems from RPA3 and is termed PROduct Development and Innovation in R&D (PRODIS) . The aim of this Thematic Network is the co- ordination of the R&D activities relevant to product development and innovation. The present network makes, by linking different national programmes and projects, more efficient use of the available funding. For the purpose of involving various suppliers and end users, a reference framework will be established within the network partnership. The framework will consist of five (4) integrated thematic areas and one integrating area. The integrated areas (Hydrodynamics, Hull structures, Power plants and Cargo handling and mooring) represent analysis and the integrating area (New ship concepts) represent synthesis because of the nature of design. The present Thematic Network will distinguish between two technology groups which relate to ship operational areas. The groups are: - Technologies related to transport means in deep sea and unrestricted waters as typical for intercontinental or trans-ocean and polar shipping; - Technologies related to transport means in coastal, restricted or limited waters as typical for short sea or coastal and inland shipping. The present Thematic Network will provide the European shipbuilding industry with a report clarifying the state-of- the-art and on-going developments regarding technologies which are essential for product development and innovation. Also new projects will be implemented in the areas deemed relevant. -Start-Date: 1998-10-15 End Date: 2001-10-14 Programme Type: 4th FWP (Fourth Framework Programme) Programme Acronym : BRITE/EURAM 3 Subprogramme Area: Transports - Design of vehicles and systems integration 366 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 Project Acronym: CEPS Title: Competitive engineering and production in shipbuilding Subject Index : Aerospace Technology; Industrial Manufacture; Materials Technology General Information: In June 1996 Industry, gathered in the European Maritime Industries Forum (MIF), presented The Maritime Industry R&D Master Plan -elaborated by MIF R&D Co-ordination Group- which addressed its R&D needs in a coordinated approach and indicated its key technological priority areas with a short-medium term vision. Among the most outstanding, there is the key area Competitive engineering and production in shipbuilding. Actually, the Shipbuilding Industry started up -led by COREDES, the R&D Committee of CESA (the European Shipbuilders Association)- an R&D Structuration Action devoted to the co-ordination of the implementation of the Master Plan, gathering the needs of all the actors related to R&D in- shipbuilding in a network focused on key technological priority areas (see scheme in the next page). This Thematic Network relevant to Competitive engineering and production in shipbuilding will cover the action already settled up by the industry in the same field, giving it a wider visibility and appointing it a clear position towards EC R&D actions. In detail, the aim of this Thematic Network will be the co-ordination of the R&D activities relevant to the Competitive engineering and production in shipbuilding of the widest possible net of Shipyards, Classification Societies, Shipowners, Research Institutes, Suppliers and Universities. Furthermore, a Representative of Maritime Industries Forum R&D Coordination Group shall be involved in this Thematic Network in order to ensure the right level of harmonisation with other thematic networks and MIF recommendations. For that purpose it is foreseen the constitution within the network partnership of a short and effective structure able to manage/ elaborate inputs from all the reference parties. In particular, 12 thematic areas are outlined for the implementation of the following 4 thematic network Tasks: - State-of-the-art analysis and review, - Transfer of Technology from other Industries, - Priority outline of future R&D in shipbuilding, - Co- ordination of R&D project implementation. The Thematic Network Co-ordination responsibility will be given to Chantiers de I'Atlantique, namely to the present Chairman of COREDES. This shall ensure a very large participation of Reference parties in the Shipbuilding world (Suppliers, Research Centres, Classification Societies, Universities, Yards, Shipowners) even if not directly involved in the partnership, will be implemented -as already provided for the issuing of the MP for the subject topics. Start Date: 1998-11-01 End Date: 2001-10-31 -Duration: 36 months Programme Type: 4th FWP (Fourth:Framework Programme) Programme Acronym : BRITE/EURAM 3 Subprogramme Area: Transports - Design of vehicles and systems integration 367 - Crete, October 2001 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION MARNET-CFD is a Thematic Network, which has been set up to support the needs of the European Shipbuilding and Offshore Industries in Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD). The Network was started in November 1998, with a kick-off meeting held at the offices of the Co-ordinators (WS Atkins Consultants) in the UK, and will run for 3 years. All MARNET-CFD activities are funded by the European Commission. The founding membership of 37 organisations included shipyards, classification societies, towing, tanks, service organisations and Universities. These founding members receive some financial support from the MARNET-CFD budget. Suitably qualified organisations may still join MARNET-CFD as "Affiliated Members", and receive many of the benefits afforded to the founding members (but cannot now receive direct financial support). Thematic Networks do not carry out any research or development activities - instead the purpose is to bring together all interested parties from member state industry, research and development sectors, with the aim of collaborating in the advancement of the state-of-the-art and levels of exploitation of advanced technologies where this is to their mutual benefit. 368 EUROCONFERENCE ON PASSENGER SHIP DESIGNM CONSTRUCTION, SAFETY AND OPERATION - Crete, October 2001 About WEGEMT Organisation WEGEMT is a European Association of 42 Universities in 17 countries. It was formed in 1978 with the aim of increasing the knowledge base, and updating and extending the skills and competence of practicing engineers and postgraduate students working at an advanced level in marine technology and related sciences. It was established as a "stichting" under Dutch law with its registered office in Delft. At present, the Associates are drawn from universities in Europe, including Scandinavia, the former Eastern Europe and the CIS. They have in common, a capability, expertise and experience to teach and carry out research in marine technology and related sciences:http://www.wegemt.org.uk/main:htm - Definition Status, Structure and Management WEGEMT is a not for profit organisation which is contribution based. Each University Associate is invited to make a contribution once a year. In addition to this, the organisation is supported by miscellaneous sales of publications and by work under contracts. Any contracts must however, further the aim of the Association. The Association is governed by an Executive Committee made up of eight elected representatives from within the Associates. Representatives are permitted to have a seat on the Executive Committee for a period of three years. They are re-electable once, for a period of a further three years. No individual university is permitted to be represented on the Executive Committee for a period of more than six years consecutively. The Executive Committee- governs the organisation by setting policy and identifying priorities, usually looking 3 - 5 years in advance. They have the power to establish ad-hoc Working Groups to look at special areas of interest and to invite further representation from within the Associates. Day to day running of WEGEMT activities is carried out through its Secretariat which is based at 10 Upper Belgrave Street London at the offices of The Royal Institution of Naval Architects. The Associates have at least one general assembly each year, usually hosted by one of the Universities. The Secretariat's role is key to the organisation, providing information to the Associates about WEGEMT activities, and encouraging and supporting their involvement in new initiatives, the Secretariat also undertakes the management of many of WEGEMT's activities, it supports the Executive Committee and acts as a first port of call for customers. It should go without saying that WEGEMT openly collaborates with organisations outside its Association, It is keen to work with industry, professional bodies, classification societies, and other organisations and societies who are involved with marine technology. In a similar vein, WEGEMT is particularly keen to support and encourage the programmes of Research and Development (R&D), Education and Training (E&T), and Information Exchange and Dissemination, of the European Commission where they target marine technology. 369 /1170/ PREFECTURE IICMIEAAWKLISSVA OF HERAKLION U.-