DOCSLIB.ORG

1) from DNA to Protein 2) Gene Mutation

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
1) from DNA to Protein 2) Gene Mutation 8.0 Gene expression and mutation Related Sadava’s chapters: 1) From DNA to protein 2) Gene mutation 8.1 From DNA to protein: gene expression • What Is the Evidence that Genes Code for Proteins? • How Does Information Flow from Genes to Proteins? 8.1 From DNA to protein: gene expression • Identification of a gene product as a protein began with a mutation. • Garrod saw a disease phenotype— alkaptonuria—occurring in children who shared more alleles as first cousins. • A substance in their blood (HA, homogentisic acid) accumulated—was not catalyzed—the gene for the enzyme was mutated. • Garrod correlated one gene to one enzyme. 8.1 From DNA to protein: gene expression • Beadle and Tatum used Neurospora to test hypothesis that specific gene expression → specific enzyme activity. • Neurospora is haploid for most of its life cycle—all alleles are expressed as phenotypes. • Wild-type strains like Neurospora are prototrophs—have enzymes to catalyze all reactions to make cell constituents. • Beadle and Tatum used X rays as mutagens to cause mutations—inherited genotypic changes. • Mutants were auxotrophs—needed additional nutrients to grow. • For each auxotrophic mutant strain, the addition of just one compound supported growth. • Results suggested that each mutation caused a defect in only one enzyme in a metabolic pathway. 8.1 From DNA to protein: gene expression 8.1 From DNA to protein: gene expression • The gene-enzyme relationship has since been revised to the one-gene, one- polypeptide relationship. • Example: In hemoglobin, each polypeptide chain is specified by a separate gene. • Other genes code for RNA are not translated to polypeptides; some genes are involved in controlling other genes. 8.1 From DNA to protein: gene expression Gene expression to form a specific polypeptide occurs in two steps: • Transcription—copies information from a DNA sequence (a gene) to a complementary RNA sequence • Translation—converts RNA sequence to amino acid sequence of a polypeptide “The central dogma of molecular biology.” 8.1 From DNA to protein: gene expression RNA (ribonucleic acid) differs from DNA: • Usually one polynucleotide strand • The sugar is ribose • Contains uracil (U) instead of thymine (T) 8.1 From DNA to protein: gene expression Bases in RNA can pair with a single strand of DNA, except that adenine pairs with uracil instead of thymine. Single-strand RNA can fold into complex shapes by internal base pairing. 8.1 From DNA to protein: gene expression Three kinds of RNA in protein synthesis: • Messenger RNA (mRNA)—carries copy of a DNA sequence to site of protein synthesis at the ribosome • Transfer RNA (tRNA)—carries amino acids for polypeptide assembly • Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)—catalyzes peptide bonds and provides structure 8.1 From DNA to protein: gene expression The central dogma suggested that information flows from DNA to RNA to protein, which raised two questions: • How does genetic information get from the nucleus to the cytoplasm? • What is the relationship between a DNA sequence and an amino acid sequence? 8.1 From DNA to protein: gene expression 8.1 From DNA to protein: gene expression Exception to the central dogma: • Viruses: Non-cellular particles that reproduce inside cells; many have RNA instead of DNA. • Viruses can replicate by transcribing from RNA to RNA, and then making multiple copies by transcription. 8.1 From DNA to protein: gene expression 8.1 From DNA to protein: gene expression • RNA polymerases catalyze synthesis of RNA. • RNA polymerases are processive—a single enzyme-template binding results in polymerization of hundreds of RNA bases. • Unlike DNA polymerases, RNA polymerases do not need primers and lack a proofreading function. 8.1 From DNA to protein: gene expression 8.1 From DNA to protein: gene expression 8.1 From DNA to protein: gene expression • The genetic code: Specifies which amino acids will be used to build a protein • Codon: A sequence of three bases—each codon specifies a particular amino acid. • Start codon: AUG—initiation signal for translation. • Stop codons: UAA, UAG, UGA—stop translation and polypeptide is released. 8.1 From DNA to protein: gene expression 8.1 From DNA to protein: gene expression 8.1 From DNA to protein: gene expression • For most amino acids, there is more than one codon; the genetic code is redundant. • Wobble base pair • The genetic code is not ambiguous—each codon specifies only one amino acid. • The genetic code is nearly universal: The codons that specify amino acids are the same in all organisms. • Exceptions: within mitochondria and chloroplasts, and in one group of protists, there are differences. • The frequency of synonymous codons varies between species. • Three reading frames coexist on the DNA/RNA coding sequence. 8.1 From DNA to protein: gene expression • Prokaryotes and eukaryotes differ in gene structure—in the organization of nucleotide sequences. • In eukaryotes a nucleus separates transcription and translation. • Eukaryotic genes may have noncoding sequences—introns. • The coding sequences are exons. • Introns and exons appear in the primary mRNA transcript—pre- mRNA; introns are removed from the final mRNA. Figure 14.7 Transcription of a Eukaryotic Gene (1) 8.1 From DNA to protein: gene expression 8.1 From DNA to protein: gene expression 8.1 From DNA to protein: gene expression 8.1 From DNA to protein: gene expression • Introns interrupt, but do not scramble, the DNA sequence that encodes a polypeptide. • Sometimes, the separated exons code for different domains (functional regions) of the protein. 8.1 From DNA to protein: gene expression 8.1 From DNA to protein: gene expression e2 e1 e3 e1 e3 e1 e2 e3 e2 e1 e3 e4 e1 e2 e3 e1 e2 e4 Lipscombe, Current Opinion in Neurobiology 8.1 From DNA to protein: gene expression WT1 24 isoforms CD44 1024 isoforms DSCAM 38016 isoforms !!! Roberts & Smith (2002) 8.1 From DNA to protein: gene expression • In the disease β-thalassemia, a mutation may occur at an intron consensus sequence in the β-globin gene—the pre-mRNA can not be spliced correctly. • Non-functional β-globin mRNA is produced. 8.1 From DNA to protein: gene expression 8.1 From DNA to protein: gene expression • Mature mRNA leaves the nucleus through nuclear pores. • TAP protein binds to the 5′ end; this binds to other proteins that are recognized by receptors at the nuclear pore. • These proteins lead the mRNA through the pore—unused pre-mRNAs stay in the nucleus. 8.1 From DNA to protein: gene expression 8.1 From DNA to protein: gene expression • tRNA, the adapter molecule, links information in mRNA codons with specific amino acids. • For each amino acid, there is a specific type or “species” of tRNA. Three functions of tRNA: • It binds to an amino acid, and is then “charged” • It associates with mRNA molecules • It interacts with ribosomes 8.1 From DNA to protein: gene expression 8.1 From DNA to protein: gene expression • Wobble: Specificity for the base at the 3′ end of the codon is not always observed. • Example: Codons for alanine—GCA, GCC, and GCU—are recognized by the same tRNA. • Wobble allows cells to produce fewer tRNA species, but does not allow the genetic code to be ambiguous. 8.1 From DNA to protein: gene expression • Activating enzymes—aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases—charge tRNA with the correct amino acids. • Each enzyme is highly specific for one amino acid and its corresponding tRNA; the process of tRNA charging is called the second genetic code. • The enzymes have three-part active sites: They bind a specific amino acid, a specific tRNA, and ATP. 8.1 From DNA to protein: gene expression 8.1 From DNA to protein: gene expression Experiment by Benzer and others: • Cysteine already bound to tRNA was chemically changed to alanine. • Which would be recognized—the amino acid or the tRNA in protein synthesis? • Answer: Protein synthesis machinery recognizes the anticodon, not the amino acid. 8.1 From DNA to protein: gene expression • Ribosome: the workbench—holds mRNA and charged tRNAs in the correct positions to allow assembly of polypeptide chain. • Ribosomes are not specific, they can make any type of protein. • Ribosomes have two subunits, large and small. • In eukaryotes, the large subunit has three molecules of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and 49 different proteins in a precise pattern. • The small subunit has one rRNA and 33 proteins. 8.1 From DNA to protein: gene expression 8.1 From DNA to protein: gene expression 8.1 From DNA to protein: gene expression 8.1 From DNA to protein: gene expression Figure 14.17 The Termination of Translation (Part 1) Figure 14.17 The Termination of Translation (Part 2) Figure 14.17 The Termination of Translation (Part 3) 8.1 From DNA to protein: gene expression • The large subunit has peptidyl transferase activity—if rRNA is destroyed, the activity stops • Therefore rRNA is the catalyst in peptidyl transferase activity. • This supports the idea that catalytic RNA evolved before DNA. 8.1 From DNA to protein: gene expression 8.1 From DNA to protein: gene expression • Several ribosomes can work together to translate the same mRNA, producing multiple copies of the polypeptide. • A strand of mRNA with associated ribosomes is called a polyribosome, or polysome. Figure 14.18 A Polysome (A) Figure 14.18 A Polysome (B) 8.1 From DNA to protein: gene expression 8.1 From DNA to protein: gene expression • Posttranslational aspects of protein synthesis: • Polypeptide emerges from the ribosome and folds into its 3-D shape. • Its conformation allows it to interact with other molecules—it may contain a signal sequence indicating
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Evolution of Genomic Expression
    C H A P T E R 5 Evolution of Genomic Expression Bernardo Lemos, Christian R. Landry, Pierre Fontanillas, Susan P. Renn, Rob Kulathinal, Kyle M. Brown, and Daniel L. Hartl Introduction Genomic regulation is key to cellular differentiation, tissue morphogenesis, and development. Increasing evidence indicates that evolutionary diversity of phenotypes—from cellular to organismic—may also be, in large part, the result of variation in the regulation of genomic expression. In this chapter we explore the complexity of gene regulation from the perspective of single genes and whole genomes. The first part describes the major factors affecting gene expression levels, from rates of gene transcrip- tion—as mediated by promoter–enhancer interactions and chromatin mod- ifications—to rates of mRNA degradation. This description underscores the multiple levels at which genomic expression can be regulated as well as the complexity and variety of mechanisms used. We then briefly describe the major experimental and computational biology techniques for analyzing gene expression variation and its underlying causes. The final section reviews our understanding of the role of regulatory variation in evolution, including the molecular evolution and population genetics of noncoding DNA, as well as the inheritance and phenotypic evolution of levels of mRNA abundance. The Complex Regulation of Genomic Expression The regulation of gene expression is a complex and dynamic process. It is not a simple matter to turn a gene on and off, let alone precisely regulate its level of expression. Regulation can be accomplished through various mech- anisms at nearly every step of the process of gene expression. Furthermore, each mechanism may require a variety of elements, including DNA sequences, RNA molecules, and proteins, acting in combination to deter- 2 Chapter Five Evolution of Genomic Expression 3 mine the final amount, timing, and location of functional gene product.
    [Show full text]
  • INTRODUCTION Sirna and Rnai
    J Korean Med Sci 2003; 18: 309-18 Copyright The Korean Academy ISSN 1011-8934 of Medical Sciences RNA interference (RNAi) is the sequence-specific gene silencing induced by dou- ble-stranded RNA (dsRNA). Being a highly specific and efficient knockdown tech- nique, RNAi not only provides a powerful tool for functional genomics but also holds Institute of Molecular Biology and Genetics and School of Biological Science, Seoul National a promise for gene therapy. The key player in RNAi is small RNA (~22-nt) termed University, Seoul, Korea siRNA. Small RNAs are involved not only in RNAi but also in basic cellular pro- cesses, such as developmental control and heterochromatin formation. The inter- Received : 19 May 2003 esting biology as well as the remarkable technical value has been drawing wide- Accepted : 23 May 2003 spread attention to this exciting new field. V. Narry Kim, D.Phil. Institute of Molecular Biology and Genetics and School of Biological Science, Seoul National University, San 56-1, Shillim-dong, Gwanak-gu, Seoul 151-742, Korea Key Words : RNA Interference (RNAi); RNA, Small interfering (siRNA); MicroRNAs (miRNA); Small Tel : +82.2-887-8734, Fax : +82.2-875-0907 hairpin RNA (shRNA); mRNA degradation; Translation; Functional genomics; Gene therapy E-mail : [email protected] INTRODUCTION established yet, testing 3-4 candidates are usually sufficient to find effective molecules. Technical expertise accumulated The RNA interference (RNAi) pathway was originally re- in the field of antisense oligonucleotide and ribozyme is now cognized in Caenorhabditis elegans as a response to double- being quickly applied to RNAi, rapidly improving RNAi stranded RNA (dsRNA) leading to sequence-specific gene techniques.
    [Show full text]
  • Molecular Biology and Applied Genetics
    MOLECULAR BIOLOGY AND APPLIED GENETICS FOR Medical Laboratory Technology Students Upgraded Lecture Note Series Mohammed Awole Adem Jimma University MOLECULAR BIOLOGY AND APPLIED GENETICS For Medical Laboratory Technician Students Lecture Note Series Mohammed Awole Adem Upgraded - 2006 In collaboration with The Carter Center (EPHTI) and The Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia Ministry of Education and Ministry of Health Jimma University PREFACE The problem faced today in the learning and teaching of Applied Genetics and Molecular Biology for laboratory technologists in universities, colleges andhealth institutions primarily from the unavailability of textbooks that focus on the needs of Ethiopian students. This lecture note has been prepared with the primary aim of alleviating the problems encountered in the teaching of Medical Applied Genetics and Molecular Biology course and in minimizing discrepancies prevailing among the different teaching and training health institutions. It can also be used in teaching any introductory course on medical Applied Genetics and Molecular Biology and as a reference material. This lecture note is specifically designed for medical laboratory technologists, and includes only those areas of molecular cell biology and Applied Genetics relevant to degree-level understanding of modern laboratory technology. Since genetics is prerequisite course to molecular biology, the lecture note starts with Genetics i followed by Molecular Biology. It provides students with molecular background to enable them to understand and critically analyze recent advances in laboratory sciences. Finally, it contains a glossary, which summarizes important terminologies used in the text. Each chapter begins by specific learning objectives and at the end of each chapter review questions are also included.
    [Show full text]
  • Actin Gene Requires Myod1, Carg-Box Binding Factor, and Spl
    Downloaded from genesdev.cshlp.org on October 3, 2021 - Published by Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press Muscle-specific expression of the cardiac -actin gene requires MyoD1, CArG-box binding factor, and Spl Vittorio Sartorelli, Keith A. Webster, 1 and Larry Kedes 2 Program in Molecular Biology and Genetics, Institute for Genetic Medicine, and Departments of Biochemistry and Medicine, University of Southern California School of Medicine, Los Angeles, California 90033 USA Expression of the human cardiac ~-actin gene (HCA) depends on the interactions of multiple transcriptional regulators with promoter elements. We report here that the tissue-specific expression of this promoter is determined by the simultaneous interaction of at least three specific protein-DNA complexes. The myogenic determinant gene MyoD1 activated the transcription of transfected HCA-CAT promoter constructs in nonmuscle cells, including CV-1 and HeLa cells. Gel mobility-shift and footprinting assays revealed that MyoD1 specifically interacted with a single consensus core sequence, CANNTG, at -50. Previously characterized sites interact with a protein identical with or related to the serum response factor (SRF) at - 100 and Spl at -70. All three elements must be intact to support transcription in muscle cells: site-specific mutation within any one of these three elements eliminated transcriptional expression by the promoter. Furthermore, expression of the promoter in embryonic Drosophila melanogaster cells that lack MyoD1 and Spl is strictly dependent on all three sites remaining intact and on the presence of exogenously supplied Spl and MyoD1. These experiments suggest that the presence of three sequence-specific binding proteins, including MyoD1, and their intact target DNA sequences are minimal requirements for muscle-specific expression of the HCA gene.
    [Show full text]
  • Chapter 12 Gene Expression and Regulation
    PYF12 3/21/05 8:04 PM Page 191 Chapter 12 Gene expression and regulation Bacterial genomes usually contain several thousand different genes. Some of the gene products are required by the cell under all growth conditions and are called house- keeping genes. These include the genes that encode such proteins as DNA poly- merase, RNA polymerase, and DNA gyrase. Many other gene products are required under specific growth conditions. These include enzymes that synthesize amino acids, break down specific sugars, or respond to a specific environmental condition such as DNA damage. Housekeeping genes must be expressed at some level all of the time. Frequently, as the cell grows faster, more of the housekeeping gene products are needed. Even under very slow growth, some of each housekeeping gene product is made. The gene prod- ucts required for specific growth conditions are not needed all of the time. These genes are frequently expressed at extremely low levels, or not expressed at all when they are not needed and yet made when they are needed. This chapter will examine gene regulation or how bacteria regulate the expression of their genes so that the genes that are being expressed meet the needs of the cell for a specific growth condition. Gene regulation can occur at three possible places in the production of an active gene product. First, the transcription of the gene can be regulated. This is known as transcriptional regulation. When the gene is transcribed and how much it is transcribed influences the amount of gene product that is made. Second, if the gene encodes a protein, it can be regulated at the translational level.
    [Show full text]
  • IGA 8/E Chapter 8
    8 RNA: Transcription and Processing WORKING WITH THE FIGURES 1. In Figure 8-3, why are the arrows for genes 1 and 2 pointing in opposite directions? Answer: The arrows for genes 1 and 2 indicate the direction of transcription, which is always 5 to 3. The two genes are transcribed from opposite DNA strands, which are antiparallel, so the genes must be transcribed in opposite directions to maintain the 5 to 3 direction of transcription. 2. In Figure 8-5, draw the “one gene” at much higher resolution with the following components: DNA, RNA polymerase(s), RNA(s). Answer: At the higher resolution, the feathery structures become RNA transcripts, with the longer transcripts occurring nearer the termination of the gene. The RNA in this drawing has been straightened out to illustrate the progressively longer transcripts. 3. In Figure 8-6, describe where the gene promoter is located. Chapter Eight 271 Answer: The promoter is located to the left (upstream) of the 3 end of the template strand. From this sequence it cannot be determined how far the promoter would be from the 5 end of the mRNA. 4. In Figure 8-9b, write a sequence that could form the hairpin loop structure. Answer: Any sequence that contains inverted complementary regions separated by a noncomplementary one would form a hairpin. One sequence would be: ACGCAAGCUUACCGAUUAUUGUAAGCUUGAAG The two bold-faced sequences would pair and form a hairpin. The intervening non-bold sequence would be the loop. 5. How do you know that the events in Figure 8-13 are occurring in the nucleus? Answer: The figure shows a double-stranded DNA molecule from which RNA is being transcribed.
    [Show full text]
  • How the Techniques of Molecular Biology Are Developed from Natural Systems
    How the techniques of molecular biology are developed from natural systems Isobel Ronai [email protected] School of Life and Environmental Sciences, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia. Abstract A striking characteristic of the highly successful techniques in molecular biology is that they are derived from natural systems. RNA interference (RNAi), for example, utilises a mechanism that evolved in eukaryotes to destroy foreign nucleic acid. Other examples include restriction enzymes, the polymerase chain reaction, green fluorescent protein and CRISPR-Cas. I propose that biologists exploit natural molecular mechanisms for their effectors’ (protein or nucleic acid) activity and biological specificity (protein or nucleic acid can cause precise reactions). I also show that the developmental trajectory of novel techniques in molecular biology, such as RNAi, is four characteristic phases. The first phase is discovery of a biological phenomenon, typically as curiosity driven research. The second is identification of the mechanism’s trigger(s), the effector and biological specificity. The third is the application of the technique. The final phase is the maturation and refinement of the molecular biology technique. The development of new molecular biology techniques from nature is crucial for biological research. These techniques transform scientific knowledge and generate new knowledge. Keywords: mechanism; experiment; specificity; scientific practice; PCR; GFP. 1 Introduction Molecular biology is principally concerned with explaining the complex molecular phenomena underlying living processes by identifying the mechanisms that produce such processes (Tabery et al. 2015). In order to access the causal structure of molecular mechanisms it is generally necessary to manipulate the components of the mechanism and to observe the resulting effects with sophisticated molecular techniques.
    [Show full text]
  • Molecular Biology Eukaryotic Gene Additional Readings Prokaryotic Gene Bibliography
    Gene - AccessScience from McGraw-Hill Education http://accessscience.com/content/gene/284400 (http://accessscience.com/) Article by: Sturtevant, Alfred H. Formerly, Biology Division, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, California. Winkler, Malcolm E. Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of Texas, Houston, Texas. Marmur, Julius Department of Biochemistry, Albert Einstein College of Medicine of Yeshiva University, New York, New York. Publication year: 2014 DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1036/1097-8542.284400 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1036/1097-8542.284400) Content Molecular biology Eukaryotic gene Additional Readings Prokaryotic gene Bibliography The basic unit in inheritance. There is no general agreement as to the exact usage of the term “gene” since several criteria that have been used for its definition have been shown not to be equivalent. The nature of this difficulty will be indicated after a description of the earlier position. The facts of mendelian inheritance indicate the presence of discrete hereditary units that replicate at each cell division, producing remarkably exact copies of themselves, and that in some highly specific way determine the characteristics of the individuals that bear them. The evidence also shows that each of these units may at times mutate to give a new equally stable unit (called an allele), which has more or less similar but not identical effects on the characters of its bearers. See also: Allele (/content/allele/024000); Mendelism (/content/mendelism/414500) These hereditary units are the genes, and the criteria for the recognition that certain genes are alleles have been that they (1) arise from one another by a single mutation, (2) have similar effects on the characters of the organism, and (3) occupy the same locus in the chromosome.
    [Show full text]
  • Gene Expression Most Genes Are Not Expressed at a Particular Time
    BIO 5099: Molecular Biology for Computer Scientists (et al) Lecture 14: Gene expression and regulation http://compbio.uchsc.edu/hunter/bio5099 [email protected] Gene expression Some gene products are necessary only some of the time, e.g. – In response to environmental stimuli, e.g. • Presence (or absence) of certain foods or toxins • Temperature change (heat shock, freezing) – In response to life events, e.g. • Reproduction • Fending off predators or pathogens Expression of a gene is creation of its product – Gene expression is regulated. – [NB: recall transcription is always 5' → 3'] Most genes are not expressed at a particular time Particularly true of multicellular organisms. e.g. Heart genes are not expressed in brain cells Even in prokaryotes, many genes are not expressed under “regular” circumstances – Of the 4279 genes in E. coli, only about 2600 (~60%) are expressed in standard laboratory conditions – Only about 350 genes are expressed at more than 100 copies (i.e. molecules!) per cell, making up 90% of the total protein. Transcription and translation are energetically expensive. Don't do them unless you have to. 1 Some genes are always expressed Certain key genes are made at all times under all circumstances. – E.g. Ribosomal proteins, tRNAs, RNA polymerase, glycolysis enzymes – These are called constitutive genes. Other genes are made only at certain times or in certain conditions. – These are under the control of regulatory apparatus, and can be expressed in widely varying amounts (called levels) – These genes are called inducible genes. Two ways to regulate metabolism We saw last week that metabolism could be regulated by changing the activity of an enzyme (e.g.
    [Show full text]
  • Chem 431C-Lecture 8A Central Dogma of Molecular Biology Proteins
    Chem 431c-Lecture 8a Reminder: Wednesday is Test 2 Day Covers Chapters 25 and 26 in toto. 90 points Translation: mRNA directed 6 discussion questions. 15 points each. Work protein synthesis quickly and concisely. Answer the question asked. Some students answer more than is asked. Penalty will be levied. Chapter 27: Will the test be difficult? For some, Yes. Protein Metabolism Study major concepts. Sample Question: Describe Mismatch Repair giving unique enzymes involved and describing when it is used. Copyright © 2004 by W. H. Freeman & Company Central dogma of molecular Proteins biology Typical cell needs 1000’s of proteins. • Proteins =the Protein biosynthesis elucidation-one of greatest endproducts of the challenges in biochemistry; information There are >70 ribosomal proteins; 90% of chem pathways energy used by cell; 15,000 ribosomes; 100,000 molecules of protein factors and enzymes; 200,000 tRNA molecules, Process is complex yet fast: protein of 100 aa’s/5 sec in E.coli. Ribosomes line the endoplasmic reticulum Genetic Code -nucleotide triplet codon/amino acid -non overlapping (overlap would be limiting) -first 2 letters usu. fixed but 3rd may be variable -degenerate: more than 1 codon/amino acid - reading frame determined by initiation codon – AUG; termination codons are UAA, UAG and UGA 1 Crick’s adaptor hypothesis Triplet non-overlapping code Just like assembling a Lego molecule? How many possible unique triplet codons can you have? Reading Frame in genetic code Open reading frame (ORF) In a random sequence of nucleotides, probability of 1/ 20 codons in each reading frame is a termination codon. So if it doesn’t have a termination codon among 50 or more, it’s an “open reading frame”(ORF).
    [Show full text]
  • Extensive Post-Transcriptional Regulation of Micrornas and Its Implications for Cancer
    Downloaded from genesdev.cshlp.org on September 30, 2021 - Published by Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press RESEARCH COMMUNICATION suppresses proliferation by targeting the oncogene Ras Extensive post-transcriptional (for review, see Wienholds and Plasterk 2005). regulation of microRNAs For most miRNA genes, however, biological informa- tion is limited to expression analyses. In mouse and ze- and its implications for cancer brafish, few miRNAs are expressed in early embryos (Thomson et al. 2004; Wienholds et al. 2005). During 1 1 J. Michael Thomson, Martin Newman, mid- to late embryonic development, large numbers of Joel S. Parker,4 Elizabeth M. Morin-Kensicki,1 miRNAs are induced in temporal and spatial patterns Tricia Wright,2 and Scott M. Hammond1,3,5 (Kloosterman et al. 2006). This culminates in adult tis- sues, where a large fraction of the known miRNA genes 1Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University are expressed. Interestingly, most of these same miRNA of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, USA; genes are down-regulated in cancer, perhaps reflecting a 2Curriculum in Genetics and Molecular Biology, University loss of cellular differentiation (Takamizawa et al. 2004; of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, USA; Lu et al. 2005). The regulatory mechanism behind these 3Lineberger Comprehensive Cancer Center, University expression changes is largely unknown, although the of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, USA; most obvious candidate is transcriptional control. It is 4Constella Group, Durham, North Carolina 27713, USA difficult, however, to reconcile this model with the widespread, parallel reduction in miRNA expression ob- MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are short, noncoding RNAs that served in most types of human cancer.
    [Show full text]
  • Identification of the Regulatory Sequence of Anaerobically Expressed Locus Aeg-46.5 MUHYEON Choet and WILLIAM S
    JOURNAL OF BACTERIOLOGY, Feb. 1993, p. 1165-1172 Vol. 175, No. 4 0021-9193/93/041165-08$02.00/0 Copyright X 1993, American Society for Microbiology Identification of the Regulatory Sequence of Anaerobically Expressed Locus aeg-46.5 MUHYEON CHOEt AND WILLIAM S. REZNIKOFF* Department ofBiochemistry, University of Wisconsin, 420 Henry Mall, Madison, Wisconsin 53706 Received 1 September 1992/Accepted 14 December 1992 A newly identified anaerobically expressed locus, aeg-46.5, which is located at min 46.5 on Escherichia coli linkage map, was cloned and analyzed. The phenotype of this gene was studied by using a lacZ operon fusion. aeg-46.5 is induced anaerobically in the presence of nitrate in wild-type and narL cells. It is repressed by the narL gene product, as it showed derepressed anaerobic expression in narL mutant cells. We postulate that aeg-46.5 is subject to multiple regulatory systems, activation as a result of anaerobiosis, narL-independent nitrate-dependent activation, and narL-mediated repression. The regulatory region of aeg-46.5 was identified. A 304-bp DNA sequence which includes the regulatory elements was obtained, and the 5' end of aeg-46.5 mRNA was identified. It was verified that the anaerobic regulation of aeg-46.5 expression is controlled on the transcriptional level. Computer analysis predicted possible control sites for the NarL and FNR proteins. The proposed NarL site was found in a perfect-symmetry element. The aeg-46.5 regulatory elements are adjacent to, but divergent from, those of the eco gene. Escherichia coli produces energy by breaking down a was discovered that aeg-46.5 is repressed by NarL.
    [Show full text]