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Orientalism, Occidentalism, and Christian Mission

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Orientalism, Occidentalism, and Christian Mission Vol. 28, No. 3 July 2004 Orientalism, Occidentalism, and Christian Mission hristianity and Islam share much in common. Each is carry the treasure of the Gospel, they can work hard at practicing C monotheistic, and each claims universality. Each fos- the skills that distinguish a human being from a corporation: ters strong traditions of piety, social action, and justice. Each genuine listening, empathetic accompanying, and patient suffer- claims—with impressive, albeit selective, proofs—to be the reli- ing. Only by insistent attention to the primacy of personal rela- gion of peace par excellence; yet the history of each attests to the tionships can we and they transcend the siren allure of Orientalism sorry ease with which their holy books are invoked to legitimize or and Occidentalism, allowing the Gospel to be seen, then heard. demand violent means to achieve divinely decreed ends. Each has recourse to a rich repository of self-flattering memories, provid- ing followers with the means to excuse, reinterpret, or overlook evil perpetrated in the name of its deity. On Page It is not their similarities, however, but their apparent dis- similarities that concern most observers. Are Christian and 98 Arabic Antimissionary Treatises: Muslim Islamic differences merely cosmetic, or are they foundational, the Responses to Christian Evangelism in the manifestation of intrinsically antithetical cosmologies? Can we Modern Middle East realistically look forward to anything more than the bloody Heather J. Sharkey specter of escalating, religiously inspired violence? 104 Arabic Antimissionary Treatises: A Select In Occidentalism: The West in the Eyes of Its Enemies (Penguin Annotated Bibliography Press, 2004), Ian Buruma and Avishai Margalit show that West- Heather J. Sharkey ern Orientalism—the focus of Herb Swanson’s article—is mir- 107 Said’s Orientalism and the Study of Christian rored in Eastern Occidentalism. Its more extreme manifestation Missions sees the West as utterly diseased and irredeemably corrupt, a Herb Swanson deadly global pestilence. With greed, sensuality, and self-inter- 108 Noteworthy est as its primary vices, the thinking goes, the West should not— 112 Time to Give Up the Idea of Christian Mission indeed cannot—be saved, any more than can cancer or smallpox. to Muslims? Some Reflections from the If the patient is to be spared, the disease must be eradicated. Middle East In her lead article, Heather Sharkey shows how Christian Colin Chapman missionary activity has been portrayed in Arabic literature as a 117 Samuel Zwemer and the Challenge of Islam: part of this deadly epidemic. Having for centuries benefited From Polemic to a Hint of Dialogue directly from Western intervention in the affairs of Muslim John Hubers states, missionary benevolence is viewed as a kind of religious 122 My Pilgrimage in Mission wedge, a tool to crack the cultural integrity of Muslim societies, Michael C. Griffiths making them fatally vulnerable to the Western blight. 126 The Legacy of Leslie E. Maxwell In light of all this, is it time to give up the idea of Christian W. Harold Fuller mission to Muslims? Not according to Colin Chapman, whose 131 Are There More Non-Western Missionaries than careful response is by no means a carte blanche approval of either Western Missionaries? past or current missionary practices. Michael Jaffarian While there can be no escaping the cultural and national 133 Book Reviews identities intermingled in the “jar of clay” in which missionaries 144 Book Notes Arabic Antimissionary Treatises: Muslim Responses to Christian Evangelism in the Modern Middle East Heather J. Sharkey n the late twentieth century several Muslim Arab thinkers Imperialism and Modern Christian Mission Ipublished treatises that labeled Christian missionary ac- tivities in the Middle East as part of a Western imperial crusade To appreciate the causes for Arab Muslim distress in the face of against Islam. Together, the polemical works of this nature modern Western imperialism, one must bear in mind that the constitute a distinct Arabic genre characterized by its early Islamic state was once a major imperial power in its own antimissionary, anti-imperial, postcolonial tone. right. By the time Muhammad died in Arabia in A.D. 632, the Despite variations in the social profiles, ideologies, and earliest Muslims had consolidated their hold over the Arabian national origins of their authors, these Arabic treatises share Peninsula and were poised to expand by conquest into the important features. They assert close and enduring historical territories of the Byzantine and Sassanian (Persian) Empires. In connections between a triad of tabshir, isti‘mar, and ishtiraq—that the decades that followed, Arab Muslim armies enjoyed spec- is, Christian evangelism, Western imperialism, and Orientalist tacular military success—by 711 they controlled a swath of scholarship on Islam and Muslims. They discuss Christian evan- territory extending from what is now Gibraltar and Morocco to gelical methods for the sake of either resisting or imitating them. the fringes of India and Uzbekistan. Muslim rulers in the grow- Most have an activist strain, urging Arab readers to “wake up” ing Islamic empire drew upon guidelines from the Qur’an and and rally to action by blocking Christian evangelical inroads and from the practices of Muhammad and his early successors to Western cultural influences, pursuing global Islamic mission devise the following policies toward the Christians and Jews (da‘wa, literally a “call” or “invitation”), or rigorously supporting who lived within their domains: as “People of the Book,” en- the values of Arab Islamic culture. Some of the more recent works dowed with holy scriptures that recognized the one God, Chris- are deeply xenophobic and insist that Christians and Muslims tians and Jews were allowed to practice their religions freely as remain enemies and rivals, locked in a battle for global mastery long as they acknowledged a subservient status. As dhimmis and survival. (protected peoples under social contract), Christians and Jews Why did this Arabic genre flourish so markedly in the were obliged to pay a special poll tax (jizya) and to heed certain second half of the twentieth century? And why did the Muslim restrictions. For example, they could not disturb public tranquil- authors of these works portray Christian evangelism as such a ity with church bells, and they could not repair places of worship grave threat to Islam and Muslims, condemning even the social without Islamic state permission. Moreover, in compliance, first, services that early twentieth-century missionaries provided to with Islamic doctrine (which maintained that Muhammad had develop modern schools, ameliorate public health, extend mass been the last in a long line of prophets, including Jesus, and that literacy, and so on? The vehemence of these authors is all the the Qur’an’s message superseded Judaism and Christianity) more striking if one considers, first, that European and American and, second, with the codes set by early Islamic jurists (who missionaries in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries interpreted the Qur’an and the hadith, or traditions about gained few Muslim converts (enjoying far greater success in Muhammad and his companions, in order to interpret Islamic conversion, by contrast, among indigenous Middle Eastern Chris- law), the Islamic state allowed conversion into Islam but forbade tians) and, second, that in the mid–twentieth century newly inde- conversion out of it. Those who were born Muslim or became pendent Middle Eastern governments suppressed most mission- Muslim had to stay Muslim, or else—if they tried to leave the fold ary activities (for example, by “nationalizing” or appropriating and failed to recant—face a final sanction of death.1 many mission-affiliated schools and universities and by barring For centuries, under a succession of Islamic dynasties that missionaries from teaching Christianity to Muslim students). ruled parts of the Middle East, these general principles toward Viewed in this light, the authors’ insistence that there is a con- non-Muslims and conversion prevailed. In the Ottoman Empire tinuing foreign Christian threat may seem highly questionable. (the last of the great Islamic world empires, which for a time ruled Nevertheless, a look at more than twenty Arabic anti- the Arab world from what is now Algeria to Iraq as well as Turkey missionary treatises suggests provisional answers to the ques- and much of southeastern Europe), matters started to change only tions posed above about the genre’s popular appeal and its sources in the nineteenth century, as Western economic, cultural, and of anger or anguish. In short, these works may have struck a chord political influence grew, and as Western ideas about nationalism, by acknowledging the humiliation that Western dominance has citizenship, and social equality challenged traditional notions entailed in the modern Arab world, where Britain and France about the social roles and rights of non-Muslims (as well as of imposed forms of colonial control in the nineteenth and early Muslim women and non-elites). Educated Ottoman elites em- twentieth centuries and where, in the second half of the twentieth braced many of these Western ideas. In two famous edicts issued century, the United States and the Soviet Union repeatedly inter- in 1839 and 1856 (later rejected by a pro-Islamic sultan), the vened. Their authors accuse missionaries, as bearers of a Western Ottoman state even proclaimed religious and social equality for all Christian message, of striking a deep blow at Muslim Arab Ottoman subjects, Muslims, Christians, and Jews. notions of communal and religious identity, authority, and pride. Among Muslim leaders and intellectuals, the growing pace and intensity of Western intervention became a cause for mount- ing concern as the nineteenth century ended. In 1798 Napoleon Heather J. Sharkey is Assistant Professor of Asian and Middle Eastern Studies at the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia. She is the author of Living had conquered and briefly held Egypt; in 1830 French forces had with Colonialism: Nationalism and Culture in the Anglo-Egyptian invaded Algeria and stayed.
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