Curbing Illegal Sand Mining in Sri Lanka Photo Credit: Kiran Pereira

WATER INTEGRITY IN ACTION Curbing Illegal Sand Mining in Sri Lanka Photo credit: Kiran Pereira

Disclaimer: The views expressed are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of WIN. Every effort has been made to verify the accuracy of the information contained in this report. All information was believed to be correct as of September 2013. Nevertheless, the Water Integrity Network cannot accept responsibility for the consequences of its use for other purposes or in other contexts.

The Water Integrity Network (WIN) is an organisation working primarily on a not-for-profit basis. WIN is a religiously and politically uncommitted organisation. Water Integrity in Action

CURBING ILLEGAL SAND MINING IN SRI LANKA

2013

Authors Kiran Pereira Ranjith Ratnayake Water Integrity In Action: Curbing Illegal Sand Mining in Sri Lanka 2013 ______

Credits

Editing Stephanie Debere

Cover Photo Kiran Pereira

Layout and Design Sarita Singh

Acknowledgements The authors would like to extend our sincere thanks to many people who have graciously accepted their requests for interviews and who have shared their experiences with us generously – Kusum Athukorala (Chair of SLWP), Niyangodu (Former Chair of SLWP), Anil Peiris (Director General, GSMB), Chief Inspector Ernest Perera (STF RSM Programme Coordinator for STF), Dr. Ranjana Piyadasa from the University of Colombo and AWP Chair Ven Malgane Aththadassi. Thanks also go out to Binayak Das and Alexandra Malmqvist from WIN for spearheading the initiative to document this campaign and to Thakshila Premaratne from SLWP who was helpful in organising logistics for meetings with key stakeholders and the field visit to river sites.

Water Integrity Network Alt Moabit 91b, 10559 Berlin, Germany www.waterintegritynetwork.net [email protected]

2 Contents

Acknowledgements 2 List of Figures 3 List of Abbreviations 4 Foreword 5

1. Introduction 7 2. The historical background to the problem and its impact 10 3. SLWP’s campaign against sand and clay mining 12 4. The policy and legal implications involved 19 5. The learning so far 22 6. The current status and plans to take the campaign forward 25 7. Conclusion 30

References 33

Appendix 1: Reference list for countries where problems with 35 sand mining have been reported

List of Figures

Figure 1: Sample list of countries where sand mining has been 8 reported to cause problems

Figure 2a: Estimated extraction of sand in Sri Lanka 11

Figure 2b: Distribution of sand consumption in Sri Lanka 11

Figure 3: Timeline of the campaign process against River Sand Mining 12

Figure 4: Map of rivers of Sri Lanka affected by River Sand Mining – 13 particularly Deduru Oya and Maha Oya Figure 5: Growth of Construction Industry in Sri Lanka 25

3 List of Abbreviations

AWP Area Water Partnership

CEJ Center for Environmental Justice

EFL Environmental Foundation Ltd.

GDP Gross Domestic Product

GSMB Geological Survey and Mines Bureau

GWP Global Water Partnership

IWRM Integrated Water Resources Management

NetWwater Network for Women Water Professionals

NGO Non-Governmental Organisation

PIL Public Interest Litigation

RSM River Sand Mining

SLWP Sri Lanka Water Partnership

STF Special Task Force (police)

WIN Water Integrity Network

4 Foreword

Globally, the construction industry is booming as cities are growing, buildings are mushrooming. There is a boundless demand for resources and sand is one of the core resources required by the construction industry. This demand has led to the incessant and many times illegal mining of sand, from various sources which include river beds. This illegal and unregulated mining of sand has a major detrimental impact on the ecology of rivers. This is compounded further by the fact that the construction industry is known to be one of the most corrupt sectors, according to Transparency International’s Bribe Payer’s Index. In this situation, illegal mining of sand is taking its toll on the rivers and also affecting people’s livelihoods and crime is spiralling upwards.

To curb illegal sand mining, efforts are underway across countries and at various levels. This publication documents the efforts made in Sri Lanka to counter illegal river sand mining. In 2005, a campaign was initiated against river sand mining (RSM) by the Sri Lanka Water Partnership, the Network for Women Water Professionals (NetWwater) and their partners. The RSM campaign was supported by the Global Water Partnership (GWP) and WIN. Currently, GWP is continuing support to RSM till date.

The impacts of the RSM campaign have been positive; illegal sand mining has been banned in two river basins – Deduru Oya and the Maha Oya. One of the interesting highlights of this process was the involvement and role of the police department as law enforcers in curbing illegal sand mining. This case highlights the role that law enforcers needs to play in protecting natural resources and the environment. The sustained campaign and engagement with different stakeholders produced the successes. This example shows that a tenacious process to curb corruption and improve integrity is possible.

This is the first of a series of good practices that WIN will be documenting and sharing from the water sector.

Water Integrity Network

5 By 2025, the global construction industry is set to grow by more than 70 per cent to $15 trillion worldwide –Global Construction Perspectives, 2013

Photo credit: Kiran Pereira 1. Introduction

Sand is an inalienable part of the On a global scale, sand mining is an construction industry supply-chain. issue that has not been recognised as This industry is a very important a threat for a very long time. However, indicator of the growth of any it is a threat that is rapidly growing in economy. Moreover, the global signiﬁcance across the world, and it construction industry will outpace has direct bearing on local water world GDP over the next ten years. A security. This threat is compounded report released in July 2013 forecasts by the fact that the construction that the volume of construction sector is known to be one of the most output will grow by more than 70 per corrupt, according to Transparency cent to $15 trillion worldwide by 2025. International’s Bribe Payer’s Index A mega-trend that underlies this (Transparency International, 2012). growth is that developing countries Sand is extracted in massive will overtake developed countries in quantities, primarily for use in market share (Global Construction construction and land reclamation, Perspectives, 2013). While there and in relatively smaller quantities for appears to be no dearth of sand on extraction of strategic minerals. earth, it is time we took a closer look However, as mentioned above, not all at the issue. Much like water, there kinds of sand are considered suitable are different kinds of sand. Some are for all uses. In the construction suitable for human use as they are, industry in developing economies, the some need to be treated before they most sought-after kind of sand is can be used and others are not river sand, followed by coastal sand. suitable for use in construction (e.g. With rapid urbanisation and changing desert sand). The reason such sand is landscapes, this increased rate of unsuitable is that the grains in desert extraction from rivers and beaches sand are too rounded and smoothed has had severe socio-environmental CURBING ILLEGAL SAND MINING IN SRI LANKA by the wind, and hence do not offer consequences. Examples of this can any cohesion and structural strength be found in several countries across to concrete (Welland, 2009). the globe (See Figure 1). The rapid Consequently, much of today’s sand construction and urbanisation forged supply comes from relatively limited in the neo-liberal model of sources. development rarely takes into account WATER INTEGRITYWATER IN ACTION

7 Figure 1: Sample list of countries where sand mining has been reported to cause problems

Source: See Appendix 1 for the various sources

social and environmental costs of As seen in Figure 1, sand mining is a such growth. Especially because they common practice in Sri Lanka too, are more isolated than their inland where the construction industry counterparts, island states are recorded annual growth of 9.3 per particularly sensitive to the acute cent in 2010. The share of tension between such a neo-liberal construction in Sri Lanka’s GDP form of development and the need to consistently increased from 6.1 per minimise socio-environmental cent in 2002 to 7.6 per cent in 2010. impacts. This is more so if the island This growth was mainly driven by happens to be a developing economy. large-scale development projects in the country. Growth at such a frantic In many of the cases shown above, pace has had tremendous impacts sand mining has often been ignored on sand sources. However, over the and little action has been taken to last few years, there have been stem the issue. In addition, active campaigns against sand

CURBING ILLEGAL SAND MINING IN SRI LANKA surprisingly little academic literature mining. Although beach sand mining is available connecting such trends. is a very serious issue in light of Since sand is ofﬁcially classiﬁed as a climate change and rising sea levels, ‘low-value resource’, we believe that this document focuses on the issue many governments and economies of river sand mining (RSM) alone and are yet to recognise the linkages excludes mining along beaches in Sri between the question of sand mining Lanka. However, it also includes the and larger issues such as water issue of clay mining, as this has security of the region. similar socio-environmental WATER INTEGRITYWATER IN ACTION

8 Photo credit: Kiran Pereira Kiran credit: Photo Sand mining magniﬁes the imminent threat of rising sea-levels impacts. One of the most recognised campaign began with the aim to and successful campaigns against create awareness of the downsides RSM has been led by the Sri Lanka of the practice, and the alternatives Water Partnership (SLWP), the that are available. It has engaged Network for Women Water multiple stakeholders across various Professionals (NetWwater), and their levels, from high-level government partners, with key support from ministries to local people impacted organisations such as the Water by sand mining along major rivers. Integrity Network (WIN) and Global The evolution of campaign is Water Partnership (GWP). The described in the paragraphs below. CURBING ILLEGAL SAND MINING IN SRI LANKA WATER INTEGRITYWATER IN ACTION

9 2. The historical background of the problem and its impact

The Indian Ocean tsunami in beaches and dunes thus reduced the December 2004 caused widespread amount of sand available to replenish destruction of property. After what was lost during storm events Indonesia, Sri Lanka was the country such as the tsunami in 2004 hardest hit. However, science has (Samaranayake, 2005). Ironically, an found that sand mining could have extra 10 million cubic metres of sand further exacerbated the problem. was required for restoration and Removal of sand dunes and extensive rehabilitation efforts, in addition to illegal dredging appear to have the annual requirement of 7 million increased inundation in the ﬁrst place cubic metres (Senaratne and (Richmond et al., 2006). In addition, Dissanayake, 2006). sand mining in rivers not only resulted in a lower river bed and Such huge demand led the Sri Lankan increased bank erosion, but also government to consider the option of drastically reduced the sediment offshore dredging (Dredging News supply to the coast. Indiscriminate Online, 2009). However this has met and extensive sand mining in rivers, with limited success, as will be CURBING ILLEGAL SAND MINING IN SRI LANKA Photo Credit: Kiran Pereira Kiran Credit: Photo WATER INTEGRITYWATER IN ACTION

10 Figure 2a: Estimated extraction of be attributed to the construction sand in Sri Lanka (in Million Cubic boom in the post-tsunami Metres) reconstruction and rehabilitation

18 17 phase. The current upward trajectory 16 of the graph is due to the growth of 14 12 12 the economy and investments in 10 8 10 several sectors following the end of 6 5.5 Quantity 4 the country’s civil war. Much of the 2 1.2 extraction is channelled towards the 0 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 western regions around the capital, Years where the rate of urbanisation is most Estimated Extraction of Sand (in Million Cubic Metres) rapid. It is estimated that nearly 40 per cent of the extraction is used only Source: Adapted from CCD data as cited in western Sri Lanka (see Figure 2b). in Samaranayake, 2005; Senaratne and Dissanayake, 2006; Ratnayake, 2008 and Dolage et al., 2013 Historically, much of this sand extraction was unregulated and Figure 2b: Distribution of sand illegal. It was also largely consumption in Sri Lanka mechanised, which greatly exaggerated its negative 60% consequences. Incessant sand mining in specific areas over decades began to cause serious problems, especially in zones such 40% as the south-west coast of Sri Lanka that were naturally prone to erosion. Used for the rest of the country Used for the west cost alone Illegal sand mining was carried out extensively at places such as the Source: Adapted from CCD data as cited in Samaranayake, 2005 and Dolage Kelani River outfall, the Kalutara et al., 2013 inlet and the southern region of the Panadura outfall on the west coast, explained later. In short, while sand all situated in close proximity to the mining has always been prevalent in national capital (Gerritsen and CURBING ILLEGAL SAND MINING IN SRI LANKA Sri Lanka, it has seen an exponential Amarasinghe, 1976). It was increase over the last two and a half estimated that the mining of sand decades. Data from the Coast from rivers in the south had also Conservation Department (CCD) increased by three times in 2009 depicted in Figure 2a below shows compared to 1997 levels (Piyadasa, this sharp increase. The ﬁrst peak can 2009). WATER INTEGRITYWATER IN ACTION

11 3. SLWP’s campaign against sand and clay mining in Sri Lanka

The campaign against RSM led by Before the tsunami struck in 2004, SLWP, NetWwater and partners, with the economy had been on an upward key support from WIN and GWP, was trend and had registered 5 per cent successful, although it was far from growth in 2004. As a result, there being a cut-and-dried solution to a was robust growth in the speciﬁc problem. Rather, it was a construction of infrastructure and series of actions carried out by housing. Sand mining operations several actors across various continued to become larger and timescales. For the purpose of larger. In the reconstruction phase simplicity, it can be depicted as following the tsunami, when sand follows. (See Figure 3 and the mining became most visible, the two following explanation) rivers most affected were the

Figure 3: Timeline of the campaign process against River Sand Mining

Artisanal sand mining on a very small scale Historically

Increased and incessant sand mining (especially mechanised) Pre and Post- tsunami Community Mobilisation by SLWP, Public Interest Litigation filed 2004 Launch of SLWP campaign

CURBING ILLEGAL SAND MINING IN SRI LANKA 2005 National Dialogue on River Sand and Clay Mining and Special programs for the Police 2006 Campaign increased by five-fold by support from WIN 2008 Campaign extended to formerly war-torn North-East regions 2013 WATER INTEGRITYWATER IN ACTION

12 Figure 4: Map of rivers of Sri Lanka affected by River Sand Mining – particularly Deduru Oya and Maha Oya CURBING ILLEGAL SAND MINING IN SRI LANKA

Source: Ratnayake (2008) WATER INTEGRITYWATER IN ACTION

13 river buffer zone and deterioration of The campaign was multi-faceted water quality. and included various stake - holders, such as: Removal of the sand layer also had a • Government officials, e.g. direct impact on groundwater district / divisional availability, with the water level in secretaries many dug wells falling by several • Geological Survey and metres. This impact was immediately Mines Bureau (GSMB) – the felt by people, and it had knock-on main regulatory authority effects. Many agricultural crops • Law enforcement agencies – usually cultivated along the river the police and the Special banks failed. There were drastic Task Force (STF) declines in productivity of crops such • Local authorities as coconut – an important part of the • Religious heads staple diet in Sri Lanka. The poor • Community organisations were especially adversely affected. and other NGOs Not only did they lose employment in plantations, but because coconut is • Press and media units an important smallholder and home • Youth communities garden crop, they also suffered when their trees were a major casualty of Deduru Oya and the Maha Oya along lowered water tables. Comparable the west coast. problems occurred in tea and rubber plantations in sensitive areas. In-depth interviews with experts and key stakeholders reveal that The greatest impact was seen on traditional artisanal sand mining was many small-holder farms and replaced by mechanised dredging in households which depended on order to meet the demand for vegetable cultivation. They were additional sand required for forced to abandon their livelihoods, reconstruction activities. move to areas with accessible water or incur heavy costs in order to invest

CURBING ILLEGAL SAND MINING IN SRI LANKA Indiscriminate mining to feed the in deeper pumping and water supply construction boom caused several systems (Ratnayake, 2008). Similar undesirable consequences. In the problems were reported in the case of areas around the Deduru Oya, the Maha Oya. Not only were livelihoods groundwater table fell by 12-15 affected, but highly productive land metres in some places, and up to 30 was also lost when river banks metres in others. Sand mining led to became unstable and collapsed. degradation of the river bed, erosion Furthermore, when the riverbed of the banks, encroachment of the became deeper than the sea level, it WATER INTEGRITYWATER IN ACTION

14 caused saline intrusion into the result of the PIL, sand mining was freshwater stream and affected the completely banned along these two drinking water supply of the region. rivers in 2004. The court also This was extremely damaging to the demanded periodic reports from the entire ecosystem, and had a pervasive police to ensure progress was made. impact on people’s quality of life. RSM However, communities still felt badly affected groundwater, unsure as to how to handle the livelihoods, infrastructure (such as situation. Recognising that these bridges, culverts and roads), and all conditions posed a major threat to buildings on the river banks. It water security, further magnified by created environmental refugees out rises in sea-level and climate change, of people who used to have a SLWP and NetWwater launched a reasonably good standard of living. campaign against illegal sand mining in 2005. Thus legal efforts to confront Tension within communities mounted the practice of indiscriminate sand as the benefits of RSM were passed mining were supplemented by SLWP on to private players engaging in the creating awareness and further sand mining business and to urban mobilising communities to take communities who enjoyed the benefit concerted action. As a result, the of better infrastructure. Local Ministry of Environment and Natural communities rarely derived any Resources issued a 'Draft National benefit from it, barring opportunities Policy on Sand as a Resource for the for strenuous labour. The Construction Industry' in 2005. consequences of such extraction were left for the local communities to SLWP also realised that the country deal with, and they were not already had several rules and compensated in any way for the regulations to protect the ecosystem deterioration of their living standards. and the people dependent on it, but This led communities along Deduru that the problem lay in law Oya and Maha Oya to file Public enforcement. It therefore offered an Interest Litigation (PIL) cases in the RSM awareness-raising programme court when they felt that their to various stakeholders, such as grievances were not being resolved by government officials, divisional CURBING ILLEGAL SAND MINING IN SRI LANKA the existing law enforcement secretaries, media, youth mechanism. The Deduru Oya PIL was communities, local authorities and supported by the Centre for NGOs. The police were brought in for Environmental Justice (CEJ) and the the awareness-raising programmes Maha Oya by the Environmental and went on to play a major role in the Foundation Ltd. (EFL), an SLWP increased action to curb illegal sand partner. SLWP helped in mobilising mining. (See Special Focus section the community in both instances. As a below, on the role of the police.) The WATER INTEGRITYWATER IN ACTION

15 SPECIAL FOCUS: THE ROLE OF THE POLICE

Initially there was not much involvement from the police in curbing illegal sand mining activities. They were primarily involved in monitoring criminal activities and their main area of focus was the penal code. Environmental crimes were considered secondary, and some even believed this to be outside their remit. As a result, the issue of RSM was not taken seriously. There were many instances where tractors that were seized were released when a minor bribe was paid. This made the public perceive the police as a corrupt force, creating resentment among communities. SLWP and NetWwater tackled this situation by deciding to engage with the force. Thanks to key support from GWP, training courses for police personnel were launched in 2006. These produced positive results, and with support from WIN in 2008, SLWP and NetWwater were able to expand the scope of the programme by five times and target more of this extremely important but hitherto neglected audience. The organisations worked from a premise that the police merely represented a cross-section of society as a whole. There was as much corruption within these forces as there was in society at large, therefore they could not be singled out as a corrupt influence.

The training programme was found to be particularly effective because the police were given a voice to express their concerns. They pointed out many loopholes in the law, such as permits being issued for extended periods when the amount of sand that could be mined was very small. They also highlighted that such licences could be misused by unscrupulous parties, as there was no mechanism to maintain records of overall extraction and the only time the license could be checked was during the transportation of sand. Therefore corrupt parties could re- use the same license to extract much more sand than was allocated to them. Similar suggestions from the police created a positive feedback loop between the regulatory body and the law enforcement units.

Earlier, the police were unsure of the law governing RSM. Gazette CURBING ILLEGAL SAND MINING IN SRI LANKA notifications were usually sent to higher officers and information rarely trickled down to officers on the ground, or if it did, it was significantly diluted. The police also didn’t know they could seize machinery. Thanks to the awareness-raising programmes, the police department and other forces gained a good understanding of the Mines and Minerals Act and Regulations. The programme also helped them become aware of the various problems associated with RSM, and the alternatives available. As a result, they felt empowered to act with authority. WATER INTEGRITYWATER IN ACTION

16 campaign also targeted the media, which became more vigilant over the question of sand mining. This was invaluable to winning support and lobbying for changes.

In 2009, a Special Task Force (STF), of the police, was put in charge of protecting natural resources. This had several benefits. It drastically Photo credit: SLWP SLWP credit: Photo reduced the scope for corruption, as Awareness-raising training program officers were not answerable to local politicians and were directly resource management, which supervised by the Defence Ministry in facilitated a greater appreciation of Colombo. The STF officers always the problems involved and the acted as a team – again an advantage responses required (SLWP, 2012). in comparison to individual police personnel, who were vulnerable to Falling water tables affected women attacks and intimidation. Specialised the most, because the burden of training programmes for STF fetching water for the family fell personnel were provided with directly on them. NetWwater assistance from GWP. This therefore worked especially with awareness-raising programme on women on the issue of RSM. This RSM and natural resource concern came to the forefront during management was launched in 2010 at one of NetWwater’s gender and the request of the STF, covering water dialogues conducted with specific north-western and south- communities in a north-western western provinces. It was expanded to province where women participants cover southern provinces in February complained of loss of water security 2012 and an eastern province in June due to damage to drinking and the same year. The first programme irrigation water sources. Women in the northern province was held in who previously had access to June 2013. The programme was a drinking water literally at their CURBING ILLEGAL SAND MINING IN SRI LANKA collaborative effort between SLWP doorstep were now forced to travel and the Geological Survey and Mines 3-4 km in search of water, due to the Bureau (GSMB – the regulator), the impacts of RSM. This led NetWwater Central Environmental Authority and to work with the affected the Universities of Rhuhuna and communities in raising awareness Colombo. It offered a comprehensive and building linkages with other view of the policies, laws and Community Service Organisations practices related to RSM and natural and activist groups. It also worked WATER INTEGRITYWATER IN ACTION

17 with related state agencies and much respected priest from a catalysed the formation of an prominent Buddhist temple. Given awareness and advocacy network that more than 70 per cent of the through intensive national media population in Sri Lanka is Buddhist, coverage, which had been this was a very signiﬁcant move. For intermittent till then. This helped to many years now, the Ven. Malagane build critical mass among activists Attadassi (Chief Incumbent Bingiriya and develop a national profile for the Raja Maha Viharaya and Sanganayake issue, in order to enhance of Sathkoralaya) has been mobilising awareness of the need for communities to protect the rivers and alternatives (NetWwater, n.d.; the ecosystem services they provide. Athukorala and Navaratne, 2007). A Along with other community leaders, key example of this success comes he was instrumental in the ﬁling of from the work of NetWwater’s the PIL. He has also been very vocal in partner organisation EFL. In an calling for the environment ministry to effort to protect the river, an change its focus from mere supply of alternative livelihoods programme sand for construction to one based on was offered to a community of a consideration of ecosystem needs artisanal sand miners and their and issues such as land degradation wives in the Maha Oya basin. The and damage to river systems. He has men chose to farm fish, while the suggested that until an effective women launched an enterprise monitoring mechanism is put in place, called ‘Lucky Ladies’ which made contractors should be asked to and sold women’s shoes. This has compensate communities for their become an extremely successful losses. In Buddhist philosophy, water business enterprise and has is the most important natural provided a strong alternative to resource on earth. Any change either people who would otherwise have in quality or quantity of water affects been instrumental in the destruction the circle of life. When asked about of the ecosystem in order to make his role in the campaign, he said he ends meet. felt compelled to act when he saw not just the community being affected by

CURBING ILLEGAL SAND MINING IN SRI LANKA The key success of the multi-faceted the decrease in the water quality and approach was also the enrolment of quantity, but also vegetation and local leaders as champions of the animals being seriously harmed. cause. One shining example was a WATER INTEGRITYWATER IN ACTION

18 4. The policy and legal implications involved

Sri Lanka’s Water Vision 2025 reads Although not all sand mining is as follows: illegal, the ease with which this resource can be exploited for ‘A society that values the sustainable economic gain has led to the use of its water to achieve the goal of formation of a ‘sand mafia’ in Sri an environment conducive to Lanka, as in many other countries. balanced social and economic Unlike civil society, the mafia is development’. usually very well organised and wields strong influence due to Some of the important components of political connivance and corruption in this vision are: the system. This corruption makes it • An enabling environment for even tougher to tackle the urgent Integrated Water Resource issue of RSM. Management (IWRM) • Optimum use of water resources for a dynamic and diversified ‘Delayed decision-making is also economic system, and for food corruption’ security through efficient and — Ranjith Ratnayake sustainable water use, both in terms of quantity and quality • Well-maintained watersheds and Thanks to this campaign, SLWP also clean water bodies, rivers, lakes worked closely with the GSMB (the and ponds regulatory authority) and was • Access to adequate, safe and instrumental in influencing a number affordable drinking water for all of positive policy and legal changes. CURBING ILLEGAL SAND MINING IN SRI LANKA (LIFE-WRU, 2000). Previously, the GSMB had operated through an excessively centralised RSM undermines all efforts to model. While this system had achieve these components of the advantages, it also had many Water Vision. The SLWP-NetWwater drawbacks. The centralised position campaign has therefore been of the GSMB helped it establish a instrumental in putting this important national overview and exclude topic onto the national agenda. vulnerable areas from coming under WATER INTEGRITYWATER IN ACTION

19 licence. However, the lack of Instead, they needed to buy it from adequate staff and the failure to use hardware stores. As a result, many the district administration system for middlemen profited while the operations management meant that common man suffered. SLWP and the centralised system was not as NetWwater worked in partnership effective as it should have been. In with the GSMB to bring about policy addition, it was found that authority changes. According to the Director and power were concentrated in the General of GSMB, Mr. Anil Peiris, key hands of a few officers, making approaches included: conditions ripe for corruption as officers in remote locations were in a • Based on feedback from SLWP, vulnerable position. They often felt GSMB increased the number of pressurised by the sand mafia to give personnel posted to remote in to their demands or face locations from two to 10, in order consequences otherwise. The to better manage resources. downside of such a centralised model GSMB currently operates 14 is illustrated by the situation where at District Offices. one point, people needed a permit • The earlier law did not allow even if they required just minor police officers to arrest guilty quantities of sand for small-scale parties without a pre-issued construction purposes. They could magistrate’s order. However, not simply dredge it from their own after SLWP and WIN’s private lands or adjacent streams. intervention, GSMB amended the CURBING ILLEGAL SAND MINING IN SRI LANKA Photo credit: Kiran Pereira Kiran credit: Photo

WATER INTEGRITYWATER IN ACTION Coconut crops affected by falling water tables

20 act and made illicit RSM a wisdom of many stakeholders, such cognisable offense instead of a as researchers, environmentalists, non-cognisable offense. This agencies, community organisations, empowered police ofﬁcers to the construction industry, law detain people without requiring a makers, the police and law magistrate’s warrant, resulting enforcement agencies, and the in many arrests. media. In 2006, they organised a • Earlier permits did not mention National Dialogue on River Sand and speciﬁc details. They have now Clay Mining, and have continued been changed to include details engaging with all stakeholders to such as the exact area they cover maintain momentum. The country’s and the length of their validity. Minister of Science and Technology participated, agreeing to create a Many government bodies were happy task force to examine the outcomes to work with SLWP, NetWwater and of the Dialogue and to keep the their partnersas these organisations national cabinet informed. A similar worked in a partnership mode, dialogue was also held in 2007 rather than an antagonistic and (NetWwater (n.d.)). Such concerted fault-finding mode. An important and sustained action has made Sri element of this success was their Lanka stand out among the many creation of a platform to bring countries that face similar sand together the views and collective mining problems. CURBING ILLEGAL SAND MINING IN SRI LANKA WATER INTEGRITYWATER IN ACTION

21 5. The learning so far

Water Integrity can only be achieved management was located in the by transparency, accountability and GSMB headquarters, far removed participation. The establishment of a from the people closest to the issue. central command and control Established in 1993 with a small core management model diminished both staff and insufﬁcient provision to transparency and accountability at delegate or use the district/divisional the local level. The governance of administrations, the GSMB system RSM has also had a chequered past, allowed rampant illegal mining to especially since governance of water occur in the regulatory and resources fell under the remit of a monitoring lacuna (Ratnayake, 2008). land-focused regime. More than 50 legal enactments and 40 agencies are The transparency, accountability and involved in Sri Lanka’s water resource participation necessary for integrity management activities. This has at require an effective monitoring times led to inaction, confusion and system, which is sorely missing in Sri even duplication of efforts, providing Lanka and many other countries fertile ground for corruption and where sand mining occurs. Although political patronage. While the earlier in Sri Lanka the process seems to be licensing process was localised, this off to a promising start with the PIL did not offer the government a and the subsequent multi- national overview, so it felt stakeholder campaign, it is far from governance had to be centralised to complete or effective. To use an manage the issue better. In 1992, the analogy, both have merely been the Mines and Minerals Act No.33 turning on of a light in a messy room. established the GSMB to oversee and How large the room is and the scope regulate the exploration, mining, of work that awaits are yet to be

CURBING ILLEGAL SAND MINING IN SRI LANKA transport, processing, trading and determined. At the present moment, export of minerals. While this enabled neither the GSMB, the law a nationally integrated holistic view of enforcement agencies, the resource management and removed communities affected, nor even NGOs undue political inﬂuence at the local such as SLWP and its partners know level, the centralised decision- the exact quantity of sand currently making process reduced the being mined. Furthermore, it is accountability of local adminis - extremely difﬁcult to pinpoint the trations. The question of sand and its precise demand for sand in Sri Lanka WATER INTEGRITYWATER IN ACTION

22 and the quantity that may be safely (Piyadasa, 2012). Although extracted from the rivers, although alternatives do exist in theory, they do various numbers float around in not have great public acceptance as different contexts. As a result, the will be explained in the following government cannot plan for and sections. promote suitable alternatives. Studies have found that most sand mining in Sri Lanka occurred illegally Alternatives to River Sand in (Gerritsen and Amarasinghe, 1976). Sri Lanka: Since transportation costs account • Off-shore sand for a large portion of a sand miner’s • M-Sand or manufactured expenses, in-stream sand mining is a sand common practice, as the mining • Quarry dust locations are either near the markets • Imported sand or along the transportation route. In- stream sand mining refers to mining of sand directly from stream and river However, actions from local beds. Much of this activity is not only stakeholders led by SLWP, illegal, but is also carried out without NetWwater and other organisations any scientific input and is very helped bring in local participation. damaging. Yet with construction This in-turn changed the dynamics of activities booming and there being the situation and forced the issue into little alternative to river sand it is the public awareness. Although the difficult to impose a complete ban problem is far from resolved across CURBING ILLEGAL SAND MINING IN SRI LANKA Photo credit: Kiran Pereira Kiran credit: Photo

Riverbank erosion due to incessant sand mining INTEGRITYWATER IN ACTION

23 Photo credit: Kiran Pereira Kiran credit: Photo A respected local leader Ven. Malagane Attadassi, leader of a prominent Buddhist temple

all river basins, but there is an active provided a platform for these debate about alternatives to river stakeholders to communicate with sand. River sand mining has become each other. For example, the an increasingly contentious issue in feedback loop created between the recent years, due to popular regulatory authority and the law participation, integration of research enforcement agency helped to ﬁndings across various studies, tighten the monitoring mechanism imposition of legal regulatory that is slowly being put in place. frameworks, and the networking of Provision of platforms for discussion community-based organisations and interaction provided (Piyadasa, 2009). opportunities for the regulator, other line agencies, local authorities and Although local communities were the community interests to work

CURBING ILLEGAL SAND MINING IN SRI LANKA ﬁrst to notice the issue, they did not together. Better integration and really understand the consequences. consultative decision-making SLWP’s campaign helped them processes were thus articulate what they were seeing on institutionalised. The feedback the ground. The involvement of enabled the GSMB to fast-track multiple stakeholders increased the practical changes to administrative effectiveness of the campaign and clearance processes in line with tremendously. It ﬁlled a void and emerging local requirements. WATER INTEGRITYWATER IN ACTION

24 6. The current status and plans to take the campaign forward

Despite these successes, the problem contributes about 70 per cent of the is far from having been solved. Gross Domestic Fixed Capital Detailed examination of the Formation and about 8 per cent of the construction sector shows how country’s GDP adn Figure 5 shows entrenched this issue is and how that the industry is on an upward much effort is required to tackle it. trend, especially in the post-conflict context since 2009. In 2010, Overview of the construction disbursement of loans increased 39.6 sector in Sri Lanka: per cent for the construction of In the coming decade, the Sri Lankan houses, business premises, other Government aims to sustain the buildings and property developments. economic growth rate at over 8 per Several plans and strategies cent. As in any developing economy, announced by the government the construction industry plays a very indicate that the country’s important role, ranking seventh construction industry is poised for among the 13 major sectors significant growth. Major contributing to the country’s GDP. reconstruction activities are expected to be undertaken not just in the north Sri Lanka’s construction industry has and east of the country where the grown since 2002 and it currently worst effects of the war were seen, but also in other regions. The Figure 5: Growth of Construction government expects to make Industry in Sri Lanka significant investments in sectors such as power, road development 10% 9.2% 8.9% 9.09% 9.3% (including expressways and national 7.8% CURBING ILLEGAL SAND MINING IN SRI LANKA 8% 6.6% highways), ports, transportation, 6% 5.5% water supply, sanitation, housing, 5.6% 4% tourism and reconstruction of post-

Percentage (%) Percentage conﬂict and tsunami-affected regions. 2% 2.4%

0% 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 • The construction sector is Years expected to grow faster than the Source: ICRA Lanka and IMaCs (2011) broader economy over the next WATER INTEGRITYWATER IN ACTION

25 five years. This is especially there are periodic media reports significant because the industry across various locations. Despite this, is the largest consumer of sand alternatives to river sand have not and the trajectory it follows will become popular, for several reasons: determine the future of Sri Lanka’s development. Already, • River sand is still culturally higher construction activity has perceived to be a better choice resulted in 12 per cent growth in than other alternatives, creating domestic production of building market resistance to those materials such as sand, clay and alternatives. limestone (ICRA Lanka and • The supply of river sand often IMaCs (2011) ). But such growth continues unabated because has come at a significant permits are misused by environmental and social cost. contractors. They may be issued (See below) for 2-3 weeks, but as there is no monitoring mechanism on the Thanks to the campaign, the issue is ground, a miner with a permit for now very much in the public eye and e.g. for 500 cubic metres is free

SOCIO"ECONOMIC IMPACTS

• Livelihood impacts for those dependent on agriculture. Depleted water tables have necessitated constant changes to sites of pumping units or their depth, increasing costs of infrastructure, equipment replacement and production. • Domestic wells and water supply pumping stations have been adversely affected. Excessive mining in lower river reaches and estuaries has led to severe saltwater intrusion. As a result, pumping intakes and associated filtering and purification plants have been relocated at enormous cost to the public purse, while private sector sand mining outfits continue to flourish.

CURBING ILLEGAL SAND MINING IN SRI LANKA • Damage to infrastructure such as rural roads and culverts, national highways, bridges and piers by heavy sand-laden trucks. • Increase in health issues arising from dust and heavy traffic, and increase in vector-borne diseases where heavy RSM occurs. An. Culicifacies, the main vector for Malaria in Sri Lanka usually thrives in clear water pools formed in river and stream beds. Sand mining activities often lead to creation of such breeding sites. (Briet et al., 2005). WATER INTEGRITYWATER IN ACTION

26 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS

• River sand mining disrupts sediment deposits along the coast, reduces the ability of the ecosystem to achieve equilibrium and increases coastal and river bank erosion. • Constant interference changes the shape of the rivers due to deepening of the water and collapsing river banks. This has immense negative impacts not just on emblematic species in Sri Lanka such as the elephant and rare endemic birds, but also on micro flora and fauna. Many of these impacts are yet to be assessed and discussed. • Sand mining is especially counter-intuitive because of the inescapable issues of rising sea levelsand climate change. • Saline intrusion changes the nature of the river itself, causes loss of ecosystems and directly threatens the survival of most species that are particularly adapted to their habitats. • Reduced groundwater tables, compounded by increased extraction levels due to changing lifestyles, increase the vulnerability of rivers. It is important to realise that many societies were built along rivers and vulnerable rivers can magnify the vulnerability of such societies.

to take 1,000 cubic metres. This unchecked in their tributaries, as can only be checked if the loads in the case of the Kolamunu Oya are intercepted during in Bingiriya. transportation. In addition, as no • Communities will often admit to GPS facilities or maps are used the problem when interviewed, to delineate permit areas clearly, but will rarely take the trouble to mining is sometimes conducted organise and actively stop RSM in adjacent areas, while the local unless they are directly and community is led to believe that immediately affected by it. miners have the relevant • As sand is not hidden away like CURBING ILLEGAL SAND MINING IN SRI LANKA permits. Nearly 35 rivers are other resources such as severely impacted due to RSM. petroleum or gems, it is easy for The Supreme Court has pilfering of this resource to give intervened in the case of mining way to looting. in just two: Maha Oya and • Powerful vested interests would Deduru Oya. However, while sand like to maintain the status quo, mining has largely been stopped because proﬁts do not need to be in the main rivers, it often goes accounted for and are relatively WATER INTEGRITYWATER IN ACTION

27 easy to make. Most sand mining sand. The government has contractors are said to enjoy issued few permits, meaning a political patronage of some sort. small group of people have • Once communities start monopolised the industry. As a protesting, mining activities are result, there is no room for new moved upstream where there are players. The initial investment fewer people. required is also extremely high, • In the immediate future, and sea sand cannot be used in dredging offshore sand or its natural state. It needs to be importing sand can provide washed thoroughly before use, temporary relief. Although otherwise it is very corrosive. offshore dredging causes Since in Sri Lanka such dredged significant environmental sand is piled up at a specific damage too, it is still a viable place and allowed to remain option in the short term. Sea there for several consecutive sand is also a cheaper option monsoons so that the sand gets due to scale, costing two thirds of washed by the rains, the general river sand in Sri Lanka. The public perception is that there is government started exploring no defined quality control this approach 3-4 years ago. mechanism in place. There are However it is still a minor also legitimate fears that the salt contributor, and only 5-6 per cent thus washed away on land might of demand is met from such in turn affect the quality of land CURBING ILLEGAL SAND MINING IN SRI LANKA Photo credit: Kiran Pereira Kiran credit: Photo The Government is the largest consumer of sand WATER INTEGRITYWATER IN ACTION

28 and water. The Sri Lanka Land sea sand is touted as an Reclamation Board has carried alternative, little has been done out some offshore dredging to enforce standards and build projects, but thanks to such confidence in the industry. Much public perception, the needs to be done in terms of construction industry is wary of training artisans, masons, using bad quality raw materials, engineers, architects and other as this could lead to serious professionals in the construction damage in large-scale projects, industry in how to use sea sand or even loss of life. Another in construction projects. drawback concerned with Vocational training programmes offshore sand is that there are for engineers also need to be immense costs involved in hiring carried out, and quality control a barge and conducting authorities need to specify ratios bathometric surveys and minimum standards. Only (Bathometric surveys measure such action can encourage the depth of the water and large-scale commercial use of determine the shape of the sea sand. seabed). Private players are not • Alternatives such as M-Sand or interested in spending the manufactured sand have not millions required for these become popular due to a lack of surveys, because they fear they indigenously designed and will lose money if they are not manufactured machinery and awarded a contract. higher power costs in Sri Lanka. • The government is the largest Furthermore, it is difficult to find consumer of sand, with immense isolated places to locate such quantities used in the plants in Sri Lanka because of construction of roads, dams, the high population density, bridges and similar except in forests and wildlife infrastructure. Overall, the reserves. The country’s alternatives to river sand have population density is also a not taken off as expected, drawback for inland mining, because of a lack of recognition where sand is separated from CURBING ILLEGAL SAND MINING IN SRI LANKA and support from the sand-based soil by washing the government. For instance, while gravel. WATER INTEGRITYWATER IN ACTION

29 7. Conclusion

Although the construction industry is much sand. Road-builders now use a growing at break-neck speed, it is premixed bitumen mixture and an unlikely to have reservations over epoxy resin material that hardens which type of sand is used as long as with water. As a result, they don’t it is cost-effective and meets need to use sand to prevent vehicle minimum commercial standards. tyres from sticking to the road. Even Experience has shown that learning the Victoria Dam was built using can be drawn from success stories in quarry dust. But such examples are the management of other aggregate more the exception than the norm. sources, such as quarry dust. Another immediate, short-term Commercial standards for the use of solution is to import sand. Similar quarry dust are well established in Sri regulations for timber are enforced Lanka. Thanks to this, the country’s very strictly. There are very tight rules road industry today primarily uses about how large-scale construction quarry dust and has employed projects are required to use imported technologies that do not require timber instead of that felled locally. CURBING ILLEGAL SAND MINING IN SRI LANKA Photo credit: Kiran Pereira Kiran credit: Photo The road construction industry employs technologies that does not require much sand WATER INTEGRITYWATER IN ACTION

30 Photo credit: Kiran Pereira Kiran Photo credit:

The Ven. Malagane Attadassi also sand and introduce offshore sand, advocates that instead of the modern but to do somethodically. It is also ﬁxation on concrete and glass working closely with SLWP on structures, traditional building rehabilitation, tree planting and river practices must be re-examined and restoration projects. For World adopted, as they were more in-tune En vironm ent Day in June 2013, a with nature and did not cause such special pilot program was planned damage. for riverbank restoration with concrete planks instead of timber There are plenty of alternatives but planks, which might be a technique none is likely to be a silver bullet on employed for particularly sensitive its own. Sri Lanka will probably need areas. to ﬁnd the right mix of options to ensure that development is truly The STF has also expressed sustainable in the long run. What is ambitious plans to tackle the issue. CURBINGILLEGAL SAND MINING IN SRILANKA most needed is concerted action and It has identified several places where strong leadership. This has clearly illicit sand mining is occurring, and been demonstrated by SLWP, intends to target them in a sustained NetWwater and their partners, with manner. In addition, there are also support from WIN and GWP through plans to educate large numbers of their campaign. The GSMB too is personnel in its forces. So far, a keen on demonstrating leadership in train-the-trainer model has worked this matter. It has plans to limit river well here. This model will be WATER INTEGRITY WATER IN ACTION

31 supplemented by awareness-raising National Dialogue to steer the training for all the students at the discussion forward and consolidate STF training wing in Katukurunda, the progress made so far. Kalutara. Having conducted nearly 20 training programmes in all, SLWP Considered in the context of global conducted the most recent session sand mining, Sri Lanka seems much for the STF at Kilinochchi, for better placed to tackle the issue than officers serving in the northern many other countries facing this province. problem. The campaign by SLWP, NetWwater and their partners, with In the immediate future, SLWP and support from WIN and GWP, has NetWwater have further plans to proven successful, even if it is only a communicate the seriousness of start. At present, there are few other RSM through the Strategic use of examples where a National Policy on media. They believe this can be a very Sand as a resource for the powerful force for change and help to Construction Industry has been keep the campaign momentum alive. drafted, or where there is interaction Although funding is yet to be found, at a national level between the there are proposals to target speciﬁc regulatory authority, the law audiences such as farmers who are enforcement authority, NGOs, the likely to be affected by RSM, using media and the public at large. This radio programmes and other media. campaign clearly places Sri Lanka at There are also plans to host another the vanguard of the RSM issue. CURBING ILLEGAL SAND MINING IN SRI LANKA WATER INTEGRITYWATER IN ACTION

32 References

Athukorala, K. and Navaratne, C.M. (2007) ‘Shifting Sands in Sri Lanka – Mobilizing and Networking for Collective Action by River Sand Mining Affected Communities’ [Online] Available: http://iasc2008.glos.ac.uk/conference%20papers/papers/A/Athukorala_214701.pdf (Accessed 21.07.13) Briet, O.J.T., Galappaththy, G.N.L, Konradsen, F., Amerasinghe, P.H., Amerasinghe, F.P. (2005) Maps of the Sri Lanka malaria situation preceding the tsunami and key aspects to be considered in the emergency phase and beyond, Malaria Journal [Online] Available: http://www.malariajournal.com/content/4/1/8 (Accessed 30.04.13) Dolage, D.A.R., Dias, M.G.S., Ariyawansa, C.T. (2013) ‘Offshore Sand as a Fine Aggregate for Concrete Production’, British Journal of Applied Science and Technology Vol.: 3, Issue: 4 (October-December) [Online] Available: http://www.sciencedomain.org/abstract.php?iid=226&id=5&aid=1397 (Accessed 20.07.13) Dredging News Online/ Clarksons (2009) ‘Sri Lanka to issue sand mining licences to aid reconstruction effort’ [Online] Available: http://www.sandandgravel.com/news/article.asp?v1=8405 (Accessed 20.07.13) Gerritsen, F. and Amarasinghe, S. R.(1976) Coastal Problems In Sri Lanka [Online] Available: http://www.loiczsouthasia.org/pdfdocuments/SLKemICM.pdf (Accessed 30.04.13) Global Construction Perspectives Ltd.(20132) ‘Global Construction 20250’ [Online] Available: http://www.globalconstruction2025.com/http://www.globalconstruction2020.com/ (accessed 194.0806.13)

ICRA Lanka and IMaCs (2011) ‘Construction’ [Online] Available: CURBING ILLEGAL SAND MINING IN SRI LANKA http://www.icralanka.com/Sri%20Lanka%20Construction%20- %20Sept%2015%20ﬁnal.pdf (Accessed 23.07.13) LIFE-WRU (Lanka International Forum on Environment and Sustainable Development – Water Resource Unit) (2000) ‘Water Vision 2025, Sri Lanka’, Sri Lanka National Water Partnership, Colombo WATER INTEGRITYWATER IN ACTION

33 Lowry, K. and Wickremeratne, H.J.M (1988) Coastal Area Management in Sri Lanka, Coastal Management, The University of Chicago NetWwater (n.d.) ‘Case Study NetWwater’ [Online] Available: http://www.womenforwater.org/docs/SriLanka.pdf (Accessed 21.07.13) Piyadasa, R U.K (2009) River sand mining and associated environmental problems in Sri Lanka, Sediment Problems and Sediment Management in Asian River Basins (Proceedings of the Workshop held at Hyderabad, India, September 2009). IAHS Publ. 349, 2011, 148-153 [Online] Available: http://www.iahs.info/redbooks/a349/abs_349_0148.pdf (Accessed 08.05.13) Piyadasa, R.U.K. (2012) Problems and Issues Related to River Sand Mining in Sri Lanka, Annual Research Symposium, University of Colombo [Online] Available: http://archive.cmb.ac.lk/research/handle/70130/2978 (Accessed 08.05.13) Ratnayake, R.(2008) River Sand Mining – Boon or Bane? A synopsis of a series of national, provincial and local level dialogues on unregulated/illicit river sand mining, Sri Lanka Water Partnership Richmond, B.M., Jaffe, B.E., Gelfenbaum,G., Morton, R.A (2006) Geologic Impacts of the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami on Indonesia, Sri Lanka, and the Maldives [Online] Available: http://walrus.wr.usgs.gov/reports/reprints/Richmond_ZGNF_146.pdf (Accessed 30.04.13) Samaranayake, R.A.D.B. (2005) ‘Pre-and post-tsunami coastal planning and land-use policies and issues in Sri Lanka’, FAO Forestry [Online] Available: http://www.fao.org/forestry/13144-0dca7f82cc26e17f422eb31a25361fcf0.pdf (Accessed on 25. 04.2013) Senaratne, A. and Dissanayake, R. (2006) ‘Resource Base and Sustainable Resource Use: Options and Alternatives to Meet Demand’. In: Proceedings – National Dialogue on River Sand and Clay Mining, Sri Lanka Foundation Institute, pp 8-19 Sri Lanka Water Partnership (SLWP) (2012) Narrative Report/Journal Jul-Dec 2012 [Online] Available: http://www.lankajalani.org/docs/juldec2012.pdf (Accessed 16.05.2013) Transparency International (2012) 'Bribe Payers Index Report 2011' [Online] Available: CURBING ILLEGAL SAND MINING IN SRI LANKA http://bpi.transparency.org/bpi2011/results/ (Accessed 19.08.2013) Welland, M. (2009) ‘Sand – The Never Ending Story’, University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles, California WATER INTEGRITYWATER IN ACTION

34 APPENDIX 1: Reference list for countries where problems with sand mining have been reported Byrnes, M. R., Hammer, M. R.,Thibaut,T.D., Snyder, D.B.(2004) ‘Effects of Sand Mining on Physical Processes and Biological Communities Offshore New Jersey, U.S.A.’, Journal of Coastal Research 20(1), 25–43 Byrnes, M.R., J.S. Ramsey, R.M. Hammer, and E.A. Wadman (2000) ‘Assessing Potential Environmental Impacts of Offshore Sand and Gravel Mining’. Final Report to the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, Executive Office of Environmental Affairs, Coastal Zone Management, 43 pp. Cambers, G. (ed.), 1997 ‘Managing Beach Resources in the Smaller Caribbean Islands’ Papers presented at a UNESCO – University of Puerto Rico Workshop, 21- 25 October 1996, Mayaguez, Puerto Rico. Coastal region and small island papers, No.1, UPR/SGCP- UNESCO, Mayaguez,269 pp. Clancy, T. (2004) ‘The War on Bosnia’, World Watch Magazine [Online] Available: http://www.worldwatch.org/node/545 (Accessed 26.07.13) Farrant, A. R., Mathers, S. J. and Harrison, D. J. (2003). ‘River Mining: sand and gravel resources of the lower Rio Minho and Yallahs fan-delta, Jamaica’, British Geological Survey Commissioned Report CR/03/161N. 24pp. Femmer, S. R. (2002) ‘Instream Gravel Mining and Related Issues in Southern Missouri’ USGS Fact Sheet 012–02, US Department of Interior Gunaratne, L.H.P. and Jayarooriya,K.A.S.P (2007), ‘River sand mining in Sri Lanka: trade- off between private profitability and environmental costs’, Department of Agricultural Economics and Business Management, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya,Sri Lanka [Online] Available: http://network.idrc.ca/uploads/user- S/11782488061Herath.pdf (Accessed 26.07.13) Halweil, B. (2000) ‘Where have all the farmers gone?’, World Watch Magazine Volume 13, No.5 [Online] Available: http://www.worldwatch.org/node/490 (Accessed 26.07.13) Hartman, A. (2010) ‘Namibia: Uncontrolled Sand Mining Days Numbered’, All Africa.com [Online] Available: http://allafrica.com/stories/201012150416.html (Accessed 26.07.13) CURBING ILLEGAL SAND MINING IN SRI LANKA Hoering, U. (2008) ‘Water to the People – Drinking Water and Water for Livelihoods’, Conflicts and Alternative Concepts in India, EED Church Development Service, Germany and Water and Democracy Initiative, India [Online] Available: http://www.globe-spotting.de/fileadmin/user_upload/globe- spotting/english/Water_to_the_People.pdf (Accessed 26.07.13) Jacob, S. (2010) ‘Bangladesh sand to help keep Maldives afloat’, Business Standard [Online] Available: http://www.business-standard.com/india/news/bangladesh-

sand-to-help- keepmaldives-aﬂoat/419790/ (Accessed 26.07.13) INTEGRITYWATER IN ACTION

35 Kamis (2011) ‘People of Wera Resist Iron Sand Mining Corporations’, HidupBiasa [Online] Available: http://hidupbiasa.blogspot.com/2011/04/people-of-wera-resist-iron- sand- mining.html (Accessed 26.07.13) Kondolf, G.M., Smeltzer, M., Kimball, L. (2001) ‘Freshwater Gravel Mining and Dredging Issues’, Whitepaper prepared for Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife, Center for Environmental Design Research, University of California, Berkeley [Online] Available: http://wdfw.wa.gov/publications/00056/wdfw00056.pdf (Accessed 26.07.13) Nyandwi, N (2001) ‘Survey of the extent of human-induced beach erosion problems in Tanzania’, Institute of Marine Sciences, University of Dar es Salaam Tanzania [Online] Available: http://gridnairobi.unep.org/chm/EAFDocuments/Tanzania/ Human_induced_beach_erosion.pdf. (Accessed 26.07.13) Padmalal, D., Maya, K.,Sreeba, S., Sreeja, R. (2008) ‘Environmental effects of river sand mining: a case from the river catchments of VembanadLake, south-west coast of India’ Environ Geol (2008) 54:879–889, Springer Sekhar, L. K. and Jayadev, S. K. (2003) ‘Karimanal (Mineral Beach-Sand) Mining in the Alapuzha Coast of Kerala – A People’s Perspective’, in Martin J. Bunch, V. Madha Suresh and T. VasanthaKumaran, eds.,Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Environment and Health, Chennai, India,15-17 December, 2003. Chennai: Department of Geography, University of Madras and Faculty of Environmental Studies, York University. Pages 470 – 488. Sreeba,S. and Padmalal, D. (2011) ‘Environmental Impact Assessment of Sand Mining from the Small Catchment Rivers in the Southwestern Coast of India: A Case Study’ Environmental Management 47:130–140 The Jakarta Post (2007) ‘Govt Told Not to Resume S’pore Sand Exports’ [Online] Available: http://www.minesandcommunities.org/article.php?a=7686&highlight= sand (Accessed 26.07.13) CURBING ILLEGAL SAND MINING IN SRI LANKA WATER INTEGRITYWATER IN ACTION

Water Integrity In Action Curbing Illegal Sand Mining in Sri Lanka

The Water Integrity Network (WIN) series Water Integrity in Action aims to look into detail at specific themes or areas of the water sector that have been affected by corruption. The purpose of the series is to share good practices so that evidence is documented to benefit the water sector and to help strengthen the fight against corruption.

Without sand, there can be no construction of buildings, roads, airports, parking lots, bridges, ports or many of the other things that we take for granted in modern life. River sand mining has become a very controversial practice today and illegal sand mining is often becoming the norm. Very often however, despite such controversy, the practice continues unabated. This ﬁrst publication in the WIN series “Water Integrity in Action” explores how the island nation of Sri Lanka has managed to curb illegal sand mining along two of its major rivers – Maha Oya and Deduru Oya. Such action was largely due to the campaign efforts of the Sri Lanka Water Partnership and NetWater, supported by Global Water Partnership and Water Integrity Network. Although the campaign is far from over, the aim in this publication is to take stock of the situation, to document the progress made so far as well as the challenges that lie ahead.

The Water Integrity Network (WIN) is an action-oriented coalition of organisations and individuals promoting water integrity to reduce and prevent corruption in the water sector. Its membership includes the public sector, the private sector and civil society, as well as leading knowledge-based organisations and networks in the water sector. WIN works through knowledge sharing, advocacy, capacity building and the development and promotion of tools to improve integrity in the water sector. As of 2013, WIN is funded by grants from the governments of Germany (BMZ), The Netherlands (DGIS), Sweden (Sida) and Switzerland (SDC).

Water Integrity Network Alt Moabit 91b, 10559 Berlin, Germany www.waterintegritynetwork.net [email protected]