American Labor Unions: an Outline of Growth and Structure. INSTITUTION State Univ

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ED 073 291 VT 018 997 AUTHOR Richardson, Reed C. TITLE American Labor Unions: An Outline of Growth and Structure. INSTITUTION State Univ. of New York, Ithaca. School of Industrial and Labor Relations at Cornell Univ. REPORT NO ILR-Bull -30 11. PUB DATE 70 NOTE 25p.; 2nd Edition AVAILABLE FROM.Publications Division, New York State School of Industrial and Labor Relations, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14850 (Single copy free, except for $.25 handling charge, additional copies $1.00 each; Out-of-State $1.00 each)

EDRS PRICE MF-46:65-711C-$3.29 DESCRIPTORS Federal Legislation; *Labor Demands; Labor Legislation; *Labor Problems; *Labor Unions; *Policy Formation; Power Structure; Pyramid Organization; Union Members

ABSTRACT This publication attempts to explain, through historical description, the organizationalstructure of labor unions in the U.S. and the influence of major unionsover the initiation of decision making policies governing their membership. Begun in1792, with the unification of a group of Philadelphia shoemakers,labor unions spread from local to national by 1860. Competition of products side by side in the same market or townas well as that experienced from immigrants entering the country in increasing numbers,soon led to the development of the American Federation of Labor (AFL),an organization which brought together national trade unions. The enactment of federal legislation in 1930 which protected the worker caused a tremendous increase in union membership. In 1938 the Committee for Industrial Organization (CIO), whichwas later changed to the Congress of Industrial Organizations was establishedas a result of confusion and differences of opinion within the AFL.A merger between the two groups produced the currently existing AFL-CIO from which state and city-wide organizations have emerged, each having a certain interdependence, yet maintaininga great degree of autonomy. (SN) FILMED FROM BESTAVAILABLE COPY

American LABOR UNION-S- anoutline of growth and structure by REED C. RICHARDSON

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ILR BULLETIN NUMBER 30 s'

r-4 U.S DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH. EDUCATION & WELFARE OFFICE OF EDUCATION THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEENREPRO OUCEO EXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROM THE PERSON OR ORGANIZATIONORIG. INATING IT. POINTS OF VIEW OR OPIN IONS STATED 00 NOT NECESSARILY REPRESENT OFFICIAL OFFICE OFEOU CATION POSITION OR POUCY

LJ American Labor Unions an outline of growth andstructure

by REED C. RICHARDSON

BULLETIN 30 SECOND EDITION

NEW YORK STATE SCHOOLOF INDUSTRIAL AND LABOR RELATIONS CORNELL UNIVERSITY, ITHACA, NEW YORK A publication of the New York State School of Industrial and Labor Relations, a Statutory College of the State University, Cornell University, Ithaca, New. York 14850

Fmsr Enrnorz: 1955 2nd printing, 1956 3rd printing, 1965 SECOND EDMON: 1970

There is a handling charge of 25¢ for each order unless accompanied by full payment. New York State orders: Single copy free (except for 250 handling charge) Additional copies $1.00 each Out-of-state orders: $1.00 per copy Bulk orders (5 or more) 10% discount Order from: PUBLICATIONS DIVISION, ILR School Contents

`S&e and Significance of Organized Labor Today 1

Historical Evolution of Labor Structure 2 The American Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial Organizations (AFL-CIO) 10

National and International Unions A.. 16

Local 19

General Summary 20

Organizational Charts 4, 6,8, 9

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About the Author

THE author was born on December 3, 1917 in Salt Lake City, Utah. He received his undergraduate training at the University of Utah and the Utah State Agricultural College. After serving with the United States Army for nearly five years during World War II, he continued his education at the University of California in Berkeley, where he received the MA. degree. He joined the staff of the Economics Department of the University of Utah in 1947. On leave of absence from Utah, he completed the requirements for the Ph.D. degree in 1955 at Cornell University in the School of Industrial and Labor Relations. His major field was Labor Union History and Admin- istration. A recent addition to his publications is The Locomotive Engineer, I863-1963 A Century of Railway Labor Relations and Work Rules.

Dr. Richardson is now Professor of Economics and Management and heads the Institute of Industrial Relations at the University of Utah. ti

SIZE- and SIGNIFICANCE of ORGANIZED LABOR TODAY

FROM a role of obscurity, the laborof 19.1million in 1966. Numbers union movement advanced so rapidly alone, however, do not indicate the after 1935 that today no single inter-great infNence that organized labor est group is more important, eco-has in o ir lives today. Reference to nomically,politically,orsocially.the strikes= of the past twentyyears Professor Arthur M. Schlesinger ofis ample proof that organized labor Harvard University considered theunions, especially those located in growth of organized labor one of thesuch strategic industries as transpor- ten outstanding developments of the tation,steel,coal, maritime, and first half of the twentieth century,automobile, exercise a much great- sharing thisdistinction with sucher economic and social power over tremendous events as the two Worldcur lives than mere membership Wars, the Great Depression of the figures would indicate. For example, 1930's, and the harnessing of atomic when the Steelworkers go outon energy. strike, it affects not only the workers In1933,there were 2,857,000on strike and their families but it workers who belonged to unions.affects the users of steel, suchas the With the protection given to work-automobile industry, the appliance ers by the legislation of the 1930's,'industry,manufacturersoffarm membership climbed rapidly to aequipment, and numerous other in- peak of about 18 million workers in dustries.Themanufacturerslose unions in 1956. From 1956, becausebusiness, th, workers lose wages,re- of a decline in employment, particu- tail stores lose sales. larly in manufacturing, membership Organized labor's roleas an im- declined to 17.6 million in 1962. Sus- portant cog in our industrial ma- tained economic activity and organi-chine, its constant pressure for better zationefforts among governmentworking conditions, and itsmore re- workers resulted in a rapid increasecent role in the fields of health and in membership from 1964 to 1966,welfare and community service have bringing total membership toa highbrought benefits to workers andto the nation as a whole far beyond 1 Guarantee of right to organize without interference from the employer. Em- 2 This does not mean that strikesare ployer required to bargain collectively inalways caused by labor groups. Manage- good faith with authorized representatives ment, by its actions, may cause labor to of employees. strike.

1 the limits of the union group itself. We shall be concerned here with Although much' .publicized,theonly one aspect of the labor move- political power of unions- is still anmenthow it is organized. We trust unknown _quantity. For instance, dothat this study, along with others, workers vote for a certain politicalwill help to increase the reader's party because they are workers andability to understand what he reads members of a union, or do workersand hears each day about organized vote for a certain political party forlabor. Above all,itis hoped the any of a number of other reasons,reader will realize that in regard to such as family tradition, influence ofthe everyday, real affairs of unions, its the area in which they live, theiris very difficult to make general state- religiousbeliefs,or the economicments which are true of all unions or climate of the time? Until we caneven of large portions of organized definitelydeterminethat workerslabor. Unions are extremely varied vote for a particular party becauseand complex in their structure and they are members of a union, it re-operation. It simply is not possible to mains very difficult to say that theresay that because one union develops is any such thing as a definite laboror behaves in a certain, way this is vote. typical of all unions.

HISTORICAL EVOLUTION of LABOR STRUCTURE DURING the period between the As long as the markets for the Revolutionary and Civil Wars, thegoodsproducedbylaborwere markets in which goods were sold chiefly local, organizations of local were mainly local. A primary reason nature were sufficient to protect the fOi--such a state of affairs was therights of the workers. lack of adequate and cheap transpor- As a result, beginning with the tation facilities to enable goods to beshoemakers of Philadelphia, organ- shipped and sold profitably from one ized in 1792, the labor organizations area to another. It is true that canalswhich developed between the Revo- were being built in several areas inlutionary and Civil Wars were al- the 1820's and that the railroad wasmost exclusively local in scope.' introduced in the 1830's, but it took Thus, the broad base and, to be time for the effect of these improve-sure, the backbone of labor organi- _ ments irA transportation to be felt. 1 A short-lived attempt was made in Not until the Civil War did markets 1834 to form a general organization of become nationwide in the full mean-all labor in the United States. A few national. trade unions were organized in ing of the term. the 1850's.

2 zationthe local unionwascon-petitivc advantage over another be- ceived and born early inour history.cause of wage differences. This base has broadened until bythe In other cases where the market end of 1966 there were 76,496 localwas still local, such as in the print- unions. ing trades, the need fora national National union was brought about by the competition of migratory workers As long as the marketswere local,coming into town and offering their the problems of laborwere also pri-services for less than the established marily local. But with the rapidex- town workers. A national union of pansion of transportation, especiallyprinters was formed, which then railroads, during and after the Civilattempted to control the actions of War, markets for many goods speed-these migratory workers by issuing ily became nationwide. Goods,in-cards which entitled themto the stead of being produced and soldbenefits of the unions in the various locally only, were now being shippedtowns. In return the migratory work- all over the nation. This raisedaeri were required to pledge them- number of problems for labor withselves not, to attempt to undermine which local unions were unableto wages of the established town work- cope, such as the *organization ofers by offering their services for less.2 employers on a national scaleto Thus, with the development of combat organized labor andthenational trade unions3(unions in competition of products from differ-the same trade affiliated together ent localities side by side in thesame into national bodiesmolders,print- market or town. ers,carpenters,bricklayers,cigar The stove molders, for exemple,makers), the second step in thede- found that stoves produced intwc velopmentofmodern-daylabor areas, such as St. Louis and Troy,structure was introduced. often were in competition with each other. If the price ofstoves of theFederation St. Louis manufacturerwas lower Continued pressurewas also felt because his wage rateswere lower,after the Civil War to bringlabor it put pressure on the Troymanu-into an even broaderorganization facturer to lower hiswages in orderthanthat ofthenationaltrade to place a price on his stove ivhichunion. Examples of problemswhich was as low as the stoves from St. 2 It should be noted that, in specifd Louis. To stop suchpressures oncases, national unions have been formed wages, the molders formed a national for other reasons. To mention eachone union with the avowed would only tendto complicate rather. purpose ofthan to clarify. bringing all wages of moldersto the 3 As these national organizatiins spread same level so asto prevent oneinto Canada and Mexico theybecame manufacturer from obtaining known as internationals andvery often a com- added this term to their title.

3 it was felt required bn ader organi-zation bringing toyether(for co- zation than the national union tooperation) the national trade unions. solve were: the competition of im-With the formation of the AFL, the migrants coming into the country -typical pyramid-like structure, with in unrestricteci lumbers, the hostile the locals at the base, the nationals attitude of the courts, and, in manyand internationals in the middle, and cases, the unsympathetic: attitude ofthe federation at the top (illustrated the federal government toward or-in Chart I), was completed. This ganized labor. Increasingly, organ-structure is still basic for the greater ized labor found itself occupied withpart of organized labor today. attempts either to prevent adverseState and Loca: Organizations legislation from being passed by Con- gress or to bring pressure on Con- Not ..j1 tutraters of common congress to pass legislation to protectcern to workers in the various trades the workers from increases in hoursare national in scope. For instance, and poorer working conditions. legislation of the State of New York Several attempts were made tois not a matter of direct interest to establish a nationwide organizationthe workers of California, but is of in the 1860's and 1870's but of thesecommon interest to the workers of only one achieved success to anyNew York. To deal with such mat- great degree. This was the Knights ters as legislation (such things as un- of Labor which was built on the employmentinsurance, disability "one big union" idea of allowing allcompensation, taxes which affect the types of workers' organizations toworkers of the state) and education, affiliate, regardless of trade or craft.'statewide organizations of workers have been formed .° CH ART I Other matters are primarily of common interest on a localbasis, AFL such as dealing with local employers,civic activities,citylaws and International ordinances, and city elections, to list and National CHART II I AFL [ jai State International The significant development for and I modern-day structure, however, was National the formation in 1886 of the Ameri- can Federation of Labor, an organi- ...1 City I 4 The Knights reached a peak in 1886; after that, they suffered a rapid drop in 5 These are not collective bargaining membership. groups. 4 a few. To meet the need for up on a craft basis and divided action on a local basis, city-wide or-among the already existing craft ganizations have been established.6 unions of the AFL, workers in the These two types of organizations,mass-production industries, whether state-wide and thy-wide, comple-skilled or unskilled for example, ment each other and also assist inthe automobile industrywould be bringing about more effective actioncovered by one union. on a national scale under the direc- This createdfrictionwith the tion of the federations to which theyolder craft unions, which for a long are closely associated (sec Chart H). time had been opposed to any move which threatened the control they Development of the CIO had over certain types of workers. As was indicated. earlier, the leg-The craft union supporters, since islation of the l 930's, through guar-they were a majority in the AFL, anteing the right of workers todefeated all efforts by Lewis and organize without interference fromhis followers to secure approval of the employers, greatly encouragedindustrial unionism. Shortly after- a rapid growth in the membershipward, Lewis and the other advocates of organized labor. This was par-of industrial unionism established a ticularly tree of workers in the mass- Committee for Industrial Organiza- production industries, such as steel,tion (CIO) to further their cause automobile, and rubber, where at-within the AFL. This Committee tempts at organization had not been included, among others, such groups successful before. Since these work- as the United Mine Workers, the ers were semiskilled and unskilled AmalgamatedClothingWorkers, workers, it was difficult to divideand the International Ladies' Gar- them into unions made up of skilled ment Workers. It was augmented craftsmen(carpenters, machinists,later by several more unions, includ- bricklayers, etc.) which could be ab- ing the United Automobile Workers sorbed by the existing AFL craftof America and the United Rubber unions. Workers of America. Because the In 1935, at the annual conven- unions affiliated with this Committee tion, a group of leaders within therefused to disband when requested AFL, led by John L. Lewis of theby the Executive Council of the United Mine Workers, attempted to AFL, they were suspended in 1936. secure approval of a resolution fa- Lewis and his associates there- voring industrial organization for the upon set themselves up,in1938, mass-productionindustries.This as a rival federation to the AFL (see meant that, initead of being splitChart III). The letters CIO were 4 City-wide organizations have a long retained, but the name was changed history, dating back almost to the be-to Congress of Industrial Organiza- ginnings of the organized labor movement in the United States. tions. 5 CHART III

CIO i t International -1 Slate International f and and .1 National Naskiv.: ./ 1 . i I . t.912.1 p...:_..,......

The unity of the labor movementproblem wac intensified by the fact in the United States was shatteredthat both organizations were fairly in 1938 by the break between theequal in membership fora number advocatesofindustrialunionismof years. (CIO) and those favoring craftun- 2. Jurisdictional Problems. Ina ionism(AFL). Nevertheless,theunified organization, what would be hope for a settlement of differencesdone about CIO and AFL unions between these two groups was keptwith overlapping jurisdictions,i.e., alive over the years through a seriesCIO and AFL unions both claiming of conferences aimed at bringingthe right to organize the same work- unity once more to organizedla- ers? bor. The first of these unity confer- 3. Communist-dominated Unions. ences took place in 1937, a year be-The more conservative AFLwas re- fore the formal break, at the specialluctant to consider actual unifica- request of President Roosevelt. Othertion so long as such Communist-. unity meetings of representatives ofdominated unions asthe United the two federations were held in Electrical,RadioandMachine 1939, 1942, 1947, and 1950. FailireWorkers of America, the Interna- of these conferences to reunite thetional Union of Mine, Mill and AFL and the CIO was due to aSmelter Workers, and the Interna- number of reasons, among the moretional Fur and Leather Workers' important were the following: Union were allowed to retain their 1. Personalities. With two sets ofaffiliation with the CIO. officers, one for the CIO and one 4.IndustrialUnionismversus for the AFL, the question as to whoCraft Unionism. The conflictwas would hold the various offices in thenot only a conflict of principle over merged organization was of crucialthe basis of organization but also importance. For example, wouldconflictbetween twoopposing Phillip Murray, then President ofgroups for power in the labor move- the CIO, or William Green, thenment. The old-linecraftunions President of the AFL, be presidentwere certainly not in a mood to agree of the merged organization? Such ato any merger proposal which would 6 allow the rising industrial unions totion over the years until the ma- gain control of a merged organiza-jority of their affiliated unions was tion. If the industrial unions (CIO)neither strictly industrial nor craft. could be prevented from acquiringThis change placed their organiza- members from among workers whotional structures on more common could possibly be included in a craftground. (4) In 1953, both federa- union, it would be a means of main-tions, realizing the difficulties raised taining the numerical superiority ofby conflicting jurisdictional claims, the craft unions in the labor move-took the first step toward removing ment. jurisdictional problems from open These sources of conflict, varyingstrife with the adoption by the re- in importance at five different unityspective executive boards of the two conferences, prevented a real agree- federations of a "no-raiding" pact. ment from being made. However,This was one of the most significant as a result of developments withindevelopments leading to the final the labor movement, the differencesmerger negotiations. A no-raiding- between the AFL and the CIO grad-pact between the two organizations ually narrowed over the years someant that the AFL unions would that, by 1954, there was a greaternot attempt to enroll members be- possibility that successful unity ne-longing to CIO unions, and CIO gotiations could be conducted. unions would not attempt to enroll Among the more important ofAFL members. In order to be fully these developments between 1938effective, the no-raiding pact had to and 1954 were the following: (1) Inbe ratified by each affiliated interna- 1952, both national leaders, Williamtional union of the AFL and the Green of the AFL and Phillip Mur-CIO. Such a ratification was soon ray of the CIO, died. They were re-made by the overwhelming major- placed by two younger men, George ity of both groups, signifying their Meany (AFL) and Walter Reuthergeneral willingness to settle juris- (CIO), who were more willing todictional problemsbypeaceful subordinate individual interests and means. A few unions, including the aspirations to the bringing about ofpowerful Teamsters' union, refused an effective unity of labor. (2) Theto ratify the no-raiding pact. (5) CIO, in 1949-1950, expelled elevenFinally, the significance of the Taft- Communist-dominated unions fromHartley Act as a unifying force can- its ranks, thus removing an obstacle not be overlooked. The efforts of to successful negotiations with theboth groups combined in a unified AFL. (3) Both groups, while hold-politicaloppositiontothe Taft- ing to their respective philosophies--Hartley Act certainly made it easier industrial unionism (CIO) and craftfor them to discuss organic unity. unionism (AFL) had, in practice, Thus, as a result of the removal broadened their basis of organiza-of many points of conflict which

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had prevented effective unity talksthe same locality for the following in earlier conferences, the leaders ofconvention of the AFL-CIO. Ratifi- the AFL and CIO were able, bycation of the merger agreement by 1955, to work out a unity agreement.the AFL convention was without Under this agreement, the two fed-incident. Ratification by the CIO erations were to be merged into oneconvention was almost unanimous. unitedfederation, known astheMichael Quill, President of the CIO American Federation of Labor andTransport Workers, and two dele- the Congress of Industrial Organi-gates representing localindustrial zations? At the time, Meany andunion councils voted against the Reuther issued a joint statementmerger. The separate ratifying con- which follows, in part: ventions of the two federations were The agreement reached to- followed, on December 5, by the day by the AFL and CIO Unity founding convention of the AFL- Committee sets the course for CIO, where the new constitution the attainment of a merger of and related agreements were ap- theAmericanFederationof proved and officers were elected. Labor and the Congress of In- The merged organization did not dustrial Organizations into a alter the basic structure of organ- united trade union movement. ized labor (see Chart IV). Unifica- This agreementif accepted tion of offices at the federation level by the executive bodies of our was taken care of with dispatch. two organizations, as we hope However, unification of state AFL and expectwill mark the end and CIO federations, though in- of the division in the free trade tended to be completed in two years, union movement of our coun- was extended over a much longer try that has existed for almost period of time. 20 years. CHART IV It is our belief that a united labor movement will be able to I AFLCIO devote the talent and strength s"I State of our trade unions to greater International and service to the people of the National United States. Both federations changed their Local ------aq I convention datesto December 1 and 2, 1955, so as to deal simul- The merger agreement in no way taneously with the problem of rati-changed the structure of the affili- fication and to be congregated inated national unions nor does it require them to merge. Neverthe- 7 References to the merged organization in the remainder of this bulletinless, discw.sions have taken place be- will be under the designation AFL-CIO.tween a number of unions with

8 overlapping jurisdictions looking to-cratic procedures."' About 25 per- ward or resulting in merger. To citecent of other independent unions just two examples: the Barbers andhave been affiliated with a national Beauty Culturists of America (for-federation at some time or other in merly CIO)reaffiliated with thetheir history. The classic example is Journeyman Barbers, Hairdressers,the United Mine Workers which has Cosmetologists, and Proprietors' In-been in and out of both federations ternational Union of America (for- (AFL and CIO).- These unions, merly AFL) ; and the Internationalthen, add another group to the chart Glove Workers Union of Americaof, organization (see Chart V)." (AFL-CIO) became a part of the This brief resume of the growth Amalgamated Clothing Workers ofof trade union organization in the America (AFL-CIO).- United States leaves a number of questions unanswered. It does not, Independent Unionism A minority, but a rathc. ailpor- CHART V tant minority, of unions have cho- AFL CIO 1 Independent sen not to affiliate themselves either Internationals with the AFL or the CIO or with and International Nationals the now merged organization, AFL- and CIO .° This group represents 61 of National the approximately 190 international unions and about 3 million of the total membership of organized labor in the United States.° Included Is The Brotherhood of Railroad Train- are some unions, such as the Engi- men (196,000 members) and the Brother- hood of Locomotive Firemen and En- neers and Conductors of the Rail- ginemen (75,000 members) abandoned road Operating Brotherhoods, which their traditional independence and affili- have never been affiliated with aated with the AFL-CIO in 1957 and 1958, respectively. Other major develop. national federation (AFL, CIO or ments since these figures were published AFL-CIO), andtheTeamsters' in1967 were the disaffiliation of the UAW (Auto Workers) from the AFL- union (1,600,000 members) expelled CIO in July of 1968, taking with them from the AFL-CIO in 1957 for fi- a membership of over 1,400,000 and the nancial malpractices and undemo- expulsion of the Chemical Workers (93,- 000) in 1969. The latter was expelled for affiliating with the Alliance for Labor s Although these groups have been left Action, a separate organization estab- until the end of the historical summary, lished by the Teamsters and Auto Work- they are not of recent origin. Some of ers which the AFL-CIO considers a dual them, particularly the Railroad Brother- organization. hoods, were established even before the 11 Labor organizations in the United AFL. States are also affiliated with regional or a Includes theconsiderableincrease world groups outside of the United States, brought about by the expulsion of eleven including the International Confederation Communist-dominated unions from the of Free Trade Unions (ICFTU) and the CIO in 1950. International Trade Secretariats (ITS). 9 for instance, indicate the numerousother. The following discussion of shapes and forms that labor organi-federation, nationals, and locals is zations take in practice. It does notpresented to explain and illustrate, indicate where the actual control is not only the formal pattern of struc- between the federation and the na-ture, but also the practicalrela- tionals, on the one hand, and the tionshipsofthesethreegeneral nationals and thelocals,. on thegroups.

THE AMERICAN FEDERATION of LABOR and CONGRESS of INDUSTRIAL ORGANIZATIONS (AFL-CIO)

THE formation of the AFL-CIO tionalLadies'Garment Workers' represented the merging of interestsUnion,with440,000members.' of the two 'majorl federations of theThere were also such little-known labor movement, the AFL and theunions as the International Associ- CIO, which had existed separatelyation of Siderographers (engravers on a formal basis since-11938. There-of softened steel or iron), with a fore, an understanding of the struc-membership of 44, and the Interna- ture and philosophy of the AFL andtional Union of Journeymen Horse- the CIO as they existed separatelyshoers ofthe United States and prior to their merger is necessary toCanada,- with a membership of 246. obtain a clear view of the nature of In addition, there were 50 state the combined federation. federationsoflabor (including As the AFL existed in 1955 priorAlaska 'and Puerto Rico), 829 city to the merger, it was a loose federation composed of 108 national and 1 For purposes of comparability, the membership figures in this bulletin have international trade unions with aall been taken from the Directory of Na- membershipof approximately11 tional and International Labor Unions in million. To theinternationals,in the United States (U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1955 turn, were affiliated some 50,000 and 1967) which bases the membership local trade unions. Included among figures on the reports which the various the: international unions were such unions make to the Bureau of Labor Sta- tistics and includes membership in the well-known groups as the UnitedUnited States and Canada. Since most BrotherhoodofCarpentersand unions use per capita dues payments to joiners of America, with over 800,- theirinternationalstocomputetheir membership reports.these figures may 000members;theInternational be above or below the actual dues-paying Brotherhood of Teamsters, Chauf- membership. Later figures can always be feurs, Warehousemen and Helpersobtained from individual unions. Addi- tionalinformation on union- member- of America, with a membership in ship may be found in Information Please excess of 1,200,000; and the Intema- and World Almanac. lo centralfederationstodealwithrnent, such as the Boilermakers who problems of state or local interests,belonged to both the Construction and over 900 federal labor unions.and the Metal Trades Departments, For example, in New York thereand the -Electrical Workers who be- were a statefederation of labor,longed, in addition, to the Railway with headquarters in Albany, andEmployees' Department. 38 city central groups, composed of A fifth department was concerned the AFL locals of the various AFLwiththemaintenance of union internationals, located in such citiesstandards through the use of the as Albany, Buffalo, Cortland, El-unionlabel.For example, many mira; Ifffaca, New York City,nditems of clothing beara label iden- Watertown. tifying them as having been made One of the major problems facingby union labor and under union the AFL very early inits historyconditions. This practice is toen- was the problem of jurisdiction. Tocouragetheuseofunion-made illustrate, the Machinists and Car- goods. penters were engagedinseveral The CIO, with 5.2 millionmem- squabbles over who should installbers in 1955, was similar in general machines where woodwas involved.structure to the AFL, except that To deal with such problemsamong theunionscomposingthe CIO unions with mutual trade interests,tended toward the industrial prin- fourdepartmentsoperatingwith ciple of organization, whereas the their own full staffs were establishedAFL tended to favor the craft prin- within the AFL. These departmentsciple of organization. Therewere were called the Building and Con- 30internationalunionsaffiliated struction Trades Department, thewith the CIO; 44 state industrial Metal Trades Department, the Rail-union councils, "including the Dis- way Employees' Department, andtrictof Columbia; 296 city and the Maritime Trades Department.county.. councils, and approximately Trade unions in the construction, 100localindustrialunions affili- metal, railway, and maritime tradesated directly with the CIO. Some of were affiliated with these depart-the better-known CIO international ments in addition to being affiliatedunions were: the Automobile Work- with the AFL through theirown ers, with a membership of approxi- internationals.Forexample,themately 1,200,000; the Steelworkers, Building and Construction Tradeswith 1,100,000 members; and the "Depar "tment included such unionsas ClothingWorkers,with385,000 the Bricklayers, Masons and Plas-members. terers, the Electrical Workers, the The CIO, like the AFL, had its Carpenters, and the Painters. Insev- jurisdictional troubles (conflicts be- eral instances, one trade unionwas tween CIO unions as to which ones affiliated with more than one depart-would represent certain workers).

11 As a result, Dr. George W. Taylor,lishment of a sixth department (dis- former Chairman of the Wage Sta-cussed below), known as the Indus- bilization Board, was appointed intrial Union Department, to recog- 1952 as arbitrator to settle jurisdic-nize the interests of unions organized tional problems between CIO ,un-in whole or in part on an industrial ions. He was succeeded by Nathanunion basis. Through the establish- P. Fehisinger in 1953. Whenever ament of this department, the merged jurisdictionaldispute arose withinorganization acknowledged the value the CIO which was not settled, itof organization on an industrial as went to the arbitrator, who ren-well as on a craft basis. deredadecisionbindingboth The AFL-CIO, according to the parties. 1967 Directory, brings into a unified Bothfederationspursuedthefederation 129 international unions generalobjectivesof encouragingformerly, affiliated with either the the formation and extension of or-AFL or with the CIO or independ- ganized labor into the unorganizedent. The affiliation of these 129 in- field,securing lawsfavorableto ternational unions brings intothe labor,and promoting afriendlyfold of a single federation about publicfeelingtowardorganized65,000 local unions and a total mem- labor. bership of about 16,000,000 workers. State federations affiliated with the AFL-CIO new organization number 50 with The unified federation formed byother bodies covering the territories a combination of the former Amer-of Puerto Rico and the District of iCaTiTederatiOn of Labor and theColumbia. City and county federa- former Congress of Industrial Or-tions in the AFL-CIO number 800 to ganizations retained the same basic900.3 Although the merging of ad- structure of the merging federations,ministrative offices on the national namely, locals affiliated with theirand regional levels was completed internationals and the internationals,soon after the merger, the process of in turn, affiliated with the AFL-merging city and state organizations CIO combinedfederation.'" Thecontinued for same time after 1955. main structural concessionin theThe merger agreement allowed state merger agreement was the estab-and city organizations until Decem- ber of 1957 to complete the con- 2 An interesting feature of the Imple- mentation Agreement, which sets forthsolidation. However, the merger of the legal aspects of the merger, is found in allstatebodies chartered by the Section1. This section states that the newly formed federation is to be "deemed, former AFL and the former CIO for all purposes, to be a combination and was not accomplished until1961 continuation" of the AFL and the CIO. Neither the AFL nor the CIO "shall be 3 Foradministrativeefficiency,the deemed, for any purpose, to be dissolved, AFL-CIO is also divided into 23 regional terminated, or discontinued. ..." offices.

12 -

when the New Jersey organizations9 delegates for unions with a mem- merged. The latest report of the fed-bership of 175,000. Unions with a eration indicated that unity had alsolarger membership are entitled to been achieved for all city and county9 delegates plus one additional del- central bodies. Some difficulty wasegate for each 75,000 members over experienced in gaining the coopera- 175,000. Thus, unions such as the tion of unions in the construction Air Line Dispatchers Association and trades to merge at state and localthe Radio and Television Directors levels, because they feared that theirGuild will each have one delegate. A power and position would be under-union such as the Garment Work- mined by affiliation with a centralers will have 12 and the Machinists body in which there were industrial 20. unions covering plants where mem- Of even greater significance in bers of the construction trade unionsexplaining power relationships with- worked. in the AFL-CIO, however, is the Policy and Administration apportionment of the voting. State and city federations each have one The policies of the federation are vote. Votes for the affiliated inter- decided upon in the national con- national unions are on a basis of one ventionofthe AFL-CIO. These vote for each dues-paying member. conventions are run on much the On such a basis, it can be clearly ap- same style as the conventions of the preciated that the larger unions in Democratic and Republican par- the federation carry a decisive vote ties with behind-the-scene maneu- in the policies adopted, just as the vering and compromise on policy by larger states,such as New York, the more important groups before Pennsylvania, and California, do at proposals are introduced on the floor the national conventions of the poli- of the convention. The vote on the tical parties. floor of the convention thus becomes more of a formal assenttothat Between conventions, the federa- which has already been agreed upon tion is run by executive boards. The by the more powerful unions withinAFL-CIO constitution 'provides for the federation. Delegates from thetwo general or executive groups: various affiliated bodies including in- the Executive Council and the Gen- ternational, state, and city organiza-eral Board. The Executive Council tions, and local federal unions meetnumbers 35 and consists of the Vice- in convention every two years duringPresidents elected from the more im- the last four months of the year at aportant international unions plus the time and place designated by the Ex-AFL-CIO President and Secretary- ecutive Council. Delegates to theTreasurer. It meets atleast three convention are on an apportionedtimes a year and under the con- basis, varying from one delegate forstitutionischarged with there- unions of less than 4,000 members tosponsibilityof governing thefed-

13 oration between conventions. Thereers' education, community services, was, until 1967, an Executive Com- politicalaction,civilrights,and mittee consisting of the Presidentethical practices. and the Secretary- Treasurer and six Vice-Presidents selected by the Ex-Departments ecutive Council. This committee met As mentioned earlier, the AFL every two months and acted as an ad-prior to the merger already hades- visory and consulting committee fortablished five departments to aid in the general officers of the federation settling problems connected with jur- on policy matters. This committeeisdiction, collective bargaining, and was disbanded by convention actionthe union label. The merger brought in 1967. into existence a new department, the To effect broader representation Industrial Union Department. Affili- in the administration of federationation with the Industrial Union De- affairs, the General Board, patternedpartment is open to all international after the old CIO administrativeunions in the AFL-CIO which are setup, includes all 35 members of theorganized in whole or in =part on an AFL-CIO Executive Council plusindustrial union basis. The stated one represent ;rive, usually the Presi-objective of this department is: dent or a principal officer, from each of the affiliated international unions To promotetheinterestsof and each of the departments. The industrialunionswithinthe General Board thus h_ as 166 mem- AFL-CIO consistent with the bers and meets once a year to decide principleestablishedinthe all policy questions referred to it by AFL-CIOconstitution that the executive officers or the Execu- both craft and industrial un- tive Council. It serves, in effect, as a ions are appropriate, equal and broader sounding board on matters necessary as methods of union of crucial concern to the federation. organization. In addition to these general offi- The IndustrialUnion Depart- cers, the federation has a large ad-ment is by far the largest organized ministrative staff operating in muchgroup within the federation struc- the same manner as any large cor-ture and, consequently, plays an im- poration. A large staff is necessitatedportant role in the administrative by the many activities of the federa-policies of the AFL-CIO. At the tionwhichincludeinternationaltime of merger, the new department affairs, organization, research, legis-opened business with 66 affiliated lation, publicity, publications,* work-unionsrepresenting over7mil- 4 For example, the AFL-CIO publisheslion union members. Thirty-five of the AFL-CIO News (weekly), the Ameri- the 66 affiliated unions, representing can Federationist(monthly), and the AFL-CIO Collective Bargaining Report about one-third of the membership, (monthly). were former AFL unions. The re-

14 maining two-thirds were members oftionals is through persuasion, rather former CIO affiliatedunions. In-than force, and depends to a great cluded amongthe66affiliatedextent upon the willingness of the groups were such unions as theinternationalstocooperate. The Automobile Workers, Steelworkers,only disciplining power of the fed- Teamsters, Machinists,5 and Electri-eration is its constitutional right to cal Workers, to name a few of thesuspend and expelunions which largest. There Were also-such smallviolate established rules or policy. unions astheBarbers, BroadcastWith the exception of a few notable Employees and Technicians, Leathercases, namely the AFL. expulsion in Workers, Transport Service Work-1938 of some unions which later ers, Coopers, and Technical Engi-constituted the CIO, the CIO ex- neers. Latest figures indicate that be-pUlsion of eleven Connitunist-dont- cause of expulsions and mergers offilmed unions in 1949-1950, and the AFL-CIO affiliates the total numberexpulsion from the AFL-CIO of the ofinternationalunionsaffiliatedTeamsters (1957), the Bakery Work- with the Industrial Union Depart-ers union (1957), and the Chemical ment stood at 58 in 1966, a reduc-Workers Union (1969), this power tion of 8. However, the departmenthas been used sparingly. The federa- still accounted for the largest singletions in the past (AFL and the bloc of union members within theCIO) have considered its use a sign AFL-CIO. of weakness which they would rather A new department was organizednot publicize. In addition, suspend- and given constitutional status ining or expelling a union has not 1961, composed of unions in theproven, to date, a very strong cor- food and beverage -trades, but wasrective for wayward unions, since, in disbanded by convention action inmany cases, they continue to func- 1965. tion and, in some cases, tp prosper as independent unions, viz. the Team- Authority and Power sters' union, which has continued to of the Federation expand as an independent union. The federationis primarilya Also, both federationsmere par- service organization established forticularly the AFLwere, prior to the purpose of aiding the affiliatedthe merger, very hesitant to intrude internationals in problems require-in the internal affairs of the inter- ing' broader organization. Its powernationals. The reason for this was over the quite independent interim-that the internationals have tradi- tionallybeentouchy 5 Only 400,000 of the Teamsters' mem- about any bership and 450,000 of the Machinists' interference with their freedom of membership qualified as members of in- action and on the slightest pretext dustrial unions and were therefore eli- gible for affiliation with the Industrialhave suddenly withdrawn from the Union Department. federation with whichthey were

15 affiliated. For example, the Car-which he had written, "Green, we pentersunion, one ofthe mostdisaffiliate. Lewis." powerful groups of the AFL, sud- The point should be made, how- denly announced it was leaving theever,thatdespitetheapparent AFL in the summer of 1953 becauseweakness of the federation to com- it didn't like an agreement the AFLpelthe internationalsto comply, made with the CIO. (The walkoutthere has been a remarkable degree was only temporary.) Another ex-of unity. This solidarity' has resulted ample was the International Associ-primarily from the willingness -of ation of Machinists. This group hasthe internationals to conform volun- been in and out of the AFL severaltarily to the general policies of the times. In 1946 it withdrew becausefederation and from the exercise of the Machinists felt the AFL Execu- diplomacy by the federation officers tiveCouncilwasdiscriminatingin representing their affiliated or- against them. It returned in 1951,ganizations. The history of labor fed- stillindependent in thought anderation is a testimony of the effec- action. The classic of all examplestiveness of persuasion as a substitute of abrupt decisions was expressedfor force. with brevity on a slip of paper G It still remains to be seen howimuch John L. Lewis of the Mineworkers impact the new alliance of the independent unions of the Teamsters and Auto handed to the President of the AFL Workers (Alliance for Labor Action) will during the convention of 1947, on have upon the solidarity of the AFL-CIO.

NATIONAL and INTERNATIONAL UNIONS

OF the 190 international unions in000 to the Siderographers with 29 the United States, 61 are not affili-members; and from the Carpenters ated with the AFL-CIO. However,with 2,643 local affiliated unions and this should not be taken to meanthe United Federation of Postal that a large part of 'organized laborClerks with 6,776 locals, to the Fed- is outside of the federation, sinceeral Employees Association with 1 bettdr than 8 out of every 10 unionlocal, or the American Radio Asso- members belong to unions affiliatedciation with no local unions at all. with the AFL-CIO. There is no simple way to classify In size, the internationals rangethe international unions according from the Teamsters, with 1,600,000to the form of organization. The members, the Automobile Workersusual references are to international (UAW) with1,400,000, the Ma-craft unions or international indus- chinists with 836,000, and the Steel-trial unions when, as a matter of workers with approximately 1,000,-fact, only about 6 percent are strict-

16 ly craft organizations, 17 percentFunctions and Objectives industrialorganizations,andthe The chief functions of the inter- bulk, or 77 percent, are part craftnationals arc: to extend union or- and part industrial. ganization, to aid local unions in In financial matters, there is alsotheir bargaining, and to participate great variation among the variousin the programs of the federation. international unions. In 1948, 28 ofThe international unions, like the the international unions each hadfederation, are governed in an for- assets of more than a million dol-mal policy matters by the conven- lars.Inaddition, a considerabletions which, as a rule, meet less fre- number have annual incomes run-quently than does the federation? ning into a million dollars or moreLikewise, between conventions, the a year. For example, from duesinternational, as well as the federa- alone, the annual income, in 1963,tion, is governed by an Executive of the Steelworkers was over $31,-Council, including several full-time 000,000, the Machinists over $20,- offic,:rs. 000,000, and the Electrical Workers (IBEW) over $14,000,000. The wit'Power income of the internationals and The federation(AFL-CIO)is their locals together would, of course, more publicity-minded and, there- be much higher. In contrast, the an- fore, more frequently before the pub- nual income of the national office oflic eye than the internationals. in the AFL-CIO (about 15 millionaddition, most ofthe important members) in 1963 would be approxi-policy announcements for organized mately $10,500,000 annually, basedlabor are made by the federation. on a 7-cent tax per member perAs a result, many people are led to month.' The larger income of thebelieve that real power in the labor internationals in many cases helpsmovement rests in the hands of the to explain their independence in thefederation. This is not true. The real organized labor picture. seat of power in organized labor is in The incomes of the internation-the international unions, not only in als and the federation do not seemtheir relations with the federation so large, however, when compared (AFL-CIO), but also in their rela- with some of the large present-daytions with their own local member corporations. For example, in 1963,unions. the General Motors Corporation had The authority of the internation- a net income of over $1.5 billion and alunionsovertheirmember the United States Steel Corporationlocals is well illustrated by Professor had over $200 million. Maurice Neufeld in The House of Labor. He indicates that the Execu- I This was increased to 10, per :nem ber per month at the 1969 AFL-CIO 2 A measure to keep expenses under convention. control.

17 ...... g,

LiveBoardoftheinternationalagainst the Communists. Another union, with some exceptions such asexample was when Dave Beck, head are found in unions in the buildingof the powerful Teamsters' union, trades and in some skilled crafts,took over control of the local Team- usually has sters' unions in Albany, Bingham- theauthoritytogrant and ton, andinWestchester County, withdraw local charters, repeal New York, in December 1953, be- 14. non-conforming by-laws of any cause of "improper activities" of local, remove any officer for their officers. sufficient reasons, fill vacancies, The international unions gener- direct theaffairs of alocal ally exercise rather strong control when it has been agreed that over their local unions. However, this would be salutary, hear this control will vary considerably claimsandgrievancesfrom from one international to another locals and othersubordinate and from one situation to another. bodies. .. For example, although it hat; been done,international unionofficers When to this authority is added awill hesitate before they will bring highdegree of control over theaction against their stronger mem- right to strike and the collectiveber locals. Likewise, the power of bargaining negotiations of its mem- theinternationalunionwillbe ber locals, it can be easily seen that much stronger where the goods pro- there is a considerable centraliza-duced by its members are sold nation of power. tionwide, such as steel, automobiles, To discipline their local membercoal. On the other hand, where the unions-,internationalunionscanproduct or service produced by the and do use these powers to curb.members is sold locally, the local For example, on March 16, 1952,union may be much more inde- the United Auto Workers took overpendent of its international union. the operation of Ford Local 600 atFor example, the building trades' Detroitclaimed to be the largestunionsnegotiatecontracts on a localunionintheworld, withlocal area basicquite independent around 60,000 members' Local 600of their intematiGnctl unions. was accused of causing "irreparable damage" by failing to enforce the Ingeneral,svhileLrgnelocal unions are more independent of UAW'sconstitutional provisions theirinternationalunionsthan 3 The UAW constitution requires elec-others, the local unions are quite tion of new officers within sixty days of suspension after which the local h re-closely controlled by their interna- turned its autonomy. tionals.

18 LOCAL

THE ultimate source of strength forhowever, between the local union organized labor and the broad baseand the national union is thatthe upon which the structure of or-local officers often a're titherun- ganized labor rests are found in thepaid or receive a very smallsalary. 76,496 local unions. It should beUsually, the local officerswork at kept in mind that, while the interna-their regular jobs as machinistsor tional unions in general exercise aelectricians and administertheir great deal of control over the locals,offices on the side, oron a part-time at the same time in many ways, they,basis. Another importantcog hi the the internationals, arc quite depend-functioning of the union is the union ent upon the locals for their exis-steward whom the men ofa shop or tence. It is through the locals thatdepartment elect from theirgroup to their membership is derived; it isrepresent them primarilyon griev- through the locals that their financesance matters. arc maintained, and it is in accord-.Where the local union is auce with the strength of the locals too much of a burden to be runon a part-time that the national becomes a strong,basis, a professional full-time mediocre,or weak organization. man has often been employed. lieis Finally, it is through the locals thatknown as the Business Agent the pulse and sentiment of the labor and is either elected by the members movement are felt by the interna- of the local or appointed by the union tionals and the federation, andserve offi- as a basis for policy formulations. cials. Since the officers ofthe local Local unions vary considerably inare not on a full-time basis, they size. Some have just a few members, leave more and more of the admin- while othersthe Ford local,for istration of the union to theBusiness examplehave many thousands ofAgent. members. The majority of locals As a remit, the Business Agentin have less than two or three hundredmany cases becomes the realpower members. in the local union. For example,Pro- Organizationwithinthelocal fessor Nettle lc! notes that inLocal 3 union tends to be patterned afterof the International Brotherhoodof the national union, with a Presidmt,Electrical Workers, a New YorkCity Secretary-Treasurer, and Executivelocal, the "businessmanager, and Board to handle the affairs of thenot the president, is the most im- union. One importantdifference, portant individual...

19- 4.

SUMMARY

TO repeat once more our originalis gospel for all labor groups. As s- words of cautionthe organizationmatter of fact, we have indicated ...... of labor in the United States is muchthat there is considerable independ- more varied and compliCated thanence among groups and individuals it appears at first glance. As a result, in organized labor, especially the in- we should be careful not to try toternational unions. Finally, it is sug- extend to all groups of organizedgested that only by looking carefully labor what we read about one group.into the facts can we gain a clear We should, likewi-f; be wary of as-picture of how organized labor op- suming that, because the federationerates. For this purpose, additional comes out with important policy an- sources of reading material are listed nouncements from time to time, this below.

Additional Reading Sources "The AFL-CIO Mergor," Industrial Labor History, New York State and LaborRelationsReview: School of Industrial and -Labor vol. 9, no. 3, April 1956. 176 pp. Relations. 12%. 146 pp. Dulles,FosterRhea.Laboris, Peterson, Florence. American La- America, A History. New York: bor Unions. New York: Harper, Crowell, 1960. 435 pp. 1963. 271 pp. Faulkner, Harold U., and Mark Starr. Labor in America. NewRayback, Joseph G., A History of American Labor. New York: The York: Oxford Book Co.,1957. Macmillan Co., 1959. 459 pp. 330 pp. Goldberg, Arthur. AFL-CIO, LaborU. S. Department of Labor. Bu- United. New York: McGraw-Hill, reau of Labor Statistics. Brief His- 1956. 319 pp. toryoftheAmericanLabor Hardman, J. B. S., and Maurice F. Movement. (Bulletin No. 10($ ) Neufeld, eds. The House of Labor. Washington: G.P.O.

New York: Prentice-Hall, 1951. .Directory of Labor t 555 pp. Unions intheUnited States. Neufeld, Maurice F. A Representa- (Bulletin No. 1596.) Washington: tiveBibliographyof American G.P.O., 1967. 106 pp.