FILM MOVEMENTS Early Experimental Cinema U.S., France, England (1893-1903) For centuries, humans had experimented with what would become the two key elements of cinema: the projection of images using light (such as with the camera obscura and the Magic lantern); and the illusion of motion created by exploiting the optical phenomenon called "persistence of vision" (such as with the zoetrope, introduced in the 1830s). The invention and spread of photography in the mid-19th century provided the key missing element. Even from here, the "birth" of the movies was actually a gradual process of evolution with many blind alleys and crisscrossing paths. It involved a number of individuals in Europe, the United Kingdom, and the United States, who, from the 1860s on, worked on often similar inventions with varying degrees of success. Eadward Muybridge, Louis Le Prince and Ottomar Anschütz were among those who designed pioneering machines for projection of rapidly moving images. George Eastman, the American founder of Eastman Kodak, Hannibal Goodwin and William Friese Greene all worked on early prototypes of motion picture film. W.K. Laurie Dickson, a researcher at the Edison Laboratories, is credited with the invention of a practicable form of celluloid strip containing a sequence of images, the basis of a method of photographing and projecting moving images. In 1894, Thomas Edison introduced to the public the Kinetograph, the first practical moving picture camera, and the Kinetoscope. The latter was a cabinet in which a continuous loop of film (powered by an electric motor) was projected by a lamp and lense onto a glass. The spectator viewed the image through an eye piece. Kinetoscope parlours were supplied with fifty-foot film snippets shot by Dickson, in their "Black Maria" studio. These films were usually short sequences by acrobats, music hall performers, and also included boxing demonstrations. Kinetescope Parlours soon spread to Europe, and aroused a great deal of interest. Edison believed that he had a monopoly position on moving pictures, as he was the only one with a camera. Two Greek entrepreneurs called upon Robert Paul, a British electrician and scientific instrument maker of Hatton garden, London.They asked him to build a number of replicas of a kinetoscope that they had acquired. To his amazement, he found that Edison had not patented this invention in Britain, and he went on to produce a number on his own account. One of these was supplied to Georges Melies, and aroused his interest in the possibilities of film. As films for these machines were in short supply, Paul, with the assistance of Birt Acres invented a camera. One of their first films was of the Derby, won by the Prince of Wales's horse. Edison had not initiated the idea of projection nor transmission of films; but had merely intended to display them in individual viewers. However, Paul hit upon the idea, and invented a film projector, giving his first public showing in 1895. about the same time, Auguste and Louis Lumière, also inspired by the kinetoscope, invented the cinematograph, a portable, three-in-one camera, developer/printer, and projector. In France in late 1895, the Lumière brothers began exhibitions of projected films before the paying public. They sparked the move from single- viewer units to projection (Cook, 1990), and quickly became Europe's leading producers of the new medium. Even Edison joined the burgeoning projection trend with the Vitascope within less than six months. Nikola Tesla, who worked with Edison at one time, invented the radio (credited to him post-humously by the US Patent Office) along with the Tesla coil used in Marconi's radio telegraph, and he claimed that one of its benefits of radio would be the democratisation of information including projecting duplicated moving images in every house in the world, king or pauper, thus successfully predicting television before the first movies were even made. The movies of the time were seen mostly via temporary storefront spaces and travelling exhibitors or as acts in vaudeville programs. A film could be under a minute long and would usually present a single scene, authentic or staged, of everyday life, a public event, a sporting event or slapstick. There was little to no cinematic technique: no editing and usually no camera movement, and flat, stagey compositions. But the novelty of realistically moving photographs was enough for a motion picture industry to mushroom before the end of the century, in countries around the world. Brighton School England (1896-1905) Brighton School (1896-1905) The most notable of all the British filmmakers during the first few years of cinema. Based in and around the seaside town the group's principle members were George A. Smith and James Williamson. Brighton and Hove the conjoined towns were one of the pioneer centres for cinema and film development. The new industry was talked and written about as a local phenomenon right from the start, which must have increased local awareness. Film shows took place as early as 1895, within months of the Lumières' first demonstrations. Even before that, William Friese-Greene had been experimenting, as memorably recreated in the film The Magic Box, made to coincide with the Festival of Britain in 1951. Several of the important pioneers lived and worked here—William Friese- Greene, Esmé Collings, James Williamson, George Albert Smith—perhaps demonstrating the proposition that a critical mass of interest and talent in one place drives technology forward. Others filmed or settled here: Robert Paul and Charles Urban among the most notable. In later years, a number of of the greatest British actors and actresses lived in Brighton, including Laurence Olivier and Flora Robson. Some of the earliest studios were built here and, given the proximity of the area to London and its popularity over the previous century since the Prince Regent made a home in Brighton, it is unclear exactly why it did not continue to develop as the centre of the British film industry—in preference (or addition) to the Elstree/Borehamwood area. Classical Hollywood Silent Cinema U.S. (1908-1927) Classic Hollywood Silent Cinema (1908-1927) a term used in film history, designates both a visual and sound style for making motion pictures and a mode of production that arose in the American film industry of the 1910s and 1920s. While the boundaries are vague, the Classical era is generally held to begin in 1915 with the release of The Birth of a Nation. The end of the classical period is considered to be the 1960s, after which the movie industry changed dramatically and a new era (the post-classical or the New Hollywood era) can be said to have begun. Some critics divide this era into pre-Code and post-code Hollywood, referring to the Hays Code. Classical style is fundamentally built on the principle of continuity editing or "invisible" style. That is, the camera and the sound recording should never call attention to themselves (as they might in a modernist or postmodernist work). The mode of production came to be known as the Hollywood studio system and the star system, which standardized the way movies were produced. All film workers (actors, directors, etc.) were employees of a particular film studio. This resulted in a certain uniformity to film style: directors were encouraged to think of themselves as employees rather than artists, and hence auteurs did not flourish (although some directors, such as Alfred Hitchcock and Orson Welles, fought against these restrictions). The end of Hollywood classicism came with the collapse of the studio system, the growing popularity of auteurism among directors, and the increasing influence of foreign films and independent filmmaking, which brought greater variety to the movies, although some would argue that the level of craftsmanship in filmmaking declined. Some historians believe we are now in a 'post-classical' era in which movies are very different from Classical Hollywood. Others argue that the differences are superficial and that the basic methods of storytelling have not actually changed that much. French Impressionism France (1918-1930) French Impressionism was dominated by intimated deep psychological narratives, French Impressionism was made up of a young group of directors in Post World War I France. Deriving its name for the Painting movement, the loosely knit group of directors. Support by French film industries attempt to win back market from foreign and US films, Directors like Abel Gance, Louis Delluc, Germaine Dulac, Marcel L”Herbier, and Jean Epstein were more theoretical and ambitious than there older counter parts and the tow major firms Pathe Freres and Leon Gaumont. Impressionist films manipulate plot time and subjectivity and the registering of characters mental states, dreams, fantasies, etc. German Expressionism Germany (1919-1926) German Expressionism (1919-1926) also referred to as Expressionism in filmmaking, developed in Germany (especially Berlin) during the 1920s. During the period of recovery following World War I, the German film industry was booming, but because of the hard economic times filmmakers found it difficult to create movies that could compare with the lush, extravagant features coming from Hollywood. The filmmakers of the German UFA studio developed their own style, by using symbolism and mise en scène to insert mood and deeper meaning into a movie. The first Expressionist films, notably The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari (1920), The Golem (1915), and Nosferatu (1922) were highly symbolic and deliberately surrealistic portrayals of filmed stories. The dada movement was sweeping across the artistic world in the early 1920s, and the various European cultures of the time had embraced an ethic of change, and a willingness to look to the future by experimenting with bold, new ideas and artistic styles.