CHAPTER 3 Physical Development

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oung children learn best by doing. Active physical play supports preschool children’s brain development1 and is a primary means for Ythem to explore and discover their world. Physical activities enhance all aspects of development, including cognitive, emotional, social, as well as physical. For example, cognitive growth occurs when children problem-solve how to negotiate an obstacle course or how to build a fort. Acquisition of physical skills supports emotional development by increasing children’s confidence and willingness to try new activities. Physical play creates optimal opportunities for social development. Since much of preschool children’s peer play involves physical activities, proficient physical skills enable children to interact with others and to develop friendships. Active physical play also has clear benefits for children’s health and fitness. Promoting children’s physical fitness is critical given the increasing rates of lifestyle- related health issues (including obesity and diabetes) among children in California. All children, no matter their ability levels or backgrounds, benefit from engaging in physical activities.

T he preschool years are a prime time directed, children greatly benefit from for children’s physical development. adult encouragement and guidance when Preschool programs have a key role in learning new physical skills. Teachers maximizing children’s developmental tap into children’s intrinsic motivation potential during this important time by for movement by designing meaningful, providing well-designed, regular, and culturally appropriate, and accessible frequent opportunities for physical play. play activities in which all children feel Although many of young children’s physi- challenged yet successful. cal activities are exploratory and self-

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Teachers are important role models opportunity for practice, fitness level, in the area of physical development. Chil- socioeconomic status, special needs, dren benefit immensely when teachers and cultural expectations. These dif- engage in physical activities alongside ferences need to be considered and children and share in the fun of physical accommodations made for them in movement. Just as important, preschool order to create beneficial learning programs collaborate with family and experiences for all children. community members to promote chil- Children often learn best through dren’s physical development. Family sup- maximum active participation. port and participation foster children’s There should be a daily quest to mini- active lifestyle habits. Promoting active mize sitting, waiting, and watching so lifestyles during the preschool years will children enjoy meaningful participa- benefit children throughout their lives. tion in physical activities. Maximum purposeful participation at some level Guiding Principles is a challenging but attainable goal. To achieve this goal, it is often best to first provide brief, simple explanations that Developmentally appropriate enable children to begin moving as movement programs accommodate soon as possible. Additional instruc- a variety of individual differences tions can be provided later as needed. among children. Children of the same chronological age The physical safety of children’s may exhibit a wide range of movement play environments should be of skills because of differences in devel- paramount importance at all times. opmental level, previous experience, Active play, by its very nature, involves an element of risk. It is risk that chil- dren enjoy as they test out their newly Research Highlight: Physical developing skills. Wise teachers permit Activities Enhance Young children to take reasonable and mea- Children’s Brain Development sured risks but do so in a manner that does not compromise children’s safety. A safe environment is one that Children use multiple senses when they maximizes learning opportunities and engage in physical activities. Multisensory enjoyment while at the same time experiences create and strengthen com- minimizing situations that compromise munication pathways in children’s brains.2 a child’s physical, emotional, or social Young children’s brains are highly malleable; “safety net.” Adults must continuously thus, early experiences have a big impact on strive to provide a safe environment their brain development. Movement experi- that is healthful in all ways. ences that are personally meaningful and provide the “just right challenge” (i.e., chal- Family members working as part- lenging but doable) have the most impact ners with teachers are key to on brain development.3 Neuroscientists enriching the physical development studying the brain confirm that “exercise of children. provides an unparalleled stimulus, creating Each child’s unique interests and an environment in which the brain is ready, learning needs are best met through willing, and able to learn”.4 thoughtful and regular collaboration

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between family members and teachers. to observe and practice the skill dem- Teachers play an important role in pro- onstrated, close guidance, and teacher viding information to family members feedback. about child development, while fam- To maximize teaching effectiveness, ily members provide valuable insights movement skill learning should first about their child’s unique preferences, focus on how children are moving abilities, and life contexts (including their bodies. their home, community, and culture). By designing movement activities The partnership between families and focused on the process or quality of teachers creates continuity in support- the body movements, teachers place ing children’s physical skills develop- emphasis on improving the child’s ment across home, community, and body coordination (e.g., arm/leg preschool environments. actions) and on increasing awareness Inclusion of children with special of body movements. The product, or needs is beneficial to all and pro- quantitative aspect of movements (e.g., motes greater understanding of how far they jumped, or how fast they and respect for diversity. ran), should not be the initial focus of Teachers can modify the environment, learning. For children with disabili- materials, or teaching methods during ties and other special needs, the focus physical activities to facilitate participa- should be on the functional aspects tion and skill development for all chil- of movement for that particular child. dren. When working with a child with Referring to each child’s IEP and con- disabilities or other special needs, they sulting with special education special- consult with the child’s family members ists about movement goals are effective and special education specialists for practices. adaptation strategies. All children in the Children generally learn new move- preschool program benefit when pro- ment skills more easily when they vided with opportunities to play along- can focus on one specific aspect of side peers with diverse abilities; they the skill at a time. learn the important values of inclusion, Providing cues to children for move- empathy, respect, and acceptance. ment skill learning is important. How- Children are multisensory learners ever, it is recommended that teachers with unique learning styles. guide children on only one aspect of It is important to provide children with the skill at a time (e.g., stepping in various ways to learn new physical opposition when throwing) while chil- skills: exploration and guided discov- dren are doing the overall movement. ery, visual demonstration or pictures, Children benefit from ample oppor- verbal or gestural directions, hands-on tunities to practice new physical assistance, or combinations of these skills. When children initially acquire strategies. Through intentional observa- a new physical ability, they are often tions, teachers become aware of chil- highly motivated to repeat the activ- dren’s individual learning preferences. ity many times. Repetition should be Teachers support children’s learning of encouraged because it strengthens the new movement skills by providing them new communication pathways between with adequate time and opportunities the brain and the muscle being used.

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Introducing slight variations or addi- tional challenges further enhances motor development. For example, if a child has just learned to jump, it would be beneficial to challenge the child to try jumping on uneven surfaces, such as grass or sand, or to count while jumping. Children benefit from integrated learning activities across the curriculum. Movement experiences provide an ideal context for children’s development in not only the physical domain, but also in the cognitive, social–emotional, and language domains. Frequency, intensity, type, and dura- tion are the four key parameters of moderate to vigorous physical to designing active physical play activity per day is recommended. Some to enhance children’s fitness and children with special needs may not health. The four parameters may be have the physical stamina to participate thought of as the FITT principles (Fre- in the same ways in terms of frequency, quency, Intensity, Type, Time [dura- intensity, type, and time. Teachers may tion]).5 “Frequency” refers to the regu- modify activities to accommodate chil- larity of engaging in physical activity; dren’s individual needs. frequent short periods of physical Physical skills are more easily activity each day are preferred (chil- learned when clear instructions and dren should not be sedentary for more appropriate feedback are provided in than 60 minutes at a time except when children’s home language using famil- sleeping6).* “Intensity” refers to whether iar communication methods. Children activities are sedentary, mild, moder- who are English learners acquire new ate, or vigorous; moderate to vigorous movement skills more activities are preferred. “Type” deals easily when clear instructions are with the specific kind of physical activ- provided in their home language. Simi- ity engaged in; for young children, the larly, children who communicate using types of activities usually take the form sign language, picture communication of active games, child-initiated play, systems, or other augmentative commu- as well as rhythms and dance. “Time” nication systems benefit when teachers (duration) refers to the amount of time use appropriate communication meth- in which the child is engaged in physi- ods to teach physical skills. Moreover, cal activity; accumulating at least all children in the preschool program 60 minutes, and up to several hours, would benefit from exposure to different languages and communication methods *Recommendation from Active Start: A Statement of in addition to physical demonstration, Physical Activity Guidelines for Children from Birth to Age 5 (Reston, VA: National Association for Sport modeling, and material cues provided and Physical Education, 2009). by teachers.

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Indoor and outdoor play environ- Environmental Factors ments should include a variety of appropriately sized equipment that Teachers promote optimal physical promotes both gross and fine motor development when they provide development. children with positive encourage- Indoor movement areas can be as ment and quality instruction (both small as a corner of the room in which indirect and direct). children can move with a scarf and Teachers must be aware and take streamers, throw at wall targets with a advantage of their critical role. They beanbag or foam-rubber ball, and play are the ones “setting the stage” and with other small materials. The outdoor “creating the climate” for movement play space should promote a variety of skill learning. Teachers who truly activities through the use of balls, low embrace the value of physical activities balance boards, hula hoops, tricycles, effectively communicate it to children, and other wheeled toys. Adaptations to thus encouraging their participation. the equipment encourage participation Often, quality instruction may require of children with special needs. teachers to actively participate in physi- Learning is most meaningful when cal play alongside children. At other the environment and materials times, children will benefit most when reflect and accommodate children’s the teacher simply remains close by and individual interests, backgrounds, shows genuine interest in the children’s and present abilities. physical activities. Children come to the learning envi­ The immediate physical environment ron­ment with a wide range of needs, is a powerful influence on children’s interests, and abilities. Children’s life physical development. context (i.e., culture, language, diver- The physical environment, play materi- sity, abilities) should be represented als, and play themes can all be skillfully through movement activities that designed to promote active play. Both maximize opportunities for participa- indoor and outdoor play environments tion, active engagement, and success. should encourage fun and enjoyable Embrace the richness of diversity by learning. Indoor and outdoor play learning about children’s culture, environments are fundamentally dif- language, customs, music, physical ferent. Each offers distinct learning activities, and focus on the unique gifts opportunities in terms of the amount that each child brings to the learning and type of activity that takes place, environment. the sensory properties of the play area, Take time to build safety into and the potential for using the natural both the indoor and outdoor play materials unique to the local geography environments. and culture. Multipurpose open space A safe environment reduces the need and sufficient outdoor time, weather for adults to say no. It is important to permitting, are important environmen- establish clear expectations. Limits tal considerations. If weather or air should be set rather than rules (rules quality does not permit outdoor play, eliminate reasonable risk) in order to indoor open space should be provided. ensure personal safety. Be particularly

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cognizant when working with children Movement experiences should who have disabilities that impact their include exploration, discovery, impulse control and judgment. Also, and appreciation of the natural differences in cultural expectations environment. for girls and those for boys, as well as Children learn by interacting with language differences, may impact the people, objects, and the natural envi- critical need for building safety into ronment. Nature provides rich, diverse children’s regular play environments. sensory experiences—sounds, smells, Playground equipment, such as climb- textures, and sights—that are benefi- ing, hanging, and sliding structures, cial for young children’s sensorimotor should be checked regularly for safety development. Outdoor play offers an hazards. array of opportunities for exploration, discovery, and learning in a natural Research Highlight: Must environment. Young Children Sit Still Thoughtfully designed movement experiences, guided by adults, in Order to Learn? support children’s physical development. Researchers have stated that high activity Most children need more than just levels, impulsivity, and short attention span free play to acquire movement skills. for sedentary activities are characteristics Children benefit from teacher-guided, of typically developing preschool-age structured physical activities, par- 7 children. Children naturally need to move ticularly when they are learning new 8 in order to learn. Being physically active movement skills. Structured but flex- boosts children’s attention span and capital- ible play activities that emphasize izes on multisensory learning so that chil- active participation, exploration, and dren are more likely to retain academic con- self-discovery are ideal for practicing cepts such as colors, shapes, and the alpha- new, challenging physical skills. Skills 9 bet. The need for movement-based learning acquired from structured activities are experiences may be particularly important important building blocks for expand- for children with special needs. Research ing children’s repertoire of skills for has shown that for children who have spontaneous, child-directed physical autism spectrum disorder and attention play. deficit hyperactivity disorder, being seated on a movable surface (e.g., a therapy ball) resulted in increased ability to stay on task and remain seated during classroom learn- ing activities. However, children seated on a static surface such as a bench, chair, or floor were less able to remain on task.10, 11 Experts have suggested that adults’ efforts to entice young children to sit still, pay attention, and be quiet during learning activities often run contrary to children’s natural needs for physical movement.12

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developmental domains. This framework Summary of the Physical will guide teachers in planning a physical Development Foundations development curriculum that is flexible, inclusive, and responsive to children’s he physical development domain is unique needs. Suggestions for working Tdivided into three strands. The first with children from diverse cultures, chil- strand is Fundamental Movement Skills. dren with special needs, and children Most preschool children can acquire rea- who are English learners are provided. sonable levels of competence in a wide Teachers play a critical role in sup- range of movement activities, including porting children’s physical development balance, locomotor skills, and manipu- because physical skills need to be explic- lative skills (both gross motor and fine itly and deliberately taught. Physical play, motor), when given opportunities for both indoors and outdoors, is not merely instruction and practice in an enriched “free time”; it requires thoughtful plan- environment. The second strand is Per- ning and intentional interactions. ceptual-Motor Skills and Movement Con- cepts. This strand focuses on the develop- Summary of the Strands ment of body awareness, spatial aware- ness, and directional awareness. These and Substrands skills are important for interacting with Fundamental Movement Skills others and for exploring the environment. The third strand is Active Physical Play. 1.0 Balance Active physical play promotes children’s 2.0 Locomotor Skills health and physical fitness by increasing 3.0 Manipulative Skills (gross motor their levels of active participation, cardio- and fine motor) vascular endurance, muscular strength, Perceptual-Motor Skills muscular endurance, and flexibility. and Movement Concepts The remainder of this chapter is orga- 1.0 Body Awareness nized on the basis of the three strands. 2.0 Spatial Awareness The introduction to each strand will high- 3.0 Directional Awareness light its importance to preschool children’s Active Physical Play overall development. Each strand is fur- ther divided into substrands, with specific 1.0 Active Participation strategies to support children’s learning 2.0 Cardiovascular Endurance and development. Examples of strategies 3.0 Muscular Strength, Muscular include both spontaneous interactions Endurance, and Flexibility and planned activities that support chil- Please refer to the map of the physical dren’s physical development. Integration development foundations on page 211 for is a key concept in this framework, since a visual explanation of the terminology the physical development activities also used in the preschool learning founda- promote children’s learning in all other tions.

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Fundamental Movement Skills

undamental movement skills are the foundations on which more complex movement skills are built. Early childhood is Fa crucial and unique time for developing coordination of the basic movement skills. During this period, daily movement experiences significantly influence children’s patterns of movement and their future as happy, active movers. Children who develop these fundamental movement skills tend to become confident movers and have the building blocks for an active way of life.

F undamental movement skills emerge through the integration of fundamental following a developmental sequence from movement skills into the daily home life of simple to more complex body actions. children. Children’s movement activities Initially, when children attempt a move- should be designed with consideration of ment pattern, they move few body parts the multiple cultures and diversity of the (e.g., when throwing, move only one arm participants. In addition, teachers need to while the rest of their body remains still). be sensitive to children with disabilities As their movement skills develop, children and special needs and modify the tasks, begin incorporating other body parts (e.g., context, or environment, including appro- throwing with one arm while stepping priate assistive devices and instructional with one foot). Research-based devel- strategies, to facilitate the development of opmental sequences represent common fundamental skills for all children. The fol- pathways of development and can guide lowing strategies provide teachers, family instruction and learning. However, each members, and caregivers with guidance child’s development is unique and affected to foster the development of fundamental by many factors (e.g., genetics, culture, movement skills in preschool-age children. special needs, socioeconomic status, Fundamental movement skills consist environment, and practice). Teachers of three substrands: should expect variations in individual 1.0 Balance development. 2.0 Locomotor Skills Fundamental movement skills develop 3.0 Manipulative Skills through meaningful interactions with the These substrands of movement con- environment, people, and objects; through stitute the basis of movement through- both structured (e.g., teacher-guided) out life. Teachers and caregivers have an and unstructured (e.g., child-initiated important role in supporting the develop- play) practice of movement skills; through ment and practice of foundational move- the integration of fundamental motor ment skills. skills into the preschool curriculum; and

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1.0 Balance

he ability to balance is fundamental walk without falling and can go up and Tto all body movements. All movement down stairs holding a rail. During the involves elements of balance, and each preschool years, children expand their movement has different balance require- balancing abilities in many different envi- ments. The center of gravity (i.e., how ronments and in a variety of movements. close the midsection of the body is to the Young children need to learn to restore floor) and the base of support (i.e., the their equilibrium when things alter their amount of surface covered by the body balance, such as uneven surfaces (e.g., parts holding the position) determine the walking across sand) or moving/change- difficulty of the task. If the center of grav- able surfaces (e.g., taking an escalator). ity is closer to the floor, such as balanc- Children develop their balance skills by ing on hands and knees, the balance task experiencing a variety of balancing chal- is easier than if it is far from the floor, lenges, such as holding still in postures; such as balancing on tiptoes while stand- moving the arm, leg, or head while main- ing on a stool. Likewise, if the base of taining balance; continuously moving support is larger (i.e., more area covered while balancing; and making big changes by the body parts holding the position), in body positions. All these movements the movement will be easier. For example, will provide opportunities to learn how standing with legs apart on a balance to control and compensate for small, beam will be easier than standing on one continuous, or large changes in body foot on the same beam. Therefore some positions. Balance movements involve movements are more challenging than postures such as standing on one foot, others for young children. balancing while rotating or turning (such When most young children enter pre- as rolling sideways), and balancing in school, they have conquered the rudi- locomotion (such as walking on a low mentary ways of balancing. Most children balance beam).

VIGNETTE During a group activity, Ms. King asks children to find a rope on the floor and stand next to it. She indicates, “When you find the rope you want to work with, stand next to it like this.” Ms. King demonstrates the standing position with hands down at her sides. Ms. King gives children some time to find their ropes. All the children move and stand next to a rope. Three children stand briefly at the same rope. One child leaves and goes to another rope. Two children, Ying and Carla, stay standing there. Ms. King lets them try to solve the problem. Carla tells Ying that she got to the rope first. Ying seems a bit confused and stays in the middle of the rope that another child is claiming. Ms. King says, “Ying, can you find another rope? The teacher notices that Ying looks confused and does not move. Mrs. King then asks, “Can someone help Ying find a rope?” Sarah runs to him and points to an available rope. Ying runs and lands with knees next to the rope, smiling.

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Ms. King suggests, “Okay, let’s see if we can hold our balance while using different body parts on the rope.” Some children use hands and one foot; others use two feet and one hand, two hands and two feet, head and two feet. Ms. King explains, “You have one, two, and three body parts. You have two hands and one foot, and you are holding your balance on four body parts.” They show different postures. Some are upside down, while others are right side up. Ms. King communi- cates, “Wow, you can hold your positions like statues using different body parts. Now please stand up.” Ms. King makes a friendly gesture with her hand, indicating up, while looking at Ying. Ying follows the sign and looks around, noticing that everybody is standing. Then, Ms. King asks, “Now, can you walk over the rope while maintaining your balance? Children begin walking, and Ms. King comments, “Sara, you are balancing on the rope. Carla, you are keeping your arms out and that really helps with balancing.” Ms. King sees Jose and says, “Jose, you take big steps while balancing on the rope. Wow, you have found many different ways to walk while ,maintaining your balance on the rope.” Ying keeps looking at the children and walks while balancing on his rope.

PLANNING These balance activities allow children to challenge themselves LEARNING and try different ways of balancing in static positions (i.e., OPPORTUNITIES stationary activities using different body parts) and dynamic ones (i.e., balancing while walking on the rope). Balance activities should be presented in developmentally appropriate ways by beginning with activities down at low levels, with the center of gravity closer to the floor. This can be followed by higher-level activities, with the center of gravity higher and using various body parts. Using more body parts at the beginning of the activity increases the base of support and the chance of success.

By asking questions and then describing children’s choices, teachers make children become more aware of their actions while other children gain ideas from listening and seeing others’ choices. Children tend to maintain a higher level of interest in the learning activity when they feel successful. In this way children build their balance repertory: from easy to more difficult tasks. Teachers’ facial expressions of assurance or use of sign language are also useful when there are children who are English learners or children with hearing impairments among the participants. Additional adaptations may be necessary for children with other special needs. These approaches are developmentally sound and allow children to challenge themselves at their individual ability level.

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Provide opportunities that include Interactions and Strategies diverse cultural themes. Traditional folk dances or dances that represent the cul- Design spaces and activities to develop ture of children and families can be really balance following a developmental fun. Teachers can guide children to add progression. Provide low-level balance extra balance demands. Changing body challenges and wide bases of support positions, dancing on one foot, and using that encourage children to experience different levels of movements can increase balancing with success (e.g., balancing the balance challenges while children on many body parts at a low level or tip- enjoy the rhythms of familiar songs. toe-walking on floor lines following differ- Activities such as tai-chi moves and hop- ent pathways). Progressively incorporate scotch, where children move in different more difficult challenges, such as higher ways to accomplish a goal will, enhance obstacles and narrower surfaces to stand balance in motion and stillness positions or walk on (e.g., balancing on boxes or and can be fun ways to increase balance stones) and holding balance positions abilities. Other games using verbal and on fewer body parts. In general, most visual signals, such as Red Light—Green children enjoy the challenge of maintain- Light, help develop children’s awareness ing stability. Falling from low obstacles and also enhance stability. onto a safe surface will actually be fun Incorporate balance activities into the and challenge them to keep trying. Young children’s world. Read stories and act children learn to control their bodies them out incorporating balance chal- better when they can progress from lenges. Pretend to be in the zoo and act easier to more difficult balance positions out different animals. Children may iden- or movements. tify some animals, and the teacher may suggest some others, such as frogs jump- ing, bears walking on hands and feet, snakes moving close to the floor, or fla- mingos standing on one foot. Ask children to pretend to be things such as spinning tops that turn and stop or logs rolling down the hill. Do balancing acts such as balancing a turkey feather on their hand or plastic egg in a big spoon while stand- ing, walking, or moving in a wheelchair. Ask children, “How does it feel? Which balances are harder?” These activities allow children to experience an array of balance challenges, and their bodies will increasingly improve stability and control. Provide opportunities for activities that include both active movements and still body positions. Children need to experience the contrast between being in motion and being still. These activities will enhance the ability to control their

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body movements and emotions. Games, such as Freeze where children dance and move to a song and then “freeze in dif- ferent positions” when the music stops, are great for this purpose. Teachers can give a cue to visually or hearing-impaired children by clapping, making gestures, or showing pictures. Contrasting music may also be used; at times the music calls for fast movements, and other times the music slows down, calling for slow move- ments until total stillness is acheived. Children can use tambourines and bells or instruments that provide relaxing sounds. support children who are English learn- Challenge children’s balance abili- ers, see the California Preschool Curricu- ties by asking questions. Teachers can lum Framework, Volume 1, chapter 5. facilitate and guide children’s balance Encourage persistence during challeng- activities by providing thoughtful ques- ing balance tasks. Children will attempt tions either before or after the activity. to balance and will fail to hold the bal- These questions challenge young children ance or fall down on the floor, or the to explore and experience other ways object they are trying to balance may fall of balancing. Teachers may ask, “Can down. These are opportunities for teach- you change from one balance position to ers to encourage persistence and provide another one while keeping your balance?” cues as to what they may do to better Questions can also focus on making control their bodies or objects they are children think about what their bodies balancing. Effort is an important part of are doing to maintain their balance, such all learning, and children need to know as, “How did you move your body when that to control their bodies they need changing positions and not fall down?” practice, practice, and more practice. Teachers may also ask about what hap- Post pictures of balance positions pened when children lost their balance, and balance activities. Provide visual such as, “Why do you think you could not examples of different balance positions keep your balance this time?” These prac- or activities. Visual pictures can inspire tices will develop body awareness that children. These pictures can be of cultur- will translate into more confidence with ally representative athletes, dancers, art balance abilities. Physical movements, performers, known soccer players, gym- along with a series of questions, will help nasts, people in yoga positions, as well as children who are English learners bridge athletes with physical disabilities, such gaps in the understanding of the conver- as wheelchair racers, or Special Olympi- sation. Teachers can also ask children ans. When possible, find pictures or take who speak both the home language and digital photos of the children, children’s English to help children who speak only characters, animals in balance positions, the home language to understand the and things that you would like children questions and the balance challenges. to imitate. In addition, these pictures will For more information about strategies to

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provide another way of communication for children who prefer a visual idea or for children who are English learners. Design the environment so children combine balance skills with fundamen- tal movement skills and movement concepts. Provide opportunities for com- binations of balances with locomotor, manipulative, perceptual–motor skills, and the development of movement con- cepts. Obstacle courses provide oppor- tunities for a variety of movements, as well as flexibility for children’s movement available spaces. Outdoor spaces can choices. Most children love giant obstacle have big setups with large equipment courses. Indoor spaces may be limiting (e.g., wheel equipment, big boxes, play- for big setups of equipment that encour- ground equipment, big stones, trees, age ongoing activities. However, small tunnels) where children can experience obstacle courses indoors (e.g., using a variety of movement skills and balance chairs, tables, and small equipment challenges. Whether indoors or outdoors, such as discarded milk containers or obstacle courses should allow room to potato chip cans) can be really fun and maneuver for children who use walkers are an especially good option when it is or wheelchairs. rainy outside or there is a lack of other

VIGNETTE Children in Ms. Lopez’s class were very interested in fire stations. In a large circle activity the day before, they read a book about fire sta- tions. Later a parent came and talked about the job of firefighters. The next day, Ms. Lopez designed a large obstacle course with fire station materials, such as fire hats and hoses, and placed equipment around the area to invite different movements and balancing challenges. A phone on one side and a round spot with scarves on the other side cre- ated a rectangular obstacle course. She added footprints in a curved path and boxes for children to crawl up and jump down from, a mat on the floor, hoops, and cones. When the children arrived, she com- mented, “I wonder if we can pretend to be firefighters and move like they do? How do you think the firefighters move?” Some children said they run and jump, and others said they go upstairs and put the fire out with their hoses. Ms. Lopez responded, “Exactly. Now you can play in this obstacle course while pretending you are firefighters.” The children began moving around the course using the props and creating their own stories and ways of moving. Ms. Lopez was observ- ing the multiple ways they chose to move and their different levels of development. This activity revealed to Ms. Lopez the kinds of challenges her children were ready for and the activities that were their favorites. The children

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were very excited and continued going around and around the course. After observing that some children repeated the same balance chal- lenges several times, Ms. Lopez suggested, “Can you find a different way of moving your body through the curved path next time?” Then, Ms. Lopez noticed that one child, Hoa, stopped in front of the climbing box and put her hands over her face. Ms. Lopez went to her and asked if she needed help, and Hoa said, “I cannot get up.” Ms. Lopez replied, “Let’s find another way to pass this box.” Hoa said, “I cannot climb up.” Then Ms. Lopez said, “How about sitting on it and sliding on your bottom all the way down?” Hoa sat and tried sliding, and when she came to the end of the box, Ms. Lopez said with a big smile, “Wonder- ful. Now see if you can find a different way to go over the box.” Another child, Andre, was crawling up and down the box each time he passed the boxes. The next time he was about to crawl down, Ms. Lopez questioned, “Do you want me to hold your hands to see if you can jump down from the box?” Andre responded no and continued the course. After a few more trials, Andre came over and requested, “Ms. Lopez, can you help me jump off the box?” Ms. Lopez replied, “Sure, let’s see if you can jump off while holding my hands.” Andre jumped down from the box, with assistance, and continued the course. The children were engaged in acting out their stories. After everyone had participated in the activity, Ms. Lopez made a circle in the middle of the room and asked the children questions about their experiences during the activity: “What was fun? What ways did you move? Which activities were harder to do? How did you move your bodies when it was difficult? What other balancing or movement activities can you use the next time you go through an obstacle course?”

TEACHABLE This activity provides an opportunity to practice several kinds MOMENT of balances in static positions and while moving and chang- ing direction using locomotor skills and movement concepts. Because of the children’s interest in fire stations, the teacher chose to create an obstacle course that provides opportunities to practice balance in a pretend, safe, and educationally fun way. Including children’s interests in designing activities geared toward developing balancing skills motivates children to partici- pate. During this activity, children were able to create their own stories and challenge themselves in ways that were appropriate for their individual abilities. The teacher attentively observes chil- dren’s movements in order to assist and modify the task so those with special needs, low muscle tone, low levels of confidence, or lack of practice can participate successfully. Observation can also yield information to teachers for planning: guide children who need extra assistance, or challenge those who are ready to add more balancing skills to their repertoire.

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Provide a variety of sensory cues that her body constraints. For instance, bal- facilitate multisensory learning. Dem- ancing on a low balance beam may be onstrations, showing models or pictures, appropriate for one child, but another pinpointing a position or balance that a child who uses a wheelchair may need a child is doing, or describing how some different kind of balance, such as going children resolve their balance challenges through lines avoiding objects on the provide many opportunities for children floor, balancing objects, or rolling side- to learn about their own balance skills. ways on a mat. These types of balances Teachers may need to provide hands- will stimulate their vestibular and visual on assistance, such as hold a hand or a systems for improved balance orienta- leg, or touch a body part to develop body tion. See the “Research Highlight: Beyond awareness in different positions. These the Five Senses” on page 172 for more practices will enhance balance abilities information about the vestibular system. and promote learning in different senso- For resources for working with children rial styles (e.g., visual, kinesthetic, listen- with disabilities or other special needs, ing, or a combination of senses). When see appendix D of the California Preschool working with children who are blind or Curriculum Framework, Volume 1. have visual impairments, guide them to Use visual aids, foot and handprints, develop their awareness of how their body and objects on the floor to promote parts are positioned in space during bal- balancing skills. Balancing activities ance activities. For example, if a child rely heavily on the use of the visual and who is blind pretends to be a flamingo vestibular systems. Most children enjoy and attempts to stand on one foot, the moving on patterns on a tile floor or on teacher may say, “Can the flamingo stand rugs. In addition, visual aids in front of better when she spreads her wings out? the child, such as targets or pictures Or bends her knee?” on the wall, can help children stabilize Modify balance activities to increase body positions. Footprints on the floor, participation by children with dis- such as dragon prints, bear prints, or abilities and special needs. Teachers human prints arranged in sequences, will and caregivers need to be sensitive to all encourage children to move over them. children’s needs. The task, or parts of the Teachers can vary the challenges by plac- task, can always be modified for children ing the targets closer or farther apart, with special needs or disabilities, depend- placing hands and footprints on the floor, ing on the disability. Sometimes children or adding other objects or pictures. For need a simple adjustment or modification example, making a pathway (e.g., curved to accomplish the task; at other times a or straight), a hoop, a leaf, or a picture more appropriate task needs to be incor- of a river will encourage movements that porated where the child still works on require balance skills. balance but at his ability level and within

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2.0 Locomotor Skills

ocomotor skills are the movement to the swinging leg. At this level, the child skills that children use to move has developed sufficient balance, strength, effectively and efficiently through space. and coordination for the hopping skill. These skills allow children to travel, Hopping requires the use of only one explore, and discover their environments. leg to lift the body and enough strength Preschool children use locomotor skills in to catch the body when landing on the their daily activities to move from one same leg. Between the Exploring level and area to another. Locomotor skills include the Integration level, children will explore walking, running, jumping, galloping, and discover ways to move their body seg- sliding, leaping, skipping, and hopping. ments to facilitate the hopping action. In Teachers and caregivers can help chil- the transition from one level to the next, dren develop these skills by encouraging the leg that is off the floor will be placed them to use different skills as they move down, behind, and inconsistently in differ- and play in their environment. It is ent positions, and the arms will be used important to keep in mind that locomotor in different ways until the child finds the skills tend to develop in an orderly most efficient way of moving the body sequence in typically developing children. while hopping on one foot at the Integra- The level of difficulty for locomotor tion level. It is important for teachers and skills varies from easy to more difficult caregivers to understand the increasing according to the demands of the skill on complexity of locomotor skills. This under- the body. For instance, walking can be standing permits them to provide a wide considered an easy skill for a typically variety of developmentally appropriate developing preschool child who has had activities for skill development. the opportunity to walk and master bal- The immediate environment can also ance and stability since infancy. However, be manipulated to increase or decrease hopping may be considered a more the difficulty of locomotor skills. Teachers difficult skill, because the requirements and caregivers can modify it the most for balance and strength increase consid- by using different surfaces and objects, erably. See figure 3.1, “Developmental Figure 3.1 Developmental Sequence Sequence of Hopping” and observe the of Hopping body configuration of the early develop- ment of hopping. At the Exploring level, the child has one leg off the floor and in front of the body and has great difficulty getting the body off the floor on the other leg (little strength). The arms are to the side of the body, and they provide little help for pushing the body off the floor. At the Integration level, the child is able to Exploring level Integration level hop several times on one leg while swing- ing the opposite leg back and forth like a Designed by Clersida Garcia and illustrated by Xuyen Garcia, pendulum. The arms move in opposition 2010.

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such as beanbags; cones; rhythm sticks; children’s development and may enhance footprints; visual aids; low-, middle-, and children’s sense of accomplishment of high-level obstacles; and music. Inter- these skills. esting, inviting activities can motivate The previous experiences, health sta- children to practice a variety of locomotor tus, cultural background, cognitive abili- skills. Modifications, adaptations, and ties, motor challenges, and personality preparation of the environment based traits of individual children will also influ- on observations of children’s ability lev- ence the development of locomotor skills. els and special needs can provide more Individual and cultural differences should appropriate challenges. Environmental be considered and activities adjusted modifications and adaptations assist accordingly so all children can develop efficient and effective locomotor skills.

Research Highlight: Locomotor Skills

Research indicates that movements develop from the interaction of the indi- vidual, the environment in which the movement occurs, and the task to be undertaken. Changing any of these factors will change the resulting movement. These three factors are in continuous interaction when children are growing and moving in different environments. To enhance and develop movement, teachers and caregivers need to consider the relation- ship between the characteristics of the individual child, her surroundings, and the purpose or reason for moving. To enhance motor skill development, these three aspects deserve clear consideration.13

VIGNETTE During outdoor time the teacher invited children to play a game called “Pretend to walk on…” and the children excitedly agreed. The teacher asked them to spread out and listen. Then the teacher said, “We are walking on ice, and it is cold.” He wrapped his arms around his body and started walking very slowly and carefully. Some children began walking as though on ice immediately while others started getting the idea by the teacher’s demonstrations. The teacher said, “Okay, okay, now we are walking on hot sand. How do you move your body when the sand is hot?” While the children followed excitedly he continued to change the activity place, such as walking on a tightrope, walking on glue, walking on car oil, and so on. Then the teacher asked, “Who

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would like a turn to decide where we are walking?” One child raised his hand and said, “We are walking on mud.” All the children began walking and falling in funny ways. Another raised his hand insis- tently and, when given the turn, he said, “We are walking on rocks” and laughed. The children continued pretending and participating in the game, laughing and falling as if they were walking on rocks. Then another child said, “We are walking on water, and we splash it.” The game continued until it was time to go back inside. Later, at circle time, the teacher reflected about the different ways they walked for each floor surface.

PLANNING These activities provide opportunities to experience a vari- LEARNING ety of pretend surfaces in which children’s movement pat- OPPORTUNITIES terns adjust to the demands of the environment. The vignette also exemplifies that the environment has an impact on how people choose to move. The pretend world of children allows a variety of environments. For example, teachers can change the game to accommodate different weather conditions, places, or jobs. Music is an excellent resource to facilitate locomotor skills. It provides rhythm and can evoke emotion when a locomotor skill is demonstrated. This activity may be modified for children with movement difficulties by hav- ing the teacher add to the discussion about the various ways that children move (e.g., using adaptive equipment such as a walker or wheelchair). Walking is the easiest way for children to travel. They have an opportunity to learn about safety because walking is a slower motion and gives children time to see other children moving and time to respond to the changing environment. Children may respond to an approaching child by changing direction or by stopping and waiting for someone to pass. By observ- ing children walking, the teacher or caregiver can determine new challenges that can be incorporated in daily routines and ways to enhance safety while moving faster.

TEACHABLE The walking pattern may change depending on the conditions MOMENT of the environment or the special needs of some children. Some children may walk primarily on their toes, without put- ting much weight on their heels, while others may not have experienced conditions such as snow; consequently, they do not know how to walk on it. However, teacher engagement, demonstration, and modification of the task according to spe- cial needs of children can enhance participation. For exam- ple, a child in a wheelchair could demonstrate and then talk about how the wheelchair would move on different surfaces.

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and footprints in patterns on the ground Interactions and Strategies or floor (e.g., a line of three single foot- prints followed by three pairs of footprints Observe and analyze children’s loco- and then followed by another line of motor skills to facilitate planning for single footprints may encourage hopping learning opportunities. While children and jumping). See figure 3.2. Additionally play and move using locomotor skills, asking children to find different ways to teachers and caregivers can observe move in and out of the hoops and pat- what kind of locomotor skills children are terns of footprints can create new forms using, which ones they use more often of locomotion. Some children may jump, and which they do not use or rarely try others may hop, others may leap, and (see the illustrations in “Selected Devel- some may tiptoe through the area. opmental Sequences of Locomotor Skills” As children explore new ways of moving, at the end of this chapter). Teachers can the teacher and caregiver should con- determine children’s developmental pro- tinue observing carefully to acknowledge gression for a particular skill (see the those ways, help children who may need “Research Highlight: Locomotor Skills” assistance, describe ways that other chil- on page 148). Observations can guide the dren are moving, and identify the chil- focus and purpose of the activities in the dren’s levels of development. Focusing creation of plans to facilitate skill devel- on the way the arms and legs move while opment and to provide opportunities for observing can help the teacher clearly variation of those skills. identify children’s levels of development For instance, the teacher observed that and therefore inform the planning of new children walk and run but rarely use any and appropriate challenges for future other locomotor skills in the playground. activities. This observation can guide the teacher’s Promote progressive development of planning to increase variation in the leg strength. It is important to under- locomotor skills used. The teacher can stand that locomotor skills require differ- guide the variation of locomotor skills by ent levels of leg strength; however, teach- designing the outdoor environment or ers cannot sit and wait until children spacious indoor environment to include get stronger, because it is through using objects that call for other locomotor their legs and arms that children will gain movements. Adding some hoops, spots,

Figure 3.2 Locomotor Movement Patterns

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balance skills, then the teacher needs to provide ways to facilitate balancing skills. In this case, guide children to experiment with their arms in different positions to find greater stability. Usually, open arms along the side of the body enhance stabil- ity. Vision also plays a role in balance, so enhance visual cues. For children who have visual impairments, a vision specialist or an orientation and mobility specialist may suggest supportive ways to promote the child’s progressive devel- more strength. Therefore, if the locomo- opment of balance. Create activities that tor skill calls for strength, such as jump- stimulate the use of the vestibular system ing, provide ways to develop strength in to increase balance (see the “Research young children. Design the indoor and Highlight: Beyond the Five Senses” on outdoor environments in ways that invite page 172 for more information about the the use of locomotor skills, such as run- vestibular system). Encourage children to ning, galloping, jumping, crawling, and help each other. This also develops coop- climbing. Children can pretend to be eration skills. springs and crunch down before jumping Promote and be aware of the progres- up; that will help build strength. Place sive development of coordination different obstacles on the floor according of locomotor skills. Coordination is to children’s ability levels and the special the most efficient organization of the needs; initially place them close to the body systems to perform movements. ground and then increase the height as Advanced arm–leg coordination will dem- children’s strength increases. Boxes of onstrate a contra-lateral opposition of different sizes allow them to jump to the arm and legs (see figure 3.1, “Develop- ground using the force of gravity. Tak- mental Sequence of Hopping.”) Coordi- ing off is more difficult than landing, and nation increases with repetition of the landing can be on hands and feet. Pro- movement actions and with guided prac- vide hands to assist the take-off if some tice. Children move progressively to a children need this assistance. Safety in higher level of coordination as their bod- landing can be enhanced by providing ies get stronger, they gain balance, and cushioned surfaces, such as sand, grass, they experience new ways of moving their water, or mats. Coordinate with special- bodies. For coordination, observe the ists and check the IEP goals for children ways children move their arms as they with motor development challenges. run, gallop, leap, jump, or hop. Arm–leg Promote progressive development of coordination may be developed by chal- balance.* All locomotor skills require lenging children to use their arms in dif- balance. Some locomotor skills have a ferent ways and to find out which way greater demand for balance than others. feels easiest. Holding scarves, maracas, If the children have a lower level of or ribbons is a way to practice arm move- ments. In addition to the demands of the *See the Balance substrand on page 140 for skill itself, locomotor skills can be com- additional strategies. bined in different patterns of two to three

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locomotor skills (e.g., run and jump, run to area, going out to the playground, or and leap, hop-hop-hop and jump), or going into the classroom while setting sequences of skills to music. There are up or cleaning up, in large-group activi- other ways teachers can vary the chal- ties, or after large-group activities. For lenges and increase the coordination of instance, the teacher can say (verbally locomotor skills. Consult with special- or using sign language), “Today, when I ists and refer to IEP goals for children call your name, go to an interest area by with motor development challenges. For galloping,” or “Choose your favorite way resources for working with children with to move to an area for play.” The teacher disabilities or other special needs, see the can take into account the varying ability California Preschool Curriculum Frame- levels when giving the commands, provid- work, Volume 1, appendix D. ing locomotor practice that is inclusive of all children. The more ways teachers Encourage practice of locomotor move- provide opportunities and encourage ments in both indoor and outdoor practice, the greater the opportunity for environments. Children love to move in children to develop efficient patterns of different ways. When they learn new loco- locomotor skills. It is important to pro- motor skills, they want to use them over vide opportunities for both indoor and and over again. This is a natural drive outdoor locomotor activities, as these two for mastering locomotor skills. Teachers environments call for different levels of and family members should celebrate intensity, speed, and range of motions. these accomplishments and encourage Outdoor open spaces are excellent places the use of emerging skills because it is for children to learn to control their through repetition that children establish efforts when moving in these spaces. The the coordination pattern in their nervous indoor environment offers a limited and system. Locomotor skills can be used in more constrained space, while outdoor the daily routines of the preschool pro- playgrounds provide for different types gram, such as when moving from area of terrain, natural obstacles, and avail- ability of natural resources and people. It is essential that children practice and learn to move in these different spaces. Children will learn the range, speed, and intensity to apply to their locomotor skills when they are inside their homes or in more open areas such as playgrounds or parks.

Use vivid visual information and visual aids that communicate to children in simple ways how to move. Use props to promote locomotor skills. Pictures of animals, visual pointers such as arrows for directions, or pathways can guide children in performing locomotor skills. Visual information is also valuable for children who are English learners and children with auditory disabilities. Pat-

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terns of footprints and handprints from childhood and incorporate the music or different animals or monsters are excit- songs into the locomotor activities. These ing for children to follow. Low, slanted actions provide opportunities to validate hurdles allow children to jump or leap children’s culture and family values. at their ability level. Bubble-wrap mate- Plan meaningful, purposeful, and rial secured to the floor produces great connected locomotor activities and sounds when children jump on it. Sturdy games. The activities should be mean- boxes of different sizes provide different ingful to children, have a clear purpose, heights for jumping on and from. Stones and be connected to their culture and of different sizes, containers, and pictures the realities of their lives. To be meaning- secured to the floor facilitate and also ful, the activities should represent chil- promote locomotor skills. dren’s interests. Children love to move to Use music, songs, rhymes, and stories accomplish something: to feed a pretend to provide rhythmic patterns. All loco- animal, to carry pieces of a puzzle from motor skills have a rhythmic pattern, and one side of the room to another, to take most children benefit from listening to the a letter from one container and place it beat as they move their bodies. Rhythmic into another, to match objects, to order patterns are evident in songs such as numbers, to build a house, to show their “Skip to My Lou” or “Listen and Move.” Or costumes, and so on. All these activities use different rhythm instruments such can be combined with locomotor move- as rhythm sticks, drums, paper plates, ments. One of the factors that can influ- metal cans that are property sealed, or ence the development of locomotor skills maracas. When using instruments or and motor skills in general is the purpose music, be aware that some children have or reasons for moving. Teachers need to a low threshold for noise tolerance. Adapt design activities that center on children’s by providing soft earplugs or earmuffs. interests. For instance, many children Many early childhood music CDs, includ- have a genuine interest in animals and ing music in many languages, promote love to care for them. This interest can the development of locomotor skills. The be combined with locomotor skills by words of the songs are also an excel- setting up plates at one end of the room lent source for increased vocabulary and and containers of food at the other end. understanding of their meaning as well In this way children move with the pur- as bridging children’s vocabulary in their pose of feeding the animals. Children will home language and English. The Explorer be asked to feed the animals the food Adventure Game allows teachers to cre- on the other side. Each time they go to ate stories around children’s interests. pick a food, ask them to use a different For example, going on an adventure to locomotor skill. Remember to discuss the find “magic” leaf shapes, stones of differ- purpose of the movement, such as in this ent colors, stick sizes, or hidden objects activity, which was to feed the animals. is an activity that most children like to Ask questions: “Did you bring something do again and again. Variety may also be yellow to your animals? How about some- introduced in games such as Simon Says thing green? What about something red?” or Red Light, Green Light by using differ- “Did they eat their food?” Or, if the chil- ent locomotor movements. Teachers can dren know the food names and groups, ask parents for cultural music or songs add that information to the questions. involving movement and play from their

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Create picture cards representing them home. Teachers may evoke piñata different ways to move related to fun times by having children paint and children’s cultural background. Teach- decorate small piñatas or by making pre- ers can add feelings to the locomotor tend piñatas using cardboard or square movements, such as happy (skipping), paper plates and then gluing decorations calm (tip-toe), funny (jumping), silly to the outside. The cardboard or paper (walking), angry (hopping), and dance plates should have a small hole at one walking. Ask the child to pick a card and end so a plastic string or a light rope can then move that way. At the end of the be attached. Then pair up the children: activity, ask questions to reinforce con- one with the piñata and one with a short cepts and to increase children’s aware- noodle wand in her hand. Have children ness of how they moved. For example, chase the piñata outside and hit it with ask, “Did anyone move on one foot? Did their wands. This activity calls for loco- you move quickly or slowly? Did you motor movements such as running, gal- express a feeling when you moved? Which loping, leaping, and changing directions one was your favorite way of moving?” while hitting the piñata. This is a fun activity that should be done outside in Create culturally diverse scenarios for open areas that allow space for running, practicing locomotor skills. Providing chasing, and changing directions. Teach- movement experiences that reflect the ers can also design a rectangular or cir- diversity of a group of children is another cular track area by using traffic cones for way to motivate participation and to vali- children to run around. More than one date children’s cultures. Dances repre- child can follow the piñata on the ground. senting different cultures are excellent This is an excellent locomotor, eye-hand- ways to practice locomotor skills. Another coordination, and endurance activity. If way to incorporate cultural scenarios is one member of the pair has motor chal- through pretend activities using props. lenges, the partner can carry out the For example, children can pretend to be actions based on verbal or gestural cues. rangers, wear hats, and use Styrofoam noodles as “horses.” The teacher can play Encourage persistence during challeng- western-style galloping music to which ing locomotor skills. Some locomotor children can gallop around a “range skills are more challenging and difficult area.” When the teacher plays a different than others. For instance, hopping is dif- sound (or signal) for the horses to stop, ficult because it requires a lot of strength, children may act out a jump or make balance, and coordination. As children horse noises. The teacher can play the experience difficulties, provide affor- song (or signal) again, and the children dances (i.e., facilitators) such as objects can continue galloping to the music. to hold onto while hopping on one foot. Teachers and caregivers can incorporate Value children’s efforts by making them cultural customs and traditions into the aware of the importance of trying. Ask locomotor activities. For instance, some children to try hopping just one or two Latino children celebrate their birthdays steps before trying to hop continuously. with a cake and a piñata. Tradition- Another way to develop hopping skills is ally, the piñata is filled with candies and by increasing balancing skills on one foot toys. Children take turns hitting it with and leg strength. Climbing can also assist a stick until it breaks and the prizes fall children in strength development. out. Then they collect items and take

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Provide appropriate challenges for chil- overstimulated when touched. Know dren with special needs. Children with your children well and modify the tasks disabilities and special needs may need accordingly. For instance, enhancing accommodations based on their differing auditory and tactile stimulation is help- abilities. Teachers need to be open and ful for children with visual impairments responsive to individual unique differ- and blindness. In the piñata game men- ences. If a child receives services from a tioned previously, an easy modification specialist such as a physical therapist, would be to place bells on the disc and on occupational therapist, adaptive physi- the cords. Provide longer cords and see if cal education teacher, or special educa- the child can participate more easily and tion teacher, be sure to consult with the accomplish the task. You may want to specialist about ways to appropriately provide a partner for this child to ensure encourage and challenge physical devel- success at the beginning of the game, but opment. Recognize the strengths of chil- as the child gains confidence let her try dren with special needs and enhance the on her own and see how she feels. Pair- sensory information that they increas- ing up different children as partners also ingly rely on. Some children benefit from fosters socialization and acceptance. For kinesthetic assistance while others get resources for working with children with disabilities or other special needs, see appendix D in the California Preschool Curriculum Framework, Volume 1.

Express enthusiasm for locomotor skills. Teachers can enhance children’s participation by demonstrating enthusi- asm for locomotor movement actions and by encouraging children to try new ways of moving. Teachers can show genuine appreciation for movement by describing children’s locomotor actions, by taking pictures of children moving around and sending the pictures home (or posting them on a wall or board), by asking them about their feelings while they are mov- ing, and, most importantly, by acting as good role models. Furthermore, describ- ing children’s efforts and giving cues or pointers will make them aware of their body actions and ability to replicate suc- cessful attempts. These strategies expand exploration, self-discovery, and self- confidence.

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3.0 Manipulative Skills

anipulative skills allow children to ally while observing the reaction of the Muse their arms, hands, legs, and object as it falls, as well as the people feet to project an object away from the observing and the changes in the envi- body (e.g., throwing a beanbag) or to ronment. They are naturally thrilled by receive and absorb the force of an object these actions and the reactions of others. coming to the body (e.g., catching a bal- To facilitate development, teachers need loon). Fundamental motor skills that to observe what children like and dislike involve large muscle groups are called playing freely (e.g., some children avoid gross motor skills (e.g., kicking) and the touching objects or people) and incor- ones that involve small muscle groups porate some of these aspects into their are called fine motor skills (e.g., cut- activities. ting). Fine motor manipulative skills are The acquisition of fundamental usually those in which children manipu- manipulative skills follows a predictable late objects with their hands. Gross developmental sequence, but children motor manipulative skills include tossing, often progress through these sequences rolling, throwing, catching, striking, kick- at different rates (see illustrations of ing, bouncing, and punting with objects. “Selected Developmental Sequences of Fine motor manipulative skills include Fundamental Manipulative Skills,” at the cutting, painting, and buttoning. end of this chapter). The different rates Most children are naturally eager to depend largely on opportunities for prac- play with objects and discover manipula- tice, encouragement, and instruction (i.e., tive skills. Exploring and manipulating development is age-related but not age- objects is a natural or engaging way for dependent). Teachers need to understand preschoolers to understand their physi- and expect variability of ability levels cal body and their impact on objects and among children of the same chronological people in the environment. From a young age as well as among children with spe- age, children begin exploring objects with cial needs. their mouth and then with the hands and Environments also affect the quality of feet. Soon they drop objects intention- skill development. For instance, poverty may affect the availability of resources and opportunities for movement and may limit skill development and movement experiences. Therefore, low levels of skill development and low confidence in move- ment may be present in children facing these conditions. A child living in a small urban apart- ment often tends to be more sedentary, less confident, and may show more delays in movement skill acquisition than a child who lives in a single-family home. The child living in the apartment faces obstacles: hazards outside, lack of play

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time with parents because parent work of physical activity, children need to have schedules, and limited space and toys. plenty of opportunities and encourage- The child living in a house tends to have ment that can ensure a physically active adequate space to play, toys to play with, lifestyle in the future. Teachers and care- and parents who have time to encourage givers need to be aware of these cultural and physically play with him. Likewise, values and expectations so they can cultural values and beliefs about physi- encourage, guide, and assist children and cal activity can affect the development of families in understanding the issues. motor skills. In general, most cultures Enriched and developmentally appro- tend to support and encourage boys to priate environments invite movement play with balls and be physically active experiences and may enhance children’s while girls may get the message that skill development, physical activity expe- physical activity and gross manipulative riences, and confidence in moving. How- skills (e.g., playing with balls) are not ever, certain aspects of the environment important for them.14, 15 These beliefs and may affect progress in the development subtle messages may lead to girls becom- of manipulative skills. The conditions of ing less interested in gross motor activi- the learning environment, the require- ties. On the other hand, boys may get ments of the movement task, and the less encouragement and opportunities for uniqueness of the individual play impor- locomotor skills and fine motor manipu- tant roles in the learning of manipulative lative skills. These cultural values, which skills. Strategies for teaching manipula- are stronger in some cultures than oth- tive skills should be flexible and sensitive ers, negatively affect both boys and girls to individual and cultural differences in a in the development of their movement variety of environments. Teachers should repertoire. Fundamental movement skills also facilitate the adjustment of the are the foundation of movement for life, manipulative task to create appropriate and both boys and girls need to develop challenges for all participating children proficiency in all locomotor, manipula- (see the “Research Highlight: Locomotor tive, and balance skills. To move with Skills” on page 148). confidence and to develop healthy habits

Manipulative Skills: Gross Motor

VIGNETTE Children were playing around a big plastic wading pool, and a few “swam” in a pretend lake (the pretend lake was defined by a large circle drawn on the floor). Children were tossing “food” toward plastic fish in the pretend lake. Some children indicated whom they were try- ing to feed, while others just tossed food for any of the fish or ducks. The food was in a plastic bucket and consisted of yarn balls, small beanbags, sticky balls, balls with bells inside, and small plastic sen- sory balls. Mrs. Williams observed the children and described how happy the animals were to get the food:, “Oh, those fish are so happy they do not have to look for food today. You sure are having fun toss- ing food to the fish today. You may want to toss a little harder to reach the ones that are far away.” Some children answered, “Yeah. I am

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going to toss really hard,” and tossed and stepped forward with the force needed. Mrs. Williams observed, “I noticed that you stepped this time, and that helps when you want to toss hard.” Then the child repeated and stepped again and again. Mrs. Williams walked around the circle and asked, “Can you step when you toss the food? Try step- ping and see how far you can throw.” Some children stepped with the same-side foot as the arm in action; others changed back and forth. Mrs. Williams indicated to these chil- dren, “You’re stepping a long way!” By now they were out of food, and the teacher remarked, “Okay, let’s walk on your tiptoes and pick up the food and bring it back to the buckets. Look around so you don’t bump into anyone.” The children stepped into the lake and did so. Mrs. Williams reflected, “Now let’s see if we can step over the line before you toss, like this,” and she showed them the movement. The children began tossing again. A few stepped, but many others did not.

PLANNING This activity is engaging to children because it has a purpose LEARNING that matches their interest. After observing the children’s OPPORTUNITIES body movements when tossing, the teacher was aware that some children were more advanced than others. A few of the children stepped contra-laterally (i.e., using the leg opposite to the tossing arm), some stepped homo-laterally (i.e., using the same leg as the tossing arm), and many others did not step. This activity provides important information for the teacher when planning the next tossing activity. She can add some visual aids such as footprints (e.g., circle, small mat) and ask children questions to scaffold the stepping action such as, “Can you step in the footprint before tossing the food?” The teacher is aware that her goal for the next time in developing this skill is to encourage stepping. This stepping action can be with either foot so children begin to move their center of gravity. Teachers can ask, “Show me how you can step on the footprint before you toss.” Teachers can model and show children the movement by indicating, “I step and toss. Did you see how I stepped?” Some children may benefit from the additional instructional strategy of having the teacher physically guide their bodies through the stepping motion so that children can learn how it feels to step when tossing.

TEACHABLE Encouraging comments, such as “It seems like you are MOMENT having fun tossing to the fish today,” help build internal motivation and enjoyment among children. Teachers can encourage children to step by affirming them based on what the teacher sees (e.g., “That time you took a step. How does

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it feel?”). Or, when a child steps, the teacher may say, “That’s great! You remembered to take a step before tossing.” These comments will make children aware of their foot actions. When a child steps and tosses, the teacher can comment, “Way to step” or, “Now, you’re stepping every time.” In this way teachers reinforce and encourage the stepping action. If the teacher wants to remind a child of the stepping action, he might say, “Did you step this time?” Furthermore, modeling, mirroring, and physically guiding when the need arises will assist young children in becoming aware of their foot actions. In this vignette, the teacher also helped a child who was more advanced become aware that if his goal was tossing far away, stepping helped. Positive, instructive comments will empower the child and provide him with information on how to control his body to reach his goal.

by giving a cue and scaffolding the feet. Interactions and Strategies As children begin stepping with their manipulative actions, their stepping will Observe developmental sequences of be done first using a homolateral pattern fundamental manipulative skills. Most (i.e., stepping with the same side foot as children progress in fundamental manip- the arm being used.). Developmentally, it ulative skills according to developmental is expected and a natural sequence that sequences. These movements are usu- most children go through. As children ally of increasing complexity as the body become more comfortable stepping this moves from simple to greater body coor- way, teachers may begin encouraging a dination. Teachers need to be aware of more proficient way of stepping. Step- the sequences and able to observe where ping contra-laterally means with the foot children are in their development in opposed to the arm action. Progressively order to best facilitate the development of these skills in young children (see figure Figure 3.3 Developmental Sequence 3.3, “Developmental Sequence of Throw- of Throwing ing”).

Vary the focus of the manipulative skills. Usually young and inexperienced children will not move their feet when manipulating an object through gross motor movement (see figure 3.3 “Devel- opmental Sequence of Throwing”). At the exploring level the child throws without Exploring level Integration level moving her feet. Only the throwing arm moves; therefore, teachers and caregiv- Designed by Clersida Garcia and illustrated by Xuyen Garcia, ers may want to encourage stepping 2010.

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children will begin the transition to step appear and disappear) provides children in opposition (i.e., contra-laterally), the with motivation and directionality in pro- more coordinated way of moving the jection skills. When targets are used, the legs in most manipulative skills (see the emphasis should not be on how accu- integration level ilustrated in figure 3.3). rately children hit the targets. Rather, the Most children with disabilities or spe- teacher’s focus should be on observing cial needs move through the same levels children’s movement patterns. Do they of developmental sequences, but their use the right hand or left hand consis- progress is often at a different or delayed tently? Do they make an attempt at the pace. Children with physical disabili- movement? Do they step? How do they ties will accommodate their movement step? Do they step in opposition? actions to their special capabilities. For instance, a child in a wheelchair will not Create meaningful scenarios that step but can use a similar arm action as provide the opportunity for the inte- the one observed at the integration level. gration of fundamental movement For propulsion skills, such as throw- skills with other curriculum concepts. ing, teachers and caregivers may want to Children learn and recall both motor encourage children to extend their arm skills and curriculum concepts better back or swing the leg back before contact when they are related in meaningful to increase the propulsive force that will ways. As stated earlier in this framework, be applied to the object (e.g., arms for motor, cognitive, social, and emotional throwing, legs for kicking). For receptive development are all interrelated. Teach- skills, such as catching, teachers may ers can create opportunities for incorpo- want to encourage children to focus on rating all domains of learning and con- arms reaching up and moving smoothly cepts such as numbers, shapes, colors, down to absorb the force of the object. matching activities, sequencing activities, As children improve their skills, teachers creative activities, and special cultural may later encourage and focus on trunk themes with both gross and fine motor rotation and so on. Teachers need to manipulative skills. This kind of experi- consider all these aspects when design- ence will create countless opportunities ing activities addressing the gross motor for teachable moments (see “Bringing manipulative skills. It All Together” on page 171 for an example). Provide a variety of equipment to accommodate individual differences Use both unstructured and structured in body size, skill level, and the strategies, as well as multisensory development of children’s physical experiences, in your teaching. Unstruc- and sensory systems. For example, for tured time encourages children to explore gross motor manipulative skill develop- and discover multiple possibilities and ment, it is helpful to provide balls of dif- ranges of body motion. Structured activi- ferent sizes, shapes, textures, and weight. ties provide efficient models for children Beanbags, sponge balls, or even wadded- to replicate skills. Young children typi- up newspaper are good. If children will cally benefit from exposure to a balance throw at a target, it should be colorful, of unstructured and structured strate- large, and interactive. The activity should gies. Children sometimes need a demon- be enjoyable and interesting. A target stration by the teacher or direct guidance with sounds or effects (e.g., objects on how to move (“Step with this foot,

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Mary” while touching her foot); and other perceptual system.) Providing slower-fall- times they need a challenge: “How many ing objects may be particularly appropri- ways can we move our feet to toss this ate for children with disabilities and other beanbag to the circle?” “Show me two special needs who benefit from having ways to kick!” “How can we throw from more time to respond physically or cog- a sitting position?” In addition to these nitively. Another accommodation can be strategies, adding a variety of sensory made in the way the balls or objects are stimulation (e.g., visual, hearing, tactile) presented to children with special needs. can address children’s multiple ways of For instance, it is easier for a child with learning. a visual impairment to catch an object that makes sounds and rolls on the floor Create developmental activities that or a low table than a silent object that is

provide a sense of success. Modifying tossed. activities for individual skill levels is a constant aspect of teaching. For instance, Provide opportunities for repeated the way a teacher enhances a child’s practice in a safe environment. Chil- developing visual and perceptual sys- dren need plenty of opportunities to tems and ability to track objects in space practice their manipulative motor skills can facilitate success. The teacher can in a variety of settings and with a variety enhance and facilitate success by set- of materials and equipment. Manipula- ting up the environment with appropriate tive activities can be practiced indoors challenges and by observing individual and outdoors, in interest areas, and children and assisting them accordingly. during small- or large-group activities. For instance, using materials that are Young children need to practice the same colorful, light, and falls slowly, such as manipulative skills in many different set- scarves, feathers, balloons, or bubbles, tings. Sometimes a familiar activity in a can increase the child’s ability to visually different setting seems like a completely follow (i.e., track) the object. The slow new experience. To provide safety dur- fall of the object provides time for the ing manipulative activities, check the child to respond and catch successfully space where the activity will be done and even though the child may have delayed remove obstacles. Such things as water arm action. (Note: This is a typical char- on the floor, slippery surfaces, or objects acteristic of a young child’s developing that can impede safe play need to be rec- tified before any activity begins. Making sure that the manipulative play equip- ment is soft and light is another impor- tant safety consideration. Also, be certain to provide clear directions and a recog- nized signal for starting and stopping all activities. Understand gender-based expecta- tions of the children’s culture when teaching manipulative skills. Culture influences young children’s exposure and opportunities to engage in manipula- tive activities. In some cultures, playing

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with balls and using the large muscles them.16 Teachers should understand is expected of boys. Likewise the cloth- that these differences may be initially ing used by children represents these observed but do not need to persist. Open culturally based expectations. Boys are communication with parents and family more likely to be dressed in clothing that members about the importance of gross allows for physical activity, rough-and- motor manipulative skills for girls as well tumble play, and wear and tear. Girls are as boys, and asking for collaboration, can sometimes expected to be less active and help girls and their families understand may be dressed in clothes that limit their the benefits of becoming competent in active play. In addition, girls may show manipulative skills. In addition, parents little interest for gross motor manipula- and children need to understand the tive skills because their culture perceives importance of appropriate clothing for active play to be of low value. movement activities. Teachers, parents, The gender-based expectations of chil- and family members need to learn and dren’s culture, as well as their level of understand the benefits of manipulative skill development, may influence the and large muscle skills for girls. Girls motivation of children to participate in may need more encouragement, guided gross motor manipulative activities. Boys, assistance, reassurance, and role mod- in general, tend to be more interested in eling to develop manipulative skills. To gross motor manipulative skills, while learn more about expectations for chil- girls tend to avoid gross motor manipu- dren in specific cultures, observe care- lative skills due to a lack of exposure fully, communicate thoughtfully with and the cultural, gender-based percep- children and family members, and seek tion that these types of skills are not for community resources as needed. Provide plenty of encouragement. Most of the time, young children value adults’ opinions about their efforts. Adults need to recognize the value of trying. Try- ing is key to the process that led to the acquisition of the skill. Skills develop- ment is a slow process and each tiny improvement helps that process advance. Children want adults to notice them in action and to acknowledge their efforts. Adults encourage children to participate and enhance children’s sense of accom- plishment of a task. Positive verbal and nonverbal communication is effective. For example, take time to express ver- bal acknowledgment of their movement actions, take digital pictures of their movement skills, show reassurance, and use hand signals such as “a high-five” or thumbs-up gesture. Adults’ demonstra- tions of enjoyment and genuine enthusi- asm for children’s skill development are

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a powerful motivation for young children. independent of skill level. If they do not hit (See the California Preschool Curriculum the target, they may make an adjustment Framework, Volume 1, chapter 3, for more to do so. They will develop their ability to information). judge and adjust their movement actions. Another motivational effect is having chil- Create manipulative activities that dren knock down objects that produce provide automatic feedback and a a sound or making something appear sense of accomplishment. Teachers can or disappear after the child’s action. For create activities in which children’s move- example, hitting a beach ball with a short ment actions cause a reaction in the envi- Styrofoam “noodle” will create a sound ronment. For instance, providing targets that children enjoy. The sound itself may with sound lets children know immedi- motivate them to do the task over and over ately that they hit the target. This activity again. can provide a sense of accomplishment

Manipulative Skills: Fine Motor

VIGNETTE Ms. Lupe overhears Trang, a new child in the preschool program, talk enthusiastically about going on nature hikes with her family. Ms. Lupe designs a nature-hike activity in which children pretend to be scientists and collect specimens from the outside play area. The teacher provides several specimen containers, including twist-top food jars, zippered pouches, and flip-top dental floss dispensers. Trang finds an acorn to put into a twist-top jar, and Todd places a leaf into a zippered pouch. Todd and Trang return to the “lab” area indoors, where there are “lab coats” consisting of button-down shirts and a tray of “lab tools.” The tools include a magnifying glass, twee- zers, and a paintbrush. Both children put on lab coats, and Trang buttons one button. Trang asks Todd, “Want to see the nut I found?” “Yeah!” exclaims Todd as Ms. Lupe joins the children. Trang untwists the lid of her container and pours the acorn onto the tray. Ms. Lupe says, “Scien- tist Trang, you found a nut called an acorn.” Trang takes the twee- zers and tries to pick up the acorn, which slips out. Trang sighs in frustration but keeps trying, while Ms. Lupe nods and smiles encour- agingly at Trang. On her third attempt, Trang picks up the acorn. Ms. Lupe exclaims, “Trang, you picked up your acorn! How did you hold the tweezers?” Trang shrugs and says, “I don’t know.” Ms. Lupe sug- gests, “Hmm . . . it looks like you squeezed the tweezers just tightly enough, but not too much. What do you think?” Trang pauses for a moment, and then nods, “The nut falls when I squeeze too hard. I have to squeeze just right.” Ms. Lupe replies, “Yes, you squeezed the tweezers just right to pick up your acorn. And you kept trying even when it was hard. Now, tell me about this acorn.”

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PLANNING Teachers can design meaningful learning experiences by LEARNING incorporating children’s interests. By being a careful observer, OPPORTUNITIES Ms. Lupe learns about Trang’s interest in nature walks. The teacher designs the general theme and purpose of the activ- ity (i.e., find an object from outside) but provides choices for carrying out the activity, such as which containers to use and what to collect. Having choices may motivate children’s participation and accommodate different skill levels and interests. This activity provides multiple ways for children to develop fine motor manipulative skills. Because natural mate- rials from outside are used, children can explore and manipu- late objects of various sizes, shapes, weight, and textures. Incorporating different tools, containers, and clothing fasten- ers creates additional fine motor challenges. The nature-hike activity also provides learning opportunities in other domains; it involves science concepts, vocabulary, emotional regulation (e.g., persisting with a challenging task and managing frus- tration), social interaction, and pretend play.

TEACHABLE The teacher observes that Trang is frustrated by the challenge MOMENT of manipulating tweezers and uses nonverbal communica- tion (i.e., facial expressions and gestures) to encourage the child’s effort. If Trang had become very frustrated or had been unable to pick up the acorn after numerous attempts, Ms. Lupe may have provided verbal suggestions, demonstrations, or hands-on assistance as needed. Ms. Lupe expresses genu- ine enthusiasm when Trang picks up the acorn. The teacher’s description of what the child did validated her accomplish- ment. The teacher helps the child to reflect on how she effec- tively manipulated the tool; this reflection process promotes self-awareness of the motor strategies used and solidifies learning.

VIGNETTE Luz, an English language learner, reaches for scissors during a craft activity. Mr. Aponte hands her a pair of scissors, saying, “These are scissors.” Luz repeats “scissors.” A few days later, also during a craft activity, Mr. Aponte asks Luz, “Show me what you do with scissors.” Luz opens and closes her index and middle fingers, pretending to be cutting something using scissors. A few weeks later, during another craft activity, Luz says to a peer, “Please give me the scissors.”

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TEACHABLE In this vignette, the teacher uses a craft activity as an oppor- MOMENT tunity to teach and reinforce the learning of the word “scis- sors.” Mr. Aponte first uses the natural context of handing over a pair of scissors to expose Luz to a vocabulary word. Then, after exposing Luz to the word perhaps multiple times, Mr. Aponte checks Luz’s comprehension of the word by asking her to use gestures to demonstrate its meaning. Finally, Luz has mastered the word and uses it to facilitate her participation in craft activities. Fine motor manipulative activities can provide meaningful contexts for learning English. This vignette also illustrates a realistic learning process that could span over weeks or even months.

differ in the types of tools introduced Interactions and Strategies to children and the appropriate time to introduce those tools. For example, young Learn about children’s cultural context children may be expected to manipulate for fine motor activities.Culture influ- chopsticks, use a fork, or eat with their ences young children’s opportunities to hands, depending on their cultural norm. engage in fine motor activities. Fine motor To learn more about certain cultures, skills may be highly valued and encour- observe carefully, communicate thought- aged in some cultures but viewed as fully with children and family members, less important in others. Thus, children and access community resources as whose cultures value fine motor skills needed. Remain respectful of children’s may demonstrate more well-developed cultural contexts while communicating skills due to increased practice oppor- openly with family members about the tunities. Gender-based cultural expec- importance and benefits of fine motor tations may also exist; some cultures skills for all children. expect girls to engage more in fine motor Learn about families’ values related activities and boys to be more proficient to fine motor activities. Be sensitive to in gross motor activities. Cultures also each family’s personal values. Some fam- ily members may have safety concerns about introducing scissors to young chil- dren. Others may be uncomfortable about allowing children to get messy with paints or markers. Educate families about the benefits and safety of fine motor partici- pation for children while remaining sensi- tive to family values. For example, teach- ers may suggest that children use only blunt-tip scissors and only in the pres- ence of an adult. Teachers may also use washable paint and suggest that children

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wear aprons to keep clothing free from Focus on the quality of movement stains. Partner with families to identify rather than the end product. When appropriate home activities to promote children are acquiring new fine motor children’s fine motor development. skills, focus on the developmental pro- gression of hand and arm movements Learn about children’s prior experi- (see figure 3.4, “Developmental Sequence ences and personal interests related of Cutting”). For example, when children to fine motor activities. Depending on are learning to cut, provide instruction cultural traditions, socioeconomic status, and feedback on the quality and mechan- family values, and special needs, children ics of movement (e.g., proper positioning enter preschool with a wide range of prior of the scissors in the hand) rather than exposure and access to fine motor activi- about the end product (i.e., whether the ties. Children also have personal prefer- child cuts on the line). ences with respect to play. Children who prefer fine motor play may demonstrate Provide clear, specific feedback to a relative strength in fine motor develop- facilitate children’s problem-solving ment. By gaining a broad understand- process. Motor skills are learned best ing of each child’s personal contexts and when children are allowed to encounter interests, teachers can design more motor challenges, problem-solve, and effective and more meaningful learning develop their own solutions.17 During opportunities to support fine motor challenging activities, encourage chil- development. dren’s efforts with acknowledgment such

Figure 3.4 Developmental Sequence of Cutting

Early Cutting More Mature Cutting When children are first learning to cut, they As children’s cutting skills mature, the thumb often hold the scissors with the thumb fac- is positioned facing up. They also keep their ing down. The elbow may elevate as they elbows down at their side when cutting. Chil- cut. They tend to cut across their bodies dren tend to cut away from their bodies. Older (toward the opposite hand). Young children children can hold the paper in the opposite usually need to position the paper on a hand as they cut. support surface.

Photographs by Robyn Wu

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as, “You are working hard to make this ing activities can incorporate fine motor necklace. The beads are smaller than activities from multiple cultures, such as what you used before.” Teachers can also making tortillas with rolling pins, crush- assist children by narrating and fram- ing dough with a Roti press, or picking up ing the motor problem: “Hmm, the bead sticky rice with chopsticks. Include cloth- slips out of your fingers when you try to ing and accessories from various cultures push the lace through. I wonder how you for children to explore during dress-up can get the bead to stay in your fingers?” play. Exposure to diverse tools, materials, When children are able to solve the motor and activities yields not only fine motor problems, provide prompts to increase benefits, but also enhances cognitive and self-awareness about how they solved the social development for children from all problem. The teacher may say, “You held cultural backgrounds. onto the bead this time. What did you do Provide adaptations to support partici- differently?” The teacher can also offer pation of children with disabilities or a more directive prompt, such as, “The other special needs. Adapt fine motor bead stayed in your hand when you held activities and materials to enable chil- on to the very middle of the bead. Does it dren with differing abilities to participate. feel different when you hold it like that?” Some children with physical disabilities Provide a variety of tools and media may benefit from additional postural sup- to promote participation. Accommo- port during fine motor activities. Com- date individual differences in interests mon positioning strategies for postural and abilities by providing options. For support including providing a tabletop or example, if children create greeting cards, tray to support the elbows, firm blankets provide various materials to decorate or pillows to prevent loss of balance side- the cards, including crayons (of different ways, or hip straps to keep the pelvis in diameters and lengths), markers, stick- place. If a child has use of only one hand, ers, stamps, or finger paint. Crayons or teachers can stabilize fine motor materi- makers may motivate those children who als by using nonslip mats, binder clips, prefer to draw freehanded, and the dif- or clamps. Consult with the children’s ferent types and sizes of drawing tools family or special education specialists will accommodate differences in grasp- to obtain specific suggestions to meet ing abilities and hand strength. Chil- children’s unique needs. See the strat- dren who enjoy sensory exploration with egy, “Assist children with proper fit and their hands may choose finger painting. positioning of scissors” on page 169 for The novelty of stickers and stamps may including a variety of types of scissors. appeal to others. For resources for working with children with disabilities or other special needs, Design meaningful fine motor activi- see appendix D of the California Preschool ties by incorporating children’s diverse Curriculum Framework, Volume 1. backgrounds. Children from diverse ethnic or cultural backgrounds may be Promote children’s ability to manipu- familiar with different types of tools and late objects by feel. To use the hands materials for fine motor manipulation. with skill and efficiency, children need to Create meaningful learning experiences learn to manipulate objects “by feel” (i.e., for children by incorporating elements using the sense of touch) rather than from their cultures. For example, cook- relying only on vision.18 As children’s

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touch sense develops, they can determine Provide optimal postural support dur- an object’s size, weight, shape, texture, ing challenging fine motor activities. and other physical features by feeling When a child appears challenged by with their hands, without needing to look a fine motor activity, consider asking at the object. Finding small treasures the child to sit in a chair at a tabletop hidden in a treasure box of water, sand, surface for more postural support. Pos- or other materials develops the sense of tural support allows children to focus touch. Challenge children to refine their more on hand movements and less on touch and movement senses by asking postural control. Optimal support is them to build, with their eyes closed, a achieved when the child sits on a stable block tower as high as possible. Teachers chair with ankles, knees, and hips bent can also introduce small-group games, at 90 degrees, feet flat on the floor, and such as having children pass around forearms resting on the table. The table- and identify a mystery object while keep- top should be approximately two inches ing their eyes closed. The development above the child’s elbow when she is of touch perception may be particularly seated. Simple adaptations to accommo- important for children who have visual date different body sizes include footrests impairments. Some children have an of telephone books or shoeboxes and aversion to touching certain objects or seat cushions made from rolled towels or textures. Consult with the family and an blankets. early childhood special education special- Position materials vertically. ist for adaptations. Provide opportunities to explore art and writing Provide opportunities for children to media at vertical surfaces such as an engage in fine motor activities in a easel, writing board, or paper taped on variety of positions. Fine motor activi- the wall. Pegboards and lacing boards ties can be performed in many differ- can also be placed vertically. Manipulat- ent positions, including standing, lying ing objects on a vertical surface develops on the stomach, seated on the floor, or strength and endurance in children’s seated in a chair. Preschool children shoulder and trunk muscles. Strong benefit from the opportunity to practice shoulder and trunk muscles are neces- manipulative skills from different body sary for maintaining the body in a stable, positions. upright position during fine motor activi- ties. The vertical position also promotes development of the wrist and thumb muscles for grasping tools. Cutting mate- rials can also be positioned vertically. For example, teachers can tape a long strip of paper vertically to the wall or top of a cabinet and have children cut on a “road” from the bottom to the top. Cutting in a vertical, upward direction encourages proper positioning of the forearm (i.e., thumb up and elbow down) for using scissors.

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for pizza, a single-hole punch to punch holes for lacing, or a shovel to dig a moat in the sandbox. Tearing, scrunching, and folding paper for art projects also develop hand muscles.

Provide activities to develop hand precision. Children need precision when manipulating small objects, such as when buttoning or threading a zipper. Focus on developing refined control of the thumb, index finger, and middle fin- ger. Provide play activities that require precise placement of small objects, such as lacing small beads or playing with puzzles. Provide fun, purposeful activities involving tools, such as squeezing spray bottles to water plants, using chopsticks to sort objects (can be adapted by using rubber bands to help hold the two sticks together) or manipulating eye droppers Engage children in “heavy work” filled with colored water to make pictures. activities to develop trunk and shoul- Assist children with proper fit and der muscles. Examples of “heavy work” positioning of scissors. To accommodate for preschool children include pushing a the range of hand sizes in a preschool chair across the floor, carrying a tray of program, consider obtaining a few snacks across the room, carrying a water- different sizes and designs of blunt-tip ing can to the garden, or wiping off a children’s scissors. If the child has not table. Many children are motivated by the used scissors before, show her how to helper role when completing heavy work. hold the scissors with the thumb and Heavy work strengthens the trunk and middle finger through the loops and the shoulder muscles necessary for maintain- index finger placed on the underside of ing the child’s body in proper alignment the scissors, outside of the loops. Scis- (i.e., upright rather than slumped over) sors designed for children with special during fine motor activities. needs include “loop” scissors (more like Provide resistive activities to develop using tongs), spring-loaded scissors hand strength. Hand strength is (which help the child reopen the scissors required to complete many tasks, such as after each cut), and “trainer” scissors removing the cap from a marker, opening (with added loops for adults to cut with food containers, or fastening snaps on the child). These alternative scissors may clothing. Resistive play activities include benefit all children. rolling clay to make snakes, using Provide a variety of media for cutting clothespins to pin up flags for a castle, with scissors. If children are new to cut- or carrying buckets of water to the sand- ting, they can practice snipping straws, box. Encourage children to use resistive rolls of play dough, or strips of paper, tools—a rolling pin to roll out play dough

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where one cutting movement results in a level of the child’s body, letting the child successful cut. A fun activity that incor- choose which hand to use. For children porates many fine motor skills is snipping with established handedness, model and plastic straws into short segments and provide assistance that is compatible with then threading the straw segments to the child’s handedness. For example, it make a necklace. Once children acquire may be easier for a left-handed child to the basic movement patterns for cutting, learn to hold scissors when the teacher they benefit from opportunities to cut dif- demonstrates with the left hand. ferent textures of paper (e.g., cardstock, tissue, construction paper) or cloth. Prac- ticing with a variety of media promotes Research Highlight: further development of cutting skills. Development of Handedness Be aware of children’s handedness in Children when providing assistance with fine motor activities. Many preschool chil- Handedness means that one hand is consis- dren may not consistently demonstrate tently used for most tasks requiring skilled whether they are right- or left-handed manipulation (e.g., drawing, cutting). (see the “Research Highlight: Develop- Handedness is genetically determined, ment of Handedness in Children” for and scientists have observed a preferred more information). Teachers have excel- hand for thumb sucking as early as in lent opportunities to observe children’s the womb. However, there is a wide age hand-preference development when chil- range at which handedness is consistently dren are drawing with crayons, pound- demonstrated in children. A majority of ing with toy hammers, or eating with a children begin to show a hand preference spoon. To promote the child’s natural by age three. Most children exhibit consis- handedness, offer tools at the middle tent hand preference between ages five and six. However, a small percentage of typically developing children do not show consistent hand preference until as late as age eight. Approximately 90 percent of the typically developing population is right-handed. Children with special needs may demonstrate handedness later and are more likely to exhibit inconsistent hand preference. Among children with learning disabilities and autism, the incidence of left-handedness is higher, ranging from 15 to 30 percent.19, 20, 21, 22, 23

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Bringing It All Together

he only way to develop efficient pat- buildings attached to them. She also drew Tterns of fundamental movement skills a line two steps away from the pretend is through the practice of these skills. buildings. Teachers play a critical role in engaging Outside, she said to the children, “Let’s children and supporting their practice by make the birds fly toward those build- modifying the environment and allowing ings and see where they land.” The chil- individualization and meaningful interac- dren became excited and began using the tions that reflect children’s interests and throwing action to fly their birds. Some cultural experiences. When planning to children were much closer to the line, and guide and expose children to opportuni- others stood farther away. While throw- ties for developing more proficient pat- ing, they began adjusting their proximity terns of fundamental movement skills, to the line. Ms. Gupta said, “How can teachers and caregivers need to consider you move your bodies to make your bird the value of integration in learning. fly up in the sky?” Jamila said, “I know, Children learn new skills, including throw like this [moving her arm up and movement skills, most effectively when down].” Lesley said, “We need to step and the learning occurs in an integrated, per- send the bird up.” Ms. Gupta paused and sonally meaningful way. Fundamental observed them throwing for a while. One movement skills provide another way for child’s bird was going down fast, and she children to learn, develop, and to gain said, “Xuyen, do you want your bird to knowledge and experiences about the go up?” Xuyen replied, “Yes.” Ms. Gupta physical world. In this sense, meaningful asked, “How can we do that?” Xuyen connections with all areas of development shrugged her shoulders as though to say, and the reality of the children involved, “I do not know.” Ms. Gupta then sug- including their cultural and linguistic gested, “How about if you throw it toward experiences, are essential for healthy the sky?” Xuyen moved her arm up over development. her head in the throwing action, and her bird flew a little longer. She noticed and Children constructed birds and balls out smiled, then ran to get it and tried again. of paper while playing indoors. They col- Ms. Gupta smiled and said, “You moved ored the papers using markers of different your arm up this time. That is the way to colors. Children also decorated their cre- make your bird go up: keep moving your ations with colorful feathers and cut out arm up each time.” Another child was shapes from magazines. They attached picking up his bird, and Ms. Gupta said, these decorations to their birds and balls “Yeng, on what building did your bird with glue. When the decorations were land?” Yeng said, “The store.” and kept dry, the teacher invited them to play with running back to try again. Ms. Gupta said their birds and balls outside. The teacher, to another child, “Mary, did your bird land Ms. Gupta, previously had designed the in the hospital?” Mary replied, “No, that is outdoor play area by placing some color- the park.” Mary was right. Ms. Gupta con- ful plastic hoops, cones, and shapes on tinued asking different children about the the floor with pictures of the community buildings.

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After some time, Ms. Gupta changed the ing in mud when you go to pick up your challenge by asking the children if they balls.” (Ms. Gupta already knew that the wanted to try throwing the paper balls. children enjoy pretending to walk in mud.) After observing their movement pattern of Then she asked, “What other ways can throwing the balls, she said, “It may help you go to get your paper ball?” She knew if you step before you throw,” as she dem- the children would come up with different onstrated the movement. Some children ideas because they had played the game tried the movement, and others contin- “Pretend You Are Walking on . . .” before. ued doing it their way. She noticed that One child who was having a difficult time some began incorporating their locomotor throwing said to Ms. Gupta, “I know how skills. Then she said, “What other move- a bird flies!” Ms. Gupta said, “Show me, ments can you add before you throw?” Alejandro.” Alejandro went on and began and paused. Then she said, “How fast running around the whole playground can you go to get your paper balls?” Then area, moving his arms like a bird. Ms. she said, “Let’s pretend that you are walk- Gupta said, when Alejandro came back,

Research Highlight: Beyond the Five Senses

Most people are familiar with the five senses: parts. Proprioceptive receptors in muscles and hearing, vision, touch, smell, and taste. How- joints enable people to know whether their ever, there are two additional body senses, fingers are bent or straight when they have vestibular (i.e., head position and head move- their hands inside pockets. This internal sense ment) and proprioceptive (i.e., body position of how body joints are positioned is important and body movement), and they are extremely for planning how to move the body and for important for physical development in young adjusting movements to maneuver around children. obstacles. Proprioceptive awareness also The vestibular receptors, located in the inner enables people to gauge how much pressure ear, provide information about head position to use when manipulating toys or touching in space. Thus, we can perceive whether we other people. are upside down or right-side up while riding The preschool years are a critical develop­ a roller coaster. Vestibular receptors also tell mental period for the vestibular and pro- us the direction in which our head is moving prioceptive senses. Both senses are activated through space, and how fast it is moving—such when children engage in movement activi- as when we are riding an elevator or jumping ties such as running, jumping, rolling across on a trampoline. Intact vestibular processing the floor, or twirling around when dancing. contributes to many fundamental physical Preschool children need plenty of movement functions, including keeping our balance, sus- experiences throughout the day to support taining muscle tone to stay upright against the development of these two important gravity, maintaining alertness, coordinating senses.24 head and eye movements (e.g., when turning Often, children with special needs have dif- our head to look at a sign while riding in a car), ficulty in processing vestibular or propriocep- and coordinating the two sides of the body. tive sensations, which affects their ability to The proprioceptive sense provides information explore their environments, to interact with about the position and movement of body others, and to learn.25

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“You really know how they fly. Have you children understand the concepts but can- seen them before?” Alejandro said, “Yes, not produce the desired movements, and I saw many around my house.” they benefit from opportunities to express themselves. The teacher also integrated the children’s past pleasant experiences In this movement activity, the teacher into the activity when she asked them to integrates learning with other areas of the walk on mud. The ideas for connection preschool curriculum and learning that become countless when teachers begin to includes fundamental movement skills. consider the possibilities for integration. The line on the floor that she draws will In relation to manipulative skills, chil- separate the throwing area from the land- dren here were working on throwing and ing area. That line also gives children a fine motor skills prior to the activity. This point of reference to adjust their throwing. activity may move them into stepping Most children will automatically adjust naturally, after their throw, or may help their position (i.e., closer to the line or far- loosen their bodies for the step-and-throw ther from the line) according to their abil- action to evolve. They will have used their ity levels. The teacher makes the activity fine motor skills in the preparation and developmentally appropriate by allowing construction of birds and paper balls. The children to make adjustments. Children teacher could incorporate more unique will fly their birds and throw their paper places in the community, geometric balls and they have some connection to shapes, animals, numbers, or letters as the birds and balls because they created landing targets and have other pretend them. This is another way to create con- landing scenarios that incorporate other nections and meaning for the activities. academic areas into this activity. Finding out where the birds and balls land gives children a chance to integrate knowl- edge about their community with funda- Engaging Families mental movement skills. In this activity, eachers need to develop some pat- the teacher can also integrate knowledge Tterns for continuous communication from the areas of visual and performing with parents and caregivers. Families are arts with the realities of their community. an important force in children’s lives and The ways they move to collect their birds in the physical activities children engage and balls provide them with opportunities in. Some people believe that fundamental to practice locomotor skills and movement movement skills are only used outdoors. concepts. Children can also learn which Although the outdoor environment offers of the two objects flies better and how to a series of appealing possibilities, such as control their bodies to make the objects fly open space and the chance to use all-out higher or farther. They use their locomo- force, indoor spaces also offer an array of tor skills and perceptual skills to go get opportunities for continued practice of the their airplanes without bumping into each fundamental movement skills. other. They can pretend to be birds and explore movement concepts. ✔ Create a newsletter to be given to par- Alejandro, the child who wanted to ents and family members periodically. show the teacher how birds fly, may have Photos of their children, pictures, difficulty throwing but clearly under- and documents in the family’s home stands the action even though he cannot language about what their children demonstrate it with his paper bird. Some are learning about fundamental

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movement skills can be included. This move easily and freely during physical may require translation; however, the development activities. connection with the families is worth ✔ Ask children to show their parents the effort. Provide some stories and and family members the movements pictures of children in action. they are learning at their preschool. ✔ Provide suggestions for activities that ✔ Have a parents’ “Show and Tell Day” will support children’s continuous where children show and tell parents fundamental motor skill development. their favorite fundamental movement Be specific about how. For instance, skills. suggest to parents and family mem- bers that when they go to the park, ✔ Ask children to identify the movement they can ask their child to show a skills of the athletes in sport games balance position or a balance move- family members are watching and ment they learned at preschool, then demonstrate those skills. This denonstrate a favorite way to move is a way to engage family members’ fast or slow, or show how he or she interest in their child’s fundamental plays with balls. movement skills development. ✔ ✔ Ask parents and family members Suggest ways for children to help about the kind of balance, locomo- around the home and at the same tor, and manipulative activities they time practice their fundamental did when they were young children. movement skills. Examples include They can write them down or verbally matching and rolling their socks and communicate with the teachers and tossing them from a short distance their children. This information can into the laundry basket or drawer. be incorporated into future activities Helping to unpack groceries and plac- and open a door of communication to ing them on shelves provides children discuss physical development in the with an activity to develop manipula- past and in the present. Talk about tive skills and strengthen their hands. the importance of physical develop- Parents and children can create a safe ment for both boys and girls and how obstacle course in their home where gender issues may affect children. children can move under and over Girls already receive encouragement furniture by using locomotor skills. for manipulative skills, as do boys for ✔ Encourage parents and family mem- locomotor skills. These reflections and bers to provide time for children to conversations can bring opportunities perform independent daily living to close this gap and explain to par- activities, such as brushing teeth or ents the importance of physical activ- getting dressed. Children need time ity in today’s society. to manipulate objects such as tooth- ✔ Encourage parents and family mem- paste caps, zippers on their clothing, bers to ask their children about the and lids of food containers. movement skills the children are ✔ Encourage parents and family mem- learning at their preschool. bers to take their children outside ✔ Inform parents about the importance to safe, open spaces and play areas of having their children wear comfort- where they can use fundamental able clothes and shoes so they can movement skills.

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Questions for Reflection 1. In what areas of your program can you incorporate fundamental movement skills? How can you integrate and make meaningful connections with other domains of learning, such as language and literacy, social–emotional development, and mathematics? 2. What aspects of the indoor and outdoor environments can you modify to help children advance in the development of fundamental movement skills? 3. What tasks can you modify to facilitate the development of more efficient fundamental movement skills? How can you modify these tasks? 4. How can fundamental movement activities be modified to include children with disabilities and special needs? 5. How can family culture, language, and diversity be incorporated into fundamental movement activities? How can ideas and materials from children’s different cultures be included in fine motor activities and games? 6. In what ways can you encourage the practice of fundamental movement skills at home?

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Perceptual-Motor Skills and Movement Concepts

erceptual-motor skills and movement concepts are essential to all facets of Pyoung children’s lives. Perceptual-motor coordination is the process of receiving, inter­ preting, and using information from all of the body’s senses. Perceptual-motor development requires children to integrate both sensory and motor abilities to carry out physical activities. For example, to walk across a balance beam, children take in sensory informa- tion from multiple senses. They see the height and dimensions of the balance beam, feel its surface with their feet, and feel the position of their body parts in space. Children then use this sensory information to plan how they will step on the beam. All voluntary movement involves an element of perception, and perceptual-motor coordination plays an important role in children’s development of movement skills.

Movement concepts are the cognitive problem-solve how the body should move component of movement. Preschool chil- during certain activities and situations. dren gain important knowledge about For example, walking across ice requires how the body can move in an almost end- children to take slow, light steps, while less variety of ways. For example, they walking in sand requires heavier steps. learn to move at different speeds and Movement concepts provide critical foun- with different degrees of force, in vari- dations for learning how to move in novel ous pathways, around different types of situations (e.g., when playing new sport). obstacles, and in relation to other people. To become proficient movers, children They are also acquiring new vocabu- need to acquire both the movement skills lary (e.g., zigzag, under, or behind) that and the movement concepts underlying describe their movement experiences. those skills. Movement concepts enable children to

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Children enter preschool with various experiences and abilities in perceptual- motor coordination and understanding of movement concepts. Children’s growth in perceptual-motor skills and movement concepts leads to increased success and confidence when exploring, performing personal care, and playing cooperatively with others. Perceptual-motor skills and movement concepts are also key building blocks for future learning in areas such as reading, writing, and mathematics. Preschool programs promote children’s development of perceptual-motor skills and movement concepts by engaging children in a variety of movement expe- riences and by increasing their cogni- tive understanding of movement. When In this section, strategies are provided teachers and family members become to promote development in each of the aware of the importance of perceptual- following substrands: motor skills and intentionally teach these 1.0 Body Awareness skills, they lay important foundations for 2.0 Spatial Awareness children to successfully learn and par- 3.0 Directional Awareness ticipate in all of life’s activities.

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1.0 Body Awareness

uring the preschool years, children’s specific body parts (e.g., the shoulder Dknowledge of their bodies becomes can move up and down, out to the side, more accurate and specific. They develop or in a circular motion). Body awareness a clear understanding of how body parts is necessary for coordinating physical interrelate (e.g., the shoulder connects movements when new skills are being to the arm, which connects to the hand). learned, such as hopping or throwing. Children are also learning to identify, Accurate knowledge about body parts describe, and differentiate an increasing also enhances children’s ability to care number of body parts. Furthermore, they for their own bodies, such as during can demonstrate different ways to move toileting, bathing, and dressing.

VIGNETTE Ms. Elena approaches the dramatic play area, where Deepa and Jorge are playing together. Both children greet their teacher with a hug and then resume playing. Jorge, a child who is a very new English learner, picks up a shiny bracelet and shows Deepa. “Put that here!” Deepa says enthusiastically as she points to her wrist. Jorge puts the brace- let on Deepa, and both children smile while admiring the bracelet. Ms. Elena exclaims, “What a sparkly bracelet Deepa has on her wrist!” as Ms. Elena lightly touches Deepa’s wrist. Ms. Elena smiles at Jorge and says, “Pulsera en su muñeca (Bracelet on her wrist).” She touches the bracelet as she says “pulsera” and lightly taps Jorge’s wrist when she says “muñeca.”

TEACHABLE Ms. Elena took the opportunity to introduce body-parts MOMENT vocabulary within the meaningful context of a child-initiated play activity. She utilized a multisensory teaching approach by providing verbal modeling, visual prompts, and touch feedback to both children. In this scenario, the teacher had determined that both children would be comfortable with having her touch their wrists; it is important to consider each child’s comfort level with receiving physical touch from teachers. Ms. Elena modeled vocabulary in each child’s home language. For more information about strategies to support children who are English learners, see the California Preschool Curriculum Framework, Volume 1, chapter 5.

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communication methods. Incorporate the Interactions and Strategies child’s familiar communication method when introducing body parts vocabulary. Use multisensory teaching strategies All children in the preschool program may to reinforce children’s learning. When- benefit from the additional visual cues ever possible, incorporate multiple senses provided by sign language or pictures. to teach a concept. For example, if teach- Use body-parts vocabulary in the natu- ing children about the elbow, the follow- ral context of daily living activities and ing strategies may be used: (1) visual, child-initiated play. For example, during by the teacher holding up or pointing handwashing, the teacher can demon- to his own elbows or asking children to strate by rubbing his hands together and find elbows in pictures; (2) auditory, by say, “Rub your palms together like this.” If modeling and prompting children to say a child is exploring art media, the teacher the word elbow during both planned and may say, “Wow, you put the elephant unplanned activities; and (3) touch and stamp on your forearm.” movement, such as by having children wiggle their elbows, rub their elbows, Introduce body-parts vocabulary touch a friend’s elbow, or put a sticker during structured group games. Games on one of their elbows. such as Simon Says can teach body awareness. When playing Simon Says, Use body-parts vocabulary in the give all children the chance to play for the child’s home language. When working entire duration of the game. Assist chil- with children who are English learners, dren to correct their movements or pos- obtain written words and auditory record- tures rather than taking them out of the ings of vocabulary in children’s home game if they make errors. Dice games can languages from family members or inter- also be used to teach body parts. Teach- preters. Incorporate children’s home ers can make “body-parts dice” by placing languages when teaching body parts. pictures of different body parts on each Teachers can also use the home language side of a small cardboard box. Children of children who are English learners take turns rolling the die and leading the during songs. For example, if there are group in a body movement. For example, Spanish speakers, teachers can teach if a child rolls the “ankle” picture, she the “Head, Shoulders, Knees, and Toes” may choose to have everyone make song with Spanish translations of the circles with their ankles. key words (i.e., cabeza, hombros, rodillas, y dedos). Children who are English learn- Engage children in singing and move- ers may learn more easily when instruc- ment activities to teach body parts. tion is available in their home languages, Singing group songs provides multisen- and all children benefit from exposure to sory learning opportunities with music, additional languages. body movements, and visual modeling. For example, when singing the “Spider Use alternative communication on the Floor” song, teachers can lead methods, as appropriate, to teach children in touching and pointing to the body-parts vocabulary. Some children body parts from the lyrics. “The Mulberry with special needs may communicate by Bush” song can be adapted into a body- using sign language, picture communi- awareness activity by asking children cation systems, or other augmentative

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to take turns choosing body parts and using body-parts vocabulary, such as movements to sing about. For example, by saying: “You have a necklace around the lyrics can be “This is the way we your neck.” Some children may also wiggle our hips” or “This is the way we enjoy dressing up dolls, action figures, or shrug our shoulders.” When singing “If stuffed animals. In addition to promoting You’re Happy and You Know It,” teachers body awareness, dress-up play also pro- can also introduce body-parts vocabu- vides the opportunity to develop pretend lary with corresponding movements—for play, social interaction, language, and example, “If you’re happy and you know fine motor manipulation skills. it, tap your chin.” Provide opportunities for children to Encourage children to identify and see external representations of their describe body parts in books or in bodies. Seeing external images of their pictures of themselves and family bodies through playing in front of mir- members. Match the difficulty level of rors, making body shadows, or trac- the prompting questions to the child’s ing body parts (e.g., hands or feet) onto abilities. For example, a teacher can say, paper enhances development of children’s “Where is daddy’s nose?” and allow the “visual maps” of their body parts. child to respond by pointing. With a dif- Provide constructional play for chil- ferent child, the teacher can give a more dren to build or put together body open-ended prompt such as, “Tell me parts. Children can use play dough or about Daddy’s face.” clay to make people or animals. Preschool Provide opportunities for dress-up children may also enjoy making collages play. Children learn body awareness by cutting out pictures of different body through the process of exploring clothing parts from magazines. Provide puzzles, items and accessories, looking at them- felt boards, or self-sticking hook-and-eye selves and each other during dress-up, surfaces for children to assemble faces and talking about what they are wearing. and bodies. Teachers can also narrate children’s play Ask children to describe their drawings of people. Between the ages of four and five, many children begin to make rudi- mentary drawings of people. Please refer to the visual and performing arts founda- tions in the California Preschool Learning Foundations, Volume 2, for more informa- tion about children’s drawing skills. Chil- dren are often motivated to draw pictures of themselves or a significant person such as a family member. Encourage the child to talk about the drawing and model the usage of body-parts vocabulary when commenting on the child’s drawing.

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2.0 Spatial Awareness

patial awareness enables children Visual and Performing Arts (see chapter Sto understand their location and the 2, “Visual and Performing Arts,” Dance location of objects and people around strand). them. Preschool children are learning to judge how much space their bodies Developmental Sequence of and other objects take up and whether something is “close” or “far.” They are Spatial Awareness also developing vocabulary for describ- ing the position of two objects relative to • Around three years of age, a child bumps one another, such as whether a ball is into others who are close by during all “in front of” or “behind” them. Children types of activities. gain awareness of their body dimensions • Around four years of age, a child partici- and body position by physically exploring pates in seated activities without bump- their world and by maneuvering around ing into others. different obstacles (both people and objects) during play. • Around five years of age, a child par- Activities that require children to ticipates in standing activities (primarily push, pull, squeeze or do other “heavy staying in place) without bumping into work” against resistance provide ampli- others. fied sensory feedback to children’s bodies • Around five and a half years of age, dur- and are effective for developing spatial ing a locomotor activity in which children awareness. Moreover, the type of touch move in the same direction (e.g., pre- sensation experienced during “heavy tending to walk like a row of ducklings work” activities is generally well toler- or marching in a parade), a child, with ated by most children, including those prompting, maintains space around self who have difficulty tolerating other types without bumping into others. of touch sensations (e.g., light touch, • Around six years of age, during a locomo- wet or messy textures). Spatial aware- tor or movement activity in which chil- ness is an important skill that will sup- dren move in different directions (e.g., port children’s development in multiple chasing games or dancing), a child main- domains, including Physical Develop- tains space around self without bumping ment, Math (see the California Preschool into others.26 Curriculum Framework, Volume 1, chapter 6, “Mathematics,” Geometry strand), and

VIGNETTE During outside play, Mr. Clay brings several phone books, recycled bubble-wrap material, and a large cardboard box with cutouts. Ming (a child who uses a wheelchair), Lana, and Spencer go over to see what their teacher is doing. Mr. Clay indicates, “I am setting up an obstacle course. Would you all like to help?” The children all agree excitedly. Ming points to the box and asks, “Is this a tunnel?”

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Mr. Clay replies, “Ming, I think this would make a great tunnel. What do the rest of you think?” The teacher facilitates the children’s discussion as they decide this will be a tunnel in the mountains. “Where is a good place for the tunnel?” asks Mr. Clay. The children look around, and Lana says, “Over there,” while pointing. Mr. Clay replies, “Great idea, Lana. There is a space over there, between the sandbox and the grass area.” The three children work together to push the box over.

PLANNING Teachers can promote the development of spatial awareness LEARNING by providing fun movement activities that require children OPPORTUNITIES to figure out how to maneuver their bodies over, under, or around various obstacles. By designing the obstacle course as a small-group activity, teachers give children the opportunity to use spatial awareness to maintain an appropriate distance from other children. Materials used in the obstacle course are simple yet versatile for providing variations in movement experiences. For example, children can jump on, step over, or zigzag around the pieces of bubble wrap. Asking children to help with setup or cleanup requires them to coordinate their own body spaces and positions with each other and the objects. Teachers can also introduce vocabulary for spatial concepts when giving verbal instructions (e.g., using the word “between”).

VIGNETTE Jamar brings a ladybug in a container to show his friends at pre- school. He arrives at preschool with his grandfather, Elijah, who says, “Jamar, put the ladybug on the table behind you.” When Jamar looks at his grandfather with a slightly puzzled look, Elijah repeats, “Behind you, Jamar,” while simultaneously pointing to the table. Jamar then walks to the table using his walker, takes the ladybug container out of his walker pouch, and places the container on the table. Ms. Julia, who has been observing, says to Jamar, “Wow, I like your ladybug! We sometimes have to turn our bodies around to get to things ‘behind’ us, right?” Jamar nods and then goes to find his friends. Ms. Julia takes this opportunity to talk to Jamar’s grandfather. She says, “Jamar is learning many new words. By using the word ‘behind’ and also pointing in that direc- tion, you helped Jamar learn what ‘behind’ means.”

TEACHABLE Jamar’s grandfather spontaneously used an effective multi­ MOMENT sensory strategy (i.e., using both words and gestures) to teach Jamar the spatial concept “behind.” Ms. Julia took the opportunity to reinforce Jamar’s understanding of the

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concept. She also provided feedback to Jamar’s grandfather to increase his awareness about the learning process that just occurred and to encourage the family member to continue these types of interactions with the child. Adults can help children develop a sense of position by modeling and teaching positional vocabulary in natural contexts.27

to make their bodies small for Baby Bear Interactions and Strategies and big for Papa Bear. Play games that allow children to move Set up obstacles courses that encourage around with objects balanced on dif- children to go over, under, and through ferent parts of their body. For example, objects. General household objects and ask children to crawl or move with a recyclable items (e.g., cardboard boxes, beanbag on their shoulder or on top of phone books, or ropes) can be easily their head. adapted for outdoor or indoor use. Provide pushing and pulling games Provide opportunities for children to with peers. Two to three children can experience moving at different levels work together to push or pull each other of body positioning, ranging from high across the room or playground while to low. Guide children to practice high- seated in a cardboard box, storage bin, or level movements by asking them to be as wagon. For an additional challenge, chil- “tall” as possible while pretending to be dren can transport blocks or beanbags in storybook characters (e.g., Clifford the addition to the “passenger.” Children may giant dog) or tall animals (e.g., a giraffe). be motivated to participate when provided Encourage children to move at lower lev- with pretend-play themes—for example, els by asking them to pretend to be ani- pretending to be the school bus, an air- mals, such as a snake sliding across the plane, or race car. sand or a bunny hopping across the field. Teachers can also provide physical obsta- Play games that require two to three cles for children to negotiate, such as children to work together to transport using a long Styrofoam noodle for Limbo a large, lightweight object. Children will (where children have to pass underneath experience many spatial-awareness chal- the target without using hands) or creat- lenges when coordinating their own body ing a tunnel with cardboard boxes for positions with others to carry large items crawling. (such as a sheet or blanket, a large poster board or cardboard, or a long pole) in the Provide games for children to explore context of play. changing the size of their bodies. Ask children to make their bodies as “small” Use dancing and musical games to or “big” as possible when pretending to promote the development of spatial be different animals or characters. For awareness and body control. Group example, when acting out “Goldilocks games, such as musical hoops or musi- and the Three Bears,” encourage children cal statues, provide fun opportunities for

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children to practice starting and stopping of the table” or “Please put the apples next their movements while navigating around to the milk at the snack table.” furniture and other people. When play- Narrate or ask questions about chil- ing musical hoops, keep enough hoops dren’s play using positional-concepts and allow children to share their hoops so vocabulary in English and the child’s that all children can participate and learn home language. When children are play- about sharing. To play musical statues, ing “car wash,” a teacher may comment children dance whenever the music is or sign to the child, “I wonder if you will playing and “freeze” like statues whenever wash the front or the back of the car first?” the music stops. Recognize that children or “Wow, the side of this truck looks much can engage in large or small movements to cleaner now.” During constructional play, participate in this activity. a teacher may ask, “Are you going to build Use positional-concepts vocabulary your house close to the train station?” within the natural context of daily rou- Engage children in songs and rhymes tines. For example, during toileting, the with body movements or spatial con- teacher may say, “Did you pull your pants cepts. For example, when singing the up all the way in the back?” When assist- “Hokey Pokey,” emphasize the words “in” ing a child to pack up to go home, the and “out” and demonstrate the actions teacher may say, “Let’s put your things for children to follow. The “Ring Around inside your backpack.” the Rosie” song provides opportunities for Have children participate in cleanup children to learn the concepts of up and routines by putting away toys. Cleanup down. Teachers can also engage children activities require children to use spatial in a spatial-concepts activity by adapting skills to place play objects back into con- the lyrics of “Where Is Thumbkin?” Provide tainers. Children also apply positional a stationary object (e.g., a large beach ball) concepts when putting away contain- and ask a child to pick a way to position ers, such as understanding that the bin himself relative to the object. For example, of play dough goes on the top shelf and if Dylan chooses to position himself behind the car and truck bin goes on the bottom the ball, the group would sing, “Where is shelf. Dylan? Where is Dylan? There he is. There he is. He’s behind the ball. He’s behind the Engage children in helper roles by per- ball. Wave to Dylan! Wave to Dylan!” forming “heavy work” activities. Heavy work activities include pushing, pull- Reinforce spatial concepts when read- ing, squeezing, or carrying objects. While ing or looking at books. Reading books engaging in heavy work, children develop together not only promotes language and body awareness and spatial awareness literacy development, but also can teach as their muscles and joints receive ampli- movement concepts. Encourage children fied sensory information. Heavy work may to describe locations of characters or have a calming and organizing effect for objects in pictures. Reading and acting children who have attention or sensory out books with spatial-concept themes processing challenges.28, 29 Teachers can (e.g., “Going on a Bear Hunt” or “Three reinforce positional concepts when giving Little Monkeys Jumping on the Bed”) help instructions during heavy work, such as to reinforce children’s emerging spatial by saying, “Please stack the chairs on top vocabulary.

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Provide alternative ways for children with physical disabilities or other spe- cial needs to learn spatial concepts. Children who lack the mobility to partici- pate in active physical play may not have the same opportunities for physical explo- ration. Teachers can provide alternative learning activities for children, such as manipulating dolls and actions figures during pretend play or identifying posi- tions of characters and objects in books. When possible, it is helpful for the child to have the physical experience of moving Use props or play objects to guide through different positions. Children who children in positioning their bodies. are blind or have visual impairments may For example, provide individual carpet need extra assistance to explore their squares for children to sit on during physical environments. Talk with the circle time and explain that each carpet specialists working with the child to dis- square is his or her space. Place hula cover how to best support this learning. hoops or draw circles on the ground and For resources for working with children ask small groups of children to sit within with disabilities or other special needs, the boundaries when playing games that see appendix D of the California Preschool requires children to be “close” to each Curriculum Framework, Volume 1. other. Provide additional cues and assis- Use the child’s home language to tance as needed to ensure safety for introduce spatial-concepts vocabulary. children who have spatial-awareness When working with children who are challenges. Some children with special English learners, provide written words needs, such as those with hearing or and an auditory recording of key vocabu- visual impairments, may need extra help lary for distance (e.g., close, far) and posi- to avoid bumping into other people or tion in space (e.g., under, over, in front environmental obstacles during play and of, behind, next to) in children’s home daily routines. Sometimes children do languages. Teachers can obtain transla- not have an accurate awareness of their tions from other teaching and support body dimensions or position in space. staff, bilingual assistants, and family or Other times they may not be able to plan community members. Incorporate vocab- or sequence movements (i.e., motor plan) ulary in the child’s home language when in order to negotiate obstacles or climb giving instructions (e.g., “Stand behind onto/off playground equipment. Teach- the rope”) or when describing the child’s ers can help by providing extra verbal play (e.g., “You are next to your fort”). For prompts, visual aids, or physical guid- more information about strategies to sup- ance as appropriate. Always consult with port children who are English learners, family members and specialists working see the California Preschool Curriculum with the child. Framework, Volume 1, chapter 5.

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3.0 Directional Awareness

hen provided with opportunities to the development of preschool children’s Wmove their bodies through space directional awareness by providing both in different directions, preschool chil- planned games and child-initiated play to dren are learning what it means and encourage children to move their bodies how it feels to move up, down, forward, in different ways. and backward. They later learn the con- cept of moving sideways. Most preschool Developmental Sequence of children begin to understand that their Directional Awareness bodies have two sides but cannot yet identify the left or right side of their body. • As children mature, they develop their Children are also learning to identify the “sense of direction” in a predictable top, bottom, front, or back of objects, sequence. but they do not clearly understand that objects have a left or right side. Pre- • Between ages two and three, children can school children also enjoy following path- identify front/back and top/bottom on ways on the floor or creating their own their own bodies. movement pathways, such as straight, • Around age four, children are aware that curved, or zigzag. Teachers can promote their bodies have two distinct sides and are learning to determine which side is left and which is right. • By age six or seven, children can accurately identify the left and right sides on their own body parts. • Around age eight, children become aware that objects also have a left and right side. • Older children (age ten or older) can give directions to another person, such as “Go down the hall and turn left to get to the school office.” They can accurately identify the left and right sides on another person, even if the person is facing a different direction. 30, 31, 32

VIGNETTE During outdoor play, Ms. Jodi notices several children playing the “Mirror, Mirror” game, which they learned yesterday during a teacher- guided group activity. Harpreet, one of the more outgoing children, is the leader. She makes gestures with her arms and gets into differ- ent postures (e.g., standing on tiptoes or on one foot), and the others imitate her. After a few minutes, Ms. Jodi comments, “I see how all of you are paying attention to the leader and doing the same thing as Harpreet. Would it be fun to try to copy her if she moves in different directions?” The children are excited about this new way to play the

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game, but Kai asks, “Like what?” Ms. Jodi explains, “For example, if I were the leader, I could move forward [she simultaneously demon- strating each movement] . . . backward . . . sideways . . . or even turn my body all the way around in a circle.” The children have fun explor- ing this new variation of the game. After several minutes, Ms. Jodi suggests that Miya, who is usually reserved and quiet, take a turn being the leader. Miya smiles and agrees.

TEACHABLE Ms. Jodi creates an opportunity for the children to explore MOMENT directional concepts by suggesting a variation to a movement game they already know and enjoy. The teacher provides ver- bal instructions and visual modeling of the movements. If needed, the teacher can also provide hands-on assistance to help children with their movements. If children seem to be catching on as the game continues, Ms. Jodi can suggest addi- tional challenges, such as moving at a faster pace or holding hands with a partner while moving. The teacher adjusts the pace of the game so that children experience a sense of suc- cess yet remain engaged and challenged by the variety in the movement experiences. Ms. Jodi also encourages a quiet child to take a turn at being the leader. Children benefit from the opportunity to both follow and lead movements.

Encourage children to move in differ- Interactions and Strategies ent directions and in different types of pathways (e.g., straight, curved, Provide opportunities for child- or zigzag) during group movement initiated play in areas with open games. During games such as Follow the space. The outside environment is ideal Leader, provide opportunities for children for allowing children to explore mov- to move in different directions, includ- ing their bodies while running, chasing, ing forward, backward, and sideways. jumping, or moving alongside other chil- To encourage children to move in curved dren. Indoor spaces can also be adapted or zigzag pathways, use visual guides to create open spaces for children to run, for obstacle courses or treasure hunts chase, and move about freely. in which children have to follow a path drawn on the ground with sidewalk chalk Provide safe environments in which or taped on the floor with masking tape. children can climb up and down. Climbing experiences can occur in a vari- Design activities for children to ety of environments, such as outside on practice moving alongside or in a play equipment; in a designated inside line with other people. For example, area, where children can climb onto the moving alongside or behind another child top of a mountain of cushions; or out in while marching in a parade or dancing the community, where children can climb in a conga line provides a wonderful steps. challenge for both directional awareness

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and spatial awareness. Or have children a safe environment to crash their bod- practice staying in a line while pretend- ies into a pile of pillows or cushions, ing to march like ants or swim like duck- stomp hard on a sheet of bubble-wrap lings. Games such as Red Light–Green material taped on the ground, or push Light provide an additional challenge heavy boxes up a slope. In particular, by requiring children to control starting some children who have disabilities or and stopping body movements frequently other special needs may seek and benefit while moving alongside others. Suggest from opportunities to move their bodies more challenging variations to Red Light– with force. Give all children clear safety Green Light by asking children to move guidelines for the activities and set up the backwards or sideways. environment to ensure safety. Play games that require children to Provide opportunities for children coordinate moving with others to to move and use their bodies lightly. manage a physical object or prop. For Children learn how much force to use by example, the teacher can suggest chil- practicing both forceful and light move- dren to either move in a line or move ments. Provide games for children to around in a circle while everyone holds move their bodies while handling light onto a section of a long rope. Children objects, such as transporting a feather or can work together to transport a large plastic egg on a mixing spoon across the box across the room. During parachute room. Soft, slow music also encourages play, teachers can ask all children to light movements. Be aware of different move around in a circle with the para- children’s responses to light touch, which chute. Children can also move forward may be perceived as uncomfortable by toward the middle of the parachute to some children. make the parachute “small” and then Engage children in two-handed play move backwards away from the middle to activities. Provide percussion instru- make the parachute “big.” A large sheet ments for children to bang together or can serve as a parachute. shake with both hands during movement activities, such as dancing or march- ing. Examples of homemade percus- sion toys include paper tubes filled with small rocks or beads, pots and pans (including lids), and metal cups, plates, and utensils. Many fine motor activities (e.g., opening containers, lacing, string- ing beads) also incorporate use of both hands. Using two hands together during play increases children’s awareness of the two sides of their body.

Provide opportunities for children to Position drawing activities vertically. move and use their bodies with force. When children draw at a vertical sur- Some young children may receive more face, they are able to apply directional sensory feedback about their body move- concepts to their drawings more easily ments when they use a large amount of because the paper is oriented the same force. Thus, children may benefit from way, (i.e., vertically) as their body. For

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example, if children understand up and Use the child’s home language for down movements with their own body, introducing directional-concepts they can use their own body orientation vocabulary. When working with children as a guide when learning to draw up and who are English learners, provide writ- down lines on a piece of paper. ten words and auditory recordings of key vocabulary for directional concepts (e.g., Provide pretend-play activities to rein- forward, backward, sideways). Incor- force directional concepts. During pre- porate vocabulary in the child’s home tend play, children can “drive” vehicles or language when giving instructions (e.g., move action figures in different directions. “Let’s walk backwards”) or when describ- Teachers can comment or ask about the ing the child’s play (e.g., “You are jump- children’s play, such as by saying, “I won- ing sideways”). For more information der if the fire engine is going to back up to about strategies to support children who get closer to the building?” or “I wonder if are English learners, see the California the firefighter is going to climb up the tree Preschool Curriculum Framework, Volume to find the cat?” 1, chapter 5. Adapt movement experiences as needed for children with physical disabilities. Some children with physi- cal disabilities may not be able to move their body in different directions through space. However, they still benefit from the experience of moving forward, back- wards, or sideways in a wagon or wheel- chair.

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Bringing It All Together

Several children in Mr. Clay’s class are Clay reinforces body awareness by asking interested in trains, and during circle time Mei to decide how she would be carry- they read a book about trains. Later that ing her freight and thoughtfully used the day, a group of children go through the word “shoulder” in a meaningful context. obstacle course outdoors. Spencer asks, Spatial awareness is required for negoti- “I wonder if a train could go through our ating the obstacle course while maintain- tunnel.” Ming responds, “Yeah, the train ing appropriate physical positioning with in the book went through mountain tun- peers. The teacher introduces directional nels.” Mr. Clay suggests, “Well, maybe this concepts by suggesting “reverse” move- obstacle course is a railroad today?” The ments. The children are motivated by children all agree excitedly. the pretend-play theme, and the teacher Children begin to go through the obstacle uses the train theme to create variations pretending to be trains and saying “choo- and challenges to the activity. Mr. Clay choo” along the way. After awhile, Mr. provides an integrated learning experi- Clay asks, “Do any of you trains want ence by using the physical play activity to carry freight?” “I do!” volunteers Mei to reinforce “train” vocabulary and con- enthusiastically. Mr. Clay retrieves a cepts from an earlier circle-time activity. bucket of beanbags, which will be the This vignette also illustrates how a child trains’ freight. The teacher asks Mei, who uses a wheelchair for mobility is able “Mei the Train, where will you carry your to participate fully alongside his peers freight?” Mei replies, “here” while pointing when given a simple accommodation (i.e., to her shoulder. “On your shoulder? Great the teacher lifting up the cardboard box idea!” responds Mr. Clay. As children con- momentarily). tinue with the activity, Mr. Clay assists them in coming up with other variations, Engaging Families such as having everyone line up in a row he following suggestions to family and stay close together as one long train. members may promote their chil- When Ming gets to the cardboard tunnel, T dren’s development in the area of percep- the teacher lifts up the cardboard box to tual-motor skills and movement concepts. provide clearance for Ming and his wheel- chair to fit through the tunnel. Later, the ✔ Encourage children to use words or teacher asks, “I wonder if it would be fun signs to identify or describe their for the trains to go in reverse?” “What’s body parts when they are completing reverse?” Spencer asks. Ming responds, personal-care activities such as “I know! Watch this,” and demonstrates getting dressed or bathing. wheeling his wheelchair backwards. ✔ Provide opportunities for children to interact with adults and help around the home with activities such as n this vignette, the teacher thought- putting away their toys, putting away fully incorporates perceptual-motor I groceries, sorting laundry, or bringing skills and movement concepts into a dirty dishes to the kitchen. child-initiated movement activity. Mr.

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✔ When out in the community, such as ✔ When looking at books or pictures at the park or grocery store, commu- together, talk about how the charac- nicate with children about objects in ters are positioned and how they are the environment. Encourage them to moving their bodies. describe where trees, buildings, cars, ✔ When children are playing, ask them and other objects are located in rela- to describe what they are doing with tion to one another. their bodies.

Questions for Reflection 1. What is your current level of knowledge, experience, and comfort with promoting the development of perceptual-motor skills and movement concepts in young children? What specific topics do you want to learn more about? What resources can you access for more information? 2. How would you recognize if children in your program were experi- encing challenges with perceptual-motor skills and movement concepts? How might it look when a child is having difficulty with body awareness, spatial awareness, or directional awareness? 3. How can you use pretend-play themes and children’s interests to provide variety and challenges to the movement activities in order to promote development of body awareness, spatial awareness, and directional awareness? 4. How can you enlist children as helpers for group activities? Which activities would be beneficial for their perceptual development? 5. How can you thoughtfully use vocabulary for body parts, positional concepts, and directional concepts more often throughout the school day? 6. What types of activities, environmental supports, and teaching strategies may promote the development of perceptual-motor skills and movement concepts for children who are English learners? 7. What types of activities, environmental supports, and teaching strategies may promote the development of perceptual-motor skills and movement concepts for children with special needs?

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Active Physical Play

ctive play is essential to the optimal physical development and overall health of young children. Physical activity embedded throughout the pre­school day promotes children’s ability to attend to, learn, and regulate their emotional responses. Active physical play not only enhances the body’s physiological functions (i.e., physical fitness), it promotes optimal brain chemistry for self-regulation and enhances learning readiness.33, 34 As such, it should be fully integrated into the regular preschool day.

A ctive physical play contributes mark- Learning Founda­tions, Volume 2 and in edly to enhancing children’s fundamental chapter 4, “Health.” movement skills in three principal areas: Young children can be easily engaged balance, locomotion, and both gross and in movement and benefit immensely from fine motor manipulation. Both typically an active way of life. The habits of physi- developing children35, 36 and those with cal activity that children learn in the special needs benefit.37, 38 Furthermore, early years greatly increase the chance the perceptual-motor components also that children will continue being physi- discussed earlier are promoted through cally active throughout childhood and active physical play. Activities that pro- beyond. Most importantly, children must mote body awareness, spatial awareness, see active play as fun. Your regular par- and directional awareness engage the ticipation with children will do much to senses as children move through space.39 model the joy of moving. You can take To derive the maximum health-related almost any indoor or outdoor physi- benefits, children should engage in active cal activity, give it a name, and make play on most days of the week, in an envi- it a game. Children are active learners. ronment that promotes enjoyment,­ safety, For most, physical activity is fun. Your and success. These bene­fits include enthusiastic participation with children increases in muscular strength, muscu- will go a long way to motivate them for lar endurance, and joint flexibility as continued active play. The three sub- well as improved aerobic endurance and strands of Active Physical Play are: body composition. Proper nutrition and 1.0 Active Participation adequate hydration also play important 2.0 Cardiovascular Endurance roles in young children’s active physical 3.0 Muscular Strength, Muscular play. Both of these topics are covered in Endurance, and Flexibility greater detail in the California Preschool

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1.0 Active Participation

hen the large muscles of the body water play under a garden sprinkler, and Ware fully engaged, young children dancing for short periods of time. Vigor- learn more effectively and also derive ous physical activities elevate the heart important health and physical fitness rate significantly and sustain an elevated benefits. Active physical play contributes rate. Activities such as running for several measurably to all aspects of physical fit- minutes at a time, tricycle riding up an ness. Physical fitness is defined as a set incline, dancing to music that helps main- of physical attributes related to a person’s tain an elevated heart rate, and repeatedly ability to perform activities that require jumping over a rope for a sustained period cardiovascular endurance, muscular are vigorous physical activities. Young strength, muscular endurance, and joint children need to be involved in moderate flexibility. Although genetic inheritance to vigorous physical activity almost daily, does play a role, physical fitness is largely at home and at school. Moderate to vig- determined by regular participation in orous activity that is enjoyable, develop- moderate to vigorous physical activity. mentally appropriate, and adapted to the Moderate physical activities use large needs of each child increases children’s muscle groups and include walking, physical fitness levels.

VIGNETTE Anna and Bethany, two preschool-age girls, live in urban, high-rise apartment buildings that limit the opportunity for physical activity. At home they watch television, play computer games, and engage in a variety of sedentary activities. Their outdoor play is restricted because of their parents’ concern for safety. Fortunately, they are enrolled in preschool programs where there are well-informed teachers who are just as concerned with and knowledgeable about children’s physi- cal development as they are with their social–emotional and cognitive development. At Anna’s preschool, Ms. Jennifer has created both indoor and outdoor spaces that encourage increased physical activity. Indoors, Ms. Jenni- fer has taken a corner of the room and outfitted it with beanbags, soft balls, beach balls, and scarves for manipulative activities; floor mark- ings, rubber spots, and sturdy boxes of varying heights to encourage jumping; and a tunnel made from discarded packing boxes to encour- age crawling and imagery activities. Outdoors, Ms. Jennifer has pro- vided tricycles, hand carts, wagons, musical instruments and music CDs that encourage active movement for sustained periods, and a variety of climbing, hanging, and swinging equipment to promote vigor- ous physical activity. Bethany’s teacher, Ms. Ellie, has less access to play equipment and space but still engages the children in many physical activities. Indoors, she provides frequent learning activities in which she leads the children through a story play, nursery rhyme, or song that involves

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the use of the major muscle groups of the body. Outdoors, Ms. Ellie relies on the natural terrain of the small outdoor play area and actively engages children by offering movement challenges, problem-solving activities, and imagery that encourages increased physical activity. Anna and Bethany love preschool for many reasons. Chief among them is the opportunity to engage in a variety of indoor and outdoor play activities that are fun and not possible at home. Their parents are also pleased with the programs not only because they are “fun,” as Anna and Bethany insist, but also because the activities give their children regular opportunities for sustained gross motor play that improves their fundamental movement skills, perceptual-motor abilities, and active participation in moderate to vigorous physical activities.

TEACHABLE At the beginning of the school year, the teacher observes that MOMENT Anna is reluctant to engage in large muscle activities and much prefers sedentary activities. Approaching Anna, Ms. Jennifer says, “Let’s go to the movement area and play with the beach balls.” Ms. Jennifer has created an indoor movement area by using a small space in a corner of the room where children play with materials such as streamers, scarves, beanbags, and hoops to promote increased physical activity. Working with Anna and others who spontaneously gravitate to the move- ment center, Ms. Jennifer poses a set of progressive movement challenges in the form of questions such as: “Can you bat the beach ball on the floor?” “Can you hit it real hard/real soft/on one side/on the other side?” “High/down low?” “Can you hit the beach ball to make it roll on the floor from this side of the room to the other side? Can you keep running after your beach ball while rolling it on the ground?” “Can you move about the room while keeping the beach ball rolling on the floor?” “Can you make funny faces while keeping the beach ball on the ground?” “Can you find new ways to hit your beach ball to keep it rolling on the ground?” Ms. Jennifer provides plenty of verbal reinforcement to Anna and the other children, acknowledging their attempts and offering new and progressively more chal- lenging movement problems. Finally, she encourages small groups of two or three children to roll the ball back and forth on the ground. She retreats from the space, leaving Anna and the other children to discover new ways of playing with the beach balls.

PLANNING By carefully observing children and their activity preferences, LEARNING teachers and parents can provide support to children in OPPORTUNITIES exploring and experimenting with new objects and active play.

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Children who have not had an opportunity to ride a tricycle, play on a climbing apparatus, or express themselves to music, as well as children with other special needs, might need extra support and encouragement. Teachers can guide children to try new activities by breaking the activity down into its simplest components and building skill upon skill. For example, for a child who has never been on a climbing dome, the teacher may first encourage him to climb to only the lowest rung and to then try to move all the way around the dome on just the lowest rung. Later the teacher may encourage him to climb higher and eventually to the top. Care should be taken to go at the child’s pace in building skills and to let the child take the initiative to explore, experiment, and discover at her own pace.

VIGNETTE The class goes to the playground. It is the first time for Elisa. While other children are climbing, swinging, and sliding, Elisa looks intimidated. Ms. Martinez wants to her go up the steps to the top of the slide. Elisa refuses to go up and starts to shake. Ms. Martinez stays close to Elisa while paying close attention to other children. The next time they come to the playground, Ms. Martinez brings a ball with her so that Elisa can play on the ground. A few times later, Ms. Martinez notices that Elisa ventures to the stairs of the slide, cautiously making baby steps. “You can do it!” Ms. Martinez encour- ages her. After Elisa has made a few steps, Ms. Martinez says, “You did it! You made one more step than last time!” Two months later, Elisa climbs up the stairs and slides down on her own: “I did it!” she says. Ms. Martinez gives her a big hug, and the whole class cheers for Elisa.

TEACHABLE Many children from low-income families are not exposed MOMENT to parks before they enter preschool. In some low-income neighborhoods, there are not enough clean and safe parks suitable for young children. Some parents are not aware of the importance of bringing children to parks or do not have time to do so. Children’s initial responses to parks may be very different. Some children may cry and may not want to leave the park after playing there for the first time. They may be intimidated by these new activities. This vignette captures the process through which a teacher helps a child who has had limited play experiences on the playground overcome her fear and strategically get to master one type of popular play equipment.

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Without teacher interaction, children may Interactions and Strategies not understand (or know) that the results of their physical activity or inactivity Provide ample opportunities for chil- affect their physical fitness and overall dren to engage daily in active play. health. Teachers therefore should “plant Play is the “learning laboratory” of chil- seeds” for understanding and model dren. It is a primary means by which they enthusiasm for being active movers. For make contact with and make meaning of example, the teacher may say, “Put your their rapidly expanding world. Children hand on your heart before and after run- should participate in both self-directed ning around the playground. Do you feel play and guided play each day. Because a difference? Is your heart beating faster young children tend to have low levels or slower? Why?” Making an activity fun of endurance and short attention spans, is the key to getting children moving and their physical activity patterns are inter- to sustaining active play that results in a mittent. The “Active Start” guidelines fitness benefit. recommend at least 60 minutes of daily Help children identify appropriate physical activity that can be broken into places for different types of physical two or three bouts of 20 or 30 minutes. activity. It is important for young chil- Actual instructional time for physical dren to know and respect what is appro- activity should be daily but for no more priate for various indoor and outdoor play 40 than 30 minutes at a time. Additional spaces. This is important for their own time should be allotted daily for chil- safety and enjoyment and that of oth- dren to engage in self-directed play both ers. See the “Research Highlight: Does indoors and outdoors. It is widely recom- Increasing Children’s Physical Activity mended that children accumulate at least really make a difference?” See page 198 60 minutes and up to several hours of for more information about the impor- unstructured physical activity on each tance of physical activity for preschool 41, 42, 43, 44 day of the week. children.

Create inviting activity environments Create an activity environment that in which children can be physically is nurturing and supportive and allows active. Fun is the primary motive for likely success. Children respond posi- young children to engage in active play. tively to encouragement and the process of building skill upon skill. Breaking an activity down into smaller steps pro- motes success. Participation attempts that have positive results tend to encour- age further participation, which leads to improved body coordination. Preschool- age children do not fully master physical skills. However, they can attain increased competence in a wide range of activities. For example, when a child climbs on an apparatus, the teacher might first say, “See if you can climb as high as my head. I’ll be behind you and help if you

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example, rather than having the children just run or tricycle around the play area, call it the “Playground Super Challenge.” Have children pretend to be race cars and count laps out loud, or even better, try it yourself. Children often love to imitate adults. If they see you having fun, they will join in the fun too.

Ensure that physical activity is sus- tained by providing personally mean- ingful and purposeful opportunities for children. The primary reasons given by children for engaging in physical activi- ties are to have fun and to make new friends. Teachers need to keep these two reasons in the forefront of their planning to facilitate success and enjoyment in a social context. Today’s children live in a world in which physical activity that results in improved fitness levels and positive health benefits has become an option rather than a necessity. The need it.” Later the teacher may say, “You problem is well known and the culprits climbed so high yesterday on the climb- are many (e.g., TV, computer games, lack ing gym. Let’s see if you can do it again of space, city planning, personal safety). and maybe even climb higher.” Finally the Recognize and take into account any teacher may say, “You are so strong. See environmental constraints. Take time if you can climb to the top while I stand to observe and be responsible for the beneath you here at the bottom.” play environment. Are there barriers Encourage children to continue partic- to participation such as insufficient or ipation by providing opportunities for worn-out equipment, lack of materials, short but frequent rest periods during or limited play spaces? If so, these bar- vigorous activity. Low levels of strength riers need to be addressed to the best of and endurance make it necessary to take your ability. When working with children a short break for up to one minute dur- with disabilities, it is especially important ing extended bouts of vigorous activity. to assess potential barriers in the play Experienced teachers use this “down” space, accommodate for them (e.g., cre- time to encourage children, to check for ate ramps to eliminate stair barriers), and understanding, and to monitor interest create environments that are educational, levels. If interest wanes, activity levels safe, and accessible. Proper clothing for will decrease. So it may be time to transi- the outdoor environment (e.g., shorts or tion to another activity or game or self- slacks and an adequate shirt and head directed play. Oftentimes, giving a routine covering for sun protection) as well activity a name and making it a game will as adequate footwear (e.g., sneakers spark continued vigorous activity. For or sturdy shoes) are also important

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considerations. Long dresses, baggy Providing adaptive toys and equipment is pants, flip-flops, and jelly shoes restrict important to ensure that all children can movement and may result in injury. participate in physical exploration. It will be helpful for adults to partici- pate with the children by also wearing Respect differences in children’s tem- appropriate clothing for active play, both perament and find creative ways to indoors and outdoors. engage all children in active physical play. Some children enjoy being balleri- Encourage physical exploration nas, while others prefer to be superheroes through play equipment and materials. in their fantasy play. Some enjoy endless Equipment that is simple and versatile chasing and fleeing activities; others pre- (e.g., hula hoops, ropes, balls, streamers, fer kicking, bouncing, or throwing a ball and recycled materials such as cardboard as they pretend to be soccer, basketball, boxes, bubble-wrap material, PVC pipe, or baseball players. Still others enjoy and hosiery) promotes physical develop- rough-and-tumble activities in the out- ment and learning. Ample opportuni- door play space. Others prefer nesting in ties to explore, experiment, and discover a shady area or playing in the sandbox. new ways of moving that capitalize on It is important to recognize and respect children’s emerging sense of discovery, these differences in temperament, but it wonder, and risk taking are important. is also important to find new and creative ways to get children moving in ways that elevate their heart rates; challenge their Research Highlight: balance; locomotor, and manipulative Does Increasing Children’s skills; and promote increased levels of Physical Activity Really Make fitness. a Difference?

A decisive “yes” was the answer to this important question which was cited in a review of 850 research articles and pub- lished in the Journal of Pediatrics.45, 46 The evidence strongly supported that children of school age who engage in relatively high levels of physical activity are less over- weight than inactive children, have better cardiovascular endurance, and higher levels of muscular strength, endurance, and higher self-concepts. The authors conclude that “Increasing the level of habitual mod- erate- to vigorous-intensity physical activity in youth is a health promotion and disease- prevention strategy. Sedentary youngsters should progress toward the recommended level of physical activity gradually.”

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2.0 Cardiovascular Endurance

he general assumption is that chil- vigorous levels of physical activity for Tdren are naturally active and that sustained periods on all or most days of they get plenty of vigorous physical activ- the week, coupled with proper nutrition, ity as a normal part of their day. The will do much to reverse this unfortunate research, however, is not as supportive of trend that has impacted all cultural this notion. Some children are sufficiently groups in American society. Building car- physically active to promote improved diovascular endurance involves exposing levels of cardiovascular endurance, but the body to an increased workload that many are not. The rapidly increasing raises the heart rate beyond its normal rate of obesity among young children in range of beats per minute and sustains the United States attests to the need for that elevated rate for several minutes. children to be more active. Moderate to

VIGNETTE Paulo loves to run and to ride his tricycle. He enjoys running games and is eager to learn to ride a bicycle. He is fortunate because at pre- school and at home there are plenty of opportunities to learn to ride safely with adult assistance. Running games are also encouraged on the large grassy areas at both home and preschool. Simply because of the way his environment is structured and the aid of helpful parents and teachers, Paulo is well on his way to enjoying a lifetime of vigor- ous physical activities that promote cardiovascular health. Paulo’s friend and next-door neighbor, Ian, is not as fortunate. Although he would also love to run and ride a tricycle, he has little opportunity or encouragement to do so. His home environment is one that focuses on regular participation in things other than physical activities. His parents are reluctant to encourage vigorous play activi- ties because of time constraints and safety concerns. As a result, his preschool is the only place where Ian has both the opportunities and encouragement to be physically active.

TEACHABLE Ian’s teachers recognize the need for children to increase MOMENT their level of physical activity and the importance of vigorous activities such as running, jumping, and tricycle riding. They regularly send information sheets home that provide ideas for parents to play with their children. The teachers also invite family members and their preschool children to a family fun night once or twice each year. At these sessions they provide hands-on ideas for families to help them learn how to play with their children and engage them in physical activities that are healthful and fun even, when families have limited outdoor space.

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PLANNING Teachers can gain tremendous momentum on behalf of LEARNING children’s physical activity needs by partnering with family OPPORTUNITIES members and representatives from the local community, as well as with their own program leaders. Adults can work together to provide young children with designated play areas, open spaces, and the necessary equipment to promote vigorous physical activity. The health benefits of regular physical activity are too great to be ignored.

that are viewed as purposeful, meaning- Interactions and Strategies ful, and fun. Children with disabilities that result in low muscle tone (hypotonia) Design the physical setting of the play may benefit from extra encouragement environment to encourage moderate to initiate physical activities; initiation or vigorous physical activity. Provide of physical activities may be particularly an inviting environment for sustaining effortful for children with low muscle elevated heart rates by offering large open tone. spaces; climbing, hanging, and swing- Promote increased cardiovascular ing apparatus; as well as natural places endurance through chasing and flee- to climb, crawl, and slide. Locating and ing activities. Children love to chase making regular use of open play spaces and be chased. A simple game of tag or can be challenging in some communities, games that raise the heart rate promote but the effort will be worth it in terms improved cardiovascular endurance. of promoting increased cardiovascular endurance. Promote cardiovascular endurance through the use of riding toys that Engage children of all ability levels in require sustained pedaling or cranking. activities that promote increased car- Mobility toys are excellent ways to pro- diovascular endurance. The dramatic mote cardiovascular endurance through trend toward sedentary activity and less active participation. Tricycles, “hot wheel” physical activity among all segments of carts, and hand-cranked tricycles pro- American children may be attributed vide children the thrill of fast movement, to many factors. Television, computer sheer enjoyment, and the potential for games, neighborhood design, family sustaining an elevated heart rate for sev- customs and dietary habits, and lack of eral minutes at a time. adequate spaces for young children to play safely are among the most frequently Use imagery as an effective tool in cited. Reversing this trend takes con- promoting moderate to vigorous physi- scious and sustained effort on the part of cal activity. Permitting children to be both parents and teachers. Take time to superheroes complete with cape (an old consider the activity levels of your chil- bath towel will do) on the playground or dren and look for ways to engage them in outdoor play space is a simple way to moderate to vigorous physical activities encourage them to be aerobically active.

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The use of props, such as cardboard activity into small steps and building skill boxes or a bed sheet draped over a table, upon skill promotes feelings of success. creates an environment that promotes It is important to check for understand- active fantasy play. ing (e.g., “What was it that I asked you to try when you threw the ball?”). Get- Provide positive encouragement for ting immediate feedback from the child participation. Positive encouragement (e.g., “You jumped down from the top of is both the teachers’ and parents’ pri- the climber. How did it make you feel?”) mary avenue for sustaining active physi- promotes skill building and continued cal play. Recognizing effort, and not just participation. results, is important because children are attuned to what we say and how we say Promote increased physical activity it. The use of rich, descriptive language through story plays. Story plays that that recognizes effort encourages chil- act out familiar children’s stories and dren’s continued participation. Starting nursery rhymes can be an effective group with a positive comment, following with activity for promoting increased physical a helpful instructional hint, and finish- activity. Taking an imaginary trip to the ing with an encouraging statement is a jungle to photograph the animals can be simple technique that works, even with fun and can elevate young heart rates for young children. Breaking down an several minutes. Pretending to be fire- fighters on the way to a fire, reeling out the hoses, fighting the fire, and returning to the fire station can result in heart- pounding fun.

Promote cardiovascular endurance through dance and rhythmic activities. Children often love to move to music. They shake and wiggle and move about in an attempt to keep time with the music. Including music that children know from home serves to encourage them to practice familiar dance steps as well as create a natural bridge between home and school communities. Props such as scarves, ribbons, and homemade musical instruments further encourage actively moving to the music and assist children in sustaining this increased physical activity.

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3.0 Muscular Strength, Muscular Endurance, and Flexibility

hildren who are active naturally endurance. They also contribute to Cincrease their muscular strength, strengthening the muscles used. muscular endurance, and joint flex- Active young children are generally ibility. By definition, muscular strength quite flexible. Flexibility is the ability of is the ability to perform one maximum a joint to move through its full, intended effort, such as lifting a heavy weight over- range of motion. With disuse, joints head, or picking up a heavy object off become less flexible. Older children enter- the ground. Muscular endurance is the ing the prepubescent growth spurt often ability to perform work repeatedly. It is experience a dramatic decrease in joint not recommended that children prior to flexibility. During this period, growth is puberty engage in maximum strength frequently so rapid that muscles and ten- efforts through high-resistance activities. dons have yet to catch up to increased Instead, it is recommended that children body proportions. Preserving joint flex- engage in low-resistance activities with ibility throughout life requires maintain- multiple repetitions.47 Keep this important ing an active way of life and engaging in concept in mind when planning activities activities that promote stretching. Failure for children. Low-resistance activities that to do so will result in the gradual lessen- are continually repetitive— such as swim- ing of flexibility and a tightening of the ming, riding a tricycle, or pushing one’s muscles and tendons around the joints. wheelchair up a gradual incline or around Some children with physical disabilities the playground, walking distances, run- are more vulnerable to loss of flexibil- ning, and jumping—will promote both ity; thus, play activities that incorporate muscular endurance and cardiovascular stretching are particularly beneficial.

VIGNETTE During outdoor play activities, several boys and girls love running around the playground pretending to be superheroes, who can perform amazing feats of strength and daring. Their teacher picks up on their spontaneous play and decides to encourage it as a means of promoting the children’s muscular strength and endurance and flexibility. Using donated bath towels and pillowcases, Mr. Lee fashions colorful capes for his class of superheroes. Pretending to be a superhero himself, the teacher leads the class several times each week on a “mission” that involves bending, stretching, reaching, lifting, pushing, pulling, and other activities that make them “strong” superheroes who always suc- ceed in their mission to help others in need. Mr. Lee’s clever use of imag- ery makes the “heavy work” of superheroes fun and has the net effect of promoting increased strength, endurance, and flexibility.

TEACHABLE During the play activity, Adam and Alec and their friends, Julie MOMENT and Mai, ask Mr. Lee to show his “muscles” and to make his “arm big.” Mr. Lee cheerfully obliges and flexes his biceps. The

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children are fascinated and want to flex their biceps also. When they try, however, they see little change in the muscle. Disappointed, they ask Mr. Lee why they do not see much of a difference. Now is an excellent time for Mr. Lee to remind children that being strong is not all about having big muscles. Being strong is about being able to do more work than one could do before. To be able to play longer, climb higher, and run faster than before are the important signs of being strong. Mr. Lee emphasizes that real “superheroes” do not need big, bulging muscles to be strong. But they do need to work their muscles every day in active play to get stronger and to be able to do more than they could before.

PLANNING Children who are reluctant to engage in new movement LEARNING activities are inhibited for many reasons. Some are afraid of OPPORTUNITIES failing and lack the confidence to try new activities. Others may be self-conscious and afraid of looking “silly” in front of others. Still others may not be used to the spontaneous nature of active play. Or they may feel uncomfortable due to limited ease in communicating with peers who speak a different language. Whatever the reason, reluctant movers can be encouraged by incorporating a few simple guidelines. Invite the child to take part. Do not insist on participation. First try, “Would you like to go to the movement center?” If the child hesitates, take the next step by offering to go to the movement center together and playing together. Children often love it when you take time to play with them. When you are at the movement center, make the experience positive and fun-filled. You can do this by asking a series of movement questions that progressively challenge the child to try new ways of moving. These movement challenges provide open-ended opportunities for experimentation, exploration, and discovery of new and fun ways of moving. For example, moving on a chalk line can be made into a circus high-wire act in which you and the other children, who are sure to join in, perform a series of “daring” moves as you all move from one end of the wire to the other. Questions to foster progressive movement might be as follows: “Can you move on the high wire from one end to the other?” “How can you use your arms to help you balance?” “Can you find three new ways to get from one end of the high wire to the other without falling off?” “Can you make a half turn/full turn while keeping your feet on the wire?”

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in the way of modeling to encourage chil- Interactions and Strategies dren to be active. However, teachers who are actively engaged with children from Encourage the development of mus- time to time and who encourage children cular strength and endurance through (verbally or by using sign language) pro- building activities that involve per- mote increased physical activity. forming “work” repeatedly. The “work” Promote cardiovascular endurance of children is active play. Providing ample through repeated muscular endurance opportunities for self-directed play, activities. Children engaged in rough- encouraging physical activity, and serv- and-tumble play, tricycle riding, and a ing as a role model for physical activity game of tag are simultaneously improving will do much to spur children to increase both their muscular endurance and car- their activity level. Teachers standing diovascular endurance. with their arms folded and enjoying a “break” during outdoor play time do little Promote muscular endurance and strength in the muscles of the upper Research Highlight: body through the use of playground Strength Training for Young equipment that encourages climbing, hanging, and swinging. Children enjoy Children: Is It Okay? the thrill of climbing to the top of the jun- gle gym or climbing on a rope ladder to Strength training for prepubescent children the top of an apparatus. In doing so, they can be beneficial if properly supervised at all test their newly developing climbing skills times. Boys and girls, including preschool- and increase their muscular strength ers, can increase their strength by engaging and endurance. Care should be taken to in low-resistance, high-repetition activities. ensure the safety of participants on any Maximum efforts, however, are not safe climbing apparatus. Instruction should and have no place in strength training for be provided on the safety grip (see figure children. These are the conclusions arrived 3.5): the thumb curls under the fingers at by the American Academy of Pediatrics when grasping an object. and published in a 2001 position statement entitled Strength Training by Children and Figure 3.5 Adolescents.48 With proper supervision, strength-training activities can benefit children by promot- ing gains in strength and endurance, injury reduction, and improved performance. It must be stressed that strength training is much different from weight lifting. Strength training involves the use of progressive resistance and several repetitions. Weight lifting is a sport in which one attempts to Illustration by Laura Bridges make a single maximal lift, as in the bench press or overhead press. Weight lifting is Allow for supervised risk taking. Risk strongly discouraged for all prepubescent taking, when properly supervised, is children. a natural and desirable response by children as they test their developing

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increases in muscular endurance and strength. Children are generally eager to be of assistance. Helping with setting up and taking down play equipment for an obstacle course can be used as a means to enhance muscular endurance. The obstacle course will be another way to get physically involved in repetitive move- ments. Workloads that are greater than normal, such as the pushing and pulling of an object, help build strong muscles and increase endurance. Make sure that obstacle courses involve some pulling and pushing, or change the equipment from one location to another. Promote increased joint flexibility strength, endurance, and flexibility. Test- through animal walks, nursery rhymes, ing the ability to climb higher, jump from and story plays. Animal walks such as a greater height, swing higher and higher, walking like a bear, giraffe, puppy dog, or or twirl until losing balance are natural frog, promote joint flexibility as do move- challenges for young children. Proper ment songs such as “Head, Shoulders, supervision is, of course, essential. But Knees, and Toes” and “Itsy Bitsy Spider.” so too is an environment that permits Engaging children in a story play that and celebrates reasonable risk taking. involves reaching high, stretching low, Some children and adults are reluctant to and twisting and turning from side to try new and challenging physical activi- side—as in acting out “A Day at the Laun- ties. They may be afraid of injury or being dry” or “Picking Apples off the Tree”— in an unsettling situation. The three keys promotes increased joint flexibility. to proper supervision are to: Encourage practice in fundamental • build skill upon skill (e.g., “Try sliding movement skills and perceptual-motor down or climb up the low slide before activities that contribute to children’s the high one”); physical fitness. Although the teacher’s • be close by to encourage verbally attention may be focused on one aspect (e.g., ”You can do it”); of motor, cognitive, or social–emotional • be close enough to assist physically development, the reality is that any given (but only as needed). activity has the potential to contribute to development in multiple ways. For exam- Some children with special needs ple, the game Crossing the Brook involves engage in extreme risk-taking behavior. two lines that are drawn increasingly far Careful monitoring of the environment apart, and the children jump across the and each child’s actions is needed. “brook,” which provides them with prac- Engage children in the setup of the tice in jumping repeatedly over greater play space and the return of materi- distances. This game also helps children als to their original space. This prac- negotiate aspects of body and spatial tice not only promotes group coopera- awareness and promotes increased leg tion and responsibility, it also promotes muscle endurance and joint flexibility.

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Bringing It All Together

When the weather permits, Ms. Jennifer equipment, and still others will be enjoy- takes her class outdoors to play in the ing climbing, hanging, and swinging designated play space. She is intrigued by activities. the many types of activities in which her Such child-initiated play and individual children choose to engage. She is quick to differences in temperament should be rec- notice that several are in almost perpetual ognized, respected, and encouraged. By motion, running to and fro with seemingly creating a physical environment where all endless energy and little purpose to their can find success and learning enjoyment, activity. Others tend to gravitate to the teachers do much to promote active par- sandbox and other fine motor activities. ticipation by all children. Creativity in Still others are hesitant to explore and taking advantage of the natural envi- reluctant to participate in any self-initiated ronment, both indoors and outdoors, is free-play activities. Knowing the impor- needed for an endless variety of activities tance of active physical play, Ms. Jennifer that promote fundamental movement and develops strategies intended to maximize perceptual-motor skills and engage chil- meaningful participation in a variety of dren in active physical play. activities that promote active participation However, as teachers look around, they by all, cardiovascular endurance, mus- will notice that some children are hesi- cular strength, muscular endurance, and tant to explore, experiment, and discover joint flexibility. These strategies take into the joy of movement. For a wide variety of account children’s personal preferences, reasons including temperament and fears, likes and dislikes, and sense of success both real and imagined, some young chil- and accomplishment. Over several months dren hesitate to get involved in playground of engaging in active play with children activities. Instead they seem to prefer sit- and encouraging them to try new things, ting, waiting, and watching others as they she notices a decided change in behavior. play. This is an area where sensitive and The children are now more fully engaged caring adults can be influential. Teach- in play activities that are purposeful, ers can help a hesitant child enter into a meaningful, safe, and fun. small group so the child can feel comfort- able with the social and physical, aspects of play. Furthermore, pairing children eing outdoors and observing the who speak the same home language often Bchildren as they spontaneously helps children who are English learners engage in a variety of activities can be an feel more comfortable and confident dur- illuminating experience. Children have a ing play. By providing positive encour- tendency to gravitate to areas in which agement, offering to play with the child, they experience success and enjoy learn- adapting the play environment or materi- ing. Some will be engaged in fine motor als to be more accessible, or providing activities in the sandbox or with small simple instructional cues, teachers can objects. Others will be running about, do much to engage children in active play. wheeling their wheelchairs, or pedaling Increased participation, cardiovascular tricycles almost constantly. Some will be endurance, muscular strength, muscular engaged with balls or other manipulative endurance, and flexibility will result.

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Teachers can take time to observe mals such as jaguars for vigorous). At children at play and reflect on how they the end of the 24-hour period, family might encourage active and more diverse members total up the number of each physical play. Child-initiated play is letter (S, M, V) color (red, white, blue) encouraged and respected, but teacher- or animal (bears, koalas, jaguars) guided play can be a powerful motivator, representing sedentary, moderate, or especially for children who are reluctant vigorous physical activities. Be sure to participate. to take time to discuss what you can do as a family to put more moderate Engaging Families to vigorous activity into your day and why it is important. ✔ Create an “Activity Recall Chart” ✔ Have a “Family Dance Party.” Most to be used in the classroom first, children love to move to music. They then at home. To begin, teachers enjoy wiggling, shaking, and mov- can use photocopied pages from a ing in new and creative ways to the date book or daily planner, and col- catchy beats of their favorite music. orful letters creatively drawn as an Take advantage of this natural urge S, M, and V by the children in class to move by dancing with your chil- as they learn about the differences dren. Practice dances familiar to your in the levels of physical activity in culture and make up new ones for which they can participate: Seden- fun, enjoyment, and increased physi- tary, Moderate, and Vigorous. It will cal activity. Be sure to take time to be helpful to first try this activity in discuss how dancing increases the the classroom and then introduce it heart rate and why it is fun and later at a family night for possible use healthy to be physically active. at home. First, as a classroom activ- ity help children chart their physical ✔ Model healthy behavior. Modeling activities over the course of a school healthy behavior is a powerful way day. Young children will need help to effect change. Children are expert to recall their activities and how long observers, and they observe the activ- they lasted. Classify each activity as ity habits that adults engage in. Tak- S (sedentary physical activities, such ing a walk as a family, playing a game as story or nap time); M (moderate of tag, or engaging in a family activity physical activities, such as playing familiar to one’s cultural heritage can in the sandbox or doing other fine be a powerful means of promoting motor activities); or V (vigorous physi- increased levels of physical activity. cal activities: such as climbing stairs, ✔ Take an adventure walk to school. riding a tricycle, running, or engaging Children in a neighborhood preschool in rough-and-tumble play). Later, as program can become part of an a family activity, use the same letters adult-led Walk to School Day. drawn in school; colored stickers (e.g., Although it is not recommended that red for sedentary, white for moderate, young children walk to school unac- blue for vigorous) or animal stickers companied by a responsible adult, (hibernating animals such as bears they can take part in an adult-led for sedentary, cuddly animals such adventure walk. With an adult in as koalas for moderate, speedy ani- the lead and one in the back, turn

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your walk to school into a journey after the child has made efforts to by “train.” The adults are the engine escape, releases the child. The adult and caboose, and the children are the may permit the child to determine if it freight cars in between. Take time to is to be an “easy trap,” “medium trap,” stress safety by obeying traffic signs, or “hard trap.” It is fun to give each of crossing only at designated areas, the traps a name, such as the “mouse- and looking both ways before crossing trap,” “butterfly trap,” “alligator trap,” streets. or even the much-anticipated “double dog trap.” There is, of course, no place ✔ Develop a list of “can do” family for family play of this sort in which the rules for active physical play. Active child experiences pain or distress of family fun works best when there are any kind. If this does occur, immedi- ground rules for participation that ately change the activity to something respect the rights of other family mem- appropriate that the child finds to be bers and promote a safe and healthful fun. play environment for all. For exam- ple, children often love to jump and ✔ Proper clothing for indoor and out- bounce, but doing so unsupervised on door family activities is a must. a sofa or bed could be dangerous. A Proper clothing for active physical play family rule of where and under what need not be expensive or elaborate. It circumstances jumping is permissible must, however, be appropriate to the will go a long way to preventing inju- activity and the playing conditions. ries and saving your furniture. Be sure Sturdy gym shoes, shorts (even under that your family rules form a short a dress) and an appropriate T-shirt or “can do” list rather than a long list of blouse will work well for most indoor what is not allowed. It is much more activities. Special care, however, affirming to say “Jumping on the bed should be taken for sunny or cold is okay when mom or dad is present,” outdoor conditions. Sun protection, rather than “No jumping on the sofa in the form of a cap and sunscreen, or the bed.” is important, as are proper layering, mittens, a jacket, and scarf in the ✔ Take part in family rough-and- cold. Below-freezing temperatures are tumble play that respects the rights not a sufficient reason for remain- and wishes of all. Children often ing inside. Children, when properly enjoy the rough-and-tumble activities clothed, enjoy the refreshing vigor of of playing horsey on top of a parent playing in cold weather. or wrestling on the living-room floor. These activities are worthwhile and ✔ Make a FITT activity chart. At a fam- promote active physical play by all, but ily meeting, discuss the different types they must be kept in perspective. It is of activities that each family member of paramount importance to set rules likes; emphasize activities that get the of play in which the rights, responsi- heart pumping and muscles working. bilities, and wishes of all are clearly Try to follow the FITT principles: F understood and followed. For example, stands for Frequency (how many times Family Trap is a rough-and-tumble the activity is performed each week); game in which an adult ensnares a I stands for Intensity (how hard one child in an arm or leg grasp and then, plays). T stands for Type (of activity).

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And the second T stands for Time or end of the week, discuss what every- duration (length of time of the activ- one did and whether the four FITT ity). Make a weekly chart with the principles were followed. Continue to names of each family member and the build children’s interest in participa- physical play activities each one wants tion by emphasizing fun and enjoy- to engage in (e.g., walking, running, ment and by joining in when possible. playing an active game, tricycling). Adults who model of active physical Put a check mark or a star by each play do much to encourage children activity in which the family member to be active also. participates during the week. At the

Questions for Reflection 1. How can you increase young children’s participation in moderate to vigorous physical activities on a sustained basis in your program? 2. What is your level of participation in moderate to vigorous physi- cal activity? Do you need to increase your personal participation in active physical play in ways that demonstrate to children that you “love to move”? 3. What community, social, cultural, linguistic, or other environmen- tal considerations might limit some children’s participation in active physical play? How might these limitations be addressed in ways that are sensitive and respectful? 4. How can you increase children’s level of active participation in ways that they find purposeful, meaningful, and fun? 5. Obesity rates among children and adults have risen dramatically over the past 20 years. How can preschool teachers, caregivers, and family members prevent or reverse this trend? 6. How can you adapt the program environment, materials, or activi- ties to ensure that children with disabilities can participate along- side their peers in active physical play? 7. What are your views on physical risk taking by young children? Why might it be important to reevaluate your position? How might you negotiate with children to permit them to engage in reasonable and supervised risk-taking activities?

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Concluding Thoughts

ntil recently, the physical develop- that children acquire as they get ready Ument of young children was often for more formal types of instruction and taken for granted. Family members and learning. Body-awareness, spatial-aware- caregivers had a tendency to assume that ness, and directional-awareness concepts children, by virtue of being children, got can be taught and learned through both plenty of physical activity as a normal teacher-directed and self-directed play. part of their daily routine. The results However, children need encouragement, of over a decade of research compar- instruction, and sufficient opportunities ing the present, more sedentary genera- for practice in supportive environments tion of children to previous generations to learn fundamental movement skills, clearly reveals an alarming trend toward perceptual-motor skills, and movement increased obesity, diabetes, asthma, and concepts. Preschool programs and fami- other health-impairing conditions.49 Fortu- lies play a critical role in maximizing chil- nately, a resurgence of interest in the vital dren’s development in these areas. importance of young children’s physical Active physical play in preschool is a development is taking place throughout means by which children (and adults) California and the nation. Those work- can engage in the physical activities that ing with young children have recognized promote healthy lifestyles and a genuine that developing fundamental movement zest for life. Through active participation skills; learning perceptual-motor skills in self-directed and adult-facilitated play, and movement concepts, and engaging in children acquire increased cardiovascular active physical play are essential to the endurance, muscular endurance, mus- total balanced development of children.50 cular strength, and flexibility. Young chil- The development of fundamental move- dren have not only movement skills and ment skills provides a basis for an active perceptual abilities; they also have the joy way of life. Attaining proficiency in a myr- of movement. Learning to move and mov- iad of fundamental balance, locomotor, ing to learn are too important to be left to and manipulative skills equips children chance. Parents and teachers have a pre- for active participation in physical activi- cious opportunity to help set the stage for ties for a lifetime. Perceptual-motor skills young children to enjoy physical activity and basic movement concepts are impor- for a lifetime. tant to the many time and space concepts

210 46 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT Fundamental Movement Skills

1.0 Balance

At around 48 months of age At around 60 months of age

1.1 Maintain balance while holding still; 1.1 Show increasing balance and control sometimesMap may of need the assistance. Foundations when holding still. Examples Examples

• Pretends to be a flamingo by standing balanced • Pretends to be a flamingo by standing on one on one foot, with or without assistance, for foot, unassisted, for five or more seconds several seconds using arms to balance. without touching a nearby object, such as a • Stands still with eyes open; arms may swing side wall or a table, for support. to side to maintain balance. • Balances on three body parts (for example, two hands and one foot). Domain 46 • Able to “freeze” after running; arms may swing side to side toPhysical maintain balance. Development• Stands still while holding arms at side when the • Able to stand still while holding onto a shopping song says, “Freeze!” Strand cart or walker.* • Balances a beanbag on top of head for several FundamentalFundamental Movement Movementseconds. SkillsSkills

1.2 Maintain balance while in motion 1.2 Show increasing balance control Substrand 1.0 Balancewhen moving from one position to while moving in different directions another or when changing directions, and when transitioning from one At aroundthough 48 months balance of age may not be com- At aroundmovement 60 months or of position age to another. Age pletely stable. Foundation 1.1 Maintain balance while holding still; 1.1 Show increasing balance and control Examplessometimes may need assistance. Exampleswhen holding still.

Examples• Walks forward on a wide line (or tape) on the Examples• Walks forward and backward on a wide line floor, alternating feet with or without assistance. (or tape) on the floor without assistance. • Pretends to be a flamingo by standing balanced • Pretends to be a flamingo by standing on one • Sways back and forth moving a scarf higher • Able to step from circle to circle by using a walker. Examples on one foot, with or without assistance, for foot, unassisted, for five or more seconds and higher in the air, reaching out to the arm of several seconds using arms to balance. •without Walks touchingon the edge a nearby of the object, sandbox such area. as a PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT wheelchair with other hand to catch body as the wall or a table, for support. • Standsarc of stillthe withmovement eyes open; increases. arms may swing side • Completes a sequence of dynamic and static to side to maintain balance. • Balancesbalances, on as three in the body game parts Statues (for example, or while twoplaying • While walking on the sandbox border, is able handsSimon and Says. one foot). • Ableto maintainto “freeze” balance after running; for several arms steps, may wobbles, swing siderights to side self, to and maintain continues. balance. • • Stands Runs stillup an while incline, holding avoiding arms aat playmate side when stopped the songmidway. says, “Freeze!” • • Able Swings to stand hips, still with while feet holding together, onto when a shopping playing * cartwith or awalker. hula hoop. • Balances a beanbag on top of head for several seconds. • During the song “Head, Shoulders, Knees, and Toes,” maintains balance while reaching for toes. 1.2 Maintain balance while in motion 1.2 Show increasing balance control when moving from one position to while moving in different directions Includes notes Note: Manyanother examples or whenin this section changing describe directions, movement skills that mayand look when different transitioning in children with physicalfrom one disabilities. When possible, early educators should check with family and specialists regarding the child’s movement skill development. for children *Walker:though When used balance in examples, may it indicatesnot be acom- therapeutic walker specificallymovement prescribed or position for a child toin needanother. of support with disabilities when walking.pletely stable.

Examples Examples

• Walks forward on a wide line (or tape) on the • Walks forward and backward on a wide line floor, alternating feet with or without assistance. (or tape) on the floor without assistance. • Sways back and forth moving a scarf higher • Able to step from circle to circle by using a walker. and higher in the air, reaching out to the arm of • Walks on the edge of the sandbox area. PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT wheelchair with other hand to catch body as the arc of the movement increases. • Completes a sequence of dynamic and static balances, as in the game Statues or while playing • While walking on the sandbox border, is able Simon Says. to maintain balance for several steps, wobbles, rights self, and continues. • Runs up an incline, avoiding a playmate stopped midway. • Swings hips, with feet together, when playing with a hula hoop. • During the song “Head, Shoulders, Knees, and Toes,” maintains balance while reaching for toes.

Note: Many examples in this section describe movement skills that may look different in children with physical disabilities. When possible, early educators should check with family and specialists regarding the child’s movement skill development. *Walker: When used in examples, it indicates a therapeutic walker specifically prescribed for a child in need of support when walking.

211 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

Selected Developmental Sequences

Locomotor Skills

Sample Developmental Sequence of Running SampleSampleSample Developmental Developmental Developmental Sequence Sequence Sequence of of of Running Running Running

DEVELOPINGDEVELOPINGDEVELOPING

ChildChildChildChild runs runs runs runs alternating flatalternatingalternatingalternating feet with flat flat heelflat to toefeetfeet feetaction with with with heel heel heel to to to toetoe action action Biggertoe action strides ArmsBiggerBiggerBigger are strides stridesdown strides Exploring level toArmsArms theArms sideare are are down down down to to to IntegrationIntegration level level Exploring level IntegrationIntegrationIntegration level level level ExploringExploringExploring level level level Kneesthethethe side side bendside less Child runs with feet flat ChildChildChildChild runs runs runs showing showing showing ChildChildChild runs runs runs with with with feet feet feet flat flat flat than 90 degrees KneesKneesKnees bend bend bend less less less oppositionoppositionoppositionopposition of of of arms ofarms arms arms and and andand legs legs legs ArmsArmsArmsArms are are are areat at atthe atthe the thewaist waist waist waist and and and Inconsistencythanthanthan 90 90 90 degree degree degree andandandlegs heel heel heeland to to heeltotoe toe toe action toaction action toe action andmovemovemove move side side side side to to toside toside side side Small steps, little bend inconsistencyinconsistencyinconsistencyinconsistency kneeskneeskneesKnees bend bend bend more more more than than than 90 90 90 SmallSmallSmall steps, steps, steps, little little little bend bend bend of of of of knees and little degreedegreedegree90 degrees in in inrecovery recovery recovery in recovery kneeskneesknees and and and little little little reach reach reach with with with reach with legs Increased speed, body legslegslegslegs TRANSITIONTRANSITIONTRANSITION IncreasedIncreasedIncreased speed speed speed body body body lean lean lean leans forward forwardforwardforward Consistency DesignedDesignedDesigned by by byClersida Clersida Clersida Garcia Garcia Garcia and and and Illustrations Illustrations Illustrations by by byXuyen Xuyen Xuyen Garcia, Garcia, Garcia, 2010 2010 2010 ConsistencyConsistencyConsistency Sample Developmental Sequence of Jumping

SampleSample Developmental Developmental Sequence Sequence of ofJumping Jumping SampleSample Developmental DevelopmentalDEVELOPING Sequence Sequence of of Running Running

DEVELOPING Child bringsDEVELOPINGDEVELOPING arms side way on the take off Child brings arms side ArmsChildChild doChild brings a runscompleted runs arms circlewaysidewaysalternating atonalternating take the on offtake theflat flat off takeoff feet with heel to Armsfeet dodo with a a completed complete heel to Body leanstoe action forward and jumpscircletoe forward atat action taketakeoff off Exploring level Bigger strides Exploring level BodyBodyBigger and leansleans legs strides forward forward flexed and IntegrationIntegration level level Child bring arms back on jumpsArms forward are down to duringandArms jumpsflight are phase forward down to IntegrationIntegration level level takeExploringChild ExploringoffExploring brings level armslevel level the side ChildChild swing swings arms armsforward Bodythe andand side legs legs flexed flexed back on takeoff Land on hands and feet overChildIntegrationChildforward head runs runs showingover showing level head LegsChildChild doChild bring not runs runs completely arms with with back feet feet flaton flat duringKnees flight bend phase less duringKnees flight bend phaseless oppositionopposition of of arms arms and and legs legs extendtakeLegsArmsArms off do are arenot at at comthe the waist- waist and andInconsistency than 90 degree BodyChildBody get swing extendedgets arms extended duringforward Landthan on 90hands degree and feet andand heel heel to to toe toe action action pletelymovemove sideextend side to to side side Lands on hands and feet theover duringflight head phase, the flight jump isphase, BodyLegs bend do not completely inconsistency InconsistencyinconsistencyTRANSITION diagonalkneesknees bend bend more more than than 90 90 extendBodySmallSmall bends steps, steps, little little bend bend of of Bodyjump get is extended diagonal during Small vertical jump degreedegree in in recovery recovery kneesknees and and little little reach reach with with LandtheLands flighton feet. onphase, Consistencyfeet jump is BodySmall bend vertical jump TRANSITION Designedlegslegs by Clersida Garcia and Illustrations TRANSITIONby Xuyen Garcia, 2010 IncreaseddiagonalIncreased speed speed body body lean lean forwardConsistency Small vertical jump forwardLand on feet. Consistency DesignedDesigned by by Clersida Clersida Garcia Garcia and and Illustrations Illustrations by by Xuyen Xuyen Garcia, Garcia, 2010 2010 Consistency Designed by Clersida Garcia and Illustrations by Xuyen Garcia, 2010 Consistency Designed by Clersida Garcia and illustrated by Xuyen Garcia, 2010.

212 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

Sample Developmental Sequence of Hopping SampleSample Developmental Developmental Sequence Sequence of of Hopping Hopping Sample Developmental Sequence of Running Sample DevelopmentalDEVELOPINGDEVELOPING Sequence of Running DEVELOPING HoppingHopping leg leg flexed flexed moves moves up upandHopping and downDEVELOPING down leg flexed Child runs and moves up and ForcefulForcefulalternating hops hops arms arms flat pull pull up up down Childfeet runswith heel to BodyBody leans leans too too much much forwardForcefulalternatingtoe action hops; flat arms forwardfeet with heel to pullBigger up strides LegLeg hanging toehanging action behind behind the the body Exploring level bodyBody Arms leans are forward down to IntegrationIntegration levellevel Exploring level Bigger strides IntegrationIntegration level level Exploring level Armstoo uncoordinated themuch side ExploringChild holds level hopping Arms uncoordinated ChildChild swings runs showing leg as in a Child runs with feet flat Arms are down to ChildChildIntegration swings swings leg leg levellike like in ain a Childleg holdsExploring up with hopping leg level parallel leg InconsistencyLegKnees hangs bendbehind less pendulumopposition action. of arms Shows and legs ChildArms holds are hopping at the legwaist andInconsistency the side pendulumpendulum action. action. Shows Shows up legto parallelthe floor. to theBody erect. the thanbody 90 degree oppositionChildand runsheel to showingof toearm action and up Childlegmove parallel runs side with to to the sidefeet flat oppositionopposition of armof arm and and leg. leg. Difficult to maintain leg KneesTRANSITION bend less leg.opposition Smooth, of rhythmicalarms and legs floor.floor. BodyArms Body erect.are erect. at the waist and Armsinconsistency uncoordinatedTRANSITION Smooth's rhythmical up and hop. than 90 degree hopping.Smooth'sandknees heel bend toBodyrhythmical toe more leansaction than 90 DifficultDifficultmoveSmall to maintainto side maintainsteps, to side leglittle leg bend of hopping. Body leans forward.hopping.degree inBody recovery leans up upand and kneeshop hop and little reach with Inconsistencyinconsistency forwardknees bend more than 90 Small steps, little bend of forward legs TRANSITION degreeIncreased in recovery speed body lean Designed by Clersida Garcia and Illustrations by Xuyen Garcia, 2010 ConsistencyConsistency Designedknees by and Clersida little Garciareach and with Illustrations by Xuyen Garcia, 2010 Consistencyforward legs TRANSITION Increased speed body lean Designed by Clersida Garcia and Illustrations by Xuyen Garcia, 2010 forwardConsistency

Designed by Clersida Garcia and Illustrations by Xuyen Garcia, 2010 Consistency Sample Developmental Sequence of Skipping SampleSampleSample DevelopmentalDevelopmental Developmental SequenceSequence Sequence ofof of SkippingSkipping Running Sample Developmental Sequence of Running DEVELOPING DEVELOPINGDEVELOPING DEVELOPING DeliberatedChild runs skip Deliberated skip alternating flat HighChild skips runs Highalternatingfeet skips with heel flat to Armstoe used action to pull body ArmsArmsfeet used usedwith toheel to pull pull to body up bodyuptoeBigger upaction strides Slow rhythm SlowSlowBiggerArms rhythmrhythm stridesare down to Integration level Exploring level Armthe used side bilaterally Exploring level ArmArmArms usedused are bilaterally bilaterally down to IntegrationChild runs showing level level ExploringExploringChild runs level withlevel feet flat Integration level Exploring level UneasytheKnees side skips bend less oppositionIntegration of arms level and legs ChildArms has are difficultydifficulty at the waist and UneasyUneasy skips skips ChildChild showsruns shows showing smooth smooth ChildChild has runs difficulty with feet flat than 90 degree andChild heel shows to toe smooth action alternatingmove side feet.feet. to Mayside InconsistencyKnees bend less oppositionalternativealternative ofskip. skip.arms Smooth Smooth and legs alternatingArms are atfeet. the May waist and InconsistencyInconsistency alternative skip. Smooth hop, step, oror runrun while thaninconsistency 90 degree andkneesand rhythmicalheel rhythmical bend to toe more pattern.action pattern than 90 hop,moveSmall step, side steps, or to run side little while bend of and rhythmical pattern tryingwhile trying. TRANSITION ArmsdegreeArms used use in contra- recoverycontra- tryingknees and little reach with inconsistencyTRANSITION kneesArms bend use morecontra- than 90 Small steps, little bend of laterallylaterally in inopposition opposition to Armslegs bilateral and TRANSITION degreeIncreasedlaterally in recovery in speed opposition body tolean Armsknees bilateral and little and reach with tolegs legs. uncoordinateduncoordinated. forwardlegs uncoordinatedlegs TRANSITION Increased speed body lean Consistency Designed by Clersida Garcia and Illustrations by Xuyen Garcia, 20102010 forwardConsistencyConsistency Designed by Clersida Garcia and Illustrations by Xuyen Garcia, 2010 Consistency Designed by Clersida Garcia and Illustrations by Xuyen Garcia, 2010 Consistency Designed by Clersida Garcia and illustrated by Xuyen Garcia, 2010.

SELECTED DEVELOPMENTAL SEQUENCES 213 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

Fundamental Manipulative Skills SampleSample Developmental Developmental Sequence Sequence of Catching of Catching Sample Developmental Sequence of Running Sample DevelopmentalDeveloping Sequence of Catching Sample DevelopmentalDeveloping Sequence of Running

ChildDEVELOPING begin to use hands, Child begin to use hands, arms and chest to arms and chestDEVELOPING to successfully catch the ball successfullyChild catchruns the ball ChildMayalternatingChild begins step runs toward to flat use the ball May stephands,feet toward witharms, heel the and ballto Beginalternating to catch flat with hands Beginchest totoe catchfeet toaction successfullywith with heel hands to catchonly the ball only Biggertoe action strides MayInconsistency step toward InconsistencyArmsBigger are strides down to Integration level Exploring level thethe ball side Arms are down to ChildIntegrationIntegration runs showing level level ChildExploring runs with level feet flat Integration level ExploringExploring level level BeginsKneesthe to side bendcatch less oppositionIntegration of arms level and legs ExploringArms are level at the waist and ChildChild runs usually showing moves ChildChild runs is stationary with feet and flat withthan hands 90 degree only Childand usually heel to moves toe action ChildChildmove is isstationary stationary side to sideand and KneesTRANSITION bend less oppositionChildfeet usuallyto catch of movesarms and feet legs Armsusually are miss at the the waist ball and TRANSITION feet to catch usuallyusually miss misses the theball ball Inconsistencyinconsistencythan 90 degree kneesandtosuccessfully catch heelbend successfully, to more toe using action than 90 Smallmove steps, side tolittle side bend of successfullyusing hands using only inconsistency degreekneeshands in bend recoveryonly more than 90 kneesSmall and steps, little little reach bend with of hands only Designedlegs by Clersida Garcia; IllustrationsTRANSITION by Xuyen Garcia, 2010 IncreaseddegreeConsistencyConsistency in speed recovery catching catching body lean Designed byknees Clersida and Garcia; little Illustrationsreach with by Xuyen Garcia, 2010 Consistency catching legs TRANSITION forwardIncreased speed body lean Designed by Clersida Garcia and Illustrations by Xuyen Garcia, 2010 Consistencyforward

Designed by Clersida Garcia and Illustrations by Xuyen Garcia, 2010 Consistency Sample Developmental Sequence of Throwing SampleSampleSample Developmental Developmental Developmental Sequence Sequence Sequence of of ofThrowing Throwing Running

DevelopingDEVELOPINGDeveloping Child begins to homo-laterally step Child begins to homo-laterally step Child begins to homo-laterally arm windChild up upward runs and move down arm wind up upward and move down duringstep thealternating throw flat during the throw Sample Developmentalfeet with heel Sequence to of Running ArmArm moves windup upward upward during and wind moves up Arm movestoe upward action during wind up anddown sideways during during the throw the throw, and sideways during the throw, sometimes body rotates (block sometimesBiggerDEVELOPING body rotates strides (block rotationArm moves of body) upward during rotationwindup of Armsbody) and are sideways down toduring the Integration level Exploring level homo-laterally step and may Exploring level homo-laterallythrow,Childthe sometimes siderunsstep and body may rotates Integration level maintain straddle position for several Child runs showing Child runs with feet flatmaintain (block alternatingstraddle rotation position of flat body) for several Child is stationary and throws Knees bend less oppositionIntegrationArm windup of arms leveldown; and legs Arms are at the waistthrows and feet with heel to Integration level usually brings arm up, Homo-laterallythan 90 degree steps and may and backheel tobelow toe action waist. move side to side Homo-lateraltoe action and contra-lateral step Arm wind up down and flexedExploring or extended, level and Homo-lateralmaintain andstraddle contra-lateral position stepfor Arm wind up down and Exploring level (inconsistency).inconsistency Throw facing target kneesbackThrow bend below showing more the than waist. 90 throwsSmall down steps, with little arm bend (inconsistency). ofseveral Bigger throws stridesThrow facing target back below the waist. Child is stationary and Big Step contra-lateral most of the degreeThrowarm in lag, showingrecovery lower bodyarm lag, Childactionknees is only stationary and little and reach Big with Step contra-lateral most of the Throw showing arm lag, usually bring arm up timeHomo-lateral sideArms facing are andtarget down contra-lateral to lowerrotates body first, rotate then first usuallylegs bring arm up time side facingTRANSITION target IntegrationIncreasedlower body speed levelrotate body first lean flexedExploring or extended level and stepsthe (inconsistency). side Throws thanupper upper body body (sequen - flexed or extended and Inconsistency Childforwardthan runs upper showing body throwChild down runs withwith feet arm flat Inconsistency facing target. (sequentialtial rotation) rotation) throw down with arm KneesTRANSITION bend less opposition(sequential of arms rotation) and legs actionDesignedArms onlyare by atClersida the waist Garcia and and IllustrationsTRANSITION by Xuyen Garcia, 2010 Consistency action only Big stepthan is 90 contra-lateral degree most ofand ConsistencyheelConsistency to toe action Designedmove side by Clersida to side Garcia; Illustrations by Xuyen Garcia, 2010 Consistency Designed by Clersida Garcia; Illustrations by Xuyen Garcia, 2010 the time;inconsistency side faces target. knees bend more than 90 Small steps, little bend of degree in recovery knees and little reach with legs TRANSITION Increased speed body lean forward

DesignedDesigned byby ClersidaClersida Garcia Garcia andand illustratedIllustrations by by Xuyen Xuyen Garcia, Garcia, 2010. 2010 Consistency

214 SELECTED DEVELOPMENTAL SEQUENCES PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

Sample Developmental Sequence of Kicking SampleSample DevelopmentalDevelopmental Sequence Sequence of Kicking of Kicking Sample Developmental Sequence of Running DEVELOPING Sample DevelopmentalDEVELOPING Sequence of Running

Child swingsDEVELOPING leg back Childbefore DEVELOPINGswings kicking. leg Show back before kicking. Show betterChild balance runs betterChild balance swings leg back ChildbeforeChildalternating steps kicking. runs toward flatShows the ball Child steps toward the ball andbetteralternating kickfeet balance. with heelflat to andfeet kicktoe with action heel to ChildChild makes steps toward few steps the Childtoe Biggermakes action strides few steps andball kick and forcefully kicks. with Exploring level and kick forcefully with IntegrationIntegration level oppositionBiggerArms stridesareof arm down and to leg IntegrationIntegrationChild approaches levellevel the Exploring level oppositionChild makes of armfew stepsand leg Child approaches the Child is stationary, Armsthe sideare down to Childball approaches running or withthe Exploring level Inconsistencyand kicks forcefully IntegrationChildball runningruns showing level or with usuallyExploringExploringChild pushes runs level levelwith ball feet flat Inconsistencythe side ballfew running steps andor with leap few Child is stationary withKnees opposition bend ofless arm oppositionfew steps ofand arms leap and legs withChildArms one is stationaryfoot,are at and the waist and Childsteps,before runs leaps kickingshowing before and kick - andChild usually runs with pushes feet flat andKnees thanleg. 90bend degree less andbefore heel kicking to toe actionand stepsandmove usuallyback side quickly pushes to side to oppositioning,hope and after hops of armsthe after kick. and the legs ballArms with are one at thefoot waist and thanTRANSITION 90 degree hope after the kick. catchball with balance. one foot InconsistencyinconsistencyTRANSITION andkick.kneesShows heel Shows bend to contra-lateral toe contra-lateral more action than 90 andmoveSmall steps side steps, back to side little bend of Shows contra-lateral and steps back inconsistency oppositiondegreeopposition in recoveryof of arm arm and and quicklyknees to and catch little reach with kneesopposition bend more of arm than and 90 quicklySmall steps, to catch little bend of leg.leg. Forceful Forceful kicking. kicking balancelegs TRANSITION degreeIncreasedleg. Forcefulin recovery speed kicking body lean balanceknees and little reach with Consistency legs TRANSITION IncreasedConsistencyforwardConsistency speed body lean Designed by Clersida Garcia; Illustrations by Xuyen Garcia, 2010 DesignedDesigned by by Clersida Clersida Garcia; Garcia Illustrations and Illustrations by Xuyen by Xuyen Garcia, Garcia, 2010 2010 forwardConsistency Designed by Clersida Garcia and Illustrations by Xuyen Garcia, 2010 Consistency Sample Developmental Sequence of Striking Sample Developmental Sequence of Striking Sample Developmental Sequence of Striking DEVELOPING Sample DevelopmentalDEVELOPING Sequence of Running Sample Developmental Sequence of Running Child may steps and Child may steps and rotatesDEVELOPING around with the rotates around with the swing swingDEVELOPING ChildChild steps runs homo-laterally ChildChild may steps step homo-laterally and rotate andalternating may swing flat diagonally aroundandChild may with runs swing the swing.diagonally feet with heel to Childalternating steps contra-lateral,flat ChildChildtoe steps steps action homo-laterally contra-lateral, swingfeet with horizontal heel to andswing may horizontal swing diagonally, Exploring level toeBigger action strides Integration level Body rotates as a unit Integration level Exploring level ChildBody steps rotates contra-laterally, as a unit Integration level ExploringChild is stationary level and (blockBiggerArms rotation) stridesare down to Child’sChild body body is is sideways sideway in Child is stationary swings horizontally. IntegrationChild body is levelsideway in ChildholdsExploring isthe stationary bat with level one or (blockthe rotation) side inpreparation preparation to to strike. strike. and holds the bat InconsistencyArms are down to Integrationpreparation levelto strike. andtwoExploring holdshands. the levelbat ChildSteps runs contra-laterally showing withChild one runs or two with feet flat BodyInconsistencytheKnees rotates side bend as a unitless StepsSteps contra-laterally contra-laterally and with one or two Childoppositionand runs rotates showing of lowerarms andbody legs StrikinghandsChildArms runs action are with at goes the feet waist from flat and(block than rotation). 90 degree rotatesand rotates lower lower body bodyfirst, hands Knees bend less oppositionandfirst heel then ofto upper armstoe action body.and legs topStrikingArmsmove down are actionside in at “choppy” theto goes side waist and thenfirst thenupper upper body. body. Striking action goes Inconsistencythaninconsistency 90 degree andkneesSwing heel bend tois toehorizontal more action than and 90 action.frommoveSmall top side steps,down to side little bend of Swing is horizontal and from top down inconsistency Swingdegreemakes is in horizontalcontact recovery with and ball “choppy”knees andaction little reach with TRANSITION kneesmakes bend contact more with than ball 90 “choppy”Small steps, action little bend of makesConsistency contact with ball. legs TRANSITIONTRANSITION degreeIncreasedConsistency in recovery speed body lean kneesDesigned and by little Clersida reach Garcia with and Illustrations by Xuyen Garcia, 2010 Designedlegs by Clersida Garcia and IllustrationsTRANSITION by Xuyen Garcia, 2010IncreasedConsistencyforward speed body lean Designed by Clersida Garcia and Illustrations by Xuyen Garcia, 2010 forwardConsistency Designed by Clersida Garcia and Illustrations by Xuyen Garcia, 2010 Consistency Designed by Clersida Garcia and illustrated by Xuyen Garcia, 2010.

SELECTED DEVELOPMENTAL SEQUENCES 215 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

Teacher Resources

Alliance for Technology Access (ATA). Eight. Reston, VA: National Association for http://www.ataccess.org/pdf/WeCanPlay.pdf Sport and Physical Education (NASPE). (p. 14). Playgrounds for Everyone. This book provides a wealth of simple lesson Suggestions and resources for creating plans using the NASPE National Standards for universally accessible outdoor play areas for Quality Physical Education as a guide for fun, children. creative, and educationally sound activities. Bissell, J., and others. 1998. Sensory Motor Council on Physical Education for Children. Handbook (Second edition). San Antonio, TX: 2000. Appropriate Practices in Movement Pro- Therapy Skill Builders. grams for Young Children Ages 3–5. A Position This book provides fun and easy activities to Statement of the National Association for Sport implement at home or at a center. Activities and Physical Education. Reston, VA: National are designed to develop gross motor, fine mo- Association for Sport and Physical Education tor, and oral motor skills. (NASPE). This publication provides clear descriptions Blaydes Madigan, J. 2004. Thinking on Your of appropriate and inappropriate practices in Feet (Second edition). Murphy, TX: Action movement programs for children ages three to Based Learning. five helps teachers and caregivers make sound This book provides ideas, games and activities curricular decisions. on how movement enhances learning in all academic subject matters. Can be used from Craft, D. H., and C. L. Smith. 2008. Active prekindergarten to sixth grade. Play: Fun Activities for Young Children. Cortland, NY: Active Play Books. Brack, J. C. 2004. Learn to Move, Move to This book comes with a DVD of toddlers and Learn! Sensorimotor Early Childhood Activity preschoolers moving and learning. Themes. Shawnee Mission, KS: Autism As- perger Publishing Company. Davis, K., and S. Dixon. 2010. When Actions This book, written by a pediatric occupational Speak Louder than Words: Understanding the therapist, provides lesson plans for multisen- Challenging Behaviors of Young Children and sory learning activities. It includes explana- Students with Disabilities. Bloomington, IN: tions about how each sensory system (e.g., Solution Tree Press. vestibular, proprioceptive, touch, auditory, This excellent resource supports all chil- and visual) is addressed by the recommended dren whose primary way to communicate is activities. through challenging behaviors. It addresses the behaviors children use to communicate, Clement, R. 1995. My Neighborhood Movement the messages they may be sending, and how Challenges: Narratives, Games and Stunts for adults can ask six critical questions to better Ages Three Through Eight. Reston, VA: Nation- understand and meet children’s needs. al Association for Sport and Physical Educa- tion (NASPE). Erhardt Developmental Products. http:// Provides narratives taken from storybooks, www.erhardtproducts.com/ tales, fables, rhymes, mimetic activities, chal- The company provides videos and publications lenges and games. Designed to reinforce the about fine motor development in young chil- child’s understanding of the body’s movement dren. Teachers can access helpful resources capabilities. for working with children with disabilities. Clements, R. L., and S. L. Schneider. 2006. Fit Source: A Web Directory for Providers. Movement-Based Learning: Academic Concepts http://www.nccic.org/fitsource. The Child and Physical Activity for Ages Three Through Care Bureau, Administration for Children

216 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

and Families, U.S. Department of Health Future: National Standards for Physical Educa- and Human Services. tion (Second edition). Reston, VA: NASPE. The directory contains resources for incor­ This excellent resource aligns curricula con- porating physical activity into child care tent with NASPE’s voluntary national stan- programs. It includes activity/game ideas, dards for excellence in physical education curricula plans, and information for parents. from kindergarten through grade twelve. Gallahue, D. L., and F. Cleland-Donnelly. ———. 2005. Inicio Activo: Informa de Linea- 2003. Developmental Physical Education for mientos de Actividad Fisica para Ninos desde All Children (Fourth edition). Champaign, IL: el Nacimiento hasta los Cinco Anos Human Kinetics. de Edad. Reston, VA: NASPE. This practical, easy-to-use resource for teach- Spanish translation of the NASPE Physical ers incorporates the NASPE national stan- Activity Guidelines for Children Ages 3-5. dards for quality physical education for young Active Start: A Statement of children in age-appropriate, developmentally ———. 2009. Physical Activity Guidelines for Children Birth appropriate, and fun ways. Fundamental to Age 5 movement skill acquisition, perceptual-motor (Second edition). Reston, VA: NASPE. learning, and increased physical activity for This excellent resource for parents and care- young children are emphasized. givers describes how to implement NASPE’s Physical Activity Guidelines for infants, tod- Gallahue, D. L., J. C. Ozmun, and J. D. dlers, and preschool children. Goodway. In press. Understanding Motor De- velopment: Infants, Children, Adolescents, and ———. 2009. Appropriate Practices in Move- Adults (Seventh Edition). Boston, MA: Mc- ment Programs for Young Children Ages 3–5 Graw Hill. (Third edition). Reston, VA: NASPE. Up-to-date theory and research on motor This guidebook of appropriate practices for development throughout a lifespan with children ages three through five is suitable for emphasis on growth development of children use by preschool teachers, daycare providers, and youth. caregivers, parents, and administrators. Handwriting Without Tears. 2009. The Pre-K North Dakota State University of Agricul- Get Set for School. http://www.hwtears.com. ture and Applied Science, NDSU Extension A program developed for preschool children Service, 2003. http://www.ext.nodak.edu/ by a pediatric occupational therapist. This food/kidsnutrition/edu-2.htm#Resources. preschool workbook of activities includes mu- The Web site features children’s books about sic, movement, building, coloring, and sen- physical activity. sory play for developing gross motor and fine Pica, R. 2003. Teachable Transitions: 190 motor control. Activities to Move from Morning Circle to the Haywood, K. M., and N. Getchell. 2009. End of the Day. Silver Spring, MD: Life Span Motor Development (Fifth edition). Gryphon House, Inc. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. This book focuses on transitions during the The book presents research and theory on preschool day and provides movement activi- motor development throughout a lifespan ties, songs, and finger plays to move smoothly using a constraints approach. from one activity to the next while holding the attention of waiting children. Jensen, E. 2005. Teaching with Brain in Mind (Second edition). Alexandria, VA: Association ———. 2006. A Running Start: How Play, for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Physical Activity, and Free Time Create a Suc- This book addresses brain anatomy, coopera­ cessful Child. Emeryville, CA: Marlowe and tion and competition in the brain, brain Company. changes over time, and how the brain learns. This book addresses the importance of a bal- ance between free play and structured activity National Association for Sport and Physical and how physical activity contributes to brain Education (NASPE). 2004. Moving Into the

TEACHER RESOURCES 217 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

and intellectual development. It provides great This book provides a fascinating journey practical ideas for parents to bring fun and through the mind-body connection, presenting play back into their homes and yards. startling new research to prove that exercise is the best defense against everything from mood ———. 2007. Moving and Learning Across disorders to attention deficit hyperactivity dis- the Curriculum: More than 300 Activities and order to Alzheimer’s and provides incontrovert- Games to Make Learning Fun (Second edition). ible evidence that aerobic exercise physically Florence, KY: Wadsworth. transforms the brain for peak performance. This excellent resource for preschool teachers and parents provides fun movement activities Staisiuna-Hurley, D. 2001. Sensory Motor related to all academic disciplines of the pre- Activities for the Young Child. Bisbee, AZ: school curriculum. Imaginart Press. This book, written by a pediatric physical ———. 2008. Physical Education for Young therapist, provides suggestions for simple Children: Movement ABCs for the Little Ones. movement activities. Each activity page in- Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. cludes what the activity works on, materials This book provides great ideas and activities or setup needed, step-by-step instructions, for teaching basic movement to young chil- and how to modify the activity. It is appropri- dren. ate for both typically developing children and Ratey, J. J. 2008. The Revolutionary New children with disabilities, ages three to seven Science of Exercise and the Brain. New York: years old. Little, Brown and Company.

218 TEACHER RESOURCES PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

Endnotes

1. National Scientific Council on the Devel- Hyperactivity Disorder: Therapy Ball oping Child, Rich Experiences, Physical Versus Chairs,” American Journal of Occu- Activity Create Healthy Brains. Cambridge, pational Therapy 57, no. 5 (2003): 534–41. MA: Center on the Developing Child, 12. T. Hunter, “Some Thoughts About Sitting Harvard University, 2006. http://www. Still,” Young Children 55, no. 3 (2000): 50. developingchild.net (accessed September 3, 2009). Fundamental Movement Skills 2. National Association for Sport and Physi- 13. K. M. Newell, “Constraints on the Devel- cal Education (NASPE), Active Start: A opment of Coordination,” in Motor Devel- Statement of Physical Activity Guidelines opment in Children: Aspects of Coordina- for Children Birth to Age 5. Reston, VA: tion and Control, ed. M. G. Wade and H. T. NASPE, 2009. A. Whiting. Dordrecht (The Netherlands: 3. G. L. McCormack and others, “How Occu- Martinus Nijhoff, 1986): 341–61. pational Therapy Influences Neuroplastic- 14. C. Garcia, “Gender Differences in Young ity,” OT Practice 14, no. 17 (2009): 1–8. Children’s Interactions When Learning 4. J. J. Ratey, Spark: The Revolutionary Fundamental Motor Skills,” Research New Science of Exercise and the Brain. Quarterly for Exercise and Sport 65, no. 3 New York: Little, Brown and Company, (1994): 213–25. Hachette Book Group, 2008, 10. 15. C. Garcia and L. Garcia, “Examining 5. D. L. Gallahue and F. Cleland Donnelly, Developmental Changes in Throwing: A Developmental Physical Education for All Close Up Look,” Motor Development Re- Children, 4th ed. (Champaign, IL: Human search and Reviews 2 (2002): 62–95. Kinetics, 2003). 16. C. Garcia, “Gender Differences in Young 6. National Association for Sport and Physi- Children’s Interactions When Learning cal Education (NASPE), Active Start: A Fundamental Motor Skills,” Research Statement of Physical Activity Guidelines Quarterly for Exercise and Sport 65, no. 3 for Children Birth to Age 5. Reston, VA: (1994): 213–25. 2009. 17. J. O. O’Brien and J. E. Lewin, “Translat- 7. J. A. Blackman, “Attention-Deficit/Hyper- ing Motor Control and Motor Learning activity Disorder in Preschoolers. Does It Theory Into Occupational Therapy Prac- Exist and Should We Treat It?” Pediatric tice for Children and Youth,” Occupational Clinics of North America 46, no. 5 (1999): Therapy Practice 13 (2008): CE1-8. 1011–25. 18. J. Case-Smith and N. Weintraub, “Hand 8. T. Hunter, “Some Thoughts About Sitting Function and Developmental Coordination Still,” Young Children 55, no. 3 (2000): 50. Disorder,” in Developmental Coordination 9. T. Schilling, and others, “Promoting Lan- Disorder, ed. S. A. Cermak and D. Larkin guage Development Through Movement,” (Albany, NY: Delmar, 2002). Teaching Elementary Physical Education 19. S. Mori, M. Iteya, and C. Gabbard, “Hand 17, no. 6 (2006): 39–42. Preference Consistency and Eye-Hand 10. D. L. Schilling and I. S. Schwartz, “Alter- Coordination in Young Children During a native Seating for Young Children with Motor Task,” Perceptual and Motor Skills Autism Spectrum Disorder: Effects on 102, no. 1 (2006): 29–34. Classroom Behavior,” Journal of Autism 20. R. P. Erhardt, The Erhardt Hand Prefer- and Developmental Disorders 43, no. 4 ence Assessment (Maplewood, MN: Er- (2004): 423–32. hardt Developmental Products, 2006). 11. D. L. Schilling and others, “Classroom Seating for Children with Attention Deficit

219 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

21. M. Annett, “Hand Preference Observed 31. M. N. Roncesvalles, and others, “From in Large Healthy Samples: Classification, Egocentric to Exocentric Spatial Orienta- Norms and Interpretations of Increased tion: The Development of Postural Con- Non-Right-Handedness by the Right Shift trol in Bi-Manual and Trunk Inclination Theory,” British Journal of Psychology 95 Tasks,” Journal of Motor Behavior 37 (2004): 339–53. (2005): 404–16. 22 . Z. Goez and N. Zeinik, “Handedness in 32. S. Mori, M. Iteya, and C. Gabbard, “Hand Patients with Developmental Coordination Preference Consistency and Simple Rhyth- Disorder,” Journal of Child Neurology 23, mic Bimanual Coordination in Preschool no. 2 (2008): 151–54. Children,” Perceptual and Motor Skills 104 23 . P. G. Hepper, S. Shahhidullah, and R. (2007): 792–98. White, “Handedness in the Human Fetus,” Neuropsychologia 29, no. 11 (1991): Active Physical Play 1107–11. 24 . S. J. Lane, “Structure and Function of the 33. Q. Ma, “Beneficial Effects of Moderate Vol- Sensory Systems,” in Sensory Integration: untary Physical Exercise and Its Biological Theory and Practice, 2nd ed. Edited by A. Mechanisms on Brain Health,” Neurosci- C. Bundy, S. J. Lane, and E. A. Murray ence Bulletin 24, no. 4 (2008) 265–70. (Philadelphia, PA: F. A. Davis Company, 34. R. Meeusen, “Exercise and the Brain: 2002), 35–70. Insight in New Therapeutic Modalities,” 25. C. S. Kranowitz, The Out-of-Sync Child: Annals of Transplantation 10, no. 4 (2005) Recognizing and Coping with Sensory 49–51. Processing Disorder (New York: Penguin, 35. J. Miller, “Primary School-Aged Children 2005). and Fundamental Motor Skills: What is All the Fuss About?” Refereed paper for Perceptual-Motor Skills and publication and presented at the Austra- lian Association for Research in Education Movement Concepts (AARE), Adelaide, Australia, November 26. J. O’Brien and H. Williams, “Applica- 2006, 1-13. tion of Motor Control/ Motor Learning 36. A. Fisher, and others, “Fundamental to Practice,” in Occupational Therapy for Movement Skills and Habitual Physical Children, 6th ed. Edited by J. Case-Smith Activity in Young Children,” Medicine and and J. O’Brien (Maryland Heights, MO: Science in Sport and Exercise 37, no. 4 Elsevier, 2010), 245–74. (2005) 684–88. 27. C. Poole, “Development: Ages and 37. J. Goodway and C. Branta, “Influence of a Stages—Spatial Awareness,” Early Child- Motor Skill Intervention Program on Fun- hood Today 20, no. 6 (2006): 25–30. damental Motor Skill Development of Dis- 28. D. Fertel-Daly, G. Bedell, and J. Hino- advantaged Preschool Children,” Research josa, “Effects of a Weighted Vest on Atten- Quarterly for Exercise and Sport 74, no. 1 tion to Task and Self-Stimulatory Behav- (2003): 36–46. iors in Preschoolers with Pervasive Devel- 38. G. T. Baranek, “Efficacy of Sensory and opmental Disorders,” American Journal Motor Interventions for Children with of Occupational Therapy 55, no. 6 (2001): Autism,” Journal of Autism and Develop- 629–40. mental Disorders 32 (2002): 397–422. 29. N. L. VandenBerg, “The Use of a Weighted 39. L. Biel and N. Peske, Raising a Sensory Vest to Increase On-Task Behavior in Smart Child (New York: Penguin Group, Children with Attention Difficulties,” 2005). American Journal of Occupational Therapy 40. National Association for Sport and Physi- 55, no. 6 (2001): 621–28. cal Education (NASPE), Active Start: A 30. C. M. Schneck, “Visual Perception,” in Statement of Physical Activity Guidelines Occupational Therapy for Children, 5th ed. for Children from Birth to Age 5, 2nd ed. Edited by J. Case-Smith (St. Louis, MO: (Reston, VA: NASPE, 2002). Elsevier Mosby, 2005).

220 ENDNOTES PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

41. Centers for Disease Control and Preven- 45 . W. B. Strong and others, “Evidence Based tion (CDC), “Increasing Physical Activity: Physical Activity for School-Age Youth,” A Report on Recommendations of the Task The Journal of Pediatrics 146, no. 6 Force on Community Prevention Services,” (2005): 732–37. Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 50 46 . A. Ignico, C. Richart, and V. Wayda, “The (RR-18, 2001): 1–16. Effects of a Physical Activity Program on 42 . National Association for Sport and Physi- Children’s Activity Level, Health-Related cal Education, Appropriate Practices in Fitness, and Health,” Early Childhood Movement Programs for Children Ages 3-5, Development 154 (1999): 31–39. 3rd ed. (Reston, VA: NASPE, 2009). 47 . American Academy of Pediatrics, “Policy 43 . U.S. Department of Health and Human Statement: Strength Training by Children Services, Center for Disease Control and and Adolescents,” Pediatrics 107, no. 6 Prevention, Physical Activity and Health: (2001): 1470–72. A Report of the Surgeon General Executive 48 . Ibid. Summary, 2004. http://www.cdc.gov/ 49 . National Association for Sport and Physi- nccdphp/sgr/pdf/execsumm.pdf cal Education, Comprehensive School (accessed March 29, 2010). Physical Activity Programs: A Position 44 . National Association for Sport and Physi- Statement (Reston, VA: NASPE, 2008). cal Education, Active Start: A Statement 50. H. G. Williams and others, “Motor Skill of Physical Activity Guidelines for Children Performance and Physical Activity in Birth to Age 5, 2nd ed. (Reston, VA: Preschool Children,” Obesity 16 (2008): NASPE, 2009). 1421–26.

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