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Full-length paper Asian Agri-History Vol. 16, No. 2, 2012 (123–141) 123

Environment and Spiritualism: Integral Parts of Ancient Indian on Agriculture1

YL Nene

Asian Agri-History Foundation, Secunderabad 500009, , India (email: [email protected])

Abstract Current scenario, about two decades after the positive effects of “Green Revolution” plateaued, is very pathetic. The morale of farmers and agricultural scientists, administrators, planners, and policy makers is abysmally low. Major breakthroughs for increasing farm productivity to provide food to the increasing population have not occurred in the last two decades. Farmers are exploited by all other sections of the society. How do we change the current scenario?

I believe it is time to study our agricultural heritage and relearn old lessons to the extent possible. The respect for environmental resources and spirituality that are embedded in our ancient and needs to be seriously studied and readopted through mass communications in order to remold our society to lift the morale of people, especially the agriculturists.

Many of the readers might have substantial I shall briefly cover relevant aspects of knowledge of of India. environment and spiritualism as described Even then, for my own satisfaction, I would in the main Vedic literature and then like to briefly review the literature that has highlight the same aspects as found in the influenced not only the majority of the agricultural texts. Indians but also those Indians who belong to other great religions or faiths. It should Environment and spiritualism in be kept in mind that even today more than 70% Indians practice farming, and this the main Vedic literature percentage was perhaps more that 99% in Environment the ancient period. Thus the ancient has influenced and continues to There are a few definitions of what influence day-to-day life of farmers and constitutes an environment. Three of these others. are given.

1. A shortened version of this paper was published in 2011 in “The Symbiosis of Nature and Human Beings: Toward a New, Safe, Regenerative Agriculture” by Yoko Civilization Research Institute, Tokyo, Japan. 124 Environment and spiritualism in ancient Indian agriculture

• Environment can be defined as the natural com/doc/14180071/11-Components-of- surroundings of that organism, which Environment). Each component can be directly or indirectly influences the growth a ‘force’ when its balanced existence is and development of the organism. challenged. The concerned “force” then has to “retaliate” to correct the imbalance. • Environment is defined as the surroundings in which an organization operates including air, water, land Spiritualism and natural resources, flora, fauna, It is uncertain at which time the spiritualism humans and their interrelations (Parmartha in , which means [ISO (International Organization for highest or most sublime truth; knowledge Standardization) definition]. about or the supreme spirit) can • Environment is the sum total of all living be said to have begun (Shouler and Susai, and non-living factors that compose the 2009). In pre-historic times, people were surroundings of man. motivated to seek out unseen and unknown entities that controlled things. This is in Any or all definitions given above would confirmation with the spiritualist doctrine, be applicable to the contents of . A which maintains that a spiritual order of diagrammatic representation will further beings – including souls – might be every bit clarify the components of environment as real as bodies that make up the material (Fig. 1) (Source: http://www.scribd. world. Hence, a spiritualist could attribute

Atmosphere

PHYSICAL Hydrosphere ENVIRONMENT Lithosphere

Floral BIOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT Faunal ENVIRONMENT Microbial

Society

CULTURAL Economy ENVIRONMENT Figure 1. Components of environment. Asian Agri-History Vol. 16, No. 2, 2012 125 sun or rain to a sun god or rain god, which the four Vedas. All the (ruchas or he worshiped because the sun and the rain verses) that are in the praise of deities were were essential to well-being. Other gods grouped together to constitute the were instituted to suit the needs of the (10,552 verses). The mantras sung to the people, who had no direct control over prescribed tunes melodiously formed the events. If things went wrong, the people (1875 verses). All those mantras felt they had displeased the gods somehow. that were both in verse and and One way of dealing with that was to make dealt with the sacrifices were classified as offerings and sacrifices. Spiritualism is a (1975 verses). Finally, all the philosophy characteristic of any system mantras that were essential and highly of thought that affirms the existence of helpful in everyday life of humans became immaterial reality imperceptible to the the (5977 verses). Each Veda senses. Spiritualists believe in philosophy has four divisions or sections. The first that each human is a soul clothed in a section is , which is the oldest; it material body through which mental and is the hymn section. The second section spiritual faculties function, and that it is is , which deals with ritualistic within this material body that the spiritual teachings. The third one is the or etheric body resides. that covers theology, and the fourth one is the , a philosophical section For millennia the Vedic sages of ancient (Nair, 2008). India wrote and shared their works with disciples, who in turn shared the knowledge with learned and priests. And The Upanishads these learned ones shared the knowledge The Upanishads are also known as with common man. As pointed out earlier, (anta = end) because they are the concluding about 99% of people were farmers. portion or culmination of Vedas or knowledge itself, and also because chronologically Upanishads came at the end of the Vedic The four Vedas period (700–500 BC). In Upanishads, the For millennia, the knowledge of Vedas importance of mantras, rituals, and Vedic was imparted orally to the successive sacrifices are relegated to the background, generations. It is believed that the sage while the concept of Brahma (means the Veda classified them almost 5000 to concept of the transcendent and immanent 6000 years ago (Max Müller: 2500–3500 ultimate reality of the one, i.e., The Godhead years; others circa 3000–10000 years) and or Supreme Cosmic Spirit) that is all that they were written down on the banks pervading is brought to the limelight. The of legendary River in western seers of ancient India advised us not India (now in Pakistan), which got dried up to waste time in mere rituals, but seek in the course of time. Veda Vyasa compiled refuge in through meditation and the scattered knowledge of the ancient seers introspection. As (a great into four parts that came to be known as nationalist, philosopher, and spiritualist 126 Environment and spiritualism in ancient Indian agriculture of India) has stated, “Upanishads are the records of the deepest spiritual experiences Environment is defined as the of the ancient seers. Upanishads are truth surroundings in which an organization seen, felt, lived and held by the innermost operates including air, water, land and mind and soul.” However, many of the natural resources, flora, fauna, humans ideas contained in the spiritual vision and and their interrelations. philosophical arguments of the Upanishads are very difficult to understand and are still obscure to us. David Frawley, a well-known German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer indologist once said, “The modern mind (1788–1860), who spoke of the book as “the has yet to penetrate the veil protecting the solace of my life, the solace of my death” ancient mysteries” (Nair, 2008). (Nene, 2000). Upanishads give the necessary spiritual Rigveda is oldest of the Vedas. Its last vision through philosophical arguments, hymn is a universal prayer for the welfare episodes, commentaries, stories, and of the entire mankind. Its last hymn states, metaphysical dialogues. They help uncover the process of creation, life, the essence of “May the whole of the mankind be of one life, and the life beyond. Prince Dara Shikoh mind, have a common goal, and the hearts (mid-seventeenth century AD), son of Shah with united love and the mind and soul Jahan, the Mughal Emperor of India (1592– be one and the same for all to live a life 1666 AD), was a very learned scholar, who of happiness.” Vedas always related to all spent long hours in study and discussion biotic and abiotic entities on the earth, and with Hindu and Muslim saints and scholars, did not relate to any particular geographical and collected many books, wrote several, region. and got a large number translated into Persian. He translated Bhagwad Gita into Persian, probably with the help of Hindu The scholars. The most significant and the The are the Vedic of the most controversial of his translations was universe, known as Puranas, which are Sirr-i-Akbar (The Great Secret), a Persian a large portion of Vedic literature. The rendering of 52 Upanishads. Dara’s Persian Itihasas also include Vedic epics, such translation of the Upanishads rendered in as the and . The turn to Latin and published in Europe about 150 years later. These were read by the Bhagwad Gita, which means the song of Bhagwan (God), appears in the middle of the epic Mahabharata. Many consider the The ancient Indian literature has Bhagwad Gita as the most important of influenced and continues to influence the Vedic scriptures, which most educated day-to-day life of farmers and others. Indians read even today. It is the essence of the Upanishads and Vedic knowledge. Asian Agri-History Vol. 16, No. 2, 2012 127

The Bhagwad Gita Spiritualism is a philosophy The Bhagwad Gita consists of 18 chapters characteristic of any system of thought and over 700 verses. The Gita contains the that affirms the existence of immaterial advice given by Lord to Arjuna (a reality imperceptible to the senses. key person in Mahabharata) on all types of , the means of self-realization. The Gita has an answer to every problem one may There must be harmony between natural face in his/her life. It does not command elements and humans as also harmony anyone what to do; instead discusses pros between the natural elements. and cons of every action and thought. That is the reason why the Gita is read by millions • Respect for animate and inanimate objects of truth seekers throughout the world. leading to conservation practices and judicious management. It is not uncommon to see even in modern India, a “welcome” The Vedas and a small “farewell” celebration for car, I shall start with Rigveda (8000–1500 BC) house, farmers’ bullocks, often in front of and refer to other texts chronologically. statues of family deities. “Welcome” is Some agriculture related key messages that more common than “farewell”. Every year I have noted in Rigveda and in the three on a particular day, children offer prayers to other Vedas are: textbooks. This is how gratitude to useful objects is expressed. • Humans are a part of the complex • universe. Guests (expected as well as unexpected) are to be treated with utmost respect. In • Intimacy of humans with nature is a return guests were expected to bless the matter of great joy. hosts, a sort of recycling of intellectual • Existence of natural elements Akasha and spiritual power (Vannucci, 1994). In (Spirit/Essence), (Air), (Fire), olden days in many families, there was Ap (Water), and Prithvi (Earth) (in the a tradition of keeping some cooked food same order) constitute the Pancha Mahabhutas (five great elements). For millennia the Vedic sages of ancient India wrote and shared their It is uncertain at which time the works with disciples, who in turn spiritualism (Parmartha in Sanskrit, shared the knowledge with learned which means highest or most sublime Brahmins and priests. And these truth; knowledge about Brahma or learned ones shared the knowledge with the supreme spirit) can be said to have common man. … about 99% of people begun. were farmers. 128 Environment and spiritualism in ancient Indian agriculture

ploughman walk happily with the bullocks, Each Veda has four divisions and let clouds soak the land with water. Give or sections. The first section is us happiness” (Sharma, 1991). Samhita, which is the oldest; it is the hymn section. The second section is Brahmanas, which deals with ritualistic teachings. The third one is The name of Jaimini of the Vedic the Aranyakas that covers theology, times is held in high esteem and reverence and the fourth one is the Upanishads, a among the Sanskrit writers of eminence, and philosophical section. probably he is held only next to Maharishi Veda Vyasa, who compiled the four Vedas. Jaimini was a disciple of Vyasa, and besides aside for any unexpected guests turning being a writer of various treatises and the up at odd time. The tradition continues epic Jaimini , he is the famous author today especially in villages. of Poorva Mimamsa Sastra (mimansa = investigations), and these able aphorisms • Reconciliation between conflicting in astrology called after his name as the ideologies of materialism and spiritualism. Jaiminisutras (Source: http://www.astrojyoti. This is possible through the prescribed com/jaiminisutraspage1.html). four aims of human life: (righteousness), (worldly prosperity), Jaimini in his Updesa (advice) Sutras (procreation), and (final describes the shadripus (shad = six; ripu emancipation, deliverance of the soul from = enemies) of human beings, of course recurring births or transmigration). including farmers. These are: kama – lust; • Recycling of matter, so important today krodha – anger; lobha – greed; moha – for resource conservation. Even today attachment; mada – vanity/conceit; and quantities of “garbage” in India are matsarya – jealousy. Kautilya has advised less because of the instilled habit of kings to make efforts to moderate the recycling household materials. shadripus (Shamasastry, 1961). • Cows were not to be killed but looked If a person could, during his lifespan control after well and affectionately. Cow these ‘enemies’ within him, he would move slaughter is opposed by a majority of closer to the Supreme Being. We shall Indians today. note these aspects, at least some of them • Wanton destruction of trees was to be appearing later in this paper. avoided. In fact it is common to see worship of certain trees on specific days I shall now move to the main focus of in a year. my paper; i.e., to describe and discuss the specific messages concerning environment A verse in Rigveda says a lot, “Let our and spiritualism embedded in ancient ploughs open the soil happily, let our agricultural texts of India. Asian Agri-History Vol. 16, No. 2, 2012 129

Mahabharata The Itihasas are the Vedic histories of the The Mahabharata is not an agricultural text. universe, known as Puranas, which are However, Indian sages, in their instruction a large portion of Vedic literature. The to the kings, insisted upon the protection Itihasas also include Vedic epics, such as of Varta (agriculture, animal husbandry, the Ramayana and Mahabharata. and trade), and especially the agriculture. Thus we find Bhishma (one of the most respected persons in the epic Mahabharata; Sharing food with others has been lauded he was grandfather of both and in the Vedic texts. In Mahabharata, Lord ) advising Yudhisthira (eldest of Krishna teaches Yudhisthira the greatness of Pandavas): annadana (anna = food; dana = sharing):

• “Agriculture, animal husbandry and • “The world, both animate and inanimate, trade are the very life of people.” is sustained by food. Life arises by food; • “Have you ensured that the traders in the this is observed all around, and there can country, who have to pass through many be no doubt about it.” difficult terrains in order to exchange • “Therefore, one who wishes to attain goods at high and low prices, are never well-being in this world and beyond put to trouble under the burden of should offer food to all those who seek. oppressive exactions?” One should give food in accordance, with time and place, and should keep • “Have you ensured that the cultivators are not reduced to deserting the country giving to the limits of one’s capacity, even if it were to cause inconvenience because of the exactions imposed by to one’s own family.” you? It is indeed the cultivators who carry the burden of the King on their [Note: The world would be a happy shoulders and also provide for the place if nations with surplus food sustenance of all others.” share it with those who are short of food, with no strings attached.]

Dara’s Persian translation of the Upanishads rendered in turn to The Gita has an answer to every Latin and published in Europe about problem one may face in his/her life. It 150 years later. These were read does not command anyone what to do; by the German philosopher Arthur instead discusses pros and cons of every Schopenhauer (1788–1860), who spoke action and thought. That is the reason of the book as “the solace of my life, the why the Gita is read by millions of truth solace of my death”. seekers throughout the world. 130 Environment and spiritualism in ancient Indian agriculture

• “Even the rich who possess a lot of gold, Jaimini in his Updesa (advice) Sutras silver, jewels, and garments have to describes the shadripus (shad = six; solicit farmers as earnestly as a devotee ripu = enemies) of human beings, would pray God.” of course including farmers. These are: kama – lust; krodha – anger; • “Food is life, food is also the strength, lobha – greed; moha – attachment; food is everything. The divines, the mada – vanity/conceit; and matsarya – , and the humans all live on jealousy. Kautilya has advised kings to food.” make efforts to moderate the shadripus. • “Worshipping a guest is like worshipping the entire world. It is like worshipping Gods. Nay, the worshipper is himself • “Finding an old person, a child, a tired God Purushottama (literally the best traveler, or a venerable one at the door, a among men).” also agrees. householder should offer him worshipful • “Farms yield gold if properly managed hospitability, with gladness in the heart, but lead to poverty if neglected,” said as he would to his own teacher.” Parashara, the sage well versed in the • “The one who appears at the door at the sacred science of agriculture. proper time, even if he were an outcaste • “An agriculturist who looks after or such a one who partakes the flesh of the welfare of his cattle, visits his dog, deserves to be worshipped with farms daily, has the knowledge of the an offering of food by him who seeks seasons, is careful about the seeds, well-being beyond this world” (Bajaj and is industrious is rewarded with and Srinivas, 1996). the harvests of all kinds and never perishes.” The sage Parashara • The sage Parashara (c. 400 BC) wrote “Even a fourfold yield of crops procured a general text on field crop agriculture. at the cost of the health of the bullocks The contents are arranged in a sequence perishes soon by the sighs of their that will be followed even today for a exhaustion.” book on introductory agriculture. Some • “On the first day ofKartika (November) philosophical and spiritual thoughts are called ‘laguda-pratipat’, horns of the reproduced below from his text, Krishi- cattle should be smeared with oil and Parashara (Sadhale, 1999):

• “And only through farming one does not “Even the rich who possess a lot of become a solicitor. A person, taking to gold, silver, jewels, and garments have farming would alone be a Bhu-pati (a to solicit farmers as earnestly as a king, literally the master of the earth) in devotee would pray God.” the truest sense of the term.” Asian Agri-History Vol. 16, No. 2, 2012 131

• “[Similarly] gratification of mankind After the grain is ready for storage, and guests through feeding, etc. and a farmer should pray the Goddess timely gratification of cattle are called (goddess of wealth). bhutayajna.” • “Earth is also called Medini (=fertile) because by producing grains, etc. turmeric powder and ‘shyamalata’ and medicinal plants, and also by the should be tied to them. A cattle-worship water springing from its interior, it is should then be performed.” conducive to the life of [all kinds of] [‘Laguda’ means a stick or a staff. The beings.” cowherds hold a stick in their hand to • “The bipeds, the quadrupeds, the ward off evil while taking the bullocks oviparous as well as all other species of through the town in procession on the various types exist and sustain life on the festival day. ‘Shyamalata’ is a kind earth definitely due to the vital power, of climbing creeper (Ichnocarpus which is the quintessence of the land.” frutescens).] • “Due to the nourishment and the gift • After the grain is ready for storage, of vitality to the reptiles as well as a farmer should pray the Goddess bipeds and quadrupeds, gods are ever Lakshmi (goddess of wealth) thus: pleased, leading to truthful righteous “! O goddess, the fulfiller of all my conduct, which fructifies the fourfold wishes, capable of assuming any form aim of life. This way nature is fruitful, of thy choice, bearer of new burdens, and the Architect of this world delights. bestow wealth upon me as I give wealth Therefore, grain is the essence of life of to others and as I am a well-wisher of the earth; the function of the earth [in everyone.” sustaining the beings] is the best.” “Writing this with his own • “[Production of] grains and other hand, the farmer should keep it in the vegetation are the sole purpose for storeroom. Thus he should get the highest fulfillment of the earth. The rich maximum wealth. Then he should earth full of vegetation is the cause of worship Laxmi, the goddess of wealth growth of living beings.” in a grand manner.” • “Land is diverse, yielding fruits even in The sage different ages; it has been commended by multitudes of gods, semi-divine The sage Kashyapa wrote a text on farming beings, sages, [and] kings.” (Kashyapiyakrishisukti c. 800 AD) with considerably more information than the • “Land is intended to receive excellence texts previously written. Verses relevant in every age. This land is at times to environment and spiritual aspects are immersed in floods of water from quoted below (Ayachit, 2002). oceans.” 132 Environment and spiritualism in ancient Indian agriculture

• “A good quality land yields good results lake, well, and oblong reservoir in due to everyone, confers good health on course.” the entire family, and causes growth of money, cattle, and grain.” The sage Kashyapa – characteristics of good farmers • “The fertile land of villages, cities, and also towns has been declared as fit for Farmers should be virtuous, spiritual, free growing grain; sage Gargya [a Sanskrit from shadripus, and hospitable to guests. grammarian of Vedic times], the best Even a virtuous Sudra can be a leader in among the informers, has announced a village. Farmers should be careful in that the grain itself is the pulse of our utilizing natural environmental resources. breath.” • “Those of the villagers who are engaged • “An expert should in this way build a in agricultural pursuits should be free deep reservoir of water equipped with from hypocrisy, jealousy, etc. seeking a latch to ward off floods when it is mutual interests.” inundated.” • “They are devotees of cow, earth, • “The king should plan its construction and gods; they are absolutely truthful at such places as not to cause fear of in speech, intent on being agreeable danger from flooding. Such reservoirs to others, and always contented in should be regularly examined.” mind.” • “Trees to be planted should be pleasing • “Without any foes in the world, their to , should yield fruits, flowers, aim is [carrying out] plans of others; etc., should be cool and delicate, and beaming with tender love of all the also should allay diseases.” animal class, they are experts in ‘just’ • “Thus the thinkers have decided that thinking.” there would be no happiness without • “They are efficient in calculations, the water reservoirs. Therefore, a king clean, given to purity, devoted in taking up the vow of protection should accomplishing essential/obligatory by all means vigilantly prepare deep duties in time, and always hospitable reservoirs in villages, in countryside, to guests.” and also in woodlands.” • “They are without [any vices like] • “Even more than the ponds, lakes, drowsiness, idleness, etc., devoid of wells, etc. protection of canals should [excessive] desire, anger, etc., mutually be treated by them as their dharma” said friendly, and are always ready to help.” the sages who know the truth. • “The king, after having worshiped , the presiding deity of water, the “Land is intended to receive excellence goddess Earth, and the sylvan deity, and in every age.” having given an offering should fix the Asian Agri-History Vol. 16, No. 2, 2012 133

• “Men should exert and devote “Trees to be planted should be pleasing themselves to farming whether they to the birds, should yield fruits, flowers, get farmlands from a king or purchase etc., should be cool and delicate, and one for them.” also should allay diseases.” • “They are said to please gods and sages. Of all wealth, agriculture is the highest wealth.” • “Such persons are said to be excellent, of holy appearance, and are real protectors • “Giving delight in several ways, of water reservoirs, canals, etc.” the profession of farming is indeed praiseworthy. Any other livelihood • “They are intent on protection of cows, involves dependence.” enjoy king’s trust, are happy with children, grandchildren, etc. and are amicably • “The natural inclination of people disposed to father-in-law, brethren, etc.” towards agriculture pleases gods and must be nurtured with special effort as • “In this world, however, agricultural it sustains life of all beings.” expediencies are seen sometimes among the Sudras (persons belonging to the • “After having worshiped the goddesses lowest caste) also. Such a Sudra should of grains, earth, wealth, speech, Gauri be rich in good qualities and devoted to (name of , Lord ’s wife), Brahmins.” (Lord of Gods), Varuna (Lord of Waters), and Kubera (Lord of Money), • “He should be a believer in the science, they should go to their respective fields, respectful, servile towards the saintly, along with the bullocks.” intelligent, knowing the measures of [appropriate] time, beneficent and a The sage Kashyapa – worship of lover of beneficence.” material resources • “Sages with divine insight eulogize • “Worship of the field or land with pure agricultural business as the basis of sacrifice water, sandal paste, etc., incense light and as life-giver of living beings.” offering, etc. yields [good] results.” • [One should pray to the goddess thus] “Those of the villagers who are “O goddess Earth! I bow to you! O all- engaged in agricultural pursuits should enduring Earth, now I start agricultural be free from hypocrisy, jealousy, etc. [operations]. O [goddess of] good seeking mutual interests. They are resolutions, be pleased [with us]. Whatever devotees of cow, earth, and gods; they are absolutely truthful in speech, intent on being agreeable to others, and “Of all wealth, agriculture is the always contented in mind.” highest wealth.” 134 Environment and spiritualism in ancient Indian agriculture

of the , in accordance with “Giving delight in several ways, regional customs, and using devices the profession of farming is indeed [learned] out of their own experience praiseworthy. Any other livelihood should deposit the yield of the involves dependence.” farmland in their houses on auspicious time and moment.” • “They should then worship goddess plowing, beating, that I [shall] do with Lakshmi in the form of grain and you, O goddess, please excuse me, [and] money, with scents and flowers as also make me [lord of] great success. They say with pure articles laid down in the you are the mother of all living beings; science [scriptures]. They should then therefore, O goddess Earth, give [us] feed the Brahmins and give them gifts immeasurable yields on this field.” in a liberal manner.” • “Thus praising and praying, the farmer • “They are then blessed with success, should circumambulate [his farmland] with salutations, Goddess Earth, darling happiness, excellent prosperity on this of Lord .” earth, and divine favor, living happily with their children, wife, grandchildren, • “Praising the quarter-deities and and family [members].” protectors, as also the life-giving Sun, he should make a good start of plowing Surapala’s Vrikshayurveda the field.” Surapala, a physician (c. 1000 AD), wrote • “Thus praying, and worshiping the Vrikshayurveda (Vriksha = plants of all bullocks, one should see to it that they kinds; = the science of life), a are not made to work until they are text on arbori-horticulture and made some weary or completely exhausted.” relevant statements through verses (Sadhale, • “Brahmins, , Vaisyas, 1996). These are: Sudras, the miscellaneous castes, and others, who are engaged in • “What is the use of several trees grown agricultural operations as per advice in the forest, or sons who do not serve the purpose of dharma or artha? Instead, a single tree by the wayside is far better “Thus praising and praying, the farmer where under people can rest.” should circumambulate [his farmland] with salutations, Goddess Earth, darling of Lord Vishnu. Praising the “Ten wells are equal to one pond. Ten quarter-deities and protectors, as also ponds are equal to one lake. Ten lakes the life-giving Sun, he should make a are equal to one son. Ten sons are good start of plowing the field.” equal to one tree.” Asian Agri-History Vol. 16, No. 2, 2012 135

• “Planting five trees is far better than (giving birth to) ten sons (as the former) “Knowing this truth one should offer libations to the father (planter) undertake planting of trees since trees with leaves, flowers, and fruits.” yield the means of attaining dharma (virtuousness), artha (earning wealth), • “Ten wells are equal to one pond. Ten kama (procreation), and moksha ponds are equal to one lake. Ten lakes (liberation from earthly world and the are equal to one son. Ten sons are equal concomitant suffering involved in being to one tree.” subject to the cycle of repeated death and • “And if one plants a pleasure garden reincarnation) – the four aims of life.” abounding in boundless fruits (yielding many rewards), (then) gods, wise men, nymphs, (name of a himself should sow some seeds. The broad class of nature-spirits, usually servants should then follow him.” benevolent, who are caretakers of the • “After sowing, the seeds should be natural treasures hidden in the earth and covered with grass and sprinkled with tree roots, etc.) reside there for three water mixed with milk. Water should ages.” be sprinkled after they sprout. Grass • “Knowing this truth one should should be removed and the soil should undertake planting of trees since trees be allowed to dry.” yield the means of attaining dharma (virtuousness), artha (earning wealth), Wildlife protection kama (procreation), and moksha In general the hunting of animals was done (liberation from earthly world and the for food. By the time Buddhism and Jainism concomitant suffering involved in being spread in India, animal killing was almost subject to the cycle of repeated death and stopped. However, later the kings and noble reincarnation) – the four aims of life.” Kshatriyas started hunting as a game. Even • “Devas [Gods], demons [evil spirits], amongst the kings, there were many who [celestial singers], ghosts, would not indulge in game-hunting. The snakes, [evil humanoids], 13th century Sanskrit text, Mriga.pakshi. beasts, birds, and human beings , briefly narrates a king’s experience always take resort to the trees” (see as follows: box on p. 136). “Once overpowered with a longing for • “The owner of the farm should wear hunting, King Shaudadeva, accompanied by clean clothes after bath, worship God, attendants equipped with tools like snares, offer salutations to his preceptors, nooses, swords, lances, etc., and also by offer wealth or land to the worthy, brave warriors mounted on elephants and offer salutations to the vastu deity horses, repeatedly causing scare in the (superintending deity) and then (he) minds of the wild animals by the twang 136 Environment and spiritualism in ancient Indian agriculture

Devas and rakshasas Gandharvas, a name used for distinct mythological beings in and Buddhism, is also a term for skilled singers in Indian classical music. Rakshasas are goblins or evil spirits. They are not all equally bad, but have been classified as of three sorts – one as a set of beings like the Yakshas, another as a sort of Titans or enemies of the gods, and lastly, in the common acceptation of the term, demons and fiends who haunt cemeteries, disturb sacrifices, harass devout men, animate dead bodies, devour human beings, and vex and afflict mankind in all sorts of ways.

The devas (in Hinduism and Buddhism) are exalted beings of various types. The term in Sanskrit means “shining one”. Hinduism recognizes three types of devas: mortals living on a higher realm than other mortals, enlightened people who have realized God, and Brahman in the form of a personal God. Pitrs (immediate ancestors), and manushyas (men), as also the reptiles and rakshasas (demons), and birds, and animals, all of them, live on what the cultivators provide. There seems to be a cooperative partnership between devas and human beings which has attracted attention in this time of increasing ecological consciousness. This partnership was discovered in the produce of Findhorn (a charitable foundation) in Scotland and Perelandra in Washington, DC. It seems that devas are the “architects” of nature. A deva is assigned to every living thing, even the soil. They are the blueprint designers for all living things, and control all necessary energies for growth and health. At the two above mentioned facilities, it is said devas dispense information on planting, fertilizing, watering, and general plant care (Source: http://www.themystica.com/mystica/articles/d/devas.html).

of his bow entered the area of dense forest company of their cows, while still others wherein the sunrays were obstructed by ready for water-sports. At another place the shade of various trees and which was there were peacefully grazing dear and (therefore) an ideal habitat for all types of sweetly muttering parrots. There were animals. Equipped with bow and arrows as swans and ducks and there also were other also with a sword, the king himself, riding fat birds sitting in their nests.” a horse hunted for the hidden animals resorting to skilful, heroic tactics. There he “Seeing this, the king’s eyes were filled saw somewhere, lions lying in the mountain with tears of great joy. He thought: What dens driving away deer with a single roar a wonderful creation of God! Even the and elsewhere tigers emerging out. There dwellers of heaven cannot imagine this, were hyenas, bears, and wild buffaloes leave alone the mortals! How cruel of me! too. There were elephants resembling How possibly could I desire to kill these dark clouds, some in groups and others in living beings? Granted that the inherent Asian Agri-History Vol. 16, No. 2, 2012 137 traits of the martial race (Kshatriyas) in Indian sacred groves are sometimes me have created this urge (for hunting) associated with temples/monasteries/shrines in me; shouldn’t I think of the welfare or with burial grounds. Historical references and prosperity of the nation? If these to sacred groves can be obtained from animals are continuously killed, hit, and ancient as far back as ’s struck with arrows from bows, snares and (420–353 AD) Vikramuurvashiiya (Kalidas nooses, swords and other weapons there Academy, Ujjain, India). will be, in course of time, a total extinction of the species. Where can one get to see Around 14,000 sacred groves have been them again? It is my considered opinion reported from all over India, which act as therefore, that it is not proper to kill them. reservoirs of rare fauna, and more often rare In fact saving each and every individual of flora, amid rural and even urban settings. One these species will be a pious deed conducive of the most important traditional uses of a to welfare and gratification of the soul.” sacred grove was that it acted as a repository for various Ayurvedic medicines. Other uses As a follow-up, the king asked a forest- involved a source of replenishable resources dwelling poet in the kingdom to record in like fruits and honey. However, in most detail all kinds of wild animals and birds that sacred groves it was taboo to hunt or chop are seen in his kingdom, which possibly was wood. The vegetation cover helps reduce in Gujarat state of India. That compilation soil erosion and prevents desertification. resulted in the book “Mriga.pakshi.shastra” The groves are often associated with ponds (Sadhale and Nene, 2008). and streams, and meet water requirements of local communities. They sometimes help Sacred groves in recharging aquifers as well (Malhotra et al., 2007). Sacred groves of India are communally protected forest fragments of varying sizes, In modern times, sacred groves have which usually have a significant religious become biodiversity hotspots, as various connotation for the protecting community. species seek refuge in these areas due Sacred groves did not enjoy protection via to progressive habitat destruction and federal legislation in India. Some NGOs hunting. Sacred groves, therefore, harbor work with local villagers to protect such great genetic diversity. Besides this, sacred groves. Traditionally, and in some cases groves in urban landscapes act as “lungs” even today, members of the community to the city as well, providing much needed take turns to protect the grove. However, the vegetation cover. introduction of the Protected Area Category Community Reserves under the Wildlife Trees and the Bishnoi (Protection) Amendment Act of 2002 has introduced legislation for providing community government protection to community held Bishnoi community was founded by lands, which include sacred groves. a Rajput of Bikaner (Rajasthan), who 138 Environment and spiritualism in ancient Indian agriculture was born in 1541 AD, and was buried in Samrithal in Bikaner. His spiritual name was Around 14,000 sacred groves have been Jambhaji. He left his followers a scripture reported from all over India, which act in the Nagri character called Subdhani. The as reservoirs of rare fauna, and more adherents of the sect are the descendants of often rare flora, amid rural and even immigrants from Bikaner. They marry only urban settings. among themselves, are good cultivators, and keep camels in large numbers. They have a ceremony of initiations, somewhat similar the king’s men. The malevolent feudal and known by the name as that of . party told her that if she wanted the trees to be spared, she would have to give them Bishnois are strong lovers of wild animals. It is because of their protection that in money as bribe. She refused to acknowledge Bishnoi-dominated areas, deer and antelope this demand and told them that she would such as blue bulls, black bucks, chinkaras consider it as an act of insult to her religious (Gazella bennettii), and chowsinghas faith and would rather give away her life to (Tetracerus quadricornis) are seen grazing save the green trees. This is still remembered in their fields despite the fact that the state as the great Khejarli sacrifice. Some 363 of Rajasthan where the Bishnois mainly live Bishnois who were killed protecting the trees faces severe water shortages. were buried in Khejarli village near Jodhpur, The Bishnois narrate the story of Amrita where a simple grave with four pillars had , a Bishnoi woman who, along with been erected. Every year, in September, the more than 366 other Bishnois, died saving the Bishnois assemble there to commemorate khejarli (Prosopis cineraria) trees. In 1730 the extreme sacrifice made by their people AD, Maharajah Abhay Singh of Jodhpur to preserve their faith and religion (Bishnoi required some wood for the construction of and Bishnoi, 2000). his new palace. So the king sent his soldiers to cut trees in the nearby region of Khejarli, where the village is filled with large number Bishnois are strong lovers of wild of trees. But when Amrita Devi and local animals. It is because of their villagers came to know about it, they opposed protection that in Bishnoi-dominated areas, deer and antelope such as blue bulls, black bucks, chinkaras “If these animals are continuously (Gazella bennettii), and chowsinghas killed, hit, and struck with arrows from (Tetracerus quadricornis) are seen bows, snares and nooses, swords and grazing in their fields despite the fact other weapons there will be, in course that the state of Rajasthan where the of time, a total extinction of the species. Bishnois mainly live faces severe water Where can one get to see them again?” shortages. Asian Agri-History Vol. 16, No. 2, 2012 139

Recycling generation to another emphasized that people including farmers can instill in them Movement of recycling of matter and a genuine respect for environment, both energy are observed in everyday life. animate and inanimate entities. People were Everything is recycled in India, down to advised to live in harmony with all natural the minutest objects; even new materials forces, and also not excessively disturb the developed by modern technology are balance between natural forces. In other recycled. A guest or visitor is God himself words, overexploitation of natural resources and is to be honored and fed, his requests are to be granted, and from him blessings should be avoided. are expected in return; a sort of recycling of Training to be a pious person starts intellectual and spiritual power (Vannucci, in the family and should continue in 1994). The Vedic truth is to be understood schools and colleges. Emphasizing also as knowledge, “which is a gift of moderation of shadripus (lust, anger, God to all men.” Knowledge in the Vedic greed, attachment, vanity/conceit, sense has much in common with what jealousy) in personality development we now call science, hence truth in the in every society should go a long way Vedic meaning of the word is science as in building a happy mankind. The task was practiced and expounded at the time is extremely difficult because today when basic instruments of the study were most of the urban world has come to the sense organs, which includes the mind. regard ‘money’ as ‘God’. This drives All intellectual thinking was considered them to overexploit natural resources spiritual. to get more money. If we do not reverse To this day the life of many Indians is the trend, I believe the environmental a real symbiosis with their cattle; these forces will reeducate humans, through practices are ecologically wise in that harsh lessons, to live in harmony with they provide full recycling of organic nature. matter and avoid waste. Nature is to be Whether we like it or not, food habits will treated parsimoniously. Through recycling have to change. Foods which are efficiently wastes on the farm, discarded animal flesh produced will have to dominate the diets of and bones, left over portions of wet or dry cattle dung and urine, milk unfit for both the rich and the poor. Wastage of food, consumption, and such other items were utilized to make a liquid ferment that was excellent liquid manure called kunapajala People were advised to live in harmony (Sadhale, 1996). with all natural forces, and also not excessively disturb the balance between natural forces. In other words, Concluding remarks overexploitation of natural resources Throughout the past millennia, literature should be avoided. written and verbally transferred from one 140 Environment and spiritualism in ancient Indian agriculture

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