The African Symposium: An online journal of the African Educational Research Network
THE AFRICAN SYMPOSIUM: AN ONLINE JOURNAL OF AFRICAN EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH NETWORK
(ISSN 2326-8077) Volume 15, No. 3, July 2016
This issue, with twelve articles and two papers presented at the proceedings of 2016 Annual AERN Summit at Ohio University, is the last one from me as Managing Editor of The African Symposium. After eleven years (2005-2016) and more than three hundred published articles under my watch, the Managing Editorship as well as the Secretariat of AERN moved to Ohio University in 2016 summer. Volume 16, No. 2, December 2016 will be rolled out by Dr. Jean Francois Emmanuel ([email protected]) with the usual assistance of our indefatigable and reliable Technical Editor, Dr. Craig Kwesi Brookins of North Carolina State University. I am grateful and humbled by the cooperation and assistance I received from the authorities and membership of AERN over the years and I am optimistic that the same treatment will be extended to my successor.
The twelve articles in this issue deal with varied and various educational, social, and economic issues impacting human conditions around the world. In addition, the keynote address delivered by Professor Biodun Adediran from Obafemi Awolowo University, Nigeria at the 2016 AERN Summit at Ohio University is included in this issue as well as two presented papers at the summit: Adeosun, O. & Okafor, R. (2016) and Oyelekan, O.S. (2016).
Ayodeji Muideen BADMUS, Mudasiru Olalere YUSUF, and Omotayo Olabo OBIELODAN evaluated a developed interactive web-based lesson (WebQuest) for teaching and learning in Nigerian higher institutions. The study was a development and evaluation type. The sample of the study comprised 15 educational technology experts and forty-seven 200 level undergraduate students. The findings of the study showed that developed WebQuest met up with the standard required when evaluated by experts using rubric evaluation model. The authors recommended that higher institution instructors should endeavor to develop and utilize WebQuest as an instructional strategy, among other uses of the model. Michael Abiodun OYINLOYE explored various strategies used by the Lagos museum’s workers to reach out to different age grades in Nigeria through collaborative support from private and corporate bodies in order to sustain laudable events in the museum. The paper recommended that various forms of marketing strategies used in the Lagos museum be used by other national museums in the country in order to sustain, maintain, and realize the socio-cultural and educational benefits of museums in the community.
Olanshile Muideen ADEYANJU critically assessed some modern day practices and effects they have on the African mentality. The study also analyzed the place of African traditional beliefs and practices in modern day setting. The paper concluded that there might be no need for a total return to ‘African roots’, but to merge relevant parts of African traditional beliefs with those that are imported by foreign cultural practices and religious beliefs in tackling modern day African challenges. Olarotimi Daniel OGUNGBEMI’s study was a syntactic appreciation of J.P. Clark’s Ozidi with a view to showing how syntactic devices could contribute to meaning clarifications in the text. The study found that syntactic features such as declarative mood, interrogative mood, imperative mood, and complex sentences were deployed strategically to achieve meanings and convey the intentions of the playwright. The writer concluded that, to a very large extent, the meaning of the text depended on identified features. The features conveyed series of information, and it was evident that the feelings of the playwright were fused into the messages that were both informative and didactic in the text.
The research reported in Adeyemi ADEROGBA’s paper examined the press coverage of the crisis engendered by Nigeria’s Federal Government’s attempt to remove fuel subsidy in the country. Four Nigerian newspapers were content-analyzed. It was discovered that most of the stories published in the newspapers were against the removal of petrol subsidy. In spite of the advantages of deregulation in petroleum industry, the author contended that government should first consider people’s interest in its policy formulation and implementation. Olusegun Ayodele ADELODUN and Ayobami Seyi OLAYINKA employed descriptive survey design to determine the frequency of those who registered for further mathematics in secondary school related to the number currently studying mathematics related-courses in the university with a view to inculcating positive attitude into the students about the study of further mathematics. The findings revealed that there is a relationship in the performance of students studying mathematics related-courses in university education and further mathematics.
1 Volume 15, No. 3, July 2016 The African Symposium (ISSN# 2326-8077)
The African Symposium: An online journal of the African Educational Research Network
Thomas Ayinla OGUNMODEDE and Evelyn Nkechi EMEAHARA examined the influence of demographic variables on the use of road safety information by commercial motorcycle riders in Oyo State, Nigeria. The study found positive correlation between demographic variables (location, age, gender, level of education, marital status, income) and occurrence of accidents on information utilization. The authors recommended that adult literacy classes be established by the Nigerian government so as to bridge the gap in the level of education among the commercial motorcycle riders, because 62.8% of them were in the age bracket of 20-30 years. Yemisi Lydia OLALEYE used survey design and purposive sampling technique to examine the influence of community social work field placement on opportunity to tackle inequalities among rural dwellers in Nigeria. There was significant influence of involving community social work field placement in opportunity to tackle social inequalities among rural dwellers. The study therefore recommended that community social workers on field placement should be engaged in mobilizing and sensitizing members of the community in participating in community work.
Solomon Adekunle ODEDOKUN investigated the influence of some predicting factors - school climate, academic self-efficacy and peer bullying/ victimization - on school connectedness among public secondary school students in Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria. Three research questions were answered in the study. The data obtained were analyzed using multiple regression statistical method. There was significant relationship between the three independent variables (school climate, academic self-efficacy and peer bullying/ victimization) on the student connectedness. Also, the independent variables significantly contributed to the prediction of school connectedness among the participants. On the strength of the findings, the researcher proposed the need to enhance the school climate, fostering academic self-efficacy training and unrelenting campaign against bullying/victimization in Nigerian schools. Olagoke Ayorinde AYENI and Wasiu Olasunkanmi ADENIYI attempted to ascertain the pattern of academic adjustment of university undergraduates as well as the influence of students’ self-concept on it. Collected data were analyzed using percentage and Chi-Square statistical methods. Results showed that 48.4% of the university undergraduates had good pattern of academic adjustment. The research also showed that positive self-concept with 55.2% was the prevalent self-concept among the undergraduates. Finally, self-concept had a significant influence on students’ academic adjustment (56. 300 at p < 0. 05). It was concluded that the level of self-concept of a student played a great part in determining the adjustment pattern of such student.
Ganiu Abisoye BAMGBOSE employed van Dijk’s approach to CDA and Jacob Mey’s Pragmatic Act, to investigate how the musician Saheed Osupa depicted his superiority and domination to his all-time musician rival, Wasiu Alabi Pasuma, in terms of artistic craftsmanship and material possessions. The study explored how language of Fuji musicians was always ideologically impregnated. Olayemi Jumoke ABIODUN-OYEBANJI and Oluwatosin Adijat SANNI sought to establish the relationship between the work-life balance options and teachers’ job satisfaction in Lagos State secondary schools, Nigeria. Data were collected from 742 secondary schools teachers in Lagos State, Nigeria using an instrument tagged, Work-life Balance and Teachers’ Job Satisfaction Questionnaire (WLBATJSQ). The developed items of WLBATJSQ yielded reliability co-efficient of 0.883, using Crombach alpha method of testing reliability. Data analysis was done using Statistical Packages for Social Sciences (SPSS) based on Pearson Product Moment Correlation (PPMC) and Regression analysis. The study showed significant joint and relative contribution of work-life balance options to teachers’ job satisfaction. Significant relationship between work-life balance and teachers’ job satisfaction was also established in the study.
As usual, I sincerely give thanks to our numerous reviewers, who over the years have assisted the journal to publish quality research papers from around the world.
Author
David A. ADEWUYI Managing Editor, The African Symposium Dean, School of Education, Psychology and Interdisciplinary Studies Virginia Union University Richmond, Virginia 23220
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The African Symposium: An online journal of the African Educational Research Network
EVALUATION OF A DEVELOPED INTERACTIVE WEB-BASED LESSON FOR INSTRUCTIONAL DELIVERY IN NIGERIAN HIGHER INSTITUTIONS
Ayodeji Muideen Badmus Emmanuel Alayande College of Education
Mudasiru Olalere Yusuf Omotayo Olabo Obielodan University of Ilorin
Abstract
This study evaluated a developed interactive web-based lesson (WebQuest) for teaching and learning in Nigerian higher institution. The research was a development and evaluation type. The development involved WebQuest design components, using ADDIE model. The sample of the study comprised 15 educational technology experts and forty-seven 200 level undergraduate students. The rubric evaluation model and WebQuest content evaluation questionnaire (WCEQ) were used as instruments. The instruments were validated by educational technology experts and tried-out on 42 students. The findings of the study showed that developed WebQuest met up with the standard required when evaluated by experts using rubric evaluation model as it was rated 86.0%; the content of the developed WebQuest covers the required educational technology concepts when evaluated by experts and was rated 79.0%; and the experts revealed that the task contained in the developed WebQuest conforms to the standard questions for the concepts and were sequentially arranged and rated 76.7%. The implication was that developed WebQuest is good as instructional strategy and suitable for effective teaching and learning in Nigerian higher institution. It was recommended that higher institution lecturers should endeavour to develop and utilize WebQuest as an instructional strategy, and government and policy makers in education should introduce the use of web-based instructional tools like WebQuest into teacher education curriculum in the tertiary institutions so that the use of Web-based lesson can become the norm in instructional technique.
Keywords: WebQuest, Interactive Web-Based Lesson, Educational Technology, Rubric Evaluation Model, Higher Institutions
Introduction
Technology is an increasingly influential factor in education. It allows new types of teaching and learning experiences to flourish and provides new ways to engage students (Joseph, 2002; Venzon, 2011). Brandsford, Brown, and Cocking (1999) proposed that many new technologies are interactive, making it now easier to create environments in which students can learn by doing, receiving feedback, and continually refine their understanding and build new knowledge. Students in technology integrated environments find themselves immersed in learning activities that require computer use which in turn individualizes the educational process to accommodate the needs, interests, proclivities, current knowledge, and learning styles of students (Schacter & Fagnano, 1999).
The use of the web as an instructional tool has provided teachers with a wide range of new and exciting teaching experiences that are not possible in traditional classroom, such as accessing information at any time and place, online presentation of information, interactive task-based activities, effective dissemination of information, and long distance education (Nam & Smith-Jackson, 2007; & Hadjerrouit, 2010). Besides web-based learning are potentially powerful tools for enhancing learning experiences and improving the learning outcomes (Hadjerrouit, 2010). This century has been described as an era where every conceivable activity has gone virtual and electronic (Jenson, Lewis, Smoth, & Fraser, 2002). In fact, there is growing evidence that ICT is permeating into every facet of education and therefore, the existence of ICT not only has revolutionalized how knowledge can be imparted, but also has changed how learning environment and situation can be outlined, and in the process, the roles of students and teachers alike can take new shapes and turns (Hafizoah & Zuraina, 2007).
The impact of ICT on learning is currently discussed almost entirely in relation to the use of digital media and the Internet (Thorpe, 2010). Educators see the internet as a medium for locating and retrieving data and reference materials, researching information, displaying projects, delivering in-
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service programmes, posting news, participating in continuing education and talking with colleagues (Ekoko & Ekoko, 2004). The Internet has become an indispensable tool in the twenty first century (Ibrahim, John & Michael, 2006). Educators nowadays and education in general, are highly challenged to adapt the continually increasing technological advances in the learning process in order to ensure the quality of the learning outcomes (Cox, 2008).
The influx of ICT gadgets in education must have necessitated the review of the definition of educational technology by the Association of Education and Communication Technology (AECT). Thus, educational technology is referred to as the study and ethical practice of facilitating learning and improving performance by creating, using and managing appropriate technological processes and resources (Richey, 2008: 24). According to Januszewski and Molanda (2008), the focus of educational technologists now is on designing, developing, utilizing and managing appropriate technological processes and resources. Etim (2006) explained some of the benefits of educational technology utilizing ICT to education as easy-to-access course materials, student motivation, wide participation, and subjects made easier to learn.
Instructional Values of WebQuest Application for Effective Teaching-Learning Process
A Web-based lesson is simply a lesson that incorporates a web site or many web sites. A Web- based lesson can be conducted entirely online or it can be a traditional classroom lesson with an online component. A web site can be used in education for a variety of purposes these include research, reading, writing, publishing, communication and collaboration with teachers and learners around the world (Mendoza, 2006). Aremu and Morakinyo (2008) asserted that the main Web-Based lessons are Cyber Guide, Filamentality and WebQuests.
A WebQuest is an inquiry-oriented activity in which some or all of the information that learners interact with comes from resources on the internet, optionally supplemented with videoconferencing (Cheng-Yee, 2009; Kathy, 2009). It is a classroom-based lesson in which most or all of the information that students explore and evaluate comes from the World Wide Web (Dodge, 2004). WebQuest is an activity of guided inquiry in which learner are given a task, which requires internet access to complete Dodge (2004). This inquiry-based approach to learning makes excellent use of internet-based resources by involving students in a wide range of activities (Vidoni, & Maddux, 2002).
WebQuests can be designed as a short and longer term activity. A short term WebQuest is designed to be completed in one to three class periods while longer term WebQuest will typically take between one week and a month in a classroom setting (Dodge, 1997).To achieve that efficiency and clarity of purpose, WebQuests according to Dodge (1997) should contain at least the following parts; these are introduction, task, process, resources and evaluation.
WebQuests are designed to use learners’ time well, so that they can focus on using information rather than looking for it and to support learners’ thinking at the levels of analyses, synthesis and evaluation. WebQuests are appealing because they provide structure and guidance both for students and teachers. WebQuests promote student-centred learning environment and its model has been effectively applied to all levels of education, from elementary to post graduate study (Eugene, 2004). A well develop WebQuest requires that students go beyond fact-finding. It asks them to analyze a variety of resources and use their creativity and critical-thinking skills to derive solution to a problem. The problem is often ‘real-world’ that is, one that needs genuine and reasonable solution. This makes students usually become so busy with the task at hand that they have no time for discriminate web surfing (Aremu & Morakinyo, 2008).
Vidoni, and Maddux (2002) explained that WebQuest makes students access the web to complete a task or solve a problem, elicit higher-order thinking rather than simple information searching and recall. The tasks that are involve problem solving, judgment, synthesis, and analysis of information (Kathy, 2009). Some studies have revealed the benefits of using WebQuest in theoretical terms. March (1998) grouped WebQuests constructs under three headings which are student motivation and authenticity, developing thinking skills, and cooperative learning. On the other hand, Zheng, Stucky, McAlck, Menchana, and Stoddart (2005) in their research concluded that WebQuests have four constructs which are critical thinking, knowledge application, social skills, and scaffolded learning. Tsai (2006) investigated the impacts of using the WebQuest model in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) program. In his study, the students who completed the WebQuest activities were rated higher on measures of vocabulary performance and story reading performance.
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It is important that the school experiences integration of new technologies like WebQuest that have great potential to supplement traditional learning and can provide new opportunities to explore high-level cognitive activities such as autonomy, creativity, problem solving and team work while providing teachers with the means to take into account individual needs of students, especially while using web-based technology.
Statement of the Problem
The fact that Web-based instructional strategies such as WebQuest enhances a more student- centred learning approach is often cited as among its most important benefits (Balanskat, Blamire & Kefalla, 2007). The use of it in Nigerian higher institution is yet to be known. Therefore, this study evaluated a developed WebQuest application on educational technology concepts for teaching and learning in Nigerian higher institution.
Purpose of the Study
This study was designed to evaluate a developed interactive Web-based lesson (WebQuest) on educational technology concepts (WebETC) to assist in empowering students to develop abilities to solve problems and also get involved in both self-learning and cooperative learning. Specifically, the study:
1. evaluated the developed WebQuest with WebQuest rubrics (WebQuest evaluation model designed by Dodge in 1995) by educational technology experts and students. 2. evaluated the content contained in the developed WebQuest by educational technology experts. 3. evaluated the task contained in the developed WebQuest by educational technology experts.
Research Questions
The research questions which were answered in this study are: 1. Does the developed WebQuest meet up with the standard required when evaluated with rubrics evaluation model designed purposely for WebQuest development? 2. Does the subject matter content of the WebQuest cover the required educational technology concepts? 3. Does the task given in the developed WebQuest conform to the standard questions for the concepts and are they sequentially arranged?
METHODOLOGY
Research Design
The research is development and evaluation research type. The study used this research type to carry out the development and evaluation of a WebQuest Web-based lesson for teaching and learning of students in Nigerian higher institutions. The development involved WebQuest design components, using ADDIE model. Figure 1 shows the internet-based lesson of a developed WebQuest.
Figure 1: WebQuest Homepage on Educational Technology Concepts
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The African Symposium: An online journal of the African Educational Research Network
Population and Sample
The population for this study comprised all higher institution students in Nigeria. However, educational technology experts from University of Ilorin, Obafemi Awolowo University, National Open University, Ekiti State University and Federal University of Technology, Minna were selected as sample, using purposive non-probability sampling techniques. Fifteen educational technology experts participated (two Professors, nine Ph.D. holders and four M.Ed. holders). Five experts from Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, five from University of Ilorin, one from Ekiti State University (formerly known as University of Ado-Ekiti), one from National Open University of Nigeria (NOUN) and three from Federal University of Technology, Minna. 47 of the 200 level education undergraduate students from University of Ilorin participated as students’ evaluation.
The two concepts in educational technology selected (Communication process and Instructional system design) for the development of WebQuest were chosen based on the fact that they are global concepts and all the pieces of information required for the students to study the concepts are available and accessible on the Internet.
Research Instruments
The following instruments were used for this study:
1. Rubric for evaluating WebQuest Software adapted from Dodge (1995). This instrument was used to evaluate the developed WebQuest by the educational technology experts and students to determine its standard as an instructional package. The change made to rubric developed by Dodge (1995) was only on remarks. Dodge remarks the rubric from beginning, developing to accomplished, while the rubric used for this study was remarked from poor, fair to good. This change was made just because of the familiarity of teachers and students in Nigeria institutions to poor, fair and good in remark to grades. The rubric contained two sections (A and B). Section A of the rubric comprised information on respondent’s demography while section B contained five areas for which WebQuest software was evaluated. This was rated from 0 to 50 points. 2. WebQuest content evaluation questionnaire (WCEQ) adapted from Oyelekan (2009). This questionnaire contained items that were used to evaluate the content contained in the developed WebQuest. WCEQ is a modified form of Oyelekan (2009) “Subject Content Validation Questionnaire” which consisted of 8 items. The questionnaire for this study also consisted of 8 items. Item 1, 2, 3, and 4 were used to evaluate course content of the developed WebQuest while item 5, 6, 7 and 8 used to evaluate the tasks given in the WebETC. Furthermore, the questionnaire contained two sections (A and B). Section A consisted of information on respondent’s demography whilst section B comprised items rated from 1 to 5 points (i.e. from poor to excellent).
Validation and Reliability of the Research Instruments
The developed WebETC was validated by the researcher’s supervisor, three experts (two educational technology experts and one ICT software developer). This was done to determine the appropriateness of the WebQuest. The experts’ comments and suggestions were used to correct some errors while their commendations were appreciated. Forty-two students participated for field try out and usability testing of the developed WebQuest. The students selected fall between the population of the study but did not take part in the actual study. Rubric evaluation format was given to the students and this was retrieved immediately after they had responded to it. 84.6% score was obtained and this showed that the developed WebQuest was suitable for the learning of educational technology concepts. Their corrections and comments helped in the final phase of the development.
Procedure for Data Collection
The procedure covered two weeks for experts’ evaluation because the experts in these universities requested for enough time for the evaluation and also requested for a CD copy of the developed WebQuest. This made the researcher to take another step to download all the URL links in
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The African Symposium: An online journal of the African Educational Research Network
the WebQuest and made the application to autorun for evaluators to have easy access to all information without being connected to the Internet. Thus, the developed WebQuest could be accessed online (over the Internet) or offline. Two weeks was also used for students’ evaluation where they were exposed to developed WebQuest in the first week and the software was copied and downloaded for their own personal copy, then students were given rubric (WebQuest evaluation model) for the WebQuest evaluation. Second week was used to collect data distributed. In all four weeks was used for this procedure.
Results
The process of evaluation of the WebQuest software was done in three ways, these include WebQuest Software Development, Content and Tasks contained in the developed WebQuest. To make a conclusion about the standard and evaluation level of experts and students in the developed WebQuest, the interpretation of the result was based on the popular grading scale used in the Nigerian universities. Below 40% = Fail, 41% - 49% = Pass, 50% - 59% = Good, 60% - 69% = Very Good, 70% - 100% = Excellent.
The analysis in Table 1 was used to answer the formulated research questions:
Research Question 1: Does the developed WebETC meet up with the standard required when evaluated with rubric designed for WebQuest evaluation purpose?
Table 1: Summary of Analysis of WebQuest Software Evaluation Evaluation No. of Evaluation Average Average Items Respondents Score Score Percentage of Obtained Score Obtained WebQuest Experts 15 50 40.6 81.2 Software Development Students 47 50 42.8 85.6
WebETC 15 20 15.8 79.0 Content
WebETC 15 15 11.5 76.7 Task
In answering research question 1, Table 1 showed that the average score and percentage of the respondents who were given the WebQuest package to examine and assess using the rubric evaluation model for WebQuest software out of 50 points experts points was 40.6 and students’ points was also 42.8, the percentage of the two scores were 81.2 and 85.6% respectively. The result of the WebETC software evaluation was favourable and satisfactory. The implication of the result was that the respondents agreed that the developed WebQuest software on Educational Technology Concepts met up with the standard required when evaluated with rubric.
Research Question 2: Does the subject matter content of the WebQuest cover the required educational technology concepts?
The respondents (Educational Technology experts) were given the WebQuest software package to go through and evaluate the content contained in the developed WebQuest using WCEQ. From the analysis in Table 1, the respondents’ average score out of 20 was 15.8, this translated to 79.0%. The result simply implied that the contents contained in the developed WebQuest which they were given to assess cover the required educational technology concepts. This answered research question 2. Research Question 3: Does the task given in the developed WebQuest conform to the standard questions for the concepts and are they sequentially arranged?
From the analysis of the respondents in item 3 of Table 1, it was shown in the table that after the respondents had assessed and evaluated the questions contained in the task of the developed WebQuest using WCEQ, they scored the task to be standard and sequentially arranged. This was because the respondents’ average score out of 15 points was 11.5 while average percentage of the score was 76.7%. This answered research question 3.
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The African Symposium: An online journal of the African Educational Research Network
Discussion of the Study
The result obtained on from evaluation’s analysis of the package showed that developed WebQuest was scored favourably and meet up with the standard in line with WebQuest development and curriculum operating in Nigerian university education as adjudged by the experts. This is in line with Mudiwa (2003) developed WebQuest for middle school social studies and shwu (2005) in English as a foreign language reading instruction. The students’ evaluation was to ensure that developed WebQuest considered various learners’ characteristics. The students’ responses showed that the developed WebQuest is good and suitable for teaching and learning in Nigerian higher institutions. The result also revealed that subject matter content contained in developed WebQuest cover the required educational technology concepts (communication process and instructional system design). The evaluators confirmed that the content contained in the WebQuest was understandable for the level of students it was being developed for and the various sub-headings in the WebQuest were well explained for students to understand the concepts. The task given in the developed WebQuest conforms to the standard questions for the concepts and they were sequentially arranged.
However, this study is in line with study of Shwu (2005) who developed a reading instruction by using a WebQuest learning module as a computer-assisted instruction (CAI) enhancement on college students’ reading performance in Taiwan. Sox and Rubinstein (2009) advocated for the adaptation and use of WebQuest and they developed WebQuest for English language learners as a strategy to enhance English language learners comprehensible input. Kristen (2005) developed webQuest on Osmosis, and Haller (n.d.) developed WebQuest for 3rd Grade Science on plant.
WebQuests were also introduced to special education study. Chien-Hui, Pei-Wen and Cecile (2011) developed a WebQuest to train special education pre-service teachers in Singapore. In social studies, a WebQuest was developed by Sim, Lee, Chang and Kho (2004) to explore the use of WebQuest in the learning of social studies content and their study was to explain what WebQuest is all about and explore it in primary social studies to show its applicability in achieving important instructional goal in social studies teaching and learning.
Conclusions and Recommendations
According to the result in this study, the developed WebQuest is a valuable instructional strategy because it pleases the students, motivated to read resources provided in the WebQuest and also developed their thinking skills. Many preferred learning using WebQuest to the lecture-based approach because it was a different way of learning concept and it was both fun and challenging.
Based on the major findings of this study, the following recommendations were made:
1. teachers in Nigerian universities should endeavour to develop and utilise WebQuests for teaching and learning. This will further increase teachers’ knowledge on new innovations in ICT-Based instructional strategies; 2. educational technology teachers should expose the students to ICT-Based instructional strategies like WebQuest to promote students’ autonomy to knowledge acquisition, discovery learning and student-centred instructional approach; 3. students should help themselves by making use of information on Internet for instructional purpose and shift their focus from using it for fun and entertainment only; 4. government and policy makers in education should endeavour to introduce the use of web- based instructional tools like WebQuest into teacher education curriculum in the universities so that both the lecturers and students will be using it for instructional purposes.
References
Aremu, A. & Morakinyo, D. (2008, April). Integrating WebQuests into teaching and learning. Paper presented at the 29th annual convention and international conference of Nigeria Association for Educational Medial and Technology (NAEMT), Lagos State University Ojoo. Balanskat, A., Blamire, R. & Kefalla, S. (2007). The ICT impact report: A review of studies of ICT impact on schools in Europe. Retrieved on June 27, 2010, from http://insight.eun.org/ww/en/pub/insight/misc/specialreports/impact_study.htm. Bransford, D., Brown, A. L., & Cocking, R. R. (1999). How people learn: Brain, mind, experience and school. Committee on Developments in the Science of Learning, National Research Council.
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Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press. Retrieved on September 9, 2012, from http://bob.nap.edu/html/howpeople1/index.html. Cheng-Yee, K. (2009). The impact of using WebQuest learning strategy on adult learning. (Unpublished Master’s thesis). The Department of Graduate Institute of Adult and Continuing Education, Nankai University (1919), in Tianjin. Chien-Hui, Y., Pei-Wen, T. & Cecile, K. (2011). WebQuests and collaborative learning in teacher preparation: a Singapore study. Educational Media International, 48(3). Retrieved on April 10, 2012, from http://www.tandfonline.com/toc/remi20/48/3 Cox, T. D. (2008). Learning styles and students’ attitudes toward the use of technology in higher and adult education classes. Institute for Learning Styles Research Journal, 1(1), 1 – 13. Dodge, B. J. (1995). WebQuests: A technique for internet-based learning. The Distance Educator, 1 (2), 10 - 13. Dodge, B. J. (1997). Some thoughts about WebQuests. San Diego University. Retrieved on May 15, 2009, from http://webquest,sdsu.edu/about_webquestshtw Dodge, B. J. (2004). WebQuest: concept to classroom. Retrieved 27th April, 2009, from http://www.thirteen.org/edonline/concept2class/webquests/index.html Ekoko, R. O. & Ekoko P. O. (2004). The use of World Wide Web in creating virtual materials and resource index for health education students. Nigeria Journal for Computer Literacy, 5(1), 113 - 122. Etim, P. J. (2006). Issues in educational technology. Uyo: Abaam Publishing Co. Eugene, O. R. (2004). National Educational Technology standards for teachers; preparing teachers to use technology. International Society for Technology Education, ISTE Retrieved on July 14, 2009, 2009, from http://nets.iste.org. Hadjerrouit, S. (2010). A conceptual framework for using and evaluating web-based learning resources in school education. Journal of Information Technology Education, 9, 53 – 79. Hafizoah, K. & Zuraina, A. (2007). The use of ICT in the implementation of student-centred learning (SCL). Internet Journal of e-Language Learning & Teaching, 4(1), 15 - 31. Haller, J. (n.d). Plant Webquest. A Webquest for 3rd Grade Science. Retrieved on September 20, 2012, from http://www.bestteacherusa.net/PlantWebquest/index.htm Ibrahim, P., John, W., & Michael, T. (2006). Internet use in the developing world. A case study of an African University. International Education Journal, 7 (3), 235 - 244. Retrieved on July 14, 2009, from http://www.iej.com.au Januszewsk, A. & Molenda, M. (2008). Educational technology: A definition with commentary. New York: Lawrence E-Ibaum Associates Jenson, J., Lewis, B., Smith, R. & Fraser, S. (2002). No one way: working models for professional development. Journal of Technology and Teacher Education, 10(4), 481-496. Retrieved on September 12, 2010, from http://www.editlib.org/?fuseaction=Reader.PrintAbstract&paper_id=9170 Joseph, M. (2002). Training educators in effective technology-integrated instruction: A model course in internet instructional delivery. Techknowlogia. Retrieved on September 10, 2011, from https://www.techknowlogia.org/TKL_Articles/PDF/499.pdf Kathy, S. (2009). Kathy Schrock’s guide for educators. Teacher helpers slide shows. Retrieved on May 12, 2011, from http://paged.2.googlesyndication.com/pagead/ads?client=undefined&dt=1236165156369&fo rmat=. Kathy, S. (2009). Kathy Schrock’s guide for educators. Teacher helpers slide shows. Retrieved on May 12, 2011, from http://paged.2.googlesyndication.com/pagead/ads?client=undefined&dt=1236165156369&for mat=. Kristen, K. (2005). Osmosis WebQuest. A WebQuest for 9th grade (biology). Retrieved on September 20, 2012, from https://www.msu.edu/~kommkris/webquest/webquest-index.html March, T. (1998). Why WebQuests? An introduction. Retrieved on November 14, 2010, from http://tommarch.com/writings/intro_wq.php Mendoza, M. (2006). What's a Web-based lesson? Retrieved on January, 23, 2010, from http://miguelmendozaefl.blogspot.com/2006/03/whats-web-based-lesson.html Mudiwa, P. (2003). An investigation into the integration of WebQuest activities in middle school social studies. Retrieved on May 29, 2010, from http://wordcat.org/oclc/53818910. Nam, C. S., & Smith-Jackson, T. L. (2007). Web-based learning environment: A theory-based design process for development and evaluation. Journal of Information Technology Education, 6, 23 - 44. Retrieved on October 21, 2009, from http://www.jite.org/documents/Vol6/JITEv6p023- 043Nam145.pdf
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Oyelekan, O. S. (2009). Development and validation of a computer instructional package on electrochemistry for secondary schools in Nigeria (Doctoral thesis). Department of Science Education, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria. Richey, R. C. (2008). Reflections on the 2008 AECT definitions of the field. Technology trends: Practice to improve learning, 52 (1), 24 - 25. Schacter, J. & Fagnano, C. (1999). Does computer technology improve student learning and achievement? How, when, and under what conditions? Journal of Educational Computing Research, 20, (4), 329 - 343. Retrieved on September 20, 2011, from http://tech- facilitators.wikispaces.com/file/view/Does+Computer+Technology+Improve+Student+Learn ing+and+Achievement.pdf Shwu, H. E. (2005). The effect of EFL reading instruction by using a Webquest learning module as a CAI enhancement on college students' reading performance in Taiwan (China). Retrieved on April 10, 2012, from http://dl.acm.org/dl.cfm Sim, H., Lee, C., Chang, C. & Kho., E. (2004). Exploring the use of WebQuests in the learning of social studies content. Retrieve on May 17, 2012, from http://repository.nie.edu.sg/jspui/handle/10497/340 Sox, A. & Rubinstein-Avila, E. (2009). Webquests for English-language learners: Essential elements for design. Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy, 53 (1) 38 - 48. Retrieved on April 10, 2012, from http://www.reading.org/publications/index.html Thorpe, M. (2010). The impact of ICT on lifelong learning. Open Learning, 17 (2). Tsai, S. (2006). Integrating WebQuest learning into EFL instruction. Paper presented at the Society for Information Technology and Teacher Education International Conference 2006, Orlando, FL. Venzon, V. (2011). Main ideas and supporting details: A WebQuest approach. Retrieved on September 21, 2012, from http://tccfinalpaper.pdf Vidoni, K. L., & Maddux, C. D. (2002). WebQuests: Can they be used to improve critical-thinking skills in students? Computers in the Schools, 19 (1/2), 101 - 117. Zheng, R., Stucky, B., McAlck, M., Menchana, M., & Stoddart, S. (2005). WebQuest learning as perceived by higher-education learners. TechTrends: Linking Research & Practice to Improve Learning, 49 (4), 41 – 49. Retrieved June 10, 2010 from http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/search/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearc h_SearchValue_0=EJ737685&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=no&accno=EJ737685.
Authors
Ayodeji Muideen BADMUS (PhD) Emmanuel Alayande College of Education [email protected] +2348067897787
Mudasiru Olalere YUSUF Department of Educational Technology, Faculty of Education, University of Ilorin, Kwara State, Nigeria [email protected] and [email protected] +234 803 395 0774
Omotayo Olabo OBIELODAN Department of Educational Technology, Faculty of Education, University of Ilorin, Kwara State, Nigeria [email protected] +2348184531404
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MARKETING SOCIO-CULTURAL BENEFITS OF MUSEUM IN THE SOCIETY: AN EXAMPLE OF NATIONAL MUSEUM, LAGOS
Michael Abiodun Oyinloye Olabisi Onabanjo University
Abstract
Museums are significant historical institutions established for the collection, preservation and conservation of cultural objects and materials against deterioration, vandalisation and theft. Museums are setup as non-profit making institutions that display objects in their care for people’s enjoyment and educational purposes. The 21st century museums must go beyond total dependency on government funding, if the institution must realize its objectives. The goal of this paper is to publicize initiatives of the Management of National Museum, Lagos towards rendering socio-cultural and educational roles of museum to the people. This paper explores various strategies used by the Lagos museum’s workers to reach out to different age grades in the country through collaborative supports from private and corporate bodies in order to sustain laudable events in the museum. The paper therefore, recommends various forms of marketing strategies used in Lagos museum to other national museums in the country in order to sustain, maintain, as well as realize the socio-cultural and educational benefits of museums to the public.
Keywords: Marketing museum, National Museum Lagos, Social and cultural benefits.
Introduction
Museums in Nigeria are established for the purpose of collecting, preserving, researching and exhibiting the cultural or natural heritage of the country for information and enjoyment of the public (Oyinloye, 2015). The primary responsibility of a museum is to protect and promote heritage, as well as human being, physical structure and financial resources made available for that purpose (ICOM, 2006). Judging the definition of museum given by International Council of Museum (ICOM) at its general assembly meeting held in Copenhagen museum (Denmark), “Museum is a non-profit making permanent institution in the services to society and its development. It is opened to the public for the purposes of study, education, enjoyment, material evidence of man and his environment” (Hudson, 1977). It does not expect to profit for the sustainability of the institution. However, there is a partial effort by most national museums to look for ways of augmenting government subventions.
A careful look at ICOM definition suggests a review of the statements “non-profit making” institution in the service of the people. The term non-profit making institute makes it self-financing and largely dependent on government, as well as public taxes for its survival. This principle has rendered many aspects of the institution stagnant in Nigeria instead of progressing. It has also constituted a lot of challenges hindering the growth of museums in Nigeria. In response to challenges caused by this principle; many museums in developed countries have resorted into market research and marketing strategies to raise funds for their survival as well as progress in their services. Some are incorporating profit yielding alternatives which is essential and effective for museum management. The developed countries who have adopted marketing option as an alternative to raise funds to augment government subventions are museum in United Kingdom, Australian (New South Wales), San Diego History Museum, Queensland Museum, South Australian Museum and many more (Essien, 2009).
Marketing is an aspect of recognizing human economic and social needs in the society. In a simple and straight forward term “Marketing is meeting people’s needs profitably” (Kotler & Keller, 2006). The American marketing association defines marketing as an organization functions and a set of processes for creating, communicating and delivering value to customers as well as managing customer’s relationship in ways that benefit the organization and its stake holders. The concept of marketing emerged in the mid-1950s and it holds that the key to achieving organizational goals consist of the company being more effective than competitors in creating, delivery and communicating superior customer’s value to its chosen target markets (Kotler & Keller, 2006). Marketing in the context of museum institution is to actually publicize the services of museum, so that people can patronize them regularly for their enjoyment.
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Marketing strategies in Lagos museum
Generally speaking, museum institution was slow to pickup marketing as an operational method to the sustainability of central management. There was a shift towards marketing museum in the late 1980’s which led to information regarding effectiveness of museum provided through marketing research (Renschler & Gilmore, 2002). There is still some skepticism about the usefulness of marketing in cultural organizations, such as museums as and confusion within the profession of marketing concept (Kolb, 2000; Neilson, 2003). However, approaches to museum marketing are view from non-profit marketing and services marketing to the people. The concept is a reflection on the development of museum from collection and research purposes to public services institution. Marketing in this respect should be seen as another activity that helps to bring visitors’ interests in the marketing aspect to the museum. Marketing of some activities is to help reach larger part of the public, who might not have visited museum. The strategy is to arouse people’s interest to stroll through exhibitions and further participate in other museum’s programmes and events in order to fulfill its social mission to the public.
Publicizing museum hinges on major goal and strategic marketing activities in the National Museum Lagos; the audience development and museum outfit. It is improving patronage at the museum by advertising museum to its target audience of all cadres of academics, particularly primary and secondary school levels. The other strategy is an offshoot of the former which is to broaden the knowledge of the audience on services and information obtainable in the museum that is not applicable to other similar institutions. For example:
. Education and Leisure. . Museum Kitchen. . Museum shops for jewelry, indigenous textiles design for outright sales. . Replica of popular Nigerian artwork as souvenir.
According to V. Okoloagun (personal communication, September 17th, 2012) the major strategy of marketing National Museum Lagos is “Educative Programmme” by the information unit of the museum. It has been very instrumental and it plays a major role in reviving as well as reinvigorating the museum. V. Okoloagun (personal communication, September 17th, 2012) says a lot of school pupils are seen in groups on daily basis visiting National Museum Lagos to view exhibition. There is tremendous improvement in students’ visit to the museum because of the principle of using museum specimens as a form visual aid in learning experience in the school. The specimens are used to disseminate information, as well as knowledge in field of history, arts, science, and ancient technology, archaeology and religion studies among school pupils.
This paper observed that, National Museum Lagos uses educational programme on two broad based approaches:
1. Intra-mural programmes: these are programmes carried out within the museum premises to educate and sensitize pupils’ awareness about museum.
2. Extra-mural programmes: these are programmes organised by the museums outside the museum. This can further be classified into children and youth programmes while others are school programmes and adult programmes. The most functioning one from the aforementioned is the children and youth programmes while other two have not gained much recognition and acceptance by the people (O. P. Otuka, personal communication, September 17th, 2012).
Children and youth programmes in the Lagos museum
The programmes under this sub-topic are targeted towards attracting children of ages 6 to 12 years to play, interact and have fun together. The objectives are to bring out the creative ingenuity and artistic skills of an individual child to play. The programme incorporates Art club and long holiday break for its operations. The programme as part of its objectives is set to catch the young and help children develop mentally, as well as actualize their creative dream in life. According to O. P. Otuka (personal communication, September 17th, 2012) the programmes has helped to reposition the image of Lagos museum in Nigeria, especially the national museum Lagos. It has also helped museum to showcase its activities in and outside the museum premises. This in other words has helped to publicized and markets the National Museum Lagos through nooks and cranny of Lagos state. In respect of these achievements, Lagos museum has also planned a giant stride achievement, by opening a website for
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children workshop as well as, introduce a vocational programme that will train adult category in the society (V. Okoloagun, personal communication, September 17th, 2012). The workshop is expected to attract fee payment which will serve as funds to augment government’s annual allocations to the museum (V. Okoloagun, personal communication, September 17th, 2012).
The study observed different programmes of education unit in Lagos museum, which has led to tremendous improvement, in the number of visitors to the museum over the years. The larger percentages of visitors are the pupils and students, during excursion which usually is between December and January. This times, number of visitors to the museum is put at least 2,000 people on daily basis. The museum charges entrance fees of N50 per pupil, N100 per adults, while foreigners pay N200. Increase patronage and visitors are attracted because different programmes are organised in the museum in order to generate revenue as to complimentary efforts to government funding of national museums in Nigeria. The education unit of the museum organizes ‘children day’ reception for children of all schools in Lagos State at the museum compound. There is also an entrance fee paid per child for this programme, which is equally targeted to supplement government funding. Some of the activities during this programme, includes essay writing competition, cultural dress competition, as well as cultural dance performance. These aforementioned events are designed to boost the morale of pupils and students. The programme started in National Museum Lagos, and as such have become an event which all children look forward to annually (V. Okoloagun, personal communication, September 17th, 2012).
Marketing indigenous Nigerian foods
Museum kitchen is another marketing strategy of publicizing National museum Lagos. It is a place of relaxation that prepares indigenous dishes and drinks to satisfy hunger as well as quench tasty visitors. The Lagos museum’s kitchen is reputed for standard and hygienic food of any class of visitors who wish to enjoy the exact taste of indigenous dishes from any part of the country. The museum kitchen prepares various food timetables as stated below for interested visitor that patronizes its services. For example, major tribes’ and peoples indigenous foods are prepared daily on different days of the week in order to accommodate varieties:
Monday: Efik day – Edika-ikon soup and akpu Tuesday: Edo day – Banga soup and gari Wednesday: Igbo day – Okasi soup and akpu Thursday: Yoruba day – Efo-riro soup and iyan (pounded yam) Friday: Hausa day – Mia tause soup and tuwo shinkafa
The strategy of presentation and marketing Nigeria’s indigenous dishes in the Lagos museum kitchen is worthy of emulation by other national museums in the country because it has been quite rewarding (V. Okoloagun, personal communication, September 17th, 2012). A lot of people come into Lagos museum’s kitchen on daily basis to wine and dine traditional Nigerian dishes.
Strategies of marketing Arts and crafts in Lagos museum
One prominent marketing strategy in the Lagos museum is by the sales of indigenous arts and crafts as souvenir to museum’s visitors. Observation at the museum’s reception reveals a conspicuous display of tie and dye clothing, as well as batik pattern textiles for sale. Some of the textiles are already sown to fit both male and female visitors; while others are packed in 4 and 5 yards that could be made into choice styles. This type of textiles are commonly referred to as ‘adire’ popular among the Egba cultural people of Yoruba in Ogun State, and graduates of Fine art schools in Nigeria. Other methods of marketing art in Lagos museum is through production of replicas of Nigeria’s popular cultural objects such as FESTAC mask (Festival of Black Arts and Culture), Benin and Ife bronzes are reproduced for visitors who wish to buy them as souvenir (Oyinloye & Ijisakin, 2012). It is worthy to mention here that Lagos museum has in reserve an art gallery that caters for contemporary artists’ exhibitions who wish to display their artworks for public views. Other outfit of marketing in the Lagos museum is the jewelry shop, where quality jewelries are made and sold to members of the public within museum’s compound. Note that, it is not the museum employees that run the aforementioned businesses. Museum authority takes certain percentage from the proceeds after sales from individuals that run the business. It is pertinent to note that, National Museum Lagos is making effort to preserve and display objects as well as protect visitors and general public interest in changing exhibitions of diverse themes.
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Corporate organizations and Lagos museum
The idea of marketing museum to corporate organization is drawn against the backdrop of nonprofit making institution. In this regard, collaboration between museum and corporate organization is what Austin (2000) describes as an important strategy in the twenty-first century museum. Austin (2000) maintains it is as an avenue for museum to sell its vision out to a larger audience. A careful look at the above statement shows that collaboration with corporate bodies enables museum to gain more revenue to achieve successful museum management, and publicity in the contemporary times.
In the recent past, finding have shown that, the most common type of relationship with other bodies are participatory of individual, philanthropists and organizations giving financial support to the museum. The philanthropists, has given donations to museum, though small and not regular support, but these has often served good purposes whenever it comes (Essien, 2009). Corporate giving represents one of the most important resources in the museum sector, which helps it to forge ahead. In the 1980s, corporate giving increasingly took the form of strategic philanthropic collaboration in the museum. In 1990s, corporate attitude is shifted from philanthropic giving to strategic investment (Essien, 2009). The scope of corporate giving is now wider, including marketing, as well as skill acquisition and advertising strategy. The dependency of both sectors’ collaboration could also provide the resources which organizations rely on in order to survive. The assistance offered may be in form of financial resources, expertise skills, processes or marketing ideas. It is therefore, good to encourage museum services, workers and museum bodies, to corporate with each other, in order to achieve its goal and objectives. The administrative sector of National Museum in Lagos is aware that integrating resources from within and without are necessary for collaborative arrangements in order to enhance good services delivery. Museum can benefits support in direct participation, not only of money, but also of goods, voluntary services and ventures. Thus collaboration may be seen as way to shed the pressure on museums and also have impact on the Management.
According to Essien (2009) museum collaboration with non-museum sectors take various forms of intervention, this includes loan of objects and temporary exhibitions. Another important organization from which museum can benefit through collaboration is in the mass media publicity, when museum organizes a special exhibition to educate the public. This is a very good strategy of National Museum in Nigeria, if an organization calls for special exhibition in its premises. Museum benefits from press review, wide publicity of its objects as well as services. Nevertheless, museum communicates to public by promoting their activities in partnerships with non-museum sectors for sponsorship. Museum benefits a lot by partnering with media houses, when this happens, it is an indication that museum is bound to secure more publicity for special exhibitions in both print and electronic media.
In museum exhibitions, the press produces report and supplementary stories on the collections, which also involves lecture and other events. It could be said that, the role of the press in cross-sector collaboration is not only to communicate with the public, but to also support special exhibition mounted by the museum sector. Where museum have the support of the press, more visitors are attracted as the profile of the event heightens. According to O. P. Otuka (personal communication, September 17th, 2012) National Museum in Lagos has realized the importance of effective communication to the public through efforts of the press in successful exhibitions. Presently, National Museum Lagos uses the press media for sponsoring and publicizing museum programmes such as, children’s day; cultural day; end of the year carnival; periodic exhibitions; seminars as well as symposiums.
In the same vein, museum’s collaboration with organizational sectors can be extended to strengthen the existence of its services. According to V. Okoloagun (personal communication, September 17th, 2012) National Museum Lagos has benefited immensely from the services of MTN, Globacom networks, and others bodies in this direction. She mentioned that, other contributors and supporter of children’s day and cultural day are Unilever Plc., Viju Milk, Golden Burger, and so on which has led to additional promotions of other museum’s programmes and as such have put Lagos museum on a recognizable pedestals among Nigerian museums. The motivation behind collaboration of museum and other sectors is to create a strong alliance for better public services and communication. Museum’s collaboration with other sectors is also targeted towards strengthens partnership agreement. It also enables flow of traffic between people and organizations in the museum. It also increases visitors and revenue to the museum. It has helped to fulfils educational and research objectives more effectively. It has caused expansion in the scope of collections and exhibitions. It has also helped to improved public relation services, as well as expertise rate, and skill acquisition of the workers. It has also improved level
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of grant, revenue and donations. Finally, it hoped to improve number, as well as sophistication of equipment and facilities in the Lagos museum (O. P. Otuka, personal communication, September 17th, 2012).
Strategy of tourism in marketing Lagos museum
Tourism is an industry that engages the visitor by making difference and diversity intelligibly through narrative experiences. The link between museum and tourism can be achievable through museography, which is the product of culture reserved in the nation’s museums. The key to great museography is engaging, convincing and telling stories about real people, as well as real events in the museum. Frank (1987) defines tourism as the practice of travelling for pleasure, tours, and services for the tourists. A tourist is hereby referred to as a person who is travelling for pleasure or enjoyment (Olokesusi, 1987). Tourism involves satisfying of one’s curiosity about other people’s land and culture (Frank, 1987). Tourism could also be seen as the preservation for the purpose of exhibition of resources that are both natural and cultural for the purpose of education and entertainment providing material for research on the aspects of man’s heritage as well as development. Olokesusi (1987) again, describes tourism as the movement of people within or outside a state or nation for leisure, cultural, sports, education, religions, and conference or health reasons. Going by the aforementioned statement, one sure thing that is tourism is a way to discover new things. Most things to learn from and enjoy in the museum are product of archaeologists and traditional art traditions which the tourist always craves for.
It should be noted that no museum exists without the archaeologists, traditional art and craft makers and the likes. In this regard archaeological findings have contributed immensely to the museum’s collections after they have been carefully studied and interpreted. Museum collections attract visitors from all walks of life if they are effectively managed. Visitors patronize the museum when there are materials or objects that say something about people’s history, economic and socio-cultural attainment of their locality (Okpoko, 2006). Museum attracts visitors who might be tourist from within or outside the country who spends money in the museum shops, museum kitchens or restaurants, hotels, and outside markets in the locality (Aremu, 2008). Museum collections also serve as a medium through which various indigenous ethnic art works in this country, are displayed to inform people about their origin. By this, museum is not only helping to promote domestic tourism but also marketing these collections. Museum are now begin to transformed from a reservoir of folklore and heritage to a more active, vibrant and self-sustaining non-profit making institution (Schwartz, 1982). Services and souvenir of Nigerian arts are source of attraction in the museum to the tourist, which are fetching museums reasonable income to compliment government subvention.
Hindrances to marketing strategy in Lagos museum
The concept of marketing museum’s services is good and reasonable in the twenty-first century museum as practiced in Lagos museum. However, as important as marketing museum is, there are challenges hindering the smooth operations of these strategies. They include inadequate funding of museum to meet marketing needs that could bring museum closer to the people. The fact that, museums are non-profit oriented public institution, it has made it difficult for the institution to carry out most strategies of marketing museum to the people. The major resource to make museum thrives is from federal government purse and it is not regular. Museums have to wait for the insufficient yearly allocation in order to run their activities. This was observed as major reason, why museum organisation has to look inward for viable means of generating revenue through numerous activities that will bring income for the survival, as well as makes the institution lively.
According to O. P. Otuka (personal communication, September 17th, 2012) the National Museum Lagos has been added on internet, for easy accessibility but little has been done to upgrade the museum’s activities in order to promote its image. Publicising museum on the internet offers the opportunity to increase accessibility, share information on collections with millions of cultural tourists and researchers throughout the world. Many museums in the advanced countries offer searchable database of their collections, by providing detailed information on each objects and materials. Such information includes: the maker, origin of creation, medium of execution, or style, dimensions, preservation and conservation history, exhibition and socio-cultural functions to the place of origin. There are also online exhibitions whereby the use of audio, tapes, video and animation are used to recreate electronics museum. Some have online stores where, visitors can purchase items like posters, prints, books, toys, clothing, jewelries, and other customised museum items. The site may offer educational materials, for students and researchers or lesson plans for teachers. It is hoped that
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National Museum Lagos will rev up to this standard by making use of all aforementioned devices that will further propagate museum functions in the twenty-first century. Finally, most museums sites on internet have guide for visitors on the hours of operation weekly, directions, floor plans, current and upcoming exhibition and workshops. Other internet sites feature calendar of events in the year, new list of objects, and jobs in the museum. Where this is happening, information in the museum becomes cheaper as well as easily accessible, thereby making people become museum friendly.
Summary discussion
This study has examined National Museum Lagos as a viable marketing venture in the twenty- first century. It has discovered the potential that brings museum closer to the people in the society. It analyzed marketing strategies and the avenues of promoting museum’s values, with a view to gain more patronage vis-a-vis visitors, as well as generates income for the museum. The study opines that, if the museum institution is given freehand to publicise its activities appropriately, many organization would collaborate with the museum and makes it function effectively. The study identified a need for museum to be market-oriented in order to survive in the era of inadequate funding of National Museums in the country. Having identified this, the study observed a need to collaborate with private individuals and corporate organisations if, National Museum Lagos must move to the recommended category of the twenty-first century museums reorganized by the International Council of Museum (ICOM, 2006). The study used qualitative method of research to analysed useful information obtained through key informant interview and personal observation. Descriptive analytical method was used to enumerate values in the structures and contents in National museum, Lagos.
Conclusion
The stated aim and objectives of study were achieved from information and data collected from primary sources, as well as from purposefully selected key informants interviewing. The study therefore, established marketing museum as a desirable tool for income generation and museum’s effectiveness in the twenty-first century. It was observed that marketing museums through variety of programmes which comprised children and adult classes will definitely increase visitors from all walks of life into the Lagos museum. On the other hands, collaboration with individuals and corporate organisations will also strengthen museum funding thereby, giving it an edge in the procurement of equipment and facilities needed in the museum. It was also discovered that, involvement of multi-national organisation will further help to sponsor museums programmes and events. It will, as well bring about publicity of museum’s services and exhibitions, in various news media to the public.
Finally, the study analysed various strategies of marketing museums currently adopted in the National Museum Lagos. It therefore, recommends marketing museum strategies embarked upon in Lagos museum as a necessity to all other National Museums in the country, if they must increase number of visitors to their museums which will in-turn increase their financial support from the public.
References
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Nigeria. Olokesusi, F. (1987). The constraint and prospect of tourism development in Nigeria. The case of Bauchi and Ogun States, NISER. Oyinloye M. A. & Ijisakin E. (2012). Evaluating the roles of government and cultural administrators in Nigerian museums. Journal of Engineering and Environmental Studies, Vol. 3, No. 1 Oyinloye, M. A. (2015). Conservation of wooden objects in the National Museums in Lagos and Oron, Nigeria. Unpublished doctoral thesis, department of Archaeology and Anthropology, University of Ibadan, Ibadan. Rentschler, R. & Gilmore, A. (2002). “Museums: Discovering services marketing” International Journal of Arts Management”, Vol. 5 (1): 62-72 Schwartz, A. (1982). “Tourism” Encyclopedia Americana, vol. 26, international edition.
Author
Michael Abiodun Oyinloye Department of Design and Architecture Olabisi Onabanjo University, Ago-Iwoye, Nigeria E-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] Tel: 2348037210670
17 Volume 15, No. 3, July 2016 The African Symposium (ISSN# 2326-8077)
The African Symposium: An online journal of the African Educational Research Network
CONTEMPORARY STATUS OF AFRICAN TRADITIONAL BELIEFS AND PRACTICES
Olanshile Muideen Adeyanju Obafemi Awolowo University
Abstract
Before their contact with foreign culture and religious practices, African people lived in a world of traditional practices and beliefs that have been passed down from their ancestors. These traditional beliefs and practices manifested in their cultural, social and political lifestyles. The richest part of the African traditional beliefs and practices is the African traditional religion. This is so because the African traditional religion permeates all the departments of life of the African people. However, the African traditional beliefs and practices have been stripped of their fundamental roles in the lives of Africans as they have been subjected to foreign cultures and traditions. These foreign cultures have lasting influences on the African worldview as the African traditional beliefs and practices have experienced drastic changes in all ramification. This study intends to critically assess these modern day practices and their effects on the African mentality. It also attempts to analyse the place of African traditional beliefs and practices in the modern day setting.
Keywords: Traditional Beliefs and Practices, African Traditional Religion, Modern Practices
Introduction
Africa, as it is today, is a conflux of varying cultural beliefs and religious practices. This is owed to many reasons, one of which is colonialism. Other reasons given for the presence of different and varying cultural practices in Africa also include trade with Arabs from the Middle East which necessitated the incursion of Arab culture and religion into Africa and the growth of science and technology which have turned the world into a sort of small community i.e. a global village.
Prior to the time of their contact with foreign cultural practices and religious beliefs, Africans had their own ways of life which have been in existence for ages. The African people have their own unique ways of life which informed their worldview, social life and sustenance. In J. S. Mbiti’s words:
Africans are notoriously religious, and each people has its own religious system with a set of beliefs and practices. Religion permeates into all departments of life. (Mbiti, 1969, p. 2)
Mbiti’s contention is that the lives of Africans are wrapped around their religiosity. This is to mean that every aspect of the African peoples’ lives has religious underpinnings to it. Although, many scholars have faulted J. S. Mbiti for making a hasty generalization on the whole of the African people and that there are African societies that had no religious system, it can still be legitimately said that a great number of African people (tribes) has all the departments of their lives embedded in their religious system. Thus, in most pre-colonial African societies, the traditional beliefs and practices cannot be discussed outside the religious setting they are embedded in. Given the centrality of religious beliefs and practices in African societies and cultures, the study of Africa indigenous religious is important in building a better understanding of the African traditional beliefs and practices in relation to the modern day status of these beliefs and practices.
There was no monolithic form of religious practices in pre-colonial African societies but there were categories of religious beliefs which were common in most societies’ religious settings. According to Bolaji Idowu (1973), the structure of most African societies’ indigenous religious system include the belief in a Supreme Being (God), belief in divinities, belief in spirits, belief in ancestors, the practices of magic and medicine. These are evident in the conduct of their lives which are always attached to some religious phenomena.
In the pre-colonial settings of African societies, bounty or slim harvests in agricultural products are attributed to the mercy or wrath of the gods, a person’s success or otherwise is attributed to some divinities, a woman’s fertility or barrenness is attributed to the destiny apportioned to her by the gods or God, rainfall, famine, intelligence, power, authority, etc all have religious connotations attached to
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The African Symposium: An online journal of the African Educational Research Network
them.
However, as said earlier, all of these have changed with the incursion of different foreign cultural practices and religious beliefs into Africa. There has been a steady change in the African traditional beliefs and practices especially with their subjugation by foreign cultural practices. In order to get a better understanding of the thesis of this essay, it is important to engage in a comparative analysis of the status of African traditional beliefs and practices in pre-colonial times and their status in contemporary time. This would take us through examining different departments of the African life such as education, political setting, religion, agricultural system, family setting, festivals, social life etc as they were then and what obtains in the present day Africa.
Religion in Traditional and Contemporary African Societies
The richest part of the African culture i.e. traditional beliefs and practices is said to be the African indigenous religions. The African people have been described as a highly religious people although with exception of some few African tribes. The African indigenous religion is the most organized and systematized part of the African culture and it permeates other cultural practices. Mbiti states that there are different tribes with different religions in Africa, despite this, there still remain overlapping religious practices among these different tribes.
It is important to point out that some African societies are atheistic, some are henotheistic while some are monotheistic. In those societies with organized religious settings, there are deities, religious ceremonies and rituals, and as well human representatives of the gods. Taking the Yoruba people of Western Nigeria, for example, their indigenous religious deities include Sango, Ogun, Oya, Osun etc and each deity has its arrays of followership that see these deities as the intermediaries between humans and the supreme being (God). Each deity also has human representatives among its followers (the priests and priestesses) who communicate the deities’ command to the followers. There are also specific shrines designed for the worship of each deity and it is in these shrines where ritual ceremonies are performed to the deities. The deities are consulted for the solution to knotty issues and blessings are sought from them by their followers. Religious ceremonies are usually annual festivities.
However, with the contact of Africans with European and Arabs, the religious practices of these foreigners begin to creep in and form part of the religious systems of the African people. Christianity and Islam are the leading foreign religions introduced into Africa and they have come to take a central place in the African’s religious life. These are now the choice religions of many Africans thereby relegating the practice of African indigenous religious into a ‘relatively oblivion’ background. These foreign religious practices condemn everything associated with the African traditional as paganistic, primitive and negative. Dare Arowolo captures the general influence of foreign religious and cultural practices when he states thus:
With Africa subjugated and dominated, the Western culture and European mode of civilization began to thrive and outgrow African cultural heritage. Traditional African cultural practices paved the way for foreign way of doing things. (Arowolo, 2010, p. 2)
This actually is the situation with the religious system of African societies. Christian and Islamic scriptures are now used as the model of spiritual and moral guidance, their places of worship are choice destinations and their priests are held in high esteem. All of these have resulted in a decrease in followership and practice of African indigenous religions. It is, however, important to note that side by side with their commitment to Christianity, Islam and other foreign religious practices, most African people still retain beliefs and rituals that are characteristic of the African indigenous religions. Although, a few number of people still completely identifies themselves with the indigenous religions, majority hold traditional beliefs and practices as a “second-fiddle”. It is, thus not a surprise that most African people only practise foreign religion for different reasons, (e.g. social and economic reasons), they still resort to the protective power inherent in the indigenous religions which they believe for its potency.
Even with its condemnation by the foreign religions, the influence of African indigenous religion is continually evident in some aspects of daily life until the present time, though in a reduced manner. Many African people still consult with indigenous religion’s priests for one spiritual help or the other. African people dare not swear a false oath in the name of any of the indigenous religions’ deities,
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The African Symposium: An online journal of the African Educational Research Network
for they dread that these deities set to work immediately in punishing evil deeds and rewarding good deeds. Unlike in foreign religious practices, especially Islam and Christianity, where punishment and rewards are reserved for the after-life, African indigenous religions hold that one gets one’s reward or punishment here on earth. Thus, in modern day Africa, indigenous religion do not play the frontline role they used to in the lives of Africans during the pre-colonial times, they are now held as alternative religions which are only relevant where the foreign religious practices fail. The positions of rainmakers, traditional healers and priests/priestesses no longer enjoy the high esteem attached to them as it was before.
Traditional African Family System, Naming and Identity in Contemporary Africa
Other aspects of the traditional African life where religion manifests are the family system, names and the objects of identity. In the African traditional practice, family setting is mostly an extended, communal setting. In most African societies, the family setting includes the convergence of a large group of people related by blood in one location. This is a setting which includes the grandfather, grandmother, father, mother, uncles, aunts, cousins, nephews, nieces, and children. These people see themselves as one. More so, religious identity is also instrumental to the setting of a family. For example, a family worshipping Ogun, the god of iron, in the Yoruba society of Western Nigeria, sees another family that also worships Ogun as their kin. Respect for the elderly ones is also one of the characteristics of the traditional African family setting. The naming tradition shows the indigenous religion that an African belongs to. In most traditional African societies, the name of the deity that a family worships reflects in the names they bear. Taking the Yoruba people of Western Nigeria as an example again, families that worship Ogun bear names such as Ogunyemi, Ogunmodede, Ogunwale, families that worship the river goddess Osun, bear names such as Osungbemi, Osuntomi, Osunleke etc. Even among the Igbo tribe of Eastern Nigeria, we have names like Chukwuemeka, Chukwudi, Chigozie etc which all reflect the religious beliefs in gods or the Supreme Being (God).
Tribal mark is another form of identity in the traditional African society. Most tribes in Africa, have ways of identifying themselves such that when one sees a person, one can easily say which tribe such person belongs to. Tribal marks come in different forms. In some tribes, these marks are designed on the checks, some on the forehead, some at the back of the palm, while others are placed on the belly or other parts of the body. It is also important to note that aside the identification purpose of tribal marks, they are also used for fashion purpose. This is particularly common among African women who have these marks on in order to look more beautiful and attract men.
However, a careful examination of these practices in modern day Africa will show that they have been subjected to underestimation and basic stigmatization which began with the introduction of foreign religious practices and have continued to be reserved till the present time (Mezzana, 2002). The era of communal and extended family setting has given way for individualistic and nuclear family setup. The practice of living in a large family is now frowned at as old-fashioned. Raising a large family is also campaigned against for economic reasons of the adverse effects of overpopulation. Thus, the practices of polygamy and extended family are gradually giving way for monogamy and nuclear family. Also, the practice of tribal marks is now regarded as archaic and backward. There is even a cliché as to having tribal marks; “You fight lion?” is the expression used to deride those who have tribal marks on them. In the place of tribal marks, tattoo is now being used not as a form of identity but as a fashion trend which is, even in foreign religious practices, frowned at as a sign of moral decadence.
Names that reflect religious affiliation and traditional ancestral lineage are also neglected for foreign names. Africans now prefer to be called by adopted foreign names such as Coker, Harrison, John, Mohammed etc. These are names that are alien to the African traditional setting unlike the indigenous names which represent the common religious and spiritual rooting for all who belong to the same ethnic group. This is not to say that indigenous naming is no longer in vogue in contemporary Africa, but it is no longer a general or common phenomenon. It is only practised, widely, in remote areas among people who still hold the African traditional values in high esteem, it is no longer a common practice among the elites in most African cities.
It is, therefore, important to note that foreign religious practices of Christianity and Islam (and some other religions too) and the cultural practices of the West and the Arab have had a great effect on the traditional African family setting, naming practices and forms of identity amongst ethnic group.
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The African Symposium: An online journal of the African Educational Research Network
Morality Status in Contemproary Africa
To a large extent, morality in traditional African setting is also a case of religious orientation. In denying the suggestion that morality derives from society’s need for self-preservation or that morality is a product of common-sense, Idowu asserts that the African view “is that morality is basically the fruit of religion and that, to begin with, it was dependent upon it. Man’s concept of deity is taken to be the norm of morality” (Idowu, 1962, p. 145). This is to say that in traditional Africa, religion and morality are held as inseparable. This conception of morality is similar to the Divine Command theory. To this conception of morality, some African scholars nay philosophers have argued that religion and morality are separable and that Africans do not seek the rationale of morality in the decrees of gods or God but in the exigencies of social existence. Segun Gbadegesin, for instance, holds that Africans “are very pragmatic in their approach to morality, and although religion may serve them as a motivating force, it is not the ultimate appeal in moral matters” (Gbadegesin, 1991, p. 82)
Considering this debate on the relationship of morality and religion in Africa, it can be said that the conducts of traditional African people are decisively influenced by considerations as to the likes and dislikes of the ancestors. There are, however, two sides to the belief that the ancestors or gods reward rectitude and punish its opposite. One is that people of weak moral standing are lured into action or forbearance by the promise of ancestral rewards or reprisals and secondly those of solid moral aptitude adjust their conducts by a direct cognizance of the principles of morality. Thus, it is to be seen that religion has its own purpose in the moral setting of the traditional African society. Chastity, hard work, honesty are all hallmark of high moral standards in the traditional African setting.
There is now a new face to the practice of morality in Africa. Given the advancement in science and technology, and the introduction of Christianity and religion, morality in contemporary African societies has taken a new meaning. Although, these foreign religious try to instill their own moral principles into the society, moral decadence is now the order of the day. Phenomena that are unknown to the pre-colonial African societies are now introduced. These include homosexualism, corruption, internet scam, orgy etc. Virginity is no longer a symbol of pride. These are all as a result of the exposure caused by the inventions of science and technology. The decadent moral practices in modern day Africa have, thus, subdued the African traditional moral beliefs and practices.
Effects of Science and Technology on African Traditional Beliefs and Practices
Colonialism is the precursor of modern science and technology in Africa, This is no to say that African people do not have an idea of science prior to their contact with the Europeans. As Makinde argues,
In every society, there exists a strong desire to know about causes and effects, more especially, about the future. If in any society as different from Western societies there exists a method of knowing or means by which causes are discovered and reliable predictions are made, we shall call it a science irrespective of whether or not such a science is open to empirical investigation. (Makinde, 2010, p. 441)
Thus, it can be said that pre-colonial African people have an idea of science. However, the theoretical and practical knowledge of modern science and technology is introduced by the West through colonialism and this has had great effects on the African traditional beliefs and practices.
In the first place, science and technology have drastically reduced the significance of African indigenous religion. This is, especially, noticed in the cases of traditional rainmakers, magician, fortune tellers and religious priests. Traditional rainmakers were usually sought whenever there was drought but meteorology, the scientific study of the earth’s atmosphere, especially its patterns of climate and weather, has reduced the societal importance of rainmakers by giving a more practical explanation to climatic issues such as rainfall, drought, sunshine etc. The practice of magic has also been affected as science has proved the impossibility of previously held unempirical phenomena.
Secondly, in the area of health (medicine), the use of herbs was a common practice for treating illness in pre-colonial African societies. There were also witch doctors or traditional herbalists who specialise in the diagnosis and treatment of illness for they are knowledgeable in the kinds and dosage of herbs for different cases of ailments. In modern day Africa, what we now have are medical doctors in the stead of traditional herbalists and pills, syrup and injections in the place of local herbs.
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The African Symposium: An online journal of the African Educational Research Network
Advancements in science and technology have changed the medical practices of African societies. Spiritual explanations for the cause of ailment have given way to scientific practical explanations. More practical empirical explanations are now given to the outbreak of an epidemic rather than the traditional belief that such epidemic is as a result of spiritual attack or the deities’ wrath.
The effects of science and technology have also been felt in the agricultural practices of African societies. It is important to note that ownership of land in most traditional African societies is a communal matter. No individual has the right to own land but people did own land by virtue of belonging to the community. More so, farming in traditional African societies is carried out with crude tools such as hoes, cutlass and cudgel and it was usually at a subsistence level of growing food crops with the surplus harvest put to sale at times. Colonialism and its “brainchild”, science and technology, has inhibited the growth of indigenous technology in Africa to a large extent (Emeagwali, 1998). In contemporary African societies, land can now be owned by individuals. Mechanized farming has been made possible with the invention of tractors, bulldozer, mower, harvesters and other scientific instruments for agricultural practices. People now farm on a large scale basis and with a shift from food crop production to cash crop production. Thus, the traditional practice of communal ownership of farmland has been neglected for the individual form of mechanized farming.
Law And Rights in Comteporary African Societies
In social and political philosophy parlance, the terms law and rights have no consensual definitions. But for our purpose here, we shall stick by their ordinary meanings as they relate to the African society. Rights can be defined as the valid or legal claims that a person has to do or not to do something or to a thing while law is the enforceable rule protecting these rights.
In traditional African societies, the concept of right is different and opposite in orientation to the Western conception. This is because in traditional African societies, the concepts of right emphasizes community rights over individual right and freedom (Abdulraheem, 2011). The law that governed traditional African societies sees the community as one. This does not mean that individuals are not singled out for punishment when they break the law but that every right that an individual enjoy in pre-colonial African societies is as a result of belonging to a larger group in a community. It would however, be tantamount to injustice if it is not stated here that the laws of traditional African societies were patriarchal. The position of women in pre-colonial Africa was a reflection of the belief in their subordinate status. Formulation of the law gave premiums to men (Njoku, 1980). This is not to say that women have no rights. They do have some rights but only within the confines of their subordination to men.
These practices are no longer in vogue with the influence of Western civilization and enlightenment. Women in Africa are now accorded more individual rights as men and there are even sections of most African constitutions which give leniency to cases of women. In the pre-colonial African society, a woman has no legal right to seek divorce from her husband for any reason. This is no longer the case these days as the law no allows for women to file for divorce if the need arise. The Western conception of law have therefore, suppressed the traditional conception and practical application of law.
Contemporary Status of African Indigenous Political Systems
Pre-colonial Africa is populated by several hundreds of ethnic groups with varied political institutions. But, with these variations, there are overlapping features in most African political institutions such as patriarchal monarchy and centralized power. Pre-colonial African political institutions are also communalistic and the leaders are, most times, chosen by consulting with the oracles. Colonial powers have, however, superimposed new state organizations borrowed from Western historical experience on these pre-colonial institution and these have continued to be identified with today’s African countries (Gennaioli & Rainer, 2007).
Democratic election of leader has taken the place of divine (oracular) selection of leaders in modern day African societies. The systems of government are now modeled after those of the western societies. Thus, there is a debate on the policy of remaking Africa. Some have argued for “a return to ‘African roots’ and indigenous cultures of Africans for new social and political theories and practices to solve Africa’s problems” (Oke, 2006, p. 332). Some other scholars have also rejected this call for the return to ‘African roots’ in the search for social and political theories to solve the problems of Africa. As this debate persists, one fact about the contemporary Africa political system is that it is now a
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complexities of varying political systems, both those that are foreign and those that are indigenous to Africa.
Conclusion
In discussing the contemporary status of African traditional beliefs and practices, it is necessary to discuss all the aspects of the African life in which changes have occurred. This paper does not claim an exhaustive discussion of all of these aspects of life, but it has tried to critically examine some of the traditional beliefs and practices of Africans which have changed as a result of contact with foreign religious beliefs and cultural practices. It has been discussed that most African traditional beliefs and practices have gone into extinction, some are been practised at a minimal rate (e.g. religious festivals), while other traditional practices are been revived for their relevance to modern day necessity (e.g. resorting to the protective powers of indigenous religion’s deities).
However, Africa cannot completely strip itself of the cultural and religious complexity it has found itself. I would, thus, submit that in tackling the challenges that face contemporary African societies, there is the need to utilize the rich cultural heritages, both foreign and indigenous, that can be of great relevance. There is no need for a total return to ‘African roots’, but to merge the parts of African traditional beliefs and practices that are relevant in tackling the modern day challenges of Africa with those that are imported by foreign cultural practices and religious beliefs.
References
Abdulraheem, N. M. (2011). Rights of women in the pre-colonial and post-colonial era: prospects and challenges. Retrieved June 07, 2016 from http://www.unilorin.edu.ng/publications/abdulraheemnm. Arowolo, D. (2010). The effects of western civilization and culture in Africa. Afro Asian Journal of Social Sciences, 1(1). Emeagwali, G. T. (March 1998). Colonialism and science: the African case, Paper presented at the conference on Matrices of Scientific knowledge, Oxford University, UK. Retrieved June 07, 2016 from http://www.africahistory.net Gbadegesin, S. (1991). African philosophy: Traditional Yoruba philosophy and contemporary African realities. New York, NY: Peter Lang. Gennaioli, N. & Rainer, I. (2007). The modern impact of precolonial centralization in Africa. Journal of Economic Growth, 12(3), 185-234. Idowu, B. (1962). Olodumare: God in Yoruba belief. London: Longman Group Ltd. Idowu, B. (1973). African traditional religion: a definition. London: SCM Press Ltd. Makinde, M. A. (2010). African philosophy: The demise of a controversy, Ile-Ife, Nigeria: Obafemi Awolowo University Press. Mbiti, J. S. (1969). African religions and philosophy, London: Heinemann Educational Books Ltd. Mezzana, D. (2002). The end of a stigma: African traditional religions and modernity. Retrieved June 07, 2016 from http://www.assatashakur.org/forum/traditional/34482-end-stigma-african- traditional-religions-modernity-html. Njoku, J. E. (1980). The world of Africa. London: Scarecrows Press Inc. Oke, M. (2006). Cultural nostalgia: A philosophical critique of appeals to the past in theories of re- making Africa. Nordic Journal of African Studies Vol. 15, No. 3, 2006, p. 332.
Author
Olanshile Muideen Adeyanju Department of Philosophy Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife [email protected]/ 08034660553
23 Volume 15, No. 3, July 2016 The African Symposium (ISSN# 2326-8077)
The African Symposium: An online journal of the African Educational Research Network
DISSECTING J.P. CLARK’S OZIDI: A SYNTACTIC PERSPECTIVE
Olarotimi Daniel Ogungbemi University of Ibadan
Abstract
Existing studies on J.P Clark-Bekederemo's drama have focused mainly on thematic functions. In the process, they have brought out the relation of themes to the meanings of the drama texts. These studies have ignored largely how Systemic Functional Linguistic devices contribute to meaning in his plays. The present study is, therefore, a syntactic appreciation of J.P. Clark’s Ozidi with a view to showing how syntactic devices contribute to meaning clarifications in the text. Syntactic features such as declarative mood, interrogative mood, imperative mood, and complex sentences were deployed strategically to achieve meanings and convey the intentions of the playwright. The above mentioned features are deployed to capture social and political realities in the country. To a very large extent, the meaning of the text depends on these features. These features help to convey series of information, and it is equally evident that the feelings of the playwright are fused into the messages that are both informative and didactic in the text.
Keywords: J.P Clark, Ozidi, Systemic Functional Linguistics, mood types, complex sentences
Introduction
Functional grammarians are interested in finding the link between the grammar and the meaning, as well as the grammar and the context. De Sylva and Burns (1999: 34) opine that … “if we see language as functionally related to its context of use, grammar is seen as determined by the kinds of discourses and texts that people need to produce for different purposes in different social contexts.” Systemic Functional Linguistics provides language with the affordances for making meaning and authenticating context with supporting linguistic components in the text. Young and Harrison (2004:1) and Lehtonen and Varis (2009) believe that Systemic Functional Linguistics is a semiotic approach which examines the functions that language has evolved to serve. SFL views language as a social construct; it considers the role of language in the society and the ways in which society has fashioned language. In addition, SFL makes a case for a dialectical view of language in which particular discursive events influence the contexts in which they occur and contexts are in turn influenced by these discursive events (Fowler et al 1979). Systemic Functional Linguistics also emphasizes the cultural and historical aspects of meaning (Graham 2004:33-35).
Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) used as a theoretical framework for this study was developed by M.A.K Halliday, who built this conception of language on the ideas of his tutor, J.R Firth. It is an approach to linguistic description which aims to provide a comprehensible account of how language is used in contexts for communication. SFG, in the words of Gotzsche (2009), considers:
Language as a resource that is fundamentally shaped by the uses that people make of it; hence it aims to explain the forms of language in terms of the meanings that they express.
SFL also aims to develop a grammar which is designed to ‘make it possible to say sensible and useful things about any text, spoken or written’ (Halliday 1994:15). It has four basic categories that are systematically linked to one another. The four categories are: unit, structure, system and class. Unit refers to the category which corresponds a segment of the linguistic material about which statements are to be made (unit comprises morpheme, word, group, clause and sentences). Structure is “the category set up to account for likeness between events in successitivity” (Halliday 1967) (for instance, a sentence contains a subject, predicate, complement and adjunct). System is set up to account for the occurrence of one rather than another from a number of like events. In other words, it is the choice made from alternative forms within a structure e.g choosing between a pronoun and a noun or a present and past tense in a predicate. And class is described by Halliday (ibid) “the grouping of members of a given unit which is defined by operation in the structure of the unit next above. Put succinctly, it is the categorization of similar patterned words into distinct grammatical groups’ e.g verb, adjective, adverb.
J.P Clark is certainly an internationally recognized African writer. His works have evoked volume of criticisms across the globe. The bulk of the studies on this eminent and scholarly
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The African Symposium: An online journal of the African Educational Research Network
playwright/poet, focuses on the literary and thematic features, thereby almost neglecting the linguistic aspects. Non linguistic studies on the plays of Clark include (Egudu 1976), Olaniyan (2014) and Teilano (2007). Yeibo’s works (2011a, 2011b, 2012a and 2012b) are all on J.P Clark’s poetry. From the two perspectives where Clark’s works have been studied, little or no effort has been made to solely address a Syntactic appreciation of his plays. While these studies have made insightful interpretations of the stylistic and thematic aspects they investigated, none has addressed the Systemic Functional Linguistic tools employed by the playwright to encode the messages of the play under study- Ozidi. This article examines J.P. Clark’s Ozidi with a special focus on how the playwright deploys syntactic devices to make commentaries on his country, Nigeria. The paper is interested in revealing the Systemic Functional Linguistic tools deployed by J.P Clark as he uses the play - Ozidi to portray the political and social experiences of the Nigeria nation.
Ozidi: A Synopsis
The play, Ozidi, is set in Orua. It tells the story of a man, Ozidi who is confronted by impossible tasks. Orua needs a king. Ozidi cannot be king because his elder brother, Temugedege is alive. The latter is not fit to be king, and Ozidi protests strongly against the desire of the council of state making Temugedege king. But the Council of State goes ahead and makes Temugedege king. Ozidi demands that since his brother has been made king, the latter be honoured as tradition requires. The men of Orua go to hunt for “a prize far beyond the lion’s head” (18) to honour the new king. There is a conspiracy. Ozidi is murdered by his kinsmen, and his head is presented to King Temugedege. The play tells of the posthumous birth of Ozidi's son, the extraordinary manner of his growing up under the magic wings of his grandmother, Oreame, and of the numerous battles the hero engages in with all manner of men and monsters to regain for his family its lost glory. Ozidi is aided and guided by his grandmother, Oreame, who possesses supernatural powers. In his bid to make those who killed his father pay, Ozidi oversteps the natural bounds set to his quest, and it is not until he has received a divine visit from the Smallpox King that he emerges purged and is received back into the society of men.
Analysis and Discussion
J.P. Clark deployed the declarative mood in making invaluable comments about the social, cultural and political lives of Nigeria and Nigerians in the drama text - Ozidi. Instances of his use of the declarative mood are shown below.
1) Nobody is going to serve Temugede; he is an idiot. (Ozidi 15) 2) No sacrifice will sweeten them. (Ozidi 6) 3) We men have important affairs of state to consider right now. (Ozidi, 6) 4) You were never one to care in what position you stood in the eye of the public. Right now, if I may tell you, Orua is like a tree fallen in the open. (Ozidi, 7)
The first sentence is a statement of fact about the rivalry between Ozidi and Temugede, his brother who was chosen as the king at the expense of Ozidi. It is expressed with a tone of finality. In sentence (1) also, the second declarative sentence “he is an idiot” goes a long way to tell us how convinced Ozidi is about what he is telling the readers as regards his brother the king designate. This finds a parallel in the Nigerian political situation today. It is not uncommon among politicians in the country to publicly display their rivalry for all and sundry to see. In (2) above, the sentence is also rendered in a declarative mood. It is an assertion also of the fact that politicians in the country are selfish to a fault. Nothing satisfies them. This statement is uttered by the Old Woman to the Storyteller. This is strategically deployed by Clark to show the level of corruption in the country. However hard the people cry and groan, the leaders and the political class will not be moved to help them. In (3) above, the sentence is also assertive. It is said by the Storyteller in response to the Old Woman. The Storyteller said this to dismiss the Old Woman. J.P. Clark deployed this to show the inequality and power play that exist between the men folk and the women folk. It is a way of saying you have to excuse us now because you are not wanted here; this is the gathering for men who are superior to women. In (4), the mood is also declarative. Ofe was referring to one of the elders. An elder in any society especially in the African society is expected to be exemplary and a source of motivation to others in the society. J.P Clark is saying that leaders in the country just do not care about the position of the country in the eye of the public, local or international. The declarative statement, “Orua is like a tree fallen in the open” captures the Nigerian situation. To the international community and other concerned citizens of the country, Nigeria is a
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disgrace and not living up to her potentials. She is a country heading for a collapse.
Further, the playwright, J.P. Clark, used the interrogative mood to make commentaries on the political, religious and the socio cultural beliefs of the people in Nigeria. There are instances of utterances in the texts under study that evoke the interrogative mood.
5) Temugede, what are you doing with a chewing stick in your mouth at this time of day? (Ozidi, 13) 6) You will save him for me, won’t you Tamara? (Ozidi, 26) 7) Is the great Ozidi telling us the throne of Orua is not big enough for the buttock of some people? (Ozidi, 9) 8) Is some poor fellow dying again? (Ozidi, 98)
The playwright deployed the interrogative mood in (5) above to intimate the reader(s) with how leaders in the country do not set their priority right. The interrogative statement is from Ozidi to Temugede who have just been pronounced king in Orua. As a king one should be proactive and up and doing about matters that concern and benefit the citizenry. Obviously, Temugede was just brushing his teeth at an inappropriate time, when more important things should be attended to. This finds a semblance with the Nigerian political terrain. Leaders are mainly incompetent. Little wonder, they are notorious for misplacing their priorities. They either do not do the right thing at the right time or do not do anything at all. In (6), Orea beseech one of the gods known to the Ijaw people, Tamara, the ‘Mother Almighty’, to protect her husband from the hands of his enemies in Orua. The sentence is also assertive. In the face of an impending danger, Orea commits the safety of her husband to the hands of a higher authority, a deity called Tamara. This is coming after it appears she has done everything humanly possible to convince her husband not to join in the raid that eventually led to his death. Here, J.P. Clark also reminds the readers that humans are mainly reliant on supernatural elements for their survival. When all seems over from a human position, humans remember the higher forces and look on them for liberation. In (7) above, J.P Clark is confrontational and daring. Leadership should not be the exclusive rights of an advantaged few. In Nigeria, some groups of people consider rulership as their birth rights. Ozidi in the play belongs to this group of people. Despite the fact that the majority has chosen his brother as the king, Ozidi still insists that his brother is not the rightful person to the throne. He calls his brother names just to discredit him before the people. Clark is in effect exposing the power play or tussle that goes on especially the political arena, in the society. Furthermore, in (8) above, Clark deploys the polar question to show the confusion of the people. They are confused; they have lost track of the tragedies befalling them. Clark deploys this to make comments on the Nigerian situation. Nigerians are fond of asking questions as the one in (8) because their land is not secure. The leaders have failed to provide security for the people and the land. They appear lost and confused.
The imperative mood is also used to convey his intentions and vision in the texts under study. Through the imperative mood, J. P. Clark comments on societal decadence and ills. Instances of the imperative mood are clear in the following sentences in Ozidi:
9) Give us good wives 10) Give us good children 11) Give us good money (Ozidi, 4) 12) Change your ways (Ozidi, 59) 13) Ozidi, do not go into the night. (Ozidi, 23)
The society described in the drama text Ozidi is one that is experiencing decay from different perspectives. There are no good wives; the children are not responsible and money is hard to come by. Imperative sentences (9-11) are instances of ‘give’ command from the members of the community to supposedly higher authority. The people are disturbed and fed up with the negative trends events are taking in the country. Therefore, they ask for good wives. It is a general believe in Africa that good wives will bring about good children. It is disheartening to see hunger amid of plenty. Nigeria is richly blessed with mineral resources and human resources. Therefore, it is shocking that in the midst of plenty, many are hungry. Thus, the people want to find solution to these anomalies as soon as possible. The mood in sentences (9-11) shows urgency and desperation. If necessary things are not done to correct the
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The African Symposium: An online journal of the African Educational Research Network
situation, those making the demands might take the law into their own hands. In (12), the imperative statement is said by Orea to Ozidi. This is because of Ozidi’s violent behaviours. This sentence is also symbolic; it is J.P. Clark’s way of warning violent individuals especially leaders in society to desist from violence. Sentence thirteen is a warning and equally a command. Here, Orea warns and commands Ozidi not to go into the night. It is a stamp on the fact that the night or darkness signifies or is synonymous with hazard. This is tactically deployed by Clark to show the danger that comes with nightfall in the country. Night brings about insecurity, peril and annihilation. It is a time used by political rivals to slaughter and maim one another. The mood in the sentences above shows urgency, warning and desperation. The mood calls for urgent actions. It is observed that Clark’s deployment of these mood types concern complimentary themes and subject matters. The three mood types deal with deprivation, violence, betrayal, etc.
In addition, J.P. Clark’s intentions and vision are also encoded via sentence typology in the text- Ozidi. A sentence type that is deployed strategically by the playwright is the complex sentence. In the complex sentences, the two clauses are not equal. One usually depends on the other and cannot stand alone.
14) Until you bring him cowries and cows, we shall not sleep in this city (18) 15) He will tear us to pieces like mere goats unless we do something at once (19) 16) After the ceremony, he ceases to be mere wood (18) 17) You will tell the whole story if I gave you (32) 18) If you are my true brother, you will take care of all that (14)
J.P. Clark’s Ozidi describes a society in which there are inequalities. When one considers the import of what is said in (14) above, the disparity becomes evident. The ruling class and the ruled are captured in the complex sentence. Despite the fact that the rulers are privileged by virtue of their social and political standing, their subjects will still have to suffer to make sure the rulers are fine. This situation describes the Nigerian situation perfectly. One’s standing in the country determines how much power one wields. The rulers prey on the ruled. The stronger one is, the more likelihood one dominates the weaker ones. The rich and influential control and dominate the poor in the country. Further, through the sentence in (14), the playwright has its take on corruption, a problem that is the bane of a good Nigeria. Corruption appears to be the oil that greases the Nigeria’s engine. With the gifts of cowries and cows, the people are assured of their peace. However, should they fail to bribe and placate the more powerful, disaster awaits them. Corruption is everywhere in the country. This has resulted in a myriad of problems. People prey on people. It is no longer news to hear that before job seekers are given jobs in the country, some of them have to pay through their noses. Before contracts are awarded, contractors must agree to give certain percentage of the money to the people giving out the contract. The first clause in (15) is a representation of how violent a man can be. The clause carrying this message is the independent clause. This is a deliberate attempt by J.P Clark to tell the reader(s) that the country is very violent. People are seen as animals. Little wonder then, they are mauled and killed for no just and good reasons. Violence is considered the answer to almost every question.
In (16) above, the disparity between the clauses shows the nature of man. It is widely believed that a man’s true behavior is known when he becomes rich or holds power. The subordinate clause in the sentence reveals that Temugedege is still not showing the people his real self. When he becomes the king, he shows his true colours by making demands from the people. Truly, he ceases to be a mere wood. This also finds a parallel in the Nigerian situation. Politicians are notorious for hiding their true colours before elections, only to show them when they hold political offices. In 17, J. P. Clark also uses the complex sentence to talk about the insidious power of corruption. Orea, Ozidi’s wife, is the one talking here. She wants to know if her husband has been killed but the two messengers are being diplomatic and will not tell her. Sensing they will only talk if she gives them what they want from her, she tells them the secret of Ozidi’s power. Through her interaction with the two men, she knows something terrible has happened to her husband. Clark is in effect saying that bribery is the key that can open any door in the country. Another problem confronting the country is incompetence of our leaders. In 18 Clark talks about this particular problem. Temugedege, Ozidi’s older brother, knows he is a misfit for the position of a king, yet becomes a king. He reasons that Ozidi being a powerful man will be there to fight and go to wars in the king’s behalf. Ozidi is killed while trying to help his brother.
Clark’s language in the texts is simple and down to earth even though the sentences are the complex types. The implication of this is that simplicity is one of the stylistic peculiarities of the text, Ozidi. It is also reveals the narrative style adopted by the playwright.
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The African Symposium: An online journal of the African Educational Research Network
Conclusion
Halliday’s Systemic Functional Theory on which the study is anchored has been justified in this study. In Halliday (1991:18), language is said to perform these three functions: experiential or ideational, interpersonal and textual. At different linguistic levels, J.P Clark in his play understudy- Ozidi deploys language to perform different functions in the society. This study reveals that in various ways J.P Clark uses language to make commentaries on social and political issues in his immediate environment and beyond. Syntactic features such as mood types and complex sentences are deployed. The text was written decades back but the messages it conveys are timeless to the Nigerian situation. The play deals with issues of corruption, politics, leadership, etc. Clark uses the text to make commentaries on these issues to the Nigerian government and the Nigerian people. Clark’s diction succeeds in delivering his message effectively in all the texts studied. In the text, Clark consciously adheres to character code concordance – a stylistic norm in which there is appropriate linguistic matching between character and language. The clausal nesting in the text, even when it appears heavy, does not blur comprehension. The clauses are so woven to suit the various situations of the stories. Complex sentence patterns are deliberately employed to show the nature of the society in which the texts are set.
References
De Sylva J. H., & Burns, A. (1999). Focus on grammar. Sydney: NCELTR. Egudu, R. N. (1976). J. P Clark’s The Raft: the tragedy of economic impotence. World Literature Written in English, 15 (2) p. 309-326. Gotzsche, H. (2009). Key ideas in linguistics and the philosophy of language. Systemic functional grammar. Eds. S. Chapman& C Routledge. Edinburg: Edinburg University Press. Halliday, M.A.K. (1967). Notes on transitivity and theme in English. Journal of Linguistics (2)3, 199-241. Halliday, M.A.K. (1991). Towards probabilistic interpretations. Functional and systemic linguistics: Approaches and uses. Ed. Ventola E . Berlin/ New York: Mouton de Gruyter. Olaniyan, M.E. (2014). Symbolism in the drama of J.P Clark and Femi Osofisan. International Journal of Innovative Research&Development. (3) 4. P. 493-498 Simpson, P. (1993). Language, ideology and point of view. London & New York: Routledge. Teilano, D.I. (2007). Figurative language in translation: a study of J.P. clark’s The Ozidi Saga. Meta translators’ journal, 52 (2), p. 309-326. Yeibo, E. (2011a). Group types as style markers in J.P. Clark-Bekederemo’s poetry. Theory and practice in language studies. 1(8), p. 928-934. Yeibo, E. (2011b). Patterns of lexical choices and stylistic function in J.P. Clark-Bekederemo’s Poetry. International Journal of English Linguistics. 1(1), p. 137-149. Yeibo, E. (2012a). Deictics and stylistic function in J.P. Clark-Bekederemo’s poetry. International Journal of English linguistics. 2(1), p. 107-117. Yeibo, E. (2012b). Figurative Language and stylistic function in J.P. Clark-Bekederemo’s Poetry. Journal of Language teaching and research. 3(1) p. 180-187.
Author
Olarotimi Daniel Ogungbemi University of Ibadan [email protected]
28 Volume 15, No. 3, July 2016 The African Symposium (ISSN# 2326-8077)
The African Symposium: An online journal of the African Educational Research Network
FUEL SUBSIDY PALAVER: ANALYSIS OF THE NIGERIAN PRESS COVERAGE OF JANUARY 2012 NATION-WIDE STRIKE
Adeyemi Aderogba Osun State University
Abstract
Attempts by the Government of Nigeria to remove subsidy on petrol in recent years have led to public agitations. The research reported in this paper examined the press coverage of the crisis consequent upon the last time such attempt was made. Four Nigerian newspapers were content analyzed. It was discovered that most of the stories published in the newspapers were against the removal of petrol- subsidy. Advantages of deregulation in petroleum industry notwithstanding, government needs to consider people’s interest in its policy formulation and implementation.
Key words: Fuel subsidy removal, anti-subsidy removal, pro-subsidy removal, corruption, oil industry, deregulation of petroleum sector, nation-wide strike.
Introduction
Subsidy is a household word in Nigeria as indeed in so many other nations around the world. The Oxford dictionary defines it as “a sum of money granted by the state or a public body to help an industry or business keep the price of a commodity or service low”. It could also be described as “a sum of money granted to support an undertaking held to be in the public interest”. The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), for its part, describes subsidies as “a measure that keeps prices for consumers below market levels, or keeps prices for producers above market levels or that reduces costs for both producers and consumers by giving direct or indirect support”. (OECD, 2006:7).
Subsidies can be found in all economic sectors (OECD, 2006). The belief in many quarters is that there is no economic sense in subsidies of goods and services. This is simply because every cent spent on subsidies is usually taken from money meant for the development of other crucial areas of the economy. Based on this belief, the European Community for instance, adopted a policy against subsidies termed “anti-subsidy regulations”. The policy is basically against subsidies of European Union-bound goods. (see European Union Trade Policy. nd.)
Subsidies could come in the form of grants and other direct payments. Based on this fact, tax concessions, in-kind subsidies, cross subsidies, credit subsidies and government guarantees, hybrid subsidies, subsidies through government procurement, derivates subsidies and market price support are all identified forms of subsidies. (see Ronald Steenblik nd. Pp. 18-26). Fuel subsidy comes under government grants or direct payments. Some experts are of the opinion that fuel subsidy is unsustainable because subsidy bills are ever growing and could have adverse effects on other sectors of the economy. Ascher (1999:406-407) draws attention to “…the absurd mismanagement of Nigerian oil…, the underpricing of petroleum in Nigeria … does not always benefit consumers.” He notes:
Petroleum underpricing, coupled with deliberate neglect of refineries, created shortages and smuggling opportunities that brought scarcity rents to those in the military that controlled oil flows. (Ascher, 1999: 406-407)
But any attempt to remove subsidy on petrol in Nigeria can cause prices of other goods and services to increase thereby leading to rise in the cost of living of the people, majority of whom live in abject poverty. Odusola (1997:121) has noted that:
Sub-Saharan African countries are noted for prevalence of absolute poverty in all its characteristic features. Poverty in these countries is massive, pervasive and chronic, engulfing a large proportion of the society.
Seventy percent of Nigerian people live below poverty level. Poverty is indeed a serious problem in Nigeria (Onyeizugbe and Onwuka 2012, Onwuka 2012). In an article titled “Bridging the wealth gap”, published in the Punch newspaper, Muhammad Balogun wrote, that with “a gross domestic
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The African Symposium: An online journal of the African Educational Research Network
product (purchasing power parity) of $369.8bn (2010 estimate) 70 percent of Nigerians are living below poverty line […and] the wealthiest 10 percent Nigerians … account for 32.4 percent of the total house- hold income while the poorest 90 percent account for just 2 percent.”
It is therefore difficult to convince average Nigerians to support any government policy that calls for more sacrifice from the people. This is particularly so when people are aware that the government officials that are calling on them to sacrifice more are all living extravagant lives. The cost of governance in the country is ranked among the highest in the world and there is wide-spread official corruption so much so that corruption and government inefficiency have been identified as some of the major reasons why Nigeria is in the present economic predicament.
Attempts at Fuel Subsidy Removal in Nigeria
Fuel Subsidy removal is a recurring dilemma in Nigerian social, political and economic development. Subsidy on petrol became government policy in Nigeria in 1973 during the administration of the military head of state General Yakubu Gowon, when government made the first attempt at regulating fuel price. General Olusegun Obasanjo, as the head of state, was the first to increase the price in 1978, he reviewed the price from 8.4 kobo to 15.37 kobo. His successor, President Shehu Shagari, raised the price to 20K, while General Ibrahim Babangida moved it to 39.5kobo on 31st March, 1986 (the currency exchange market was also liberalized during the same period and the Naira was allowed to float freely against major world currencies) and on 10th April. 1988, the Babangida administration increased the price again to 42K per litre. The price was to be further increased by the same regime to 60K for private cars on 1st January, 1989. This latest increase was the first in the nation’s history to spark off a nation-wide protest. General Babangida increased the price again on 6th March, 1991 to 70K. He had the intention of further price hike but he exercised restraint because of the political situation in the country. According to Okogu (nd: 388):
In 1993, many attempts were made to raise the price, but the government's timing was clumsy at best and mischievous at worst. The price was supposed to be raised in May 1993 — just weeks before the Presidential elections — when it was clear that such action at that time would almost certainly lead to social unrest. In August, just days before leaving office, the former military government announced new prices for petroleum products.
On 8th November 1993, the newly appointed Interim National Government headed by Ernest Sonekan raised the price to ₦5, a move that caused national outcry against the interim (illegitimate) government and eventually led to its collapse. Administration of General Abacha calmed down the agitating masses by reducing the price to ₦3.25 kobo on 22nd November 1993, only to increase it to ₦15.00 on 10th October, 1994 and reduce it to ₦11.00 two days later. After the demise of General Abacha, the new administration of General Abdusalami Abubakar increased the price on 2nd December, 1998 to ₦25.00 before reducing it to ₦20.00 on 6th January, 1999 (The Punch of 2nd of January 2012 page 9). Since 1973, petrol prices have either been increased or decreased 21 times by successive governments. Prices were increased 14 times but each time the people responded violently, the government usually back pedaled by reducing prices. This happened 7 times. The latest increase came from President Jonathan who announced a change in pump price of petrol on 1st January, 2012 to ₦141.00 per litre but the nation-wide strike that ensued and the fear that it may lead to total breakdown of law and order in the country forced the President to back-pedal to ₦97.00 per litre with a promise to move it up again in the nearest future. The fall of crude oil in international market during the last quarter of 2014 necessitated the reduction of pump price to the current level i.e. ₦87.00 per litre. Nigeria is not alone in this situation. So many countries around the world are having difficulties in tackling energy subsidy mostly because of political considerations (Widodo et al, 2012, A Guidebook to Fossil-fuel Subsidy Reform, 2013).
Arguments in Support of Fuel Subsidy Removal
Nigeria is a poor nation though with great potential. Nwachukwu (2012) wrote “according to the recent global finance ranking of the richest or poorest countries of the world, Nigeria is placed 43rd poorest nation in the world with a GDP purchasing power parity per head of $2,358. Considering the country’s situation, Nwachukwu believed that Nigeria needs all the money it can get to fund the key sectors of the economy, such as health, education, power and agriculture.
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Other vices attributed to fuel subsidy are corruption and total collapse of local refineries. Nwachukwu (2012) argued that fuel subsidy makes local refineries unprofitable for private investors wishing to invest in them and that fuel subsidy is the reason for acut fuel shortages at fuel stations as corrupt petrol-marketers, after receiving subsidy grants, have then proceeded to sell the subsidized fuel to neighbouring countries at higher prices. Okogu (1995:385) supported this claim. He wrote:
“the neighbouring countries of Chad and Cameroon have much higher fuel prices than Nigeria, and the brisk smuggling activities across the borders with these countries testify to this. In fact, the Cameroonian refinery at Cap Limboh is closed down from time to time because of cheap, surplus supplies of smuggled Nigerian products”
Based on these arguments, Ben Nanaghan, in an article published in the Punch newspaper, pleaded with Nigerians to ignore the hardship subsidy removal would cause them initially, he believed that most countries of the world are undergoing economic hardship today just like Singapore did before and when that country’s foremost leader, Late Lee Khuan Yew, who ruled Singapore from 1959 to 1990 as Prime Minister, took over the leadership mantle of Singapore, his transformation agenda transformed the country to what it is today. According to him, Singapore used to be a settlement of 120 fishermen in 1819, she does not possess any natural resources but has as “her greatest strength and natural resources the people themselves who stood by their leaders during a difficult time”. The country is now a pride of the world.
Arguments Against Subsidy Removal
So many analysts hung the problem facing Nigeria on corruption and made a clarion call on the government to tackle it headlong (James et al, 1999). Kill corruption and not Nigeria. This was one of the most popular inscriptions of protesters’ placards during the nation-wide strike. Opposition politicians, civil liberty organizations, the academia, students, artistes etc all joined the protesters. An opposition politician during President Goodluck Jonathan’s administration, Bola Tinubu, like most of other anti-fuel subsidy removal campaigners, argued in an article he titled “The President breaks social contract with the people” that “the very first thing this government needs to do is to clean up and throw away the salad of corruption in Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation (NNPC)” (The Punch, 12th of January, 2012 pg 18).
So many people believed that the operation of NNPC is shrouded in secrecy and that theorganization is corrupt. Apart from various corruption allegations, the organization is accused of non-remittance of huge revenue to the federation account. The figure of such non-remittance was initially put at ₦450billion but Nigerian Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (NEITI), an agency of the government set up to monitor the activities of the extractive industry, claimed that the figure was ₦842 billion but the NNPC debunked the allegation (see the Guardian Editorial of 5th January, 2012 pg 16).
However, the investigation embarked upon by the Federal legislators during President Goodluck Jonathan’s regime revealed that there is indeed rot in the NNPC and quite a number of companies and people were implicated. But Nigerians waited in vain to see justice done against corrupt people that cornered petrol subsidy money into their private bank accounts. More revelations have since been made by the administration of President Muhammadu Buhari contrary to the NNPC claim. Emeka Ugwuanyi, in an article he titled “What next for NNPC after board dissolution?”, listed some of the corruption allegations against the corporation as “sharp practices such as oil swap, offshore processing agreement, violation of regulations, illegal deductions and non-remittance of funds…by withholding ₦3.8trillion from the ₦8.1trillion it generated in the past three years” (see The Nation, 1st July, 2015 pg 2-3).
Late Chinua Achebe, a world-renowned novelist, believed that the government needs to factor what he called the “scale of corruption in Nigeria” into the argument. The writer put the amount of money lost to corruption to at least $10 billion a year ($400 billion in 40 years). He was of the opinion that how to tackle corruption should be the focus of the present government. (The Punch, 12th January, 2012 pg 3).
Agbon Izielan, a former head of department of Petroleum Engineering, University of Ibadan in an article he titled “The Real Cost of Nigeria Petrol” argued that there is no petrol subsidy in Nigeria. He claimed that the reverse was the case. According to him, there was high sales tax of 91.2 percent at
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the prevailing price of N65. per litre before the January, 2012 hike in price because he believed that the nation wouldn’t have been in need of imported petrol if only the nation’s refineries were performing optimally. The expert wrote:
We have about 170,000 bbls of throughput refined for about 13.26 million litres of petrol, 6.8 million litres of diesel and 2.72 million litres of kerosene / jet fuel: This is not enough to meet internal national demand. So we send the remaining of our non- export crude oil volume (270,000 barrels per day) to be refined abroad and import the petroleum product back into the country. We will just pay for shipping and refining.
Agbon compared the price of petrol in the USA with that of Nigeria against the background that one barrel of crude oil is 42 gallons or 168 litres of crude oil, which when it is refined will give 45 gallons of petroleum products consisting of 4 gallons of LPG, 19.5 gallons of gasoline, 10 gallons of diesel, 4 gallons of jet fuel/Kerosene, 2.5 gallons of fuel oil and 5 gallons of bottoms. The researcher put the cost of 1 litre anywhere in Nigeria at N33.36 per litre as against N65 in 2011 or N87 in 2015. This calculation is based on the fact that, the government earmarked 445,000 barrel per day for meeting domestic refinery needs. But Agbon believed that government ought to have based its calculation on the price of swapped oil and not on the price of petrol in the international market. He concluded, just like the former petroleum minister in General Ibrahim Babangida’s administration, Prof. Tam David West, that there was no petrol subsidy in Nigeria because the price of a litre of swapped petrol is N34.45. The price of a litre of petrol at N65 before the 1st of January, 2012 price hike was already too high.
The manufacturers have been lamenting on the cost of generating electricity at their respective factories for production processes. They claimed that the sector spends over N2bn a week on the purchase of petroleum products before the 1st January, 2012 fuel subsidy removal. Roseline Okere, a public affairs analyst, argued that petrol, has all along been an important component of production processes and product distribution they asserted that small and medium enterprises (SMEs) would be generally affected (see The Guardian, 4th January, 2012, pg 44).
Objectives of the Study
The researcher put forward the following objectives:
1. To examine the most important issues covered by the press during the period of fuel subsidy removal crisis. 2. To find out the prominence given to fuel subsidy removal by the Nigerian press. 3. To find out the most important story theme that attracted the attention of the Nigerian press.
The following research questions were therefore examined:
1. What were the most important issues covered by Nigerian press during the period of fuel subsidy removal crisis? 2. What was the level of prominence accorded fuel subsidy removal by the Nigerian press? 3. What was the most important story theme covered by the Nigerian press?
Operational Definitions
Prominence: The placement of stories/illustrations on different pages of the newspapers tells much about the prominence of such items. Front-page as well as back-page materials of the selected newspapers were considered to be more prominent than those that were buried in the belly of the newspapers.
Pro-subsidy removal: Newspaper materials (stories) in support of subsidy removal.
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Anti-subsidy removal: Newspaper materials not in favour of subsidy removal.
Corruption in the oil industry: Newspaper publications on corruption in the oil industry.
Inefficiency of the refineries: Newspaper stories on inefficiency in Nigerian refineries.
Call for strike: Newspaper materials in support of strike action.
Slant: This is all about the tone of stories toward the government. The slant could either be positive, negative and neutral.
Violence/Causality: Newspaper stories about violent incidents/fatality.
Theoretical Framework
Social Responsibility Theory
Social Responsibility Theory is considered relevant to this study because of the underlying principles of the theory as has been pointed out by McQuail (1993:117). According to the scholar, the media should accept and fulfil certain obligations to society. These obligations can only be met by setting high standards of informativeness, truth, accuracy, objectivity and balance. In accepting and carrying out these obligations, the media should be self-regulating within the framework of the law and established institutions.
Journalists and media professionals should be accountable to the society as well as to their employers and the market. An accountable media practitioner would be truthful, accurate and objective as well as balanced (Adeyemi 2013:125-126).
Method
Four national newspapers were randomly selected through blind balloting to be content analyzed. Names of all well-known newspapers that enjoy national spread were written on small pieces of paper that were then squeezed and thrown into a basket. After thorough shuffling, four strangers were invited to pick one each. The following newspapers were picked: The Guardian, The Punch, This Day and Compass newspapers.
Study Period
The study covered 1st to 15th January 2012, the period of the crisis. The crisis began when on 1st January, 2012, President Jonathan announced the removal of fuel subsidy and ended immediately the strike action was called off on 15 January, 2012.
Study Universe
A total of 60 copies of the four selected newspapers were thoroughly examined and 1243 stories were found to be relevant to the study. Out of this number, 437 stories, or 35.15 percent of all the stories, appeared in the Punch, while the Guardian accounted for 322 stories, or 25.91 percent. This Day’s share of the stories was 290, or 23.33 percent, while the Compass accounted for 194 or 15.61 percent of all the stories published by the four newspapers.
Unit of Analysis
Units of analysis of this study include story headline, entire story, picture, cartoon and any other illustration.
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Result
Table 1: Story type
Pictorial News story Feature Interview Editorial News analysis illustration Advertorial Total News-paper F % F % F % F % F % F % F % F % The Punch 270 21.72 52 4.18 4 0.32 3 0.24 0 0 108 8.69 0 0 437 35.15 The Guardian 115 9.25 103 8.29 3 0.24 6 0.48 9 0.72 75 6.03 11 0.88 322 25.91 This Day 173 13.92 55 4.42 3 0.24 8 0.64 8 0.64 33 2.65 10 0.8 290 23.33 Compass 127 10.23 18 1.45 1 0.08 0 0 6 0.48 36 2.89 6 0.48 194 15.61 Total 685 55.15 228 18.34 11 0.88 17 1.34 23 1.85 252 20.26 27 2.6 N=1243 or 100%
Table 2: Prominence Front Page Back Page Inside Page Total Freq % Freq % Freq % Freq % NEWSPAPER THE PUNCH 29 2.33 4 0.32 404 32.5 437 35.15 THE GUARDIAN 25 2.01 6 0.48 291 23.41 322 25.91 THIS DAY 26 2.09 2 0.16 262 21.07 290 23.33 COMPASS 15 1.21 3 0.24 176 10.94 194 15.61 TOTAL 95 7.64 15 1.2 1133 87.92 N=1243 or 100%
During the 15 days covered by the study, the crisis dominated the four selected newspapers as fuel subsidy issue was given better coverage more than any other matter during the period under consideration. 95, or 7.64 percent, of the total number of stories made it to the front page, while as much as 1133, or 87.92 percent, were buried in the inside pages. On the other hand, because back pages are usually mostly dedicated to sports, only 15, or 1.2 percent, of the articles appeared on the back page.
Table 3: Slant Positive Neutral Total Negative NEWSPAPER Freq % Freq % Freq % Freq. % THE PUNCH 42 3.38 371 29.85 24 1.93 437 35.15 THE GUARDIAN 54 4.34 238 19.15 30 2.41 322 25.91 THIS DAY 71 5.71 188 15.12 30 2.41 290 23.33 COMPASS 35 2.82 149 12 10 0.8 194 15.61 TOTAL 202 16.25 946 76.12 94 7.56 N=1243 100%
34 Volume 15, No. 3, July 2016 The African Symposium (ISSN# 2326-8077)
The African Symposium: An online journal of the African Educational Research Network
Table 3 shows that 76.12 percent of stories published in the four papers were negative toward the government, 16.25 percent were positive, while just 7.56 percent were neutral.
Table 4: Story themes Pro-subsidy Anti-Subsidy Corruption in the Inefficiency of Call for Violence/ Total Removal Removal Oil Industry the Refineries Strike/ Fatality NEWSPAPER Protest Freq. % Freq. % Freq. % Freq. % Freq. % Freq. % Freq. % THE PUNCH 42 3.38 315 25.34 8 0.64 11 0.88 37 2.98 6 0.48 437 35.15 THE 53 4.26 215 17.3 7 0.56 1 0.08 18 1.45 7 0.56 322 25.91 GUARDIAN THIS DAY 68 5.47 154 12.39 1 0.08 2 0.16 20 0.16 10 0.8 290 23..33 COMPASS 34 2.74 104 8.37 2 0.61 11 0.88 12 0.97 14 1.13 194 15.61 TOTAL 197 15.85 788 63.4 18 1.89 25 2.01 87 5.56 37 2.97 N= 1243 or 100%
Table 4 reveals that 63.4 percent of all the stories published in newspapers selected for this study were against subsidy removal, 15.85 percent were for subsidy removal, 5.56 percent of all the stories were in support of the strike/protest, 2.97 were on violence/fatality, 2.01 percent were on inefficiency of the country’s refineries and 1.89 percent of all the materials were on corruption in the oil industry.
Table 5: Source Government Non- Government Foreign Individual News Agency Total Freq. % Freq. % Freq. % Freq. % Freq. % Freq. % NEWSPAPER THE PUNCH 138 2.98 168 5.39 9 0.72 33 2.65 1 0.08 437 35.15 THE GUARDIAN 156 4.51 133 2.57 4 0.32 39 3.14 0 0 322 25.91 THIS DAY 152 4.1 126 2.1 3 0.24 38 3.6 1 0.08 290 2.33 COMPASS 120 0.16 108 0.56 1 0.08 12 0.97 1 0.08 194 15.61 TOTAL 566 45.53 535 43.04 17 1.37 122 9.82 3 0.24 N = 1243 or 100%
Table 5 shows that 45.33 percent of the information came from the government sources, following closely was information from non-governmental organizations with 43.04 percent, then materials from individuals accounted for 9.82 percent of the total information, news stories from foreign sources 1.37 percent while news agencies contributed a meagre 0.24 percent.
35 Volume 15, No. 3, July 2016 The African Symposium (ISSN# 2326-8077)
The African Symposium: An online journal of the African Educational Research Network
Discussion
Fuel subsidy removal is perhaps one of the most sensitive issues in Nigeria and the findings of this study support this assertion. A total number of 1243 stories/picture illustrations were published by the four newspapers selected for the study. The Punch newspaper with 437 articles, or 35.15 percent, had the largest share of the stories, followed by the Guardian newspaper with 322, or 25.91 percent. This Day newspaper had 290, or 23.33 percent, and the Compass with 194 articles, or 15.61 percent. It was discovered that an average of 82.87 stories/ illustrations a day were published by the four newspapers.
The three research questions were examined:
Research question 1. What were the most important issues covered by the Nigerian press during the January 2012 fuel subsidy removal crisis?
Answer
Table 4 gives the breakdown of various fuel subsidy-related stories that adorned the pages of Nigerian newspapers. Stories that were totally against the removal of government subsidy on petrol, (that is, anti- subsidy removal) completely dominated the pages of the Nigerian press. A total number of 788 stories, or 63.4 percent of all the stories published in the four newspapers, were against fuel subsidy removal. Pro-subsidy removal stories amounted to 197 stories, or 15.85 percent, while 88 stories, or 7.09 percent, were neutral, and 87 stories, or 5.56 percent, were in support of the protest/strike action. 37 stories, or 2.97 percent, were on violence/fatality, 25 stories, or 2.01 percent, were on the inefficiency of Nigerian refineries and 18 stories, or 1.89 percent, were on corruption in oil industry.
Research questions 2. What was the level of prominence accorded fuel subsidy removal crisis by the Nigerian press?
Answer
Table 2 provide answers to this question. A total of 95 stories/picture illustrations, or 7.64 percent of all the stories published by the four newspapers examined in this study, made it to the front page. 15 stories, or 1.2 percent, were published on the back page of the selected newspapers while 1133 stories, or 87.92 percent of all the stories, were buried in the belly of the newspapers. Fuel subsidy removal was the major issue discussed in the press throughout the period of the crisis.
Research question3. What was the most important story theme covered by the Nigerian press?
Table 4 shows that stories that were totally against subsidy removal, (that is, anti-subsidy removal stories) completely dominated pages of the Nigerian press. A total of 788 stories, or 63.4 percent of all the stories published in the four newspapers, were against fuel subsidy removal.
Conclusion
Findings revealed that Nigerian media were not in support of increase in pump price of petrol, 63.4 percent of newspapers content examined in this research were classified as anti-subsidy removal, and only 15.85 percent of the content supported the idea. In the same vein, 76.12 percent of the newspapers content was negative towards the government.
Media practitioners indeed demonstrated that they are socially responsible by identifying with the yarning and aspiration of the Nigerian masses. Analysis of the selected newspapers revealed that 76.12% of the newspapers’ content was not in favour of the government policy of subsidy removal. No doubt, removal of oil subsidy will remain a contentious issue in Nigerian socio- political and economic life for some time to come. President Muhammadu Buhari that took over from President Goodluck Jonathan has promised not to remove oil subsidy soon so as not to aggravate the suffering of Nigerian masses. But he, however, promised to look into subsidy arrangement in order to make it corruption free.
Surprisingly, corruption in the oil industry which is believed to be the bane of economic development in Nigeria was not really considered a major problem going by the findings of this study
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The African Symposium: An online journal of the African Educational Research Network
as only 18 stories, or 1.89 percent of all the stories used, were on corruption. Overwhelming majority of newsmakers came out against the government’s policy direction and demonstrated their anger by turning the strike action into a carnival of sort.
Limitations of the study
Even though the newspapers used for this study were randomly selected, there exist the possibilities that not all the newspapers with national outlook in Nigeria made the sampling frame. Also, the study is on manifest content of the newspapers.
References
Adeyemi, A. (2013). Nigerian media and corrupt practices: The need for paradigm shift. European Scientific Journal, 9(1), 125-126. Agbon, I. (2012, January 8). The real cost of Nigeria petrol. The Guardian, p. 7. Ascher, W. (1999). Why governments waste natural resources: Policy failures in developing countries. Baltimore, Md: Johns Hopkins University Press. Balogun, M. (2012, January 1). Bridging the wealth gap. The Punch, p. 16. Clements, M. B. J., Coady, D., Fabrizio, M. S., Gupta, M. S., Alleyne, M. T. S. C., & Sdralevich, M. C. A. (2013). Energy subsidy reform: Lessons and implications. International Monetary Fund. European Union Trade Policy (nd.) Retrieved September 25, 2015 from http://ec.europa.eu/trade/policy/accessing-markets/trade-defence/actions-against-imports-into- the-eu/anti-subsidy/ International Institute for Sustainable Development. (2013). A guidebook to fossil-fuel subsidy reform for policy-makers in South East Asia. Retrieved October 1, 2015 from https://www.iisd.org/gsi/fossil-fuel-subsidies/guidebook Lasisi, A. & Augoye, J. (2012, January 1). A history of protests against subsidy removal. The Punch. p. 16. McQuail, D. (1993). Mass communication theory: An introduction (2nd ed.). New Delhi: Sage Publication. Nanaghan, B. (2012, January 1). Still on fuel subsidy removal. The Punch, p. 16. Nwachukwu, E. (2012, January 13). Fuel subsidy: Examining the facts. The Punch, p. 18. Odusola, A. F. (1997). Poverty in Nigeria: An eclectic appraisal poverty alleviation in Nigeria. Ibadan: Pat Mag Press. Okogu, B. E. (January 01, 1995). Issues in petroleum product pricing in Nigeria. Journal of African Economies, 4, 3, 378-405. Retrieved October 7, 2012 from http://jae.oxfordjournals.org/. pdf. Onyeizugbe C. U and Onwuka E. M. (2012). Fuel subsidy removal as an imperative for inhancing business development in Nigeria, VSRD International Journal of Business and Management research. Retrieved May 18, 2013 www.vsrdjournals.com Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. (2006). Subsidy reform and sustainable development: Economic, environmental and social aspects. (Source OECD.) Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development Post, J. E., Lawrence, A. T., & Weber, J. (1999). Business and society: Corporate strategy, public policy, ethics (9th ed.). Boston: McGraw Hill. Steenblik Ronald (nd.). A subsidy primer. Global subsidies initiative of the IISD. Geneva, Switzerland. Retrieved September 25, 2015 from https://www.iisd.org/gsi/subsidy-primer/ Widodo, T. G. A., Sahadewo, S. U. S., & Chaerriyah, M. (2012). Cambodia’s Electricity Sector in the Context of Regional Electricity Market Integration. In Wu, Y., Shi, X. & Kimura, F. (Eds.). Energy market integration in East Asia: Theories, electricity sector and subsidies, ERIA Research Project Report 2011-17 (pp.173-206). Jakarta: ERIA. Zahariadis, N. (2008). State subsidies in the global economy. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Author
Adeyemi Aderogba Osun State University Department of Languages and Linguistics College of Humanities and Culture Ikire Campus, Nigeria
37 Volume 15, No. 3, July 2016 The African Symposium (ISSN# 2326-8077)
The African Symposium: An online journal of the African Educational Research Network
APPROPRIATENESS OF FURTHER MATHEMATICS AS A PREQUISITE FOR MATHEMATICS RELATED COURSES IN NIGERIAN UNIVERSITY EDUCATION
Olusegun Ayodele Adelodun Ayobami Seyi Olayinka Obafemi Awolowo University
Abstract
The study aimed at determining the frequency of those that offered further Mathematics in secondary school related to the number currently studying mathematics related-course in the university with a view to inculcating positive attitude into the students about the study of further mathematics. The research adopted descriptive survey design. The population of the study comprised of 200 and 300 levels of Biological Sciences (Microbiology & Zoology departments) and Social Sciences (Economics & Geography departments) students in Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife. The sample consisted of 80 students who were selected randomly. Data collected were analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics. The findings revealed that there is a relationship in the performance of students offering mathematics related-courses in university education and further mathematics (p-value = 0.000 < 훼 = 0.05). This result further demonstrated that the observed mean of relationship between the number of students that offered further mathematics in secondary school and the number currently offering mathematics related-courses is higher in mean (푥 = 2.9875, 휎 = 1.09653). The study concluded that the number of students offering mathematics related-courses who did further mathematics in secondary school in Obafemi Awolowo University is rather low.
Keywords: Performance, University Education, Population t-test
Introduction
Further Mathematics affords Senior Secondary School (SSS) students opportunity to be introduced to some topics in Advanced Level mathematics in order to prepare them to study mathematics or mathematics-related courses in their next level of education. While all students offer mathematics, only few students normally offer further mathematics. The reason for this is not far fetched. National Council for Curriculum Assessment (2005) noted that many students view mathematics as a difficult subject and perceive higher mathematics as an elite subject for only the best students. Akinsola and Ogunleye (2003) asserted that students could only find the study of mathematics more appealing when they perceive the subject matter as interesting, useful and relevant to their daily living.
It is logical to think that students who offer further mathematics have opportunities to perform better especially in mathematics than their counterparts who do not offer further mathematics. There is a term in education called ‘opportunities to learn,’ Ground and Cebulla (2000) defined opportunities to learn with regards to mathematics and science as the extent of students have opportunity or chance to learn mathematics or any of the science subjects. This also bears directly on students’ mathematics and science achievement. Brophy (2000) explained that in maximizing opportunity to learn, attention should not be given to wide coverage of the syllabi, but there should also be conscious efforts to teach content and skill involved deeply. It can then be inferred that students who offered further mathematics have better opportunity to learn more mathematical concepts than their counterparts that do not.
Education at SSS level should supposedly be the bedrock and sure foundation for higher knowledge in tertiary institutions. It is an investment as well as an instrument that can be used to achieve a more rapid economic, social, political, technological, scientific and cultural development in Nigeria. The Federal Ministry of Education (2007) emphasized the National Policy stipulated that SSS education is an instrument for national development that fosters the worth and development of an individual for advanced knowledge, general development of the society and equality of educational opportunities to all Nigerian students, irrespective of any real or marginal disabilities. The role of SSS education is to lay the foundation for further education and if a good foundation is laid at this level, there are likely to be fewer problems at subsequent levels.
The findings of the study of Aliyu, Yashe and Adeyeye (2013) in conjunction with a number of other studies in recent years reveal some noteworthy results. The identified independent variable affects the performance of students in further mathematics; the level of educational attainment of teachers’
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The African Symposium: An online journal of the African Educational Research Network
qualifications is positively related with students’ outcome. The results of their study, though relatively small in scope, suggest a number of implications for policy intervention to improve the quality of teachers which will consequently improve students’ achievement.
According to Ukeje (1977), the increasing importance and attention given to mathematics stem from the fact that without mathematics there is no science, without science there is no modern technology, and without modern technology there is no modern society. In other words, mathematics is a precursor and the queen of science and technology and indispensable single element in modern social development. This suggests that there could be no real development technologically without a corresponding development in mathematics both as conceived and practiced. As it is rightly observed in Bajah (2000), no nation can make any meaningful progress in this information technology age, particularly in economic development without the foundation of science and mathematics.
The Wikipedia (2010) described further mathematics as the title given to a number of advanced secondary mathematics courses. In Nigeria, further mathematics happens to be one of the subjects designed to be studied at SSS level. As stated in the National Curriculum for SSS volume 5 of the Federal Ministry of Education (1998), the aims and objectives of further mathematics are to: help develop further conceptual manipulative skills and their applications; provide an additional intermediate course of study which bridges the gap between elementary mathematics and higher mathematics and meet the needs of potential mathematicians, Engineers, Scientists and other professionals, such as Administrators and Architects, etc.
National Council for Curriculum Assessment (2005) noted that many students view mathematics as a difficult subject and perceive higher mathematics as an elite subject for only the best students. Though the subject was made non compulsory for students, which explains their fewness, the performance of these students is not encouraging after all. One may be right to think that students’ performance in further mathematics should be high since it is the students that make a choice to offer the course. But unfortunately the results of previous studies on students’ performance in further mathematics have been full of apathy showing the sorry state of affairs surrounding further mathematics in Nigeria (Balogun, 1986). Poor academic performance according to Aremu and Sokan (2003) is one that is adjudged by the examinee/testee as falling below an expected standard. Poor academic performance has been observed in school subjects’ especially further mathematics among SSS students (Adesemowo, 2005). Over the past decades, educational planners, policy makers and administrators all over the world have become increasingly concerned about the quality of education provided by the school system. They have come to realize that many meaningful improvements in the quality of education that students receive are highly dependent on the quality of teachers (Anderson, 1991).
An issue of continuing concern is that of low students’ performance at 100 and 200 level mathematics courses. In recent years, a tendency for students to dislike mathematics has been noted with a resulting continuous decline in the performance of students in O’ level examinations. Before the 80s, most students who presented themselves for admission into mathematics department had at least credit pass in Additional mathematics. With poor implementation and low student enrolments in further mathematics, the paucity of potential tertiary mathematics students continued to dip (Odili, 2006). Those students who accepted to study mathematics did so as a last resort at the undergraduate level. The scenario at the department of mathematics is a weak connectivity between students and the high expectations of the entry behaviours of 100 and 200 levels tertiary mathematics. Such students arrive on campus not prepared for what traditionally is university level mathematics.
Statement of the Problem
The consistent low achievement of students in further mathematics is an issue of major concern. Some students perform poorly because they have strong hatred and phobia for further mathematics (WAEC, 2007). They perceive further mathematics as difficult, abstract, unattractive, boring, not captivating and not motivating and not related to their daily living. So they make little or no effort to study further mathematics. They may not have been exposed to the relevance of further mathematics to mathematics related courses. They cannot relate what they learnt in the classroom to what happens in their environment. This study then wants to focus on how the study of further mathematics can help reduce abysmal performance in mathematics related-courses in tertiary level of education. Literature search shows that there is empirical gap of information in this area; hence this study.
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The African Symposium: An online journal of the African Educational Research Network
Purpose of the Study
The specific objectives of the study are to determine the frequency of those that offered further mathematics in secondary school related to the number studying mathematics related-course in the university; ascertain whether taking further mathematics enhanced their understanding; and also determine the impact of prior further mathematics on their current performance.
Hypotheses
Based on the literature and model, the study is designed to test the following hypotheses:
HO1: There is no significant relationship between the performance of students offering mathematics related-courses in university education and further mathematics. HO2: There is no significant relationship between the understandings that will be enhanced by offering further mathematics before university education. HO3: There is no significant relationship between the students that offered further mathematics and mathematics related-courses in university education.
Methodology
The study adopted a descriptive research design. The study population comprised all 200 level and 300 level students in Biological and Social Sciences departments of the Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife. The sample consisted of two departments in Biological Sciences (Microbiology and Zoology) and also two departments in Social Sciences (Economics and Geography). A total of 80 students were selected using purposive sampling, stratified sampling and random sampling methods from the four departments. The instrument used for data collection was interview. The instrument was vetted for scrutiny and screening. The procedure for collecting the data was through a focused group discussion. Data collected were analyzed using descriptive (counts and percentages) and inferential (t- test) statistics.
Results
The results in Table 1 showed the demographic variables of the respondents. It was revealed that 20 (25.0%) of the respondents from each selected departments contributed to this study. The findings showed that 53 (66.0%) of the sampled students were male, while 27 (34.0%) were female. Furthermore, 21 (26.0%) of the students were within the age range of 17 – 20 years, while 43 (54.0%) of them showed age range within 21 – 24 years, and 16 (20.0%) of the respondents were also within the ages of 25 years and above.
Table 1: Statistical Distribution of Demographic Variables of the Respondents (n=80) Variables Frequency Percentage Biological Microbiology 20 25.0 Sciences Zoology 20 25.0 Social Economics 20 25.0 Sciences Geography 20 25.0 Sex Male 53 66.0 Female 27 34.0 17 – 20 21 26.0 Age (years) 21 – 24 43 54.0 25 and above 16 20.0
The relationship in the performance of students offering mathematics related-courses in university education and further mathematics was collated and analyzed inferentially with the help of SPSS as presented in Table 2.
40 Volume 15, No. 3, July 2016 The African Symposium (ISSN# 2326-8077)
The African Symposium: An online journal of the African Educational Research Network
Table 2: Statistical Distribution of Relationship in the Performance of Students Offering Mathematics Related-Courses in University Education and Further Mathematics One – Sample Statistics N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean hypl 80 8.2125 1.98535 .22197 One – Sample Test Test Value = 7 T Df Sig. Mean Diff. 95% Confidence Interval (2-tailed) of the Difference Lower Upper hypl 5.462 79 .000 1.21250 .7707 1.6543
The calculated t-value of 5.462 with p-value of 0.000 is less than 0.05 level of significance using 79 degrees of freedom. Hence the null hypothesis is rejected while the alternative one is accepted. This means that there is a relationship in the performance of students offering mathematics related-courses in university education and further mathematics. This result further demonstrates that the observed mean of relationship in the performance of students offering mathematics related-courses in university education and further mathematics is higher than the expected mean. Furthermore, a statistical comparison of the observed mean (Mean = 8.2125) and the expected mean value of 7.00 using population t-test gives a positive t-value. This implies that there is a relationship in the performance of students offering mathematics related-courses in university education and further mathematics.
The second hypothesis stated that there is no significant relationship between further mathematics and mathematics related-courses in university education. Population t-test is used to analyze the data obtained. A summary of the result is presented in Table 3.
Table 3: Statistical Distribution of Relationship between Further Mathematics and Mathematics Related-Courses in University Education One – Sample Statistics N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean hypl 80 2.8125 0.8025 .12078 One – Sample Test Test Value = 7 T Df Sig. Mean Diff. 95% Confidence Interval (2-tailed) of the Difference Lower Upper hypl 6.727 79 .000 .81250 .5721 1.0529
The result presented reveals that the calculated t-value of 6.727 with p-value of 0.000 is less than 0.05 level of significance using 79 degrees of freedom, hence the null hypothesis is rejected. This means that there is a statistically significantly relationship between further mathematics and mathematics related-courses in university education. This result further demonstrates that the observed mean of the relationship between further mathematics and mathematics related-courses in university education is higher than the expected mean. Furthermore, a statistical comparison of the observed mean (Mean = 2.8125) and the expected mean value of 2.00 using population t-test gives a positive t-value. This implies that there is a relationship between further mathematics and mathematics related-courses in university education.
Hypothesis 3 stated that there is no significant relationship between the students that offered further mathematics and mathematics related-courses in university education.
The result presented in Table 4 reveals that the calculated t-value of 8.055 with p-value of 0.000 is less than 0.05 level of significance using 79 degrees of freedom, and hence the alternative hypothesis is accepted. This means that there is statistically a significant relationship between the number of students that offered further mathematics in secondary school and the number currently offering mathematics related-courses. This result further demonstrates that the observed mean of relationship between the number of students that offered further mathematics in secondary school and the number currently offering mathematics related-courses is higher in mean. Moreso, a statistical comparison of the observed mean (Mean=2.9875) and the expected mean value of 2.000 using population t-test gives a positive t-value. This implies that there is a relationship between the number of students that offered
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The African Symposium: An online journal of the African Educational Research Network
further mathematics in secondary school and the number currently offering mathematics related- courses.
Table 4: Statistical Distribution of Relationship between the Number of Students That Offered Further Mathematics in Secondary School and the Current Number Offering Mathematics Related-Courses One – Sample Statistics N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean hypl 80 2.9875 1.09653 .12260 One – Sample Test Test Value = 7 T Df Sig. Mean Diff. 95% Confidence Interval (2-tailed) of the Difference Lower Upper hypl 8.055 79 .000 .98750 .7435 1.2315
Discussion
The introduction of further mathematics into the school curriculum was one of the recommendations of a national workshop on policies and strategies for the improvement of the teaching and learning mathematics at all levels organized by the National Mathematics Centre (NMC) (Badmus, 1997). From the data analyzed, the findings reveal that the relationship between students offering mathematics related-courses in the university and those who did further mathematics in the secondary is very low. This was in line with the submission of House (2006) who enumerated that students’ belief about further mathematics has contributed mainly to low number of students offering the subject. Beliefs have shown to affect how students learn and what they want to learn (Sahin, 2009a).
In the course of this research, there was revelation that there is a relationship between further mathematics and mathematics related-courses in university education. This finding was in line with the submission of Odili, 2006 who stated that some students arrive on campus not prepared for what traditionally is university level mathematics or mathematics related-courses and this in turns affect their performances. The poor entry behaviour of most students can be directly linked to poor attitude towards further mathematics in secondary school. In line with the opinion of Aliyu et al. (2013) that every senior Secondary School should endeavour to offer further mathematics in order to have enough prospective qualified science and engineering students in the institution of higher learning.
The study further stated that there is a relationship between the performance of students offering mathematics related-courses and further mathematics. The knowledge of further mathematics goes a long way in affecting the performance of students in mathematics related-courses in university education. The reason for poor performance among students in most mathematics related-courses in university education is due to the fact that most of the students didn’t offer further mathematics in secondary school. This is in line with the submission of Brophy (2000) who explained that many of the topics in mathematics related-courses in the university and further mathematics are inter-related. Most students who offered further mathematics in secondary school generally performs very well in most mathematics related-courses in the university.
Conclusion
The study concluded that the number of students offering mathematics related-courses who did further mathematics in secondary school currently in the Obafemi Awolowo University is rather low, and it is likely to continue if no intervention measures are taken.
Recommendations
Based on the findings of this study, the researchers made the following recommendations:
A recommended number of years could be specified for teachers as mandatory to acquire additional academic qualifications in their area of specialization (Mathematics).
42 Volume 15, No. 3, July 2016 The African Symposium (ISSN# 2326-8077)
The African Symposium: An online journal of the African Educational Research Network
All students (especially science students) should be encouraged to offer Further Mathematics as this will enhance their performance in mathematics and other science subjects. Teachers of Further Mathematics should explore the right strategies to teach the subject so that students will understand and apply the knowledge in other subject areas. The National Universities Commission (NUC) should make a pass in Further Mathematics prerequisite for admission into some of the programmes as part of the uniform minimum standard expected of universities. The Federal government should also classify Further Mathematics as a core subject for science, engineering and students of architecture. For a developing country like Nigeria to make any meaningful progress as regards the academic performance of students, concerted, deliberate and dedicated efforts must be made towards the development of the psychological, mental and conceptual capabilities of the teachers.
References
Adesemowo, P.O. (2005). Premium on affective education: Panacea for scholastic malfunctioning and aberration. 34th Inaugural Lecture, Olabisi Onabanjo University, Ago-Iwoye: Olabisi Onabanjo University Press Adesola, M.K., & Ogunleye, B.O. (2003). Improving mathematics curriculum at the implementation stage. In O.A. Bamisaiye, I.A. Nwazuoke, & A. Okediran (Eds) Education this millennium: Innovation in theory and practice Lagos; Macmillan Nigeria Publisher Ltd. pp. 211-218 Aliyu, U., Yashe, A., & Adeyeye, A.C. (2013). Effects of teachers’ qualifications on performance in further mathematics among secondary school students. Mathematical Theory and Modeling. Vol. 3 (11) Anderson, L.W. (1991). Increasing teacher effectiveness. Paris: UNESCO Aremu, O.A., & Sokan, B.O. (2003). A multi-causal evaluation of academic performance of Nigerian learners: Issues and implications for national development. Department of Guidance and Counseling, University of Ibadan, Ibadan Badmus, G.A. (1997). Mathematics education in Nigeria. In G.A. Badmus, & I.O. Ocho (Eds) Science, mathematics and technology education in Nigeria. Benin: Nig. Acad. Educ. Pub., pp. 54-65 Bajah, S.T. (2000). Emerging global issues in education. A lead paper presented at the National Conference on curriculum innovation in the 21st century held in Abuja Balogun, U.T. (1986). A study of students’ performance in special mathematics programme in the school of basic studies at the Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. M.Ed Thesis. Brophy, J. (2000). Teaching educational practice series I. Washington DC: The international bureau of education. pp. 6-24 Federal Ministry of Education (1998). Senior secondary school mathematics curriculum. Lagos Federal Ministry of Education (2007). Ten-year strategic plan. Ground, A., & Cebulla, K.J. (2000). Improving students’ achievement in mathematics. Educational practice series 4. Washington DC: Internal Academy of Education Publication. pp. 7-31. Retrieved March 9, 2010 from http://www.en.wikipedia.org/mathematics.htm National Council for Curriculum Assessment (2005). Discussion paper on international trends in mathematics. A paper published by the government of Ireland. Odili, G.A. (2006). Evaluation of further mathematics curriculum in Nigeria secondary school. An unpublished Ph.D. dissertation: Abia State University, Uturu. Ukeje, B.O. (1977). The challenges of mathematics in Nigeria’s economic goals of Vision 2010: Implications for secondary school mathematics. A lead paper presented at the 34th annual national conference of the mathematical association of Nigeria West Africa Examinations Council (2007). Chief examiners report. General certificate of education/School certificate o’level papers. Lagos: WAEC.
Authors
Olusegun Ayodele Adelodun Ayobami Seyi Olayinka Institute of Obafemi Obafemi Awolowo University Ile-Ife. Nigeria e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]
43 Volume 15, No. 3, July 2016 The African Symposium (ISSN# 2326-8077)
The African Symposium: An online journal of the African Educational Research Network
INFLUENCE OF DEMOGRAPHIC VARIABLES ON THE USE OF ROAD SAFETY INFORMATION BY COMMERCIAL MOTORCYCLE RIDERS IN NIGERIA
Thomas Ayinla Ogunmodede University of Technology, Obbomoso
Evelyn Nkechi Emeahara University of Ibadan
Abstract
This research examines the influence of demographic variables on the use of road safety information by commercial motorcycle riders in Oyo State, Nigeria. Availability of information on road safety on Nigerian road especially by commercial motorcycle riders has been the subject of discussion by the road transport administrators, medical practitioners and the media as a result of unsatisfactory performance. Descriptive research design of the ex-post facto type was adopted for the study. Simple Random sampling was used to cover a study population of four hundred and fifty (450) commercial motorcycle riders in Oyo State, Nigeria. The hypothesis was tested at 0.05 P value. Data collected was analyzed using percentages and Multiple Regression. The result shows the positive correlation between demographic variables (location, age, sex, level of education, marital status, income and occurrence of accidents on information utilization (F (7, 442) =17,411; R =0.465, R2= 0.216 Adj. R2 = 0.204 P < 0.05. Location (β = -0.187, P < 0.05); Level of education (β = 0.279, P < 0.05); Marital status (β = 0.106, P < 0.05); Occurrence of accidents (β = 0.171, P < 0.05). The study concludes that adult literacy classes be established by Nigerian government so as to bridge the gap in the level of education among the commercial motorcycle riders, this is because 62.8% are in the age bracket of 20-30 years.
Keywords: Demographic, Road safety, Information, Information use, Motorcycle riders, Nigeria
INTRODUCTION
The use of motorcycles has greatly increased accidents on the Nigerian road in recent time, although it has to some degree solved transportation problems, both in the rural and urban centers. Onifade (2007) stressed that the use of motorcycles for commercial purposes began in Nigeria in the early 1990 as a result of the unemployment problems in Nigeria. The chaotic transportation problems in Nigeria also contributed to the emergence of the use of motorcycle as a means of public transport in Nigeria.
Motorcycles are exposed to great dangers as a mean of transportation, and are thereby prone to accidents on Nigeria roads. Motorcycle accident could be very serious in the sense that they may leads to instant death, in some cases; leads to loses of limbs and sight, at times terrible economic loses also arise from these accidents. The need to arrest the incessant accidents caused by motorcycle accidents make this research imperative so that information on how to ride motorcycle safety will be made available to users. Popoola (2006) defined information as facts, new, opinion, messages, symbols, signals and processed data that are capable of improving the knowledge state of a user on a random phenomenon. Road safety information are fact, messages, symbols, signals and processed data capable of improving the knowledge of road users and ensuring the safety of lives and property of road users.
Most often, this accident are caused by wrong negotiations of bends, over-speeding and other risky behaviors like drinking of alcohol before riding motorcycle on the highways. Most of the causative factors have been catered for in the information that is provided to guide the way roads should be used. It is assumed that road safety information are not adequately utilized by most commercial riders in Nigeria. Therefore, this study attempts to find out the influence of demographic variables( age, gender, marital status, experience, level of education, etc.) on the use of road-safety information by the commercial motorcyclist in Nigeria.
Objective of the Study
The objective of the study is to examine the influence of demographic variables (Location, Age, Sex, Level of Education, Marital Status, Income and Occurrence of Accidents) on information utilization by commercial motorcycle riders in Nigeria.
44 Volume 15, No. 3, July 2016 The African Symposium (ISSN# 2326-8077)
The African Symposium: An online journal of the African Educational Research Network
Research Hypotheses
Ho: There will be no joint effect of demographic variables (Location, Age, Sex, Level of Education, Marital Status, Income and Occurrence of Accidents) on Information Utilization by Commercial Motorcycle riders in Nigeria
Literature Review
One of the most topical issues in Nigeria today is road accidents. So serious is the situation that hardly can a day pass without news of accident on the Nigerian roads. Headlines like “Motorcyclist crashed,” Two pupils killed on road accident,” “18 killed in the road accidents” are some of the familiar display which appear as captions for pictures or news headline on the Nigerian dailies. Generally, such Newsflash readily attracts the sympathy of the readers. There is a deep feeling of sympathy for the wanton loss of human lives through road accidents on Nigerian roads. Indeed, there is growing concern in the country regarding menace of road traffic accidents in Nigeria. The attitudes of “Okada” riders have been identified by experts, scholars and professionals as the major reasons why accidents occurred on our roads (Ogagaogene, 2011; Adisa, 2010 & Ogunmodede et al.2012). This include among others, the following driving errors, recklessness, overspeeding, improper overtaking, lack of attention or confusion, inexperience, carelessness at road junctions, intoxication and disregard for road signs. (Oyesiki,1984; Folawiyo, 1988; FGN, 1989; Akinlade, 2000 & Gbadamosi, 2002).
Road safety in its broadest sense refers to accident free journey on our highways and roads. Information is essential to the task of driving and traffic signs, including the road marking as an important means and common device for guiding, advising, warning, regulating, controlling and informing drivers and other road users of the nature of roads or things ahead. Although signs are not needed to confirm the driver’s knowledge of the recognized rules of the road, they are essential wherever special regulations apply or where directions or notice of approaching hazards must be communicated to the drivers (Salawu, 2008). The information presented on signs must be precise in meaning with messages displayed in words, symbols or in combined form. Their frequency should be such as to direct attention whenever required but not so indiscriminately as to cause disrespect.
Salawu, (2008) posited that for signs to be effective, they must fulfill the following requirements; be sufficient by striking to attract the drivers attention; be legible from a long range; be understandable at a glance; be sighted so as to leave the driver sufficient time to take necessary action safely; and be provided with an effective system of illumination or reflectorisation. Road signs are categorized into three, namely: the warning signs, the regulatory signs and the informatory sign (Nigeria Highway Code, 2008). The warning signs are required to identify actual potential hazard of a permanent or temporary nature, examples of which are junctions, dangerous bends, narrow bridge, dangerous hills, slippery surface, uneven road, children crossing etc. they are normally equilateral triangles with apex uppermost. Regulatory signs define statutory regulations governing highway control and operation by giving notice of requirements, prohibitions, and restrictions are generally legally enforceable. Regulatory sign are categorized into two groups, namely mandatory and prohibitory. Example of mandatory are stop, slow, keep left, speed limit etc. while example of prohibitory are what the drivers must not do, it includes no entry, no waiting, no horns, parking prohibited etc. This kind of regulatory signs are circular. Informatory signs are provided for the convenience of road users, and are to improve both the efficiency and safety of highway operations. It includes all direction signs which provide information on destructions and distances. Others include: information and device on car parks, lay-byes, telephones, petrol filling stations. Most informatory signs are rectangular with a posted end added to some direction signs. (Nigeria Highway Code, 2008; & Salawu, 2008).
Road safety refers to road or highways with little or no accident or with few cases of accidents per year. The importance of road safety should not be over-emphasized as they are meant to be a complete motorist/motorcyclist guidance, to inform them on the road situation and regulate their sections on the highway. For instance, when a driver has made a particular journey a number of times, he will usually be able to adjust his speed and to position his/herself for each hazard or change in direction of the route without difficulty or hesitation. The drivers will also know the section of the route where speed and other regulations are in force. Ideally, signs in appropriate places will give a new comer all the information which the regular user has acquired through experience. With time, the newcomer should be able to make his/her judgment, and be able to operate safety speed. Peden et al (2004) on world report on road traffic injury prevention noted that road signs give information on what to meet ahead, and that the motorists would easily take necessary precautions. Therefore, as road safety and
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The African Symposium: An online journal of the African Educational Research Network
other information professionals, librarians, information scientist emphasizes road free accidents; road signs instructions are essential prerequisites to achieve the objectives of road safety in totality.
Demography is the study of population that involves birth, death, and diseases in a particular community. The modern day demographic study is not only population-conscious but also has a time dimension (Adio, 2010). Demographic variables have always been studied and findings shows that age, gender, marital status, and educational qualification have important effects on utilization of road safety information (Willemsen, et al 2008; Machin and Sankey, 2008).
Willemsen et, al. (2008) reported that older drivers and female drivers tend to have low levels of road mishap which is consistent with international literature, suggesting that drivers seem to become more law abiding and display a tendency to take lesser risks when they grow older. The risk of involvement in crash seems to depend upon the drivers’ age. The young (18 to 25) and the elderly (65+) are at risk. However, with regards to accident causation, it seems that young drivers are more likely to commit violations, and the elderly to be more prone to sleeps and lapses (Parker et.al, 1992). Machin & Sankey (2008) have shown that inexperienced drivers underestimate the risks associated with a range of driving situations. The majority of aggressive drivers were poorly educated (Lancaster and Ward,2002). Ogunmodede and Akangbe (2013) opined that road safety information was available to the commercial motorcycle riders, but the utilization of the available road safety information was very low. Age of the commercial motorcycle riders was found to be a contributing factor to occurrence of accident among the motorcycle riders (Yannis, et al; Chang and Yeh, 2007; Horsewill and Helman, 2010 &Adisa, 2010).
Research Methodology
The instrument used for this study was questionnaire, which was designed to obtain information on demographic characteristics of the respondents and on the use of road safety information available to commercial motorcycle riders in Oyo State, Nigeria. Nine research assistants were employed in the administration of questionnaire used for the study. The questionnaire used in this study was interpreted to the respondents in their local language where need arises. The target population of this study are the commercial motorcyclists in Oyo State located at the six divisional zones of the state namely Ibadan North, Ibadan South, Ibarapa, Ogbomoso, Oke-Ogun and Oyo, respectively. A total of four hundred and fifty (450) copies of questionnaires were administered on the respondents and were returned and found valid for analysis, giving a response rate of 100%. The findings were presented in descriptive form using frequencies, percentages and tables. Multiple Regression Analysis was used to analyse the hypothesis postulated for this study.
Data Analysis And Discussion Of Findings
Respondents Demographic Variables
Table 1.Respondents distribution by age Age Frequency Percentage (%) Cumulative percentage (%) 13-19 13 8.0 8.0 20-25 119 26.4 34.4 26-30 164 36.4 70.9 31+ 131 29.1 100.0 Total 450 100.0
The above table shows that 164(36.4%) respondents fall within 26-30 years of age and are the highest, 131(29.1%) respondents were between 31years and above, 119(26.4%) respondents were within the age bracket of 20-25years, while 13(8.0%) were in the age bracket of 13-19years respectively.
Table 2: Sex of the Respondents Sex Frequency Percentage(%) Cumulative percentage(%) Male 427 94.9 94.9 Female 23 5.1 100.0 Total 450 100.0
46 Volume 15, No. 3, July 2016 The African Symposium (ISSN# 2326-8077)
The African Symposium: An online journal of the African Educational Research Network
Table 2 above reveals that majority of the respondents were male 427(94.9%) while 23(5.1%) respondents were female. The result reveals that motorcycle riders are dominated by male when compared with female motorcyclist rider.
Table 3: Distribution of the respondents based on their level of education Level of Education Frequency Percentage (%) Cumulative percentage (%) None 26 5.8 5.8 Primary 163 36.2 42.0 Secondary 167 37.1 79.1 NCE/Poly/University 94 20.9 100.0
The table above shows the level of education of commercial motorcyclist riders, it was discovered that majority of okada riders are semi-illiterates. 167(37.1%) respondents were holders of either West African School Certificate, General Certificate, or Senior Secondary School Certificate. 163(36.2%) respondent only attended primary school, 94(20.9%) respondents has post-secondary school certificates, while 26(5.8%) have never experienced what is called formal education. This may account for why majority of these motorcycle riders are prone to accidents because it would be difficult for them to interpret or decode road signs on the highways.
Table 4: Percentage distribution of marital status of the respondents Marital status Frequency Percentage(%) Cumulative percentage(%) Single 192 42.7 42.7 Married 208 46.2 88.9 Separated 45 10.0 98.9 Divorced 4 0.9 99.8 Others 1 0.2 100.0 Total 450 100.0
From the table above the percentage distribution of the marital status of the respondents revealed that married people dominated the okada riders business, it accounts for 208(46.2%) of the total respondents, 192(42.7%) were single, 45(10.0%) are separated from their spouses, while 4(0.9%) are divorced. One can infer from the result that extra caution are expected to be maintained among the commercial motorcyclist since majority are married and ought to have been responsible.
Table 5: The distribution of the respondents according to years of motorcycle riding Years Frequency Percentage(%) Cumulative percentage(%) 1-2 115 25.6 25.6 3-5 194 43.1 68.7 6-9 81 18.0 86.7 10-15 38 8.4 95.1 16-20 16 3.6 98.7 21+ 6 1.3 100.0 Total 450 100.0
The above table reveals the years of experience since the respondents have been riding commercial motorcycle. It can be deduced that 194(43.1%) respondents had between three( 3) to five (5) years of riding experience, 115(25.6%) are the most recent on the table with respondents between one(1) to two(2) years of riding experience, 81(18.0%) respondents reportedly had between six(6) and nine(9) years of riding experience, 38(8.4%) respondent affirmed they had between ten(10) and fifteen(15) years riding experience, 16(3.6%) respondent said they had sixteen(16) and twenty(20) years of riding experience while 6(1.3%) respondent had twenty-one years and above riding experience. It is clear from the table that majority of the riders are just been recent in the motorcycle riding business. This may be as a result of economic hardship and the increase in the rate of unemployment that led to the recent influx into the business.
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Table 6: Percentage distribution of the respondents on whether they received formal training before riding Training Frequency Percentage(%) Cumulative Percentage(%) Yes 229 50.9 50.9 No 221 49.1 100.0 Total 450 100.0
Table 6 affirmed that commercial motorcycle riders undergo formal training before embarking on the riding business. 229(50.9%) respondents received formal training while 221(49.1%) did not.
Research Hypothesis
Ho: There will be no joint effect of demographic variables (Location, Age, sex, Level of Education, Marital Status, Income and Occurrence of Accidents) on Information Utilization Table 7: The regression analysis showing the joint effect of independent variables (Location, Age, Sex, Level of Education, Marital Status, Income and Occurrence of Accidents) on Information Utilization.
Model Summary Model R R2 Adjusted R2 Std. Error of the Estimate 1 0.465a 0.216 0.204 2.1226 a. Predictor: (Constant), Occurrence of Accidents among Comm. Motorcyclists, SEX, INCOME, LEVEL OF EDUCATION, AGE, LOCATION, MARITAL STATUS
Table 8.ANOVAb Model Sum of DF Mean F Sig. Squares Square Regression 2071.426 7 295.918 17.411 .000 Residual 7512.094 442 16.996 Total 9583.520 449 a. Predictor: (Constant), Occurrence of Accidents among Comm. Motorcyclists, SEX, INCOME, LEVEL OF EDUCATION, AGE, LOCATION, MARITAL STATUS b. Dependent Variable: INFORMATION UTILIZATION
Table 8 above is the regression model summary used to test the hypothesis on the significant demographic variables influencing information utilization. The dependent variable (Y) is information utilization while the predictor variables (X) were location (X1), age(X2), sex(X3), level of education(X4), marital status (X5), and desire to generate more income (X). The regression model result shows that there is positive correlation between the dependent variable and the predictor variables. The correlation coefficient (R) is 0.465 at P<0.005. The (R2) which is the coefficient of determination is 0.216 if multiply by 100, it gives 21.6% which implies that the predictor variables, variables location, age, sex, level of education, marital status, desire to have more income and occurrence of accidents accounts for 21.6% in explaining the influence of socio-economic variables on information utilization. The implication of this is that there are other factors that are not considered in this study which influences the utilization of information by commercial motorcyclists.
If narrowed down to individual predictors variable, the table of coefficient table 9 shows that level of education is a major factor that influences the use of information among commercial motorcycle riders = 0.279 at P = 000. The regression model shows that there is significant relationship between location = -0.187 at P = 0.000 and information utilization. This may be so if one compares those who ride motorbike in the urban setting like Ibadan to those who ride theirs in remote villages. This is because the closer you are to urban area, the better the information that will be available and its consequent use. There is a correlation between the dependent variable information utilization and independent variable occurrences of accidents among commercial motorcyclist. The implication of this is that when people use information, the rate of risks that leads to accident among commercial motorcyclist would reduce. So also, if information is not used appropriately the occurrence of accident will be on the increase.
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The African Symposium: An online journal of the African Educational Research Network
Table 9. Coefficients Model Unstandardized Standardized T Sig. Coefficient Coefficient B Std. Beta Error (Constant) 10.700 1.584 6.754 .000 Location -.506 .128 -.187 -3.955 .000 Age .311 .229 .062 1.359 .175 Sex -1.221 .910 -.058 -1.342 .180 Level of Education 1.509 .237 .279 6.363 .000 Marital Status .695 .317 .106 2.195 .029 Income -.324 .476 -.031 -.679 .497 Occurrence of Accidents -1.058 .266 -.171 -3.979 .000 a. Dependent Variable: INFORMATION UTILIZATION
Other factor that is significantly related to information utilization are marital status = 0.106 at P = 0.029 and location = -0.87 at P = 000. It is to be noted that age = 0.062 at P = 0.175, sex = -0.058, P = 0.180 and the desire to generate more income = -0.031 at 0.497 were not significant.
Discussion of Findings
This study focuses on the road safety information use by commercial motorcycle riders in Oyo state, as noted from the analysis of findings, the study found that majority of motorcycle riders in the study area fall within 20 and 30 years of age, these categories of people are in their late adolescence and early adulthood years and are characterized by high driving risky behaviours, this finding was in support of earlier findings of (Ngim and Udosen, 2007; Chang and Yeh, 2007; Yannis, et al 2005; and Horswill and Helman 2003) that age of motorcycle riders was a determinant factor responsible for the causes of accidents among the commercial motorcyclists.
The finding of this study corroborate the existing finding of Adisa (2010) and Nakahara et al (2005) that commercial motorcyclists are more dominated by male than their female counterparts. The level of formal education of the respondents reveals that commercial motorcyclist does not have formal education training or that they are dropped out of school at the early stage, this may account for high level of ignorance among them as most of the motorcyclist cannot interprete road traffic regulations or signs. It was in support of finding of Ngim and Udozen (2007).
The study reveals that though the respondents understudied claimed to have undergone former training before commences the motorcyclist business, the duration of the training received shows that 60.7% of the respondents only trained for one week, while 22.9% received training for between two and three weeks. This was in line with the existing studies of Akinlade (2000) and Adisa (2010). This may accounts for why the rate of accidents among commercial motorcyclist was on the increase because there was not enough adequate training giving to the commercial motorcycle riders before embarking on riding expenditure. Though information about machine may be available, the level of education of the motorcyclists is a major threat to utilisation of the information, because they cannot either read or understand its contents.The result of this finding shows that there is positive correlation between information utilization and predictor variable; location, age, sex, level of education, marital status, income and occurrence of accidents, but age and desire to generate more income were not significant.
Conclusion and Recommendations
The study reveals that there is a positive correlation between the dependent variable information utilization and predictor variables: location, level of education and occurrence of accident. It implies that policy makers should as a matter of urgency revive adult literacy classes as a means of building education gap of the citizenry. Based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations are made:
(1) Adult literacy classes are to be provided by the government for those who cannot read or write so that Nigeria citizen can know how to read and write. (2) Funds should be made available by the government for the creation of road safety awareness using different media of communication as a form of National orientation. (3) Administrators of public libraries in Nigeria should as a matter of urgency find something done
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on in ensuring information repackaging to assist this population in the use of road safety information.
References
Adio, G. (2010). Demographic variables, self-efficacy and job satisfaction as factors influencing career commitment of librarians in federal university libraries in Nigeria. A Thesis submitted to the Department of Library, Archival and Information Studies, Faculty of Education, University of Ibadan, Nigeria. 151 p. Adisa, R.S. (2010). A study of the use of intoxicants among rural commercial motorcyclists in Kwara State, Nigeria. Journal of Social Sciences 22(2):85 – 91. Ahmed, M.Y. (2008). Foreward: Nigeria highway code. Federal Road Safety Commission. Abuja: Detail Works Publisher Ltd. Aina, L.O. (2010). Information as a change agent in developing a society. A keynote address delivered at the Library, Archival, and Information Studies Students Association Seminar, University of Ibadan, Held on April 15, 2010. 13 p. Akinlade, C.O. (2000).Knowledge, attitudes, and practices of road safety and first aid among commercial motorcyclists in the Ibarapa District of Oyo State.An unpublished dissertation for the award of master of public Health/Health Education submitted to the sub-Department of Health Promotion and Education. Department of Preventive and Social Medicine, University of Ibadan.187 P. Chang, H. & Yeh, T. (2007). Motorcyclist accident involvement by age, gender, and risky behaviours in Taipei, Taiwan. Transportation Research Part F 10:109-122. Retrieved on April 23, 2011 from www.sciencedirect.com. Folawoyo, A.F.A. (1988).Safety and disaster education. Lagos: John West Publication Limited. Federal Government Nigeria, (1989). Digest of transport survey and projections final report national transport coordinating commission, ministry of transport and aviation, Lagos cited in Salawu, R.O.A. 2008. Gbadamosi, K.T. (2002). Traffic regulation and road traffic accidents in Nigeria: A spatial analysis. An unpublished PhD thesis submitted to the Department of Geography. University of Ibadan PP.25-40 Horswill, M.S. & Helman, S. (2003). A behavioural comparison between motorcyclists and a marched group of non-motorcycling car drivers: Factors influencing accident risk. AccidentAnalysis and Prevention 35:589-597. Retrieved 15th March, 2011 from www.hinar.com Lancaster, R. & Ward, R. (2002). The contribution of individual factors to driving behaviour: Implications for managing work-related road Safety. Research Report 020, Health and Safety Executive and Scottish Executive. Machin, M. A. & Sankey, K. S. (2008).Relationships between young drivers' personality characteristics, risk perceptions, and driving behaviour.Accident Analysis and Prevention, 40 (2). pp. 541-547. Nakahara, S., Chadbunchachai, W., Ichnikawa, M., Tipsuntornsak, N. & Wakai, s. (2005). Temporal distribution of motorcyclist injuries and risk of fatalities in relation to age, helmet use, and riding while intoxicated in KhonKaen, Thailand. Accident Analysis and Prevention 37:833- 842. Retrieved 15th March, 2011.fromwww.hinar.com Ngim, N. E. & Udosen, A .M., (2007). Commercial motorcyclists : Do they care about road safety? Nigerian Medical Practitioner . 15 (6): 111 – 113. Nigeria Highway Code (2008).The Nigeria highway code2nd edition. A publication of federal road safety corps. Abuja: Detail works. 102 p. Ogagaoghene, C. C. (2011) Safety precautions on Nigerian road: Motorcyclists responsibility. An address delivered by the sector commander, federal road safety corps Oyo State at the inauguration of members of association of commercial motorcycle riders, Oyo State, on 19th March, 2011. Ogunmodede, T. A. & Akangbe, C. A. (2013) Effect of road safety information availability and utilization on commercial motorcycle accidents in Nigeria. International Journal of Library and Information Science, 5 (3) 68-76. Ogunmodede, T. A., Adio, Gboyega, Ebijuwa, A. S., Oyetola, S. O. & Akinola, J. O. (2012) Factors influencing the high rate of commercial motorcycle accidents in Nigeria. American International Journal of Contemporary Research,2 (11) 130-140 Onifade, T. K. (2007). Safety implication in institunalizing motorcycles as public transport in Ogbomoso, Oyo State. An unpublished final year project submitted to the Department of
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Mechanical Engineering. Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, Ogbomoso. 57 p. Oyesiku, O.K. (1984). Strategic information system in transport industrial sector in Nigeria. Paper presented at a seminar on strategic management in transport industrial sector, Gate way Hotel, Abeokuta. Peden, M., Scurfield, R., Sleet, D., Mohan, D., Hyder, A., Jarawan, E. & Mathers, C. (2004). World report on road traffic injury prevention. World Health Organization, Geneva. Popoola, S.O. (2006). Information availability and utilization as a factor influencing decision making of managers in manufacturing companies in Nigeria. South African Journal ofLibrary and Information Science, 72 (1): 45-55. Salawu, R.O.A. (2008). Fundamental principles of road safety. Ibadan: Oke Ade Publisher. 173 P. Willemsen, J; Chris S., Frédéric, D, & Paul V. (2008). The dula dangerous driving index: An investigation of reliability and validity across cultures. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 40(2): 798–806. Yannis, G., Golias, J. & Papadimitriou, E. (2005). Driver age and vehicle engine size effects on fault and severity in young motorcyclist accidents. Accident Analysis and Prevention 37:327-333. Retrieved 15th March, 2011.from http://www.hinari.com
Authors
Thomas Ayinla Ogunmodede Evelyn Nkechi Emeahara Olusegun Oke Library Ladoke Akintola University of Technology Ogbomoso, Oyo State, Nigeria [email protected]
51 Volume 15, No. 3, July 2016 The African Symposium (ISSN# 2326-8077)
The African Symposium: An online journal of the African Educational Research Network
PERCEIVED INFLUENCE OF COMMUNITY SOCIAL WORK FIELD PLACEMENT ON OPPORTUNITY TO TACKLE INEQUALITIES AMONG RURAL DWELLERS IN NIGERIA
Yemisi Lydia Olaleye University of Ibadan
Abstract
Inequality concerns variations in living standards across a whole population. It is when a category of people is attributed an unequal status when compared to another. The study examined the influence of community social work field placement on opportunity to tackle inequalities among rural dwellers. The study used the survey research design and the purposive sampling technique. Three (3) research hypotheses were raised to guide the study. Chi-square statistics was used to analyze the data collected for the study. The finding revealed that there was significant influence of involving community social work field placement in opportunity to tackle social inequalities among rural dwellers. (X2 = 1154.538, DF = 80, P<0.05). The study also established there was significant influence of involving community social work field placement in opportunity to tackle social inequalities among rural dwellers. (X2 = 1154.538, DF = 80, P<0.05). The result indicated that there was significant influence of practicing community social work field placement in opportunity to tackle social inequalities among rural dwellers. (X2 = 374.884, DF = 88, P<0.05).The study therefore recommended that community social workers on field placement should be engaged in mobilizing and sensitizing members of the community in participating in community work.
Keywords: Perceived influence, community social work, field placement, opportunity, tackle inequalities
Introduction
Inequality is the existence of unequal opportunities and rewards for different social positions or statuses within a group or society. It portends unequal opportunity or dealing showing disparity in social, racial, ethnic, political or economic circumstances or situations. Inequality distinguishes the rich from the poor and determines the type of services that each category of people is able to acquire or access. Owing to the all-encompassing effect of inequality on the society, it becomes not just necessary but important to sensitize members of the public on the ills of social inequality with special focus on the responsibilities of the three tiers of government to ameliorate it. Karabanow (2003) argues that inequality exists across the entire social gradient of many societies. Inequalities are differences in income, resources, power and status by those in powerful positions via institutions and social processes (Burke & Ngonyani, 2003). Social inequality ballooned after the labor market went through profound transformation due to globalization, technological change, and policy reforms (Walker, 2009). People with skills in high demand in the IT or financial sectors, for instance, have seen their earnings rise significantly while low-skilled workers have been left behind.
In Nigeria, as is the case in most developing economies, inequality is a thoroughly contentious and recurring issue. The difference between the ‘haves’ and the ‘have-nots’ can be seen all too clearly, with the lavish lifestyles of a few existing side-by-side with the squalor of the many. Inequality is however, by no means restricted or limited to poor economies. Therefore, while inequality is closely related to poverty, the two issues should be looked at separately because inequality is not ultimately defined by poverty as it still exists in countries with low poverty levels. In fact, the world economy as a whole shows a high level of inequality even though low income countries account for 62% of the world’s income (Walker, 2009). Inequality in Nigeria has three inter-related but distinct aspects, inequality of wealth, inequality of income and inequality of opportunity. It also takes at least three distinct dimensions: inequalities between urban and rural populations, between rich and poor, and between the genders. The gender issue is a serious and complex problem in itself and is part of the social phenomenon.
In order to reduce the rate of inequality, Nigeria needs to build smart institutional frameworks and design effective whole-of-government strategies, targeted and well-coordinated policies encompassing quality education and skills development to promote employment and employability. Education is any act or experience that has a formative effect on the mind, character or physical ability
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of an individual (Cox & Pawar, 2006). It is the process by which the society deliberately transmits its accumulated knowledge, skills and values from one generation to another. It is an essential tool for achieving sustainability and moving a society forward. Education, according to Congress, (2006) should make the individual an instrument of happiness for himself and for his fellows, foregoing a common identity, promoting citizenship and providing the individual with job skills.
Community social work field placement is a requirement that advances the classroom teaching skills of students in social work thereby providing an enabling situation for the student to merge theory with practice. The student, through this process, thus becomes exposed to several cases during his/her field placement and is able to gather ideas, learn lots of skills and experiences that would be required for future community social work practices. The student is able to learn to listen and get feedback not only from colleagues or professionals but also from the client themselves in order to further improve future services. The student social worker is also able to learn about the self and how the discoveries on the field are able to make him/her a better social worker who is able to find answers with clients (DASW, 2004)
Community social work field placement is an integral component of social work education anchored within the mission, goals and educational level of the program. It occurs in settings that reinforce students’ identification with the purpose, values and ethics of the profession. It fosters the integration of empirical and practice-based knowledge and promotes the development of professional competence. Community social work field placement is systematically designed, supervised, coordinated and is evaluated on the basis of how well the students demonstrate the achievement of program objectives. The involvement of community social workers in community-based programs that fosters human capital development is an effective way of engaging the professional in social development (Olaleye, 2013). Community social work field placement is the application of skills to alter the behavioral patterns of community groups, organizations and institutions or people’s relationships and interactions. Netting, Kettner and MacMurtry, (1993) conceive of community practice as part of macro-practice.
According to O’Conner et al, (2006), of all the learning experiences available on social work courses, the one that students cite as being most memorable are their practice placements. This assertion is premised on the fact that community social work field placement involves integrating theory and practice in community social work. They also stress that placement provokes an opportunity to learn from others—service users, community social work colleagues and other stakeholders as well as chance to practice the skills gained from prior learning.
In community social work field placement, new sets of behaviors, methods or skills that can be effective in designed situations are acquired. In addition, community social work field placement affords an opportunity to develop more knowledge about how well systems (be they families, communities, organizations and so on) work or what can go wrong. Such information is used to enhance better relationships among the community social workers and their clients.
Community social work is committed to preparing students competent enough to address the needs of vulnerable populations and persons for whom the quality of life is threatened, prepare students to provide community social work services at the entry level to address the needs of clients and populations in their transactions with the environment, prepare students to practise at the advanced level to integrate their analytic and practical skills with areas of social concern. Achieving these objectives requires that students be placed in agencies and settings where they will have well-structured assignments and consistent field instruction (Askeland & Payne, 2001).
One role that derives increased attention is community development, which requires skills in community analysis, social planning, community organizing and social action. Community development requires the ability to foster economic opportunities for area residents through work on industrial retention, local business development, job training, and placement. Another role is community practice which calls for community social workers to help people to discover their own resources and their own ability to create influence and positive change (Jacquemin, 2006).
Globally, community social workers are trained professionals with unique education and experience providing a wide range of services across the human life span and in a wide variety of
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settings. Community social workers may play all these roles in different contexts and at different times in their career and there may well be conflicts between them. Community social work field placement is a new opportunity that adds to the knowledge and skills of students and at the same time, utilizes a variety of skills and techniques and is consistent with its holistic focus on persons and their environments (Neckerman & Torche, 2007).
For many developing countries and emerging economies, reducing inequalities will require tackling informality, expanding the social security system, and reducing unemployment. It is obvious that community social work field placement is an opportunity to tackle the menace of inequality. With community social work field placement, community members are able to participate in community projects with the community social work students themselves as students on field placement in collaboration with the community members are able to identify the problems in the community and attempt to find solutions to them. Taking joint decisions in matters concerning the development of the community reduces inequalities. The psychological implication of such move is that the underprivileged groups such as women, the illiterates, the poor, the children and the aged feel relieved as they are mainstreamed into the development process in the community.
Based on the foregoing, the study intends to examine the influence of community social work field placement as an opportunity to tackle social inequalities among rural dwellers in Nigeria. The main objective of this study is to examine the influence of using community social work field placement as a tool to tackle inequalities among rural dwellers. The study also seeks to find out the influence of practising community social work field placement as an opportunity to tackle inequalities among rural dwellers. This paper intends to look at the functional and conflict theories as the theoretical framework on which to base the study.
The Functional Theory
The functional theory is a sociological theory that originally attempts to explain social institutions as a collective means to meet individual biological needs. This theory draws inspiration from the ideas of Durkheim who was concerned with the question on how to maintain internal stability and to survive over time. It is a mechanical solidarity where everyone performs tasks that hold the society tighter. Functional theory assumes that in the different parts of a society, each one has their own role to play, working together to form a harmonious whole. The metaphor often used to describe functionalism is that it views societies as a body with different parts of society, government, media, religion, family, and so on. Many functionalists argue that social institutions are functionally integrated to form a stable system and that a change in one institution will precipitate a change in other institutions. Functional theorists believe that inequality is inevitable and desirable and plays an important function in society. Important positions in society require more training and thus should receive more rewards.
Conflict Theory
Conflict theory argues that society is not best understood as a complex striving for equilibrium but rather as a competition. Society is made up of individuals competing for limited resources, for example, money, leisure, sexual partners and so on. Some people and organizations have more resources i.e. power and influence and use those resources to maintain their positions of power in the society. The structural functionalist approach argues that the society tends towards equilibrium focusing on stability at the expense of social change. This is in contrast to conflict theory that argues that society is constantly in conflict over resources. The following are the primary assumptions of modern conflict theory:
1. Competition over scarce resources is at the heart of all social relationships. 2. Competition, rather than consensus, is characteristic of human relationships.
Inequalities in power and reward are built into all social structures (Farley & Smith, 2006). Individuals and groups that benefit from any particular structure strive to see it maintained. Change occurs as a result of competing interest rather than through adaption. They also view inequality as resulting from groups with power dominating less powerful groups. They believe that inequality prevents and hinders societal progress as those in power repress the powerless people in order to
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maintain the status quo. Positions are important so far as those in power consider them to be significant.
Research Hypotheses
Ho1 There is no significant influence of mobilizing community social work field placement in opportunity to tackle inequalities among rural dwellers.
Ho2 There is no significant influence of involving community social work field placement opportunity to tackle inequalities among rural dwellers.
HO3 There is no significant influence of practising community social work field placement opportunity to tackle inequalities among rural dwellers.
Methodology
Research Design
The study used descriptive survey design. The independent variables are the opportunities to tackle social inequalities while the dependent variable is the community social work field placement. This research design was used to facilitate easy collection of factual information about the research problem.
Population of the Study
The target populations for the study are both male and female community social workers, practising social workers on field work, community representatives, and change agents in the rural areas of Ondo State.
Sample and Sampling Technique
Purposive sampling technique was used to select respondents from the communities. The population for the study comprised 300 respondents from rural communities in Ondo State. Random sampling technique was used to select 6 communities from Ondo State. 50 respondents were randomly selected from each community to give a total of 300 respondents.
Research Instrument
The main instrument used for the study is questionnaire tagged: “Perceived Influence of Community Social Work Field Placement in Opportunity to Tackle Inequalities among Rural Dwellers Questionnaire” (PICSWFPOTIRDQ). The researcher adapted an instrument called Audience Measurement Scale by Meyer 1988. Responses were recorded on a four-point scale from strongly Agree (SA), Agree (A), Strongly Disagree (SD) to Disagree (D).
Validity and Reliability of the Study
The questionnaire used for this study was validated to achieve its aims. Validity is the extent to which the instrument designed measures what it is designed to measure. To validate the contents of the instrument, the instrument was presented to researcher colleagues in the Department of Social Work, and other experts in the field of evaluation. Their comments were incorporated into the final drafting of the questionnaire.
Reliability is the degree of consistency between two sets of observations obtained with the same instrument. Pilot study was conducted in another community different from the one sampled, 30 respondents were used and the information collected was used to calculate using Cronbach Alpha
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reliability coefficient that yielded “r” value 0.85.
Data Analysis
Chi-Square statistics was used to the data collected.
Test of Hypotheses
Table 1: Chi-Square Showing the Influence of Mobilizing Community Social Work Field Placement in Opportunity to Tackle Inequalities among Rural Dwellers
Item Mobilizing opportunities to tackle TOTAL X2 Sig DF P inequalities 295 SA A SD D 100% 158 127 0 10 295 X1 52.7% 42.3% 0% 3.2% 100% 185 95 0 15 295 X2 61.7% 31.7% 0% 5.0% 100% 365.144 0.00 64 <0.05 161 124 0 10 295 X3 53.7% 41.3% 0% 3.3% 100% 99 183 3 10 295 X4 33.0% 61.0% 1.0% 3.3% 100% 129 140 15 11 295 X5 43.0% 46.7% 5.0% 3.7% 100%
The above table shows that there was significant influence of mobilizing community social work field placement in opportunity to tackle inequalities among rural dwellers (X2 = 365.144, DF = 64, P<0.05). From the result obtained from testing hypothesis one, it is revealed that there was significant influence of mobilizing community social work field placement in opportunity to tackle inequalities among rural dwellers. Therefore, null hypothesis (HO) state that there is no significant influence of mobilizing community social work field placement in opportunity to tackle inequalities among rural dwellers was rejected.
Table 2: Chi-Square Showing the Influence of Involving Community Social Work Field Placement in Opportunity to Tackle Inequalities among Rural Dwellers
Item Involving opportunities to tackle TOTAL X2 Sig DF P inequalities 295 SA A SD D 100% 125 75 0 5 295 X1 71.7% 25.0% 0% 1.7% 100% 147 133 0 15 295 X2 49.0% 44.4% 0% 5.0% 100% 1154.538 0.00 80 <0.05 144 138 3 20 295 X3 48.0% 42.7% 1. 0% 6.7% 100% 127 147 1 20 295 X4 42.3% 49.0% 0.3% 6.7% 100% 119 136 0 40 295 X5 39.7% 45.3% 0% 13.3% 100%
The above table reveals that there was significant influence of involving community social work field placement in opportunity to tackle inequalities among rural dwellers. (X2 = 1154.538, DF = 80, P<0.05). From the result obtained from testing hypothesis two, it established that there was significant influence of involving community social work field placement in opportunity to tackle inequalities among rural dwellers. Therefore, null hypothesis (HO) state that there is no significant influence of involving community social work field placement in opportunity to tackle inequalities among rural
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dwellers was rejected.
Table 3: Chi-Square Showing the Influence of Practicing Community Social Work Field Placement in Practising Opportunity to Tackle Inequalities among Rural Dwellers
Item Practising opportunities to tackle TOTAL X2 Sig DF P inequalities 295 SA A SD D 100% X1 36 113 50 96 295 12.0% 37.7% 16.7% 32.0% 100% X2 47 85 66 97 295 15.7% 28.3% 22. 0% 32.3% 100% 374.884 0.00 88 <0.05 X3 53 85 82 75 295 17.7% 28.3% 27. 3% 25.0% 100% X4 43 104 71 77 295 14.3% 34.7% 23.7% 25.7% 100% X5 36 100 17 82 295 12.0% 33.3% 25.7% 27.3% 100%
The above table reveals that there was significant influence of practising community social work field placement in opportunity to tackle inequalities among rural dwellers. (X2 = 374.884, DF = 88, P<0.05). From the result obtained from testing hypothesis two, it established that there was significant influence of practicing community social work field placement in opportunity to tackle inequalities among rural dwellers. Therefore, the null hypothesis (HO) states that there is no significant influence of practicing community social work field placement in opportunity to tackle inequalities among rural dwellers was rejected.
Discussions
The result in research hypothesis one established that there was significant influence of mobilizing community social work field placement in opportunity to tackle inequalities among rural dwellers (X2 = 365.144, DF = 64, P<0.05). Therefore, null hypothesis (HO) state that there was no significant influence of mobilizing community social work field placement in opportunity to tackle inequalities among rural dwellers was rejected. The result obtained tallies with the findings from a study conducted by Neckerman & Torche, (2007) which established that the community social work field placement is a new opportunity that would add to the knowledge and skills which also utilizes a variety of skills, techniques and consistent with its holistic focus on persons and their environments.
It was also discovered in hypothesis two that there was significant influence of involving community social work field placement in opportunity to tackle inequalities among rural dwellers. (X2 = 1154.538, DF = 80, P<0.05). Therefore, the null hypothesis (HO) that states that there is no significant influence of involving community social work field placement in opportunity to tackle inequalities among rural dwellers was rejected. This study is in agreement with the findings of Olaleye, (2013) which found that involvement of community social workers in community-based programs that foster human capital development is an effective way of engaging the professional in social development.
Research Hypothesis three indicates that here was significant influence of practicing community social work field placement in opportunity to tackle inequalities among rural dwellers. (X2 = 374.884, DF = 88, P<0.05). Therefore, null hypothesis (HO) state that there is no significant influence of practicing community social work field placement in opportunity to tackle inequalities among rural dwellers was rejected. This finding corroborates the study of Jacquemin, (2006) which stated that community practice calls for community social workers to help people to discover their own resources and their own ability to create influence and positive change.
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Conclusion and Recommendations
The study has established that the level of inequality that exists in the educational sector can be reduced through adequate funding and providing the necessary equipment so that knowledge impacted on the child of the rich can also be made available to the child of the poor and both categories can have equal access to opportunities in the labour market and can be very productive in the corporate world. Community social work students on field placement have the opportunity to raise the hope of the hopeless. The study recommends that:
i. Skills acquisition programs be made available for individuals who cannot go to school or access formal education and the sustainability of such programs should be ensured. ii. Participants who are trained should be provided with funds to begin their trade. This ensures that the individual becomes self-employed and is able to create jobs for others. iii. Tax and benefit policies should be reformed. This can also improve the distribution of income. iv. Policies are laid down rules that guides the several activities carried out in an area. The government should make policies that should be adhered to, not only by the poor but also by the rich. In Nigeria, people, especially the rich, evade tax in spite of having big and lucrative businesses. v. Community social workers should be engaged in mobilizing and sensitizing people in participating in community work.
References
Association of Directors of Social Work. (2004). 21st century social work: The role of the social worker. Retrieved July 12, 2014 http://www.adsw.org.uk/documents.ADSW.Brief/.RoSW.doc Askeland, G. A., & Payne, M. (2001). What is valid knowledge for social workers? Social Work in Europe. 8, 13-23. Banks, S. (2001). Ethics and values in social work. London: Macmillan Press. Burke, J., & Ngonyani, B. (2003). A social work vision for Tanzania. International Journal of Social Work, Vol. 47, 39-52. Congress, E. (2006). Teaching social work values, ethics and human rights, social work around the world IV. International Federation of Social Workers. Cox, D., & Pawar, M. (2006). International social work: Issues, strategies and programs. London: Sage Publication. Farley, O. W., & Smith, L .L. (2006). Introduction to social work. (10th Edition). Boston: Pearson. Jacquemin, M. (2006). Can the language of rights get hold of the complex realities of child domestic work?” The case of Abidjan, Ivory Coast. Childhood. 13, 389-406. Karabanow, J. (2003). Creating a culture of hope: Lessons from street children agencies in Canada and Guatemala. International Journal of Social Work. 46( 3), 369-386. Neckerman, K. M., & Torche, F. (2007). Inequality: Cause and consequences. Annual Review of Sociology. 33, 335-357. Netting, F. E., Kettner, P.M., & McMurtry, S.L. (1993). Social work macro-practice. New York: Longman. O’Connor, I; Hughes, M., Turney, D. Wilson., J. & Setterlund, T. (2006). Social work and social care practice. London: Sage Publication. Olaleye, Y. L. (2013). The contributions of community social workers on socio-economic gender inequality in Nigeria. Gender and Behaviour, 11 (2), 5525 – 5534. Walker, C. (2009). New dimension of social inequality. United Kingdom: University of Southampton Press.
Author
Yemisi Lydia OLALEYE Department of Social Work University of Ibadan Nigeria [email protected] [email protected]
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The African Symposium: An online journal of the African Educational Research Network
AN INVESTIGATION INTO SOME PREDICTING FACTORS OF SCHOOL CONNECTEDNESS AMONG PUBLIC SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS IN IBADAN, OYO STATE, NIGERIA
Solomon Adekunle Odedokun University of Ibadan
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to investigate the influence of some predicting factors (that is school climate, academic self-efficacy and peer bullying/ victimization) on the school connectedness among public secondary school students in Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria. Two hundred and ninety six students were randomly selected. The independent and dependent variables were measured with relevant standardized instruments. The instruments used were school climate scale, academic self-efficacy scale and multidimensional peer victimization scale. Three research questions were answered in the study. The data obtained were analyzed using multiple regression statistical method. There was significant relationship between the three independent variables (school climate, academic self- efficacy and peer bullying/ victimization) on the student connectedness. Also, the independent variables significantly contributed to the prediction of school connectedness among the participants. On the strength of these findings, the need to enhance the school climate, fostering academic self- efficacy training and unrelenting campaign against bullying/victimization were stressed and advocated.
Key words: School Connectedness, School Climate, Academic Self Efficacy, Bullying/Victimization
Introduction
Adolescents spend more time in school than in any other environment. This is because schooling is a period of laying solid foundation for their future endeavours. While many of them might not necessarily use their certificates to secure white-collar jobs, the learning process serves as a means of integrating them into society and making them effective citizens.
Research suggests that feeling connected to one’s school during adolescence promotes concurrent and long-term positive youth development (Resnick, Bearman, Blum, Bauman, Harris & Jones, 1997). The construct of the psychological sense of school membership or school connectedness was first investigated as a critical factor in school retention or dropout (Wehlage, Rutter, Smith, Lesko, & Fernandez, 1989). The construct is also referred to as school engagement, school bonding, and school attachment, which have both similarities and differences (Libbey, 2004). This construct is particularly important for adolescents as they rely less on the family as part of the individuation process and come to rely more on extra familial, relationships such as those found in schools, with friends, and others (Goodenow, 1993).
School connectedness has been found to correlate strongly and positively with students’ academic motivation and with indexes of school performance and adjustment (Hagborg, 1994; Haynes, Emmons & Ben-Avie, 1997; Anderman & Freeman, 2004). Osterman’s (2000) discussion of belonging in schools identifies links between students’ sense of belonging, self-esteem, internal regulation, attitudes toward school, motivation, and achievement. School connectedness has also been found to be connected with variables that are associated with adolescent academic and emotional well-being. Israelashvili (1997) notes that sense of school membership positively predicts expectation of future success. Students’ perception of being accepted and respected by their peers and by school staff are important determinants of their expectations of the future.
Adolescents in public secondary schools in Nigeria are disconnected from their schools. This disconnectedness could be seen in various dimensions of their activities and behaviours. These, among others, include lateness to school, lack of motivation and commitment to their studies, loitering about during the school hour, examination malpractices, poor academic performance, and failure in doing their home works/class assignments. The consequences of these are enormous and dangerous to the development of an individual and society at large. When students are disconnected from their schools, inappropriate and dangerous behaviour is inevitable and this puts them at risk for maladaptive development, like thuggery, examination malpractices, school violence, school dropout, sexual harassment, smoking and other vices. Consequently, there is strong need for preventive interventions
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that increase levels of school connectedness in public secondary school to promote long-term positive development, which includes academic exploit and career success.
Abbott, O'Donnell, Hawkin, Hll, Kostermann, & Catalano (1998), among other researchers, found that the most powerful predictors of school connectedness are related to school climate. This study, therefore, was to examine the influence of school climate, academic self-efficacy and peer bullying/victimization on school connectedness among secondary school students in public schools in Ibadan, Oyo state, Nigeria
Review of related literature
According to Klem & Connell (2004), there is a strong association between the level of school climate and the level of connectedness and academic achievement. Connectedness is enhanced by a healthy and safe school environment and a supportive psychosocial climate. A clean and pleasant physical environment raises expectations for safety and sets the stage for positive and respectful relationships. The psychosocial climate at school is influenced by such factors as policies related to discipline, opportunities for meaningful student participation, and teachers’ classroom management practices. Research indicates that, in schools with a harsh and punitive discipline climate, student connectedness is lower. (Blum, McNeely & Rinehart (2002). Blum, et al. (2002) also discovered that schools with a higher average sense-of-community score (that is composite of students’ perception of caring and supportive interpersonal relationships and their ability to be autonomous) had significantly lower average student drug use and delinquency.
Teachers who promote mutual respect in the classroom foster a sense of safety and connectedness by reducing the threat of being embarrassed or teased. School activity involvement has been demonstrated to have positive effects for adolescent well-being (Eccles& Barber, 1999). In a study of the effect of participation in school activities upon adolescent well-being, Eccles et al. (1999) examined the potential benefits of participation, including better Grade Point Average lower rates of school absenteeism which is an aspect of school connectedness, and lowering of potential risks, including delinquent behaviour. Evidence was found to indicate that participation in school activities was a protective factor in relation to academic performance and involvement in risk behaviours, and effects were maintained even after controlling for social class, gender and academic ability (Eccles et al.,1999). McNeely et al. (2002) also investigated the relationship between student participation and school connectedness, with results to indicate that those who participated in school activities experienced higher overall school connectedness. It is evident that school climate could be a strong predictor of school connectedness among public secondary school students; hence, the need to investigate school connectedness.
Academic self efficacy
The construct of self-efficacy has become a major element of educational research, particularly with regard to its influence on many domains of adolescent development and success (Urdan&Midgley, 2003; Schunk&Meece, 2005; Usher & Pajares, 2008).The concept is defined as the belief in one’s ability to organize and execute courses of action that are necessary to accomplish a particular task (Bandura, 1977; 1986). Self-efficacy differs from other self-beliefs, such as self-concept or self-esteem, as it pertains to a subjective perception of one’s capabilities rather than actual skills to attain a goal. Simply knowing what it takes to meet a specific goal and possessing the necessary skills to succeed are not enough. One may still not get very far if one lacks belief in one’s ability to carry out a course of action. Furthermore, individuals’ self-efficacy beliefs can vary widely based on specific domains of functioning (Bandura, 1986). For example, a student may have high self-efficacy for writing a term paper and at the same time, have low self-efficacy for communicating the same information in a public presentation.
In the context of school, academic self-efficacy is the belief in one’s ability to manage one’s own educational experiences through academic mastery and self-regulated learning strategies (Bandura et al., 2001). Academic self-efficacy has been identified as an important predictor of many indices of school functioning, including academic achievement, aspirations for example (e.g. Pajares, 2008; Schunk, 2001; Zimmerman, Bandura, & Martinez-Pons, 1992), and school retention (Caprara et al., 2008). Students with higher academic self-efficacy have been shown to work harder (Bandura et al., 2001), demonstrate more persistence with challenging tasks (Pajares, 2008), and develop better goal-setting and time-monitoring strategies than other students (Zimmerman, 2000). Adolescents with a strong
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sense of efficacy for learning are also more resilient to setbacks and are better able to resist the adverse influences of low-achieving peers than are those with a weak sense of efficacy (Bandura et al., 1999). Maintenance of high academic self-efficacy can also have positive influence on youth career trajectories and continuing academic performance throughout college (Bandura, 1997; Bandura et al.,2001). While the role of academic self-efficacy may seem most relevant to the scope of educational outcomes, researchers have found this factor to be significantly related to social-emotional health as well. Students with a strong belief in their capacity to manage their educational experiences may engage in coping strategies that decrease their level of distress (Bandura et al., 1996) and increase their pro-social behaviour (Bandura, Caprara, Barbaranelli, Gerbino, & Pastorelli, 2003).
Self-efficacy is grounded in a larger theoretical framework of Social Cognitive Theory, suggesting that human functioning is a result of interactions among individual cognition, emotions, behaviours, and environmental conditions (Bandura, 1977; 1986). Bandura (1977; 1986) hypothesizes that self-efficacy beliefs are created and developed as students interpret information from four sources: mastery experience, vicarious experience, social persuasions, and somatic or emotional states. In the process of mastery experience, adolescents engage in activities, interpret the results of their actions, and then use these interpretations to develop beliefs about their ability to engage in subsequent activities (for example, successfully completing a chemistry problem). In addition to interpreting the results of their actions, adolescents form their self-efficacy beliefs through the vicariousexperience of observing others perform.
Evidence from the literature based on school connectedness and academic self-efficacy has revealed that these protective constructs are independently and positively related to numerous indices of healthy adjustment, including academic performance, school retention, and reduced depressive symptoms (Roeser et al., 1996). Furthermore, research and theory have revealed that these constructs are cultivated by similar conditions and social sources of information from the school environment (Karcher, 2003; 2004; Schunk & Meece, 2005; Whitlock, 2006; Usher & Pajares, 2008). Such findings would suggest that school connectedness and academic self-efficacy are significantly linked to adolescent development. However, few studies have actually examined the nature of the relationship between these self-mechanisms of motivation (for example, Roeser et al., 1996; Cunningham et al., 2004; Vieno, Santinello, Pastore, & Perkins, 2007 Uwah et al.2008 ). Some researchers have proposed that relationships between components of school connectedness and academic self-efficacy may be reciprocal ( Uwah et al., 2008). As students’ sense of connectedness and engagement with school increase, they may participate in activities and observations that build their efficacy for managing their own learning and academic performance. Likewise, as students feel more efficacious and successful in accomplishing their goals, school connectedness has a great tendency to be increased.
Roeser and colleagues (Roeser, et al., 1996) tested a mediational model examining the relationship between teacher–student relationships, belonging in school, academic self-beliefs, and academic achievement in early adolescence. Their findings revealed that sense of belonging mediated the association between teacher and student relationships and academic self-efficacy, which, in turn, predicted student performance.
McMahon, Parnes, Keys, & Viola (2008) found support for a model demonstrating the impact of school conditions (social risk and protective factors) on school belonging as well as on the central role of belonging in explaining how school conditions can affect both academic self-efficacy and feelings of depression.
Lastly, Eccles & Roeser (2011) was of the opinion that protective school contextual factors (including teacher support, clear rules, and opportunities for involvement) had a significant and positive impact on the mediator variables of academic self-efficacy and school connectedness. This finding suggests that students with more positive perceptions of the school environment may experience a greater sense of connection to school than others with less perception and also participate in experiences that enhance belief in their own ability to manage their learning process (Ryan & Patrick, 2001; Whitlock, 2006; Usher & Pajares, 2008).
Peer Bullying and Victimization
School bullying and peer victimization are major social problems affecting children and adolescents in all parts of the world. The serious consequences of bullying and peer victimization have generated considerable amount of attention from the media and the public, as well as educators, school
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officials, researchers, practitioners, and law-makers in recent years (Phillips, 2007). Concerns over ‘bullycide (that is, suicide attributed to peer victimization) and school violence have led to an examination of risk factors associated with bullying and its impact on student (Smokowski & Kopasz 2005). Previous studies have investigated the association between bullying behaviour and individual characteristics (like, age, gender, and psychosocial problems), as well as direct relations (for example, family and peer) and the school environment (Espelage & Horne, 2008).
Bullying has detrimental effects on victims’ well-being. First, the association between school bullying and victims’ physical/psychological well-being and academic maladjustment is well documented. (Egan & Perry, 1998; Troop-Gordon & Ladd, 2005). For example, victims of school bullying are more likely to suffer psychological maladjustment, including sadness, depression, loneliness, and low self-esteem. ( Egan et al., 1998; Graham, Bellmore, & Juvonen, 2003; and Troop- Gordon et al; 2005 ) . In addition, a significant association is found between peer victimization and extreme emotional responses such as suicidal ideation and suicide attempts. (Hawker & Boulton, 2000; Troop-Gordon, et al.; 2005 ).
Lastly, research has shown that, as students’ experiences of overt or covert victimization increase, their sense of connection to school declines (Skues et al., 2005) while risk outcomes pertaining to socio-emotional well-being increase (Nishina & Juvonen, 2005; Graham & Bellmore, 2007; Fleming & Jacobsen, 2009; The focus of this paper was to examine the influence of school climate, academic self-efficacy and peer bullying/victimization on school connectedness among secondary school students in public schools in Ibadan, Oyo state, Nigeria.
Research Questions
The research is anchored to the following questions:
What is the relationship between the independent variables (school climate, academic self- efficacy and peer bullying/victimization) and school connectedness among public secondary school students in Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria?
What is the joint contribution of the independent variables (school climate, academic self- efficacy and peer bullying/victimization) to school connectedness among public secondary school students in Ibadan, Oyo state, Nigeria?
What is the relative contribution of each of the independent variables (school climate, academic self-efficacy and peer bullying/victimization) to school connectedness among public secondary school students in Ibadan, Oyo state, Nigeria?
Methodology
Research design
The descriptive survey research design was adopted for the study. The researcher was interested in knowing the influence of the independent variables (school climate, academic self-efficacy and peer bullying/victimization) on the dependent variable (school connectedness)
Purpose of the Study
In this review so far, efforts have been made to examine works done on school climate, academic self-efficacy and peer bullying/victimization and how these could impact on school connectedness. The primary purpose of this study, therefore, was to investigate the significant impact of these three predicting variables on school connectedness among public secondary school students in Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria.
Participants
A total of two hundred and ninety six public secondary school students ( Males =185, (62.5%) Females = 111, (37.5%)) were randomly selected from ten public secondary schools in Ibadan, Oyo State Nigeria.. The age of the respondents ranged between 11 and 21 years, with a mean age of 15.4 and SD of 3.7
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Instrumentation
Academic self-efficacy was measured using the Generalized Self-Efficacy Scale. The Generalized Self-Efficacy Scale by Schwarzer & Jerusalem (1995) was adapted for use in this study. The scale comprised 10 items. The 10 items were scored as follows: 1 = Not at all true, 2 = Hardly true, 3 = Moderately true, 4 = Exactly true. The points scored on all items were summed up to give participant’s score on the scale. The items were coded because there were both negative and positive statements which should be reversed. Scores on the scale ranged between 10 and 40. The test-retest reliability coefficient was 0.77.
In order to examine the school climate, teacher support, peer support, student autonomy and clarity and consistency in school rules were examined. These four dimensions were assessed through subscales of the Perceived School Climate Scale (1993) developed by the Center for Prevention Research and Development (CPRD) (Felner et al., 1997). The questionnaire was based on the classroom Environment Scale (Trickett and Moos 1973), a widely used and well-validated measure. Changes to the Classroom Environment Scale involved rewording items to eliminate double negatives and providing more familiar language for colloquial terms. The Perceived School Climate Scale has been found to be a valid and reliable measure of school climate (Brand et al. 1994, 2003). The internal consistency of the scale was re-established by this study and it returned a Cronbach coefficient alpha of 0.78.
Peer bullying/Victimization Scale. The adapted version of the Multidimensional Peer Victimization Scale was used to collect data for this study. This scale consisted of the items designed to elicit information on the experiences they had of being hurt by their mates or friends in school. Multidimensional Peer Victimization Scale (MPVS) was developed and validated by Mynard & Joseph (2000). The items in the original MPVS were intended to find out the extent to which students were victimized by their peers. The original 16 items by the authors were adapted and validated. The items covered four aspects of peer victimization, namely, physical victimization, verbal victimization, social manipulation and attack on property. The instrument was administered to all the students. The students were required to indicate how often they were victimized over a range of 0-2, (0= Not at all, 1= Once, 2= More than once).The items were found to possess satisfactory internal reliability with values of 0.85, 0.78, 0.77 and 0.73 for physical, verbal, social victimization and attack on property subscales, respectively Mynard& Joseph (2000). Scores of each of the respondents on the total scale have a possible range of 0-40 and possible range of 0-10 on each of the four subscales. Scores between 0-18 indicate a low level of victimization; 19-26 indicate moderate level of victimization, while scores between 27-40 show a high level of victimization
Procedure
Copies of the questionnaires were administered to participants in their schools following the approval of the school authorities. The administration of the instruments took three weeks.
DataAnalysis
Data were analysed using Pearson Product Moment Correlation (PPMC) and multiple regression to examine the predictive effects of school climate, academic self-efficacy and peer bullying/ victimization and how these could impact on school connectedness. All analyses were determined at a significant level of 0.05.
Results
Table 1.Table showing the Mean, Standard Deviation and Correlation among the variables. Mean Standard. N School School Academic Peer Bullying / Deviation Connected Climate Self - Victimization ness Efficacy School 92.6918 16.0633 296 1.000 .173 .368 .607 Connectedness School Climate 50.8562 5.9338 296 .173 1.000 .029 .303 Academic Self - 28.8322 5.8058 296 .368 .029 1.000 .347 Efficacy Peer Bullying / 65.1267 9.6841 296 .607 .303 .347 1.000 Victimization
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Table 2. Joint contribution of the independent variables to academic achievement of the students R = .630 Multiple R = .397 Multiple R2 adjusted = .391 Standard Error Estimate = 12.5379 Analysis of variance Model Sum of square Df Mean square F P Regression 2913.112 3 9937.704 63.218 .000 Residual 45273.148 292 157.198 Total 75086.260 295
Table 3. Relative contribution of the independent variables to academic achievement of the students Variables Unstandardise Std. Error Standardised T Sig. d Coefficients Coefficients B (beta) (Constant) 19.176 7.524 2.549 .011 School climate .644 .130 .003 4.341 .002 Academic self- .496 .135 .179 3.658 .000 efficacy Peer bullying/ .903 0.85 .544 10.598 .000 victimization
Table 3 shows for each independent variable, the unstandardised regression weight (β), the standard error of estimate (SEβ), the standardized coefficient, the t-ratio and level at which the T-ratio is significant. Peer bullying made the highest contribution to the criterion variable. (β =.544, t= 10.598, P<0.05). This was followed by academic self-efficacy (β = .179, t = 3.66, P<.05) and school climate (β=.003, t=.065, P< .05). The contribution of peer bullying/victimization to the prediction of the school connectedness was not a surprise. This is because consequences of bullying and peer victimization are detrimental to students well-being, which, if not checked, could lead to academic disengagement, which leads to school disconnectedness. This assertion was corroborated by Egan & Perry (1998) and Nansel, et al. (2001). This is because students’ sense of connectedness and engagement could increase if they possess high academic self-efficacy. As students feel more efficacious and successful in accomplishing their goals, school connectedness has a great tendency to be increased.
Again, self-efficacy beliefs determine an individual’s resiliency to adversity and vulnerability to stress and depression Bandura, et al. (2003).This could translate to the fact, that when students experience higher academic self-efficacy, to be strongly connected to school would not be a problem; otherwise, disconnection from school is inevitable.
The finding that school climate also predicted school connectedness was in agreement with Abbott et al.(1998) and Klem & Connell (2004). A warm, loving, caring, positive and welcoming school climate is a prerequisite to student connectedness; in a harsh and punitive climate, student connectedness is lower. It can then be deduced that school climate is a sine qua non to school connectedness.
Implication and Recommendations
The study has shown that there is a positive relationship between academic self- efficacy, peer bullying and victimization and school connectedness among public secondary school students in Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria. Akin to this is the fact that the independent variables examined in this study have proven, beyond reasonable doubts to be determinants of school connectedness among public secondary school students in Ibadan, Oyo state. In view of this, it is hereby recommended that school supports, like caring and loving attitude, that address the cognitive, social and emotional needs of the students school be encouraged within the school setting. Also, morale and academic self-efficacy of the students should be worked upon by all stakeholders in the school setting. This is because students with self-confidence in their abilities tend to persist and make extra effort even when faced with difficult challenges unlike the low self-efficacy individuals who give up more easily even when they possess the required skills or knowledge which would lead to being disconnected from the school. Peer bullying /victimization should be discouraged among students in order to forestall its negative effects
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on academic, emotional, social development and psychological well-being of the students. Unrelenting campaign against bullying/victimization should be the concern of school administrators, school counselors, social workers and other stakeholders in the school setting. Perpetrators of bullying/victimization school also be disciplined according to the laid-down principles.
Limitations and future directions
The study is not without its limitations. Firstly, the study is only limited to three factors namely, school climate, academic self-efficacy and peer bullying/victimization. Other factors that were not included in this study could be considered. Another limitation is the fact that the study was carried out among public school students. Considering private school students could lead to better results.
References
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Schunk, D. H. (2001). Social-cognitive theory and self-regulated learning. In B. Zimmerman D. Schunk (Eds.), Self-regulated learning and academic achievement: theoretical perspectives (2nd .125-151). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. Schunk, D. H., & Meece, J. (2005). Self-efficacy development in adolescence. In F. Pajares & T. Urdan (Eds.), Self-efficacy beliefs during adolescence. Greenwich, CT: Information Age Publishing. Schwarzer, R. & Jerusalem, M. (1995). Generalized Self-Efficacy scale. In J. Weinman, S. Wright, & M. Johnston, Measures in health psychology: A user’s portfolio. Causal and control beliefs. Windsor, UK: NFER-NELSON. Skues, J. L., Cunningham, E. G., & Pokharel, T. (2005).The influence of bullying behaviours on sense of school connectedness, motivation and self-esteem. Australian Journal of Guidance & Counseling, 15, 17-26. Smokowski, P. R., & Kopasz, K. H. (2005). Bullying in school: An overview of types, effects, family characteristics, and intervention strategies. Children and Schools, 27, 101–110 Troop-Gordon, W., & Ladd, G.W. (2005). Trajectories of peer victimization and perceptions of the self and schoolmates: precursors to internalizing and externalizing problems. Child Development, vol. 76 (5), 1072–1091, Urdan, T., & Midgley, C. (2003). Changes in the perceived classroom goal structure and patterns of adaptive learning during early adolescence. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 28, 524- 551 Usher, E. L., & Pajares, F. (2008). Sources of self-efficacy in school: Critical review of the literature and future directions. Review of Educational Research, 78, 751-796. Uwah, C., McMahon, H., & Furlow, C. (2008). School belonging, educational aspirations, and academic self-efficacy among African American male high school students: Implications for school counselors.Professional School Counselling, 11, 296-305 Vieno, A., Santinello, M., Pastore, M., & Perkins, D. D. (2007). Social support, sense of community in school, and self-efficacy as resources during early adolescence: an integrative model. American Journal of Community Psychology, 39 (1-2), 177 -190.
Author
Solomon Adekunle Odedokun Department of Counselling & Human Development Studies University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria [email protected] +2348055564547
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SELF-CONCEPT AND ACADEMIC ADJUSTMENT OF UNIVERSITY UNDERGRADUATES IN ONDO STATE, NIGERIA
Olagoke Ayorinde Ayeni Osun State College of Education
Wasiu Olasunkanmi Adeniyi Obafemi Awolowo University
Abstract
Academic experiences of students at the university level are different in many ways from what the students have had in secondary schools. As a result of this, most students upon entering the university as first-timers are likely faced with the problems of adjusting to the new academic environment. The thrust of the paper therefore was to ascertain the pattern of academic adjustment of university undergraduates as well as the influence of students’ self-concept on it. The study adopted the descriptive survey design. The population of the study consisted of all university undergraduates in Ondo State. The sample comprised 1,376 students selected using the multi–stage sampling technique. Three universities (One Federal, one State and one Private) were purposively selected based on ownership. From each university, two Faculties were selected using simple random sampling technique. Sixty undergraduates offering compulsory courses from Parts One to Four were selected using convenience sampling technique. Two adapted instruments titled “Academic Adjustment Inventory (AAI)” and “Self-Concept Questionnaire (SCQ)” were used to collect data for the study. The reliability of the instruments yielded Cronbach’s Alpha of 0.83 and Guttman’s results of 0.72 for AAI while SCQ also yielded Cronbach’s Alpha of 0.89 and Guttman’s result of 0. 86 respectively. These showed that both instruments were appropriate for the study. The data collected were analyzed using percentage and Chi-Square statistical methods. The results showed that 48.4% of the university undergraduates had good pattern of academic adjustment. It was showed that positive self-concept with 55.2% was the prevalent self-concept among the undergraduates. Finally, the results showed that self-concept had a significant influence on students’ academic adjustment (56. 300 at p < 0. 05). It was concluded that the level of self-concept of a student played a great part in determining the adjustment pattern of such student.
Keywords: Self-concept, Academic Adjustment and University Undergraduates
Introduction
In the process of someone meeting his/her expectations and value framework, a person needs a sufficient amount of adjustment. Academic experiences of students at the university level are different in many ways from what the students have had in secondary schools. In universities, students are expected to master or accomplish a great deal of tasks as attending classes, taking lecture notes, studying for tests, writing term papers and assignments, reading books and reference materials for different subjects and working for minimum requirements for survival (Yalew, 2003; Moore, 2006; Chong, Elias, Mahyuddin & Uli, 2009). The undergraduates are required to have a wide knowledge of their course of study and it is evident that very many of them have a difficulty doing so. According to Chong et al, (2009), struggling with tests and assignments, coping with academic demands and challenges of lecturers, transitioning into financial and emotional independence can be an overwhelming experience for many students as this demands intellectual and emotional adjustments on the part of the learners.
As students resume to the schools the first time, they are faced with multiple changes. These may be in form of their living arrangements, academic environments, and friendship networks, while trying to adapt to greater independence and responsibility in their personal and academic lives. Although, Gall, Evans and Bellerose (2000) and Wintre and Yaffe (2000) believed that some successfully make this transition to university. To Sennett, Finchilescu, Gibson, and Strauss (2003), it is an exciting experience for some students while Wintre and Yaffe (2000) believed that it can be frustrating and overwhelming for many students. This may thereby lead to emotional maladjustment and depression to some students which has a way of affecting the students’ academic performance.
Adjustment is important in one’s life. Adjustment during the period of adolescence will determine to a larger extent what one would be as a person and as an adult. Fabian (2000) revealed
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that students exhibit different range of adjustment patterns associated with cooperation, initiating interaction and self-control. It does matter what the expectations are, nearly every student encounters challenging experiences or obstacles at the new environment. This implies that adjustment is a function of students’ experiences both inside and outside the school environment.
According to Raju and Rahamtulla (2007) adjustment is a process of maintaining harmonious relationships between a living organism and its environment. To Weiten and Lloyd (2003), adjustment is the psychological processes through which people manage or cope with the demands and challenges of everyday life. Also, Ugodulunwa and Anakwe (2012) described adjustment process as a way in which the individual attempts to deal with stress, tension, conflicts and meet his or her needs while making efforts at the same time to maintain harmonious relationships with the environment. Adeniyi (2014) summarized the adjustment to mean the patterns or ways by which individuals adapt or functions well in a new situation. This implies that the individual and the environment are two important factors in adjustment (Ugodulunwa and Anakwe 2012).
In the meantime, academic adjustment of undergraduates is not in isolation but it includes a connection between the student’s intellectual growth and the intellectual environment of the institution. Sax, Gilmartin, Keup, DiCrisi and Bryant (2000) defined academic adjustment as successfully understanding of what lecturers expect academically, developing effective study skills, adjusting to the academic demands of college and not feeling intimidated by lecturers. In their own view, Abdullah, Ellias, Mahyuddin and Uli (2009) described academic adjustment as how well students deal with educational demands. Thus, academic adjustment can be viewed as the individual student’s formal and informal relationships with the school. It is the individuals’ efforts at setting academic goals, completing academic requirements, the effectiveness of their efforts to meet these requirements, and their academic environment. Therefore, the students who have difficulty in adjusting well to school situations will not do well in their academics.
In recent years, there has been increased awareness by educators that variables other than academic ability may affect an individual’s adjustment to school. In the opinion of Santrock (2006), individuals are likely to react differently in different situations because of the distinctive thoughts, emotions and behaviours that mark the way an individual adapts to this world. It is therefore opined that academic adjustment of an individual is a function of several variables such as individual’s self- concept. Self-concept is more than how one feels about oneself; self-concept is more about one’s knowledge of oneself. Self-concept is viewed as the understanding one has about himself or what he believes about himself (Nwankwo 2010). Also, Weiten and Llyod (2003) saw self-concept as a collection of beliefs about one’s own nature, unique qualities and typical behaviour. It is about what one knows about life from what one has learned. The way an individual perceives himself goes a long way to shape his behaviour patterns. It is the notion of how individuals feel, think and behave toward themselves. The image someone forms about himself therefore will describe his/her mental well-being and this will ultimately provide him/her an overall understanding about him or herself. In most cases, people behave in a manner which is consistent with the way they view themselves. It is more about what one knows about oneself. Having a strong and positive self-concept involves having the ability to know and understand oneself. A strong self-concept allows one to assess one’s values, strengths, weaknesses, and allows one to be able to calculate what parts of one’s life one needs to (or want to) improve. It is only when an individual is able to control himself that he will be able to tell the kind of person he wants to be.
According to Strage and Brandt (1999), self-concept can be classified into two major types which are positive self-concept and negative self-concept. The positive self-concept is about a circumstance or situation in which an individual is confident and sure of himself, have good interests, be objective and not too sensitive. This individual may accept the criticism from others and may be able to give views and opinions if the circumstances are not logical or rational. On the contrary, a negative self-concept is when an individual has too subjective nature. According to Azizi and Latiff (2005), this type of individual will always have no satisfaction, not happy, will easily sulk and be displeased. Such individuals are often criticized by their parents, teachers, friends or anyone around them. This will cause the individual concerned to have low confidence. This may result in the individual having inferiority complex, passive attitude, and generally not socialize with other students.
At present the development of self-concept among students is worrisome, as most students have negative self-concept and are so passive, which in turn affects their achievement in schools. Fischer (2009) ascertained that academic conditions in higher institutions of learning induce anxiety, a sense
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of incapability and feeling of inferiority for many students and this feeling of inferiority is related to having a negative self-concept on the part of some of the students which hinders a successful academic adjustment. How a student behaves depends on his self-concept, which is about what he thinks of himself, including his strengths, weaknesses and personality type. He will use his self-concept while judging whether he will succeed or fail in his effort. Self-concept will also influence his expectations, dreams and actions.
Self-concept does not necessarily reflect the reality. Every person has some kind of perception of what he/she would be in future. This is why Woolfolk, Hughes, and Walkup, (2007) averred that self- concept comprised of a set of thoughts, feelings, and attitudes a person develops about him or herself. While corroborating this, Huitt (2004) believed that self-concept is the cognitive and intellectual aspect of ‘self’ which provides the person with an overall understanding about him or herself. The more the “ideal self” is in congruence with the actual self, the more satisfied the person would be. The failure to achieve the ideal concept leads to the social and psychological incompatibility. On the other hand, self- concept summarized to just what a person imagines about him/herself; it also includes the other’s judgment, real or unreal, especially coming from those present in one’s social environment.
Nasir and Lin (2012) believed that the individuals with positive self-concept have a higher social and emotional compatibility so they have the potentiality to make better progress. In the opinion of Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi (2000), negative self-concept has a close correlation with vulnerability and depression. Those who have negative perception about themselves often show a lower efficiency and face problems to set up a close relationship with others.
According to the findings of Ybrandt (2008), there is close relationship between self-concept and psychological health of adolescents. For instance, Ybrandt (2008) opined that positive self-concept keeps the youth from the behaviour difficulties, but negative self-concept can lead to social isolation and hence depression. The summary of Ybrandt’s findings is that self-concept is a main factor in social relationship, peer relationship and compatibility with the life events and behavior problems.
Also, researchers are of the strong view that a good understanding of self, ability, self-efficacy, self-concept and being able to balance issues in the environment will enable a student achieve a good academic adjustment even in the face of most distracting factors in the school environment. For instance, Holmbeck and Wandrei (1993) found that whether or not students perceived themselves as adaptable to change and were able to adapt their social and academic skills to new situations and courses was also related to academic adjustment. Also, Cohorn and Giulliano (1999) and Gerdes and Mallinckrodt (1994) found that a sense of self-confidence, enhanced in part by informal contacts with faculty, predicts academic adjustment and persistence.
Marsh (1993) attested that while there is a relationship between self-concept and academic achievement, general self-concept and non-academic self concepts are not related to academic achievement. Self-esteem is negatively correlated with loneliness, which, in turn, predicts student adjustment (McWhirter, 1997). Students who have difficulty meeting people and making new friends or who tended to cope with difficult situations by isolating themselves had more difficulty adjusting than those who were more social (Tinto, 1993).
Although these studies provide important information about the relationship between self- concept and academic adjustment, Most (nd) defined self-concept or self-esteem as a global construct and develop rather limited measurements to assess this variable. Research that uses a more sensitive instrument to assess self-concept is needed to determine the extent to which self-concept is an important predictor of academic adjustment. Moreover, most theorists agree that self-concept is multi- dimensional (Neemann & Harter, 1986). Few studies have treated self-concept as a complex construct, and explored the relationship between one or more specific domains of self-concept and academic adjustment.
In a study by Awan, Noureen and Naz, (2011), self-concept was seen as the general confidence that individuals felt about themselves and the levels of an individual’s self-concept predict the extent to which he or she was able to accomplish academic tasks successfully or unsuccessfully. They further argued that much of the earlier interest in the self-concept versus achievement relationship stemmed from the belief that academic self-concept had motivational functions and thus, changes in academic self-concept would lead to changes in subsequent academic achievement.
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Consequent upon the above arguments, it is germane to ascertain the pattern of academic adjustment of university students in Ondo State, as well as the influence which the self-concept has on the academic adjustment of students. This therefore is the thrust of the paper.
Objectives of the study
The objectives of the study were to:
a. ascertain the pattern of academic adjustment of university undergraduates in Ondo State; b. investigate the prevalent self-concept among university undergraduates; and c. determine the influence of self-concept on academic adjustment of university undergraduates.
Research Questions
1. What is the pattern of academic adjustment of university undergraduates in Ondo State? 2. What is the self-concept that is prevalent among university undergraduates?
Hypothesis
There is no significant influence of self-concept on academic adjustment of university undergraduates in Ondo State
Methodology
The study adopted the descriptive survey design. The population consisted of all University undergraduates in Ondo State. The sample comprised 1,376 students selected using the multi–stage sampling technique. Three universities (One Federal, one State and one Private) were purposively selected based on ownership. From each university, two Faculties were selected using simple random sampling technique. Sixty undergraduates offering compulsory courses from Parts One to Four were selected using convenience sampling technique. Two adapted instruments titled “Academic Adjustment Inventory (AAI) “and “Self-Concept Questionnaire (SCQ)” were used to collect data for the study. The AAI was divided into two sections. Section A comprised items on demographic variables such as the name of school, part or level, sex and faculty. Section B comprised 25 items that sought information on the undergraduates’ academic adjustment. The instrument was adapted from the work of Ohuakanwa, Omeje and Eskay (2012). The original version of the instrument contained 21 items. Some of the items were reconstructed for easy understanding of the respondents. The respondents were required to respond to the items following a Four-Point Likert rating scale of “Strongly Agree”, “Agree”, “Disagree” and “Strongly Disagree” which were coded 4, 3, 2, and 1 respectively. The internal consistency of the instrument was conducted on 80 undergraduate students of Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria. Thus the reliability results yielded Cronbach’s Alpha of 0.83 and Guttman’s result of 0.72. The second instrument i.e. SCQ was adapted from the Tennesse Self-Concept Scale (TSCS) which was modified by Fitts (1971). The original version contained 100 items but was reduced to 23 items. The instrument sought for information on the students’ self-concept. Respondents were also asked to respond to the items using a Four-Point Likert rating scale of “Strongly Agree”, “Agree”, “Disagree” and “Strongly Disagree” which were coded 4, 3, 2, and 1 respectively. Also, the instrument was dully validated and reliability test was carried out. The results showed the Cronbach’s Alpha and Guttman’s Split-half reliability coefficients results of 0.89 and 0. 86 in that order. The results authenticated the appropriateness of the instruments for the study. The data collected were analysed using percentages and Chi-square Statistical Method.
Results
Research Question One: What is the pattern of academic adjustment of university undergraduates in Ondo State?
The results in Table 1 showed the patterns of academic adjustment between male and female students across all the levels. From the Table, the results showed that 49% of the male students had poor adjustment as against 51% of the female students. It showed that 57% of the male possessed fair adjustment and 43% had fair adjustment. Further, it was shown that 55% of the male students had good adjustment pattern while 45% of the female had good adjustment pattern. The overall results revealed
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that 48. 4% of the respondents had good pattern of academic adjustment, 26. 9% had fair pattern of academic adjustment while the remaining 24. 7% of the respondents had poor pattern of academic adjustment. From the results above, it can be concluded that most sampled university undergraduates demonstrated good pattern of academic adjustment.
Table 1: Showing Simple Percentage Analysis of Patterns of Academic Adjustment of University Undergraduates in Ondo State
Sex Part Poor Fair Good Frequency (%) Frequency (%) Frequency (%) 1 68 (20%) 26 (7%) 33 (5%) 2 51(15%) 48 (13%) 73 (11%) Male 3 27 (8%) 59 (16%) 113 (17%) 4 20 (6%) 78 (21%) 147 (22%) Sub-Total (%) 167 (49%) 211 (57%) 366 (55%) 1 78 (23%) 11 (3%) 20 (3%) Female 2 58 (17%) 33 (9%) 53 (8%) 3 24 (7%) 41 (11%) 100 (15%) 4 14 (4%) 74 (20%) 127 (19%) Sub-Total 173 (51%) 159 (43%) 300 (45%) G. Total (%) 340 (24.7%) 370 (26.9%) 666 (48.4%)
Research Question Two: What is the self-concept that is prevalent among university undergraduates in Ondo State?
Table 2: Showing Simple Percentage Analysis of Self-Concept Prevalent among University Undergraduates in Ondo State
Level of self-concept Frequency Percentage (%) Positive 759 55.2 Negative 617 44.8 Total 1376 100
Table 2 above showed that 55.2% of the undergraduates possessed positive self-concept while the remaining 44.8% possessed negative self-concept. This result showed that most of the undergraduate students in Ondo State possessed positive self-concept.
Research Hypothesis: There is no significant influence of self-concept on academic adjustment of university undergraduates in Ondo State.
Table 3: Chi-square test of the influence of self-concept on academic adjustment Self- Academic Adjustment df χ2 P concept Poor Fair Good
Positive 56 286 417 4. 1% 20. 8% 30. 3% 2 56. 300 < 0. 05 Negative 284 84 249 20. 6% 6. 1% 18. 1% Significant at the 0. 05 level (2-tailed)
The results in Table 3 revealed that respondents with positive self-concept (55. 2%) were better adjusted academically than those with the negative self-concept (44. 8%). The chi-square value obtained is 56. 300 at p < 0. 05. This means that there is significant influence between independent and dependent variables. Hence, the null hypothesis which was stated that there is no significant influence
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of self-concept on academic adjustment of the undergraduates was rejected.
Discussion
The findings from the above have revealed that quite a number of undergraduate students in Ondo State demonstrated good academic adjustment. Although it was also revealed that few of them demonstrated fair adjustment pattern as it has been established by Fabian (2000), that students exhibited different range of adjustment patterns. Still it could be concluded that most students demonstrated good adjustment pattern. The inference from the above findings was that a considerable number of students try to demonstrate resilience no matter what circumstances they faced in their new environment. Apart from this, it was also made possible for some students (Pre-degree and Direct Entrants) to adjust fast to the new university academic activities because of their pre-knowledge. In fact, this was established in Oluwafemi (2015)’s study that those students who got admission into the university through pre-degree and direct modes did adjust fast and better than the university students who were admitted through University Matriculation Examination.
Also, the findings revealed that most undergraduate students in Ondo State possessed positive self-concept. Another major finding of this study was that the prevalent level of self-concept among the university undergraduates was positive self-concept. From the above, the findings had provided the clear evidence that most undergraduates in the study area possessed the positive self-concept. It was believed that good understanding of self, ability, self-efficacy, self-concept and being able to balance issues in the environment would enable students achieve good academic adjustment, Holmbeck and Wandrei (1993). That is why the findings supported Sharifah (1998)’s previous study that majority of students had positive self-concept. Thus, findings confirmed the existed relationship between self- concept and students’ academic adjustment.
Finally, the results revealed that there was a significant influence of self-concept on academic adjustment of university undergraduates. In essence, a significant influence could be attached to the self-concept of an individual when assessing the way he adjusts to situations. The findings of the study showed that on the whole, majority of students had positive self-concept. The findings corroborated Azizi et. al (2005) and Awan et. al (2011) that those who had positive self-concept usually adjusted well to the new university experiences. Also, Areta (2009) observed that prevailing problems of students like droping out of school and negative attitude towards teachers, peers and adjustment in school were often due to the negative self-concept. It was established that self-concept is the cognitive and intellectual aspect of self. Therefore, it was possible for the students with positive self-concept to quickly develop positive feelings, attitudes and awareness towards the new university situations.
1. Conclusion/ Recommendation
Arising from the above findings, it can thus be concluded that most of the university undergraduates in Ondo State had good pattern of academic adjustment and this had predisposed them to cope well in their studies. Besides, it can also be concluded that the level of self-concept of an individual greatly determined his adjustment pattern in the school. In view of the above, it is recommended that the students should be sensitized and made to participate in activities that will increase their awareness and ability to adjust satisfactorily when faced with challenges that are peculiar to academic activities. To help them in this direction, university authorities may need to organize a well- packaged orientation programme to sensitize the new students about the academic tasks ahead of them. Apart from this, constant colloquium with students will help keep them abreast of the situations in the university. Lastly, organizing and encouraging students to participate in the various co-curricular activities will be of immense benefit for students to familiarize them quickly with the new university experiences.
References
Abdullah M. C., Elias H., Mahyuddin, R. & Uli J. (2009) Adjustment amongst first year students in a Malaysian University. European Journal of Social Sciences 8 (3). Adeniyi, W. O. (2014). Personality types, demographic variables and academic adjustment of fresh undergraduates of Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria. Journal of educational and social research, 4(6), 493-502. Awan, R., Noureen, G., & Naz, .A (2011). A study of relationship between achievement motivation, self- concept and achievement in English and Mathematics at Secondary Level. International
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Education Studies 4(3), 72- 78, Azizi, Y., & Latif, J. S., (2005). Development of self-concept. Pahang: PTS Publishing. Chong, M. A., Elias, H., Mahayuddin, R., & Uli, J., (2009).Adjustment among first year students in Malaysian University. European Journal of Social Sciences, 8(3), 496-505. Cohorn, C. A. & Giulliano, T. A. (1999). Predictors of adjustment and institutional attachment in first year college students. Psi.Chi. Journal of Undergraduate Research, 4, 47-56. Fabian, H. (2000).A Seamless Transition. Paper presented at the EECERA 10th European Conference on Quality in Early Education London. August 29- September. Frernont, J. Z. (2000). Persistence of college freshmen: Relationships among non-academic attitudes and personality types, Doctoral Dissertation, Temple University, Philadelphia, PA. Pro Quest Digital Dissertations, AAT 991109, Fischer, C. (2009). The correlation between grade point average and coping strategies. (Retrieved August 25th, 2013, from www.webclearinghouse.net). Holmbeck, G. N. & Wandrei, M. S. (1993). Individual and relational predictors of adjustment in first year college students. Journal of Counselling Psychology, 40, 73-78. Retrieved October 13, 2013, from http://www.findarticles.com, Huitt, W. (1998). Self-concept and self-esteem. http://chiron.valdosta.edu/ whuitt/files/selfconc.html. Marsh, H. W. (1993). A multidimensional, hierarchical self-concept: Theoretical and empirical justification. Educational Psychology Review, 2, 77-172. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF01322177, McWhirter, B. T. (1997). Loneliness, learned resourcefulness, and self-esteem in college students. Journal of Counseling and Development, 75, 460–469. doi:10.1002/j.1556- 6676.1997.tb02362. Moore, L. (2006). Family dynamics and students’ characteristics as predictor of undergraduate college student adjustment. (Unpublished Master’s thesis). University of North Texas, Texas, USA. Neemann, J. & Harter, S. (1986). The self-perception profile for college students. Unpublished manual (university of Denver). Nwankwo, O. C. (2010). Psychological basis of counselling and adolescence perspective. Port Harcourt: Pam unique publisher. Oluwafemi, O. (2015). Social adjustment and academic performance of students admitted through Pre- degree, UTME and Direct Entry Mode at Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife. (Unpublished M. A. Ed Thesis). Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife. Raju,. M. V. R. & Rahamtull. T. K. (2 007). Adjustment problems among school students. Journal of Indian Academic of Applied Psychology 33 (1), 73-79. Santrock, W. J. (2006). Human Adjustment. New York: McGraw-Hill Inc. Sax, L. J., Gilmartin, S. K., Keup, J. R., Dicrisi, F. A., & Bryant, A. N. (2000). Designing an assessment of the first-year college year: Results from the 1999-2000 YFCY pilot study a report for the policy center on the first-year of college. Brevard College of Higher Education Research Institute, Graduate School of Education and Information. University of California, Los Angeles Seligman, M. E., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2000). Positive psychology: An introduction, American Psychologist, 55(1), 5. Sennett, J., Finchilescu, G. Gibson, K., & Strauss, R. (2003). Adjustment of black students at a historically white South African university. Educational psychology, 23(1), 107-116. Strage, A. & Brandt, T. (1999). Authoritative parenting and college student’s academic adjustment and success. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91, 146-156. Tinto, V. (1993). Leaving college: Rethinking the Causes and Cures of Student Attrition (2nd. ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press, Ugodulunwa, C.A. & Anakwe, A.I. (2002). Factorial validity of a school adjustment school for adolescents in Metanu State. The Educational Psychologist 6(1) 30-88. Weiten, W. & Lloyd, M. A. (2003). Psychology Applied to modern life. Adjustment in 21st century. U.S.A: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning. Wintre, M. G. & Yaffe, M. (2000). First year student adjustment to university life as a function of relationship with parents. Journal of adolescent research, 15, 19-37, Woolfolk, A. E., Hughes, M. & Walkup, V. (2007). Psychology in Education, Pearson Education. Yalew, E. (2003). Causes of student attrition in Bahir Dar University: Qualitative and quantitative analysis. The Ethiopian Journal of Education, XXIII (1), 31-66. Ybrandt, H. (2008). The relation between self-concept and social functioning in adolescence, Journal of Adolescence, 31(1), 1-16.
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Authors
Olagoke Ayorinde AYENI Department of Educational Foundations, School of Education Osun State College of Education, Ilesa, Nigeria, E-mail:[email protected]
Wasiu Olasunkanmi ADENIYI Department of Educational Foundations and Counselling, Faculty of Education Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria.
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THE ARTISTE AS A PROPAGANDIST: A CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF SAHEED OSUPA’S MUSIC
Ganiu Abisoye Bamgbose Lagos State Polytechnic
Abstract
Music in Africa has always served social, moral, religious, psychological and spiritual purposes. The language of musicians does not also come in a vacuum. It always depicts different thematic preoccupations which are mutually shared by the lovers of the genre of music. Existing studies on music generally in Nigeria and Fuji music in particular have focused on invective and verbal altercations among musicians. This study which focuses on Saheed Osupa has considered a shift in the ideological underlining of contemporary Fuji artistes. Using van Dijk’s approach to CDA and Jacob Mey’s Pragmatic Act, the study investigates how Saheed Osupa depicts his superiority and domination to his all-time rival, Wasiu Alabi Pasuma in terms of artistic craftsmanship and material possessions. With six discursive moves of categorization, metaphor, hyperbole, comparison, implication and self-glorification, Osupa practs superiority to himself and practs inferiority, incompetence and warning to Pasuma. The study submits that the language of Fuji musicians is always ideologically impregnated.
Keywords: Fuji, Osupa, Pasuma, discursive moves, pragmatic act.
Introduction
Music is an essential part of the African people at large and Nigerians in particular. Commenting on the importance of music in Africa, Aduonum (1980) asserts that:
In Africa, music is life; that is, it permeates all daily activities. Music in Africa is the soul which is ultimately concerned with various customs and religious practices. The African is born, named, initiated, fortified, fed, nurtured and buried with music. In Africa, music heals the sick, directs and guides the blind, comforts the widow and music stops tribal warfare. (Aduonum, 1980:19-20)
Among the Yoruba people of Nigeria, there are different genres of music. These genres include apala, fuji, jùjú, highlife etc. Of all these genres, Fuji has enjoyed the greatest popularity in the last twenty years. Fuji is a popular Nigerian musical genre. It arose from the improvisation of Ajisari/were music tradition, which according to Akpan (2006:101), “is a kind of music performed to wake Muslims before dawn during the Ramadan fasting season.”
Fuji music emanated from the basic structure of indigenous Yoruba music. In performance, Fuji music borrows from a compendium of ritual music especially of the Ogboni cult, traditional game songs and moonlight tales songs, music of various professions and activities; all of whom are from unknown authors as well as injected compositions by the performers themselves in the general style and flow of the Yoruba culture.
However, from the inception of Fuji music, invective and other forms of confrontations have been a regular characteristic. This study which focuses on Saheed Osupa looks at how he constructs his superiority and domination to his all time rival, Wasiu Alabi Pasuma, both in artistic craftsmanship and material possessions. The researcher is interested in how linguistic devices make positive and negative representations possible in the music of Saheed Osupa in line with the positive self-representation and negative other-representation approach to Critical Discourse Analysis.
THE ARTISTE, SAHEED OSUPA
He was born in Ibadan in 1973 to the family of a musician. His father was a Were singer and an elder cousin to Alhaji Sikiru Ayinde Barrister (the renowned Fuji pioneer). He started singing in the early eighties when Fuji Music was making fewer waves. Saheed Osupa has released about 20 albums, releasing the first one titled 'Fuji fadisco' in 1992 under the label of Alasco films and records. The native of Ibadan is a notable, well organised, sensible and educated Fuji musician. Osupa attended
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the Polytechnic of Ibadan where he had OND in 1992. He later studied computer networking in the US. Saheed constantly claims to be the king of music because of his consistency in keeping the original face of Fuji music. He believes that Fuji music is not just about dancing to drum beats but should also be used for serious discussions and philosophical expositions as well as imparting cultural thoughts to listeners as it was being used by earlier artistes like Barrister and Kollington who used their music to advice people and pass messages to despotic rulers.
His albums have featured hip hop tracks in collaboration with a number of hip hop artistes which has somehow endeared his music to many young people. However, due to the controversies in which he is constantly involved, the larger corporate audience tends to keep him at arms’ length, getting neither too close nor too far. It must be said however that these controversies which usually are superiority statements have always characterized the Fuji scene right from the time of Sikiru Ayinde Barrister and Kollington Ayinla who are the founding fathers of Fuji.
Literature Review
Studies abound on songs generally in Nigeria, Olagunju (1997), Sunday (2011), Olamisoji (2014) and others.
Sunday (2011) examined the verbal battle between Sikiru Ayinde Barrister and Ayinla Kollington, bringing out instances of the abuses they rained on each other from their songs. Using the instruments of CDA and Brown and Levinson’s politeness, the researcher analysed the several issues debated in these songs, but they were all hinged on one particular issue: the origin and founder of Fuji music. Barrister does not want to lose the privileges attached to being the founder and Kollington feels that he is being fraudulent by claiming to be the founder of Fuji. This led to a series of verbal banters and altercations between the two Fuji icons, with each bringing out instances of past ordeals and how things run in other genres of Yoruba music. Considering the age of these artistes, Sunday submits that, they both should retrace their steps and use their old age to correct the havoc that their music has wrecked on the psyche of the society for the sake of posterity.
Odejobi (2014) examined Yoruba indigenous folksongs as a veritable source for the impartation of moral education in children. Two hundred grandparents and two hundred young mothers were sampled randomly for the study. Odejobi held that Yoruba indigenous folksongs were used as a veritable source for revitalizing moral education among preschool children. The study which was both quantitative and qualitative in its analysis found that moral values drawn from indigenous folksongs include honesty, hard work, laziness, cleanliness and truthfulness. The study however recommended that teachers should adopt folksongs in the classroom as this will not only preserve or transmit cultural heritage but also impart moral education in children in a lively way.
Theoretical Frameworks
The study uses both van Dijk’s framework of Critical Discourse Analysis and Jacob Mey’s Pragmatic Act as its theoretical guide.
CDA is mainly concerned ‘with analyzing opaque as well as transparent structural relationships of dominance, discrimination, power and control as manifested in language.’(Wodak, 2001:2).
Van Dijk's (2004) framework consists of two main discursive strategies of 'positive self- representation' (semantic macro-strategy of in-group favouritism and 'negative other-representation' (semantic macro-strategy of derogation of out-group) which are materialized through some other discursive moves such as 'actor description', 'authority', 'burden' ('Topos'), 'categorization', 'comparison, 'consensus', 'counterfactuals, 'disclaimer', 'euphemism', 'evidentiality', 'example'/'illustration', 'generalization' 'hyperbole', 'implication', 'irony', 'lexicalization', 'metaphor', 'self glorification', 'norm expression', 'number game', 'polarization', 'Us-Them', 'populism', 'presupposition', 'vagueness', 'victimization. Above are 27 ideological strategies among which the fundamental dichotomy of ‘self positive-representation’ and ‘other negative representation’ stand out. This study selects six of these discursive moves which are employed by Saheed Osupa in portraying his superiority to Wasiu Alabi Pasuma both in artistic craftsmanship and material possessions. The discursive moves used are: categorization, comparison, hyperbole, implication, metaphor and self glorification. These moves were selected purposively based on the dictates of the data.
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According to Yule (1996:3), pragmatics is ‘the study of speaker and contextual meaning, and how more gets communicated than is said, as well as the study of the expression of relative distance.’ The analysis in this study is corroborated by Jacob Mey’s Pragmatic Act to account for certain contextual factors that are brought to bear in interpreting the musical excerpts.
In the words of Mey (2001: 221), the pragmatic act theory focuses on ‘the environment in which both speaker and hearer find their affordances, such that the entire situation is brought to bear on what can be said in the situation, as well as what is actually being said’. This view is expressed as a pragmeme. A pragmatic act is instantiated through an ipra or a pract, which realises a pragmeme. ‘Every pract is at the same time an allopract, that is to say a concrete instantiation of a particular pragmeme’, (Mey 2001: 221). What determines a pract is solely participants' knowledge of interactional situation and the potential effect of a pract in a particular context. Thus, practing resolves the problem of telling illocutionary force from perlocutionary force (Odebunmi 2006).
There are two parts to a pragmeme: activity part, meant for interactants and textual part, referring to the context within which the pragmeme operates. To communicate, the interactants draw on such speech act types as indirect speech acts, conversational ('dialogue') acts, psychological acts, prosodic acts and physical acts. These are engaged in contexts, which include INF representing "inference"; REF, "relevance"; VCE, "voice"; SSK, "shared situation knowledge"; MPH, "metaphor"; and M "metapragramatic joker", Mey (2001), Odebunmi (2006). This study utilises mainly the textual part, giving its contextual relevance.
Methodology
This study deliberately chose its data from the artiste’s live performances. This is because; Fuji artistes generally tend to comment more on the goings-on within the industry in their live performances. It is usually where one finds them uncensored. Four live performances which are: Combination, Akuko Omole, Koloko Okota, Eko Mix and Oba Nla were purposively selected for this study. These live performances were taped at different times between 2005 and 2014. This is to show that the ideology captured in the analysis developed over a long period of time.
Data Analysis
Given the nature of the studied data, the excerpts are subsumed under the devices. Two excerpts are provided for each device and the explanations follow. In the set of excerpts provided under each device, there is usually an indication of legitimization or positive self-representation in one of the excerpts while the other indicates delegitimization or negative other-representation of the other figure.
CATEGORIZATION: Assigning people to different groups.
EXCERPT 1
T’oba ni Olufimo ni seyin o, ferin da won lohun ni, toba ni Olufimo sope still on top, abosi o sinbe, awa siwa lako sa lawa bi ibon, gbogbo odi Jericho to taku s’ono lati wo
GLOSS
When they say Olufimo now, reply them with a smile, when they say Olufimo say still on top, hypocrisy is not involved. We are still standing firmly. All the walls of Jericho on the way have fallen down. (Oba Nla)
In this excerpt, there is a case of categorization. Fuji musicians usually brand themselves with titles aside their usual names. Osupa refers to himself as Olufimo 1, Obanla. In this excerpt, he mentions his own in-group name (Obanla) and portrays himself as still doing excellently well while he represents the other group derogatorily. Using Pragmatic Act, the walls of Jericho has two references in the excerpt. First is to the other group, Pasuma whose in-group name, OGA NLA is derogatorily referred to as the walls of Jericho and the other reference is an allusion to the biblical Jericho that was conquered by the Israelites. The inference here is that, he, Osupa and his brand of Fuji has conquered any other and this is to pract superiority.
EXCERPT 2
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T’alon f’oba we oga o, oga eru, arinfin! T’alon fi Saridon Papa we olorin gbadogburu? B’alai mokan ba fiwe mo pity fun, apoti ma lofi we portfolio yen, original logbe s’egbe agbelero. Boya komo pon se yanmayanma niyen.
GLOSS
Who’s comparing a king to a boss, the boss of slaves, ridiculous! Who’s comparing Saridon papa to an empty musician? If an ignorant person does that I pity him. He is just comparing a stool to a portfolio, original to fake. I doubt the person knows he is misbehaving already. (Oba Nla)
As said earlier, the different artistes have nomenclatures. Osupa is Oba Nla ( great king) and Pasuma is Oga Nla ( great boss). Having referred to Pasuma as a boss, he ridiculously said he is just the boss of slaves, therefore depicting him and his own group in a derogatory manner. In line with pragmatic act, positive words like portfolio(knowing a portfolio will always have valuables) and original are used by Osupa for himself while he refers to Pasuma with words like stool( which will always be sat on by persons or things) and fake. It is to be inferred here that he, Osupa is a better artiste and therefore practs superiority to himself and simultaneously practs inferiority to Pasuma.
METAPHOR: Comparing a person or group with something else.
EXCERPT 3
Kini kini kilode, shebi kaluku lon se ti e, gbogbo igbe t’erin logbo l’owo, seb’ololaajo obinu, nigba ti kiniun wan lo ti e, ewa l’e fe p’oloola ajo lejo, iro ni ko l’ejo nu.
GLOSS
What? What? What is happening? Everybody is on his own business. The time the elephant had the forest, after all the king of the jungle was not angry. Now that the lion is in charge, you now say you want to summon the king of the jungle. That’s a lie. There is no case in that. ( Eko Mix)
In the excerpt above, Osupa compares Pasuma and himself with animals. He starts on a note of lamentation trying to show that Pasuma is envious of his popularity when he ( Pasuma) had in the past enjoyed such popularity before the emergence of Osupa. He however says clearly that it is his own era of fame and no one can do anything about it. Reference as a pragmatic tool makes it known that Osupa is referring to himself as lion and king of the jungle while he is referring to Pasuma as an elephant. SSK helps to make the meaning of this excerpt clearer giving that lovers of Fuji can tell that Pasuma has been famous and prosperous before Osupa (though this is not to say he is no longer famous). He therefore practs his present superiority to Pasuma.
EXCERPT 4
Baba je kin leyin ni d’ise orin kin gba yi titi d’ale. Jowo je kin leyin ni d’ise orin kin gba yi d’ojo ale. Tori laye igbakon t’esin bama wi, a loun sa l’oga o t’oba je t’are sisa. Seri n’igba yen ere nbe l’ese malu gon, okun ese lon se ifa seyin fun, a’tesin t’on sare ati malu ton rin o, gbogbo e gbogbo e lori iyi noni. sewa ri ni seyin are esin o’niyi mo, sewa ri malu lo wan gba yi niseyin, gbogbo ara malu lowa di kiki owo
GLOSS
Oh Lord let me reign till the end of my career in the music profession. Because back then whenever the horse wanted to talk, he would claim to be the champion of any race. But you see there was actually race in the cow’s legs then but the rope in its legs was serving as a setback. Both the running cow and the walking horse were in search of fame. But now the running of the horse has lost value; it is the walking of the cow that is valuable. All parts of the cow now give money. ( Akuko Omole, Kolokolo Okota)
Again in this excerpt, Osupa represents himself with the cow and Pasuma with the horse. He
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however establishes that when the horse was a famous runner, it was not the case that the cow could not run but for some obstacles. Rope in the excerpt refers to obstacles. However he establishes that the race of the horse has lost its value and it is the walking of the cow that is now profitable. The SSK which makes all Fuji lovers know that Pasuma must be the horse since he became prosperous before Osupa can help infer that Osupa is practing his superiority to Pasuma at the moment.
HYPERBOLE: A device for enhancing and exaggerating meaning.
Excerpt 5
Owa ni t’eba w’ole oun o, oni swimming pool Kunle o, olo ni mortuary Paso Kunle, oni Tanterlizers o, oni Mr Biggs Kunle o, nibi ti ile oun l’ede, oni Chicken Republic ba wasi
GLOSS
He said if you see the house, it has swimming pool in it, Kunle o. He said it has mortuary Paso Kunle. It has Tanterlizers and Mr Biggs, Kunle. The house is so big that it has Chicken Republic … (Eko Mix)
As the excerpt shows, Osupa mimicks Pasuma about the facilities in his (Pasuma’s) house. This is because at the time of this music, Osupa had publicized two of his houses through a big party opening and Pasuma had not at this time thrown any party for house opening. Osupa began to intimidate Pasuma on this ground and one of such intimidations was saying that Pasuma claimed the highlighted words in the excerpts would be in his house. Evidently this is an exaggeration as no one in this part of the world will have a mortuary in his or her home. Again, if one will have an eatery in his house, it definitely will not be as many as three as Osupa has claimed on behalf of the innocent Pasuma. Osupa renders this song using Pasuma’s voice. This prosodic act and VCE pract mockery to Pasuma.
EXCERPT 6
Owa lohun omo alalubarika, ose record korita, awa ta se meta t’ata. Baba won t’ose meta gan ko ta to tiwa. Atu se merin a ta
GLOSS
He claims to be a blessed child. He made a record and could not sell it. We did three we sold it. Even their father who did four didn’t sell as much as we did. We again did a four in one album and sold well. (Eko Mix)
In the excerpt above, the exaggeration flows from two directions. First, it is exaggerating to claim that a popular artiste like Pasuma made a record and did not make a good sale. It is also an overblown trumpet on the part of Osupa to say his record sold more than others’. With reference we can deduce that ‘their father’ as used by Osupa is a reference to Wasiu Ayinde. This is because Pasuma was then Ayinde’s loyalty. Ayinde is arguably the most exposed, travelled and sophisticated Fuji artiste as it stands. A claim by Osupa to have sold more than even Ayinde is therefore a case of exaggeration. The use of the plural pronoun ‘awa-we’ for himself is a self-exalting strategy. This excerpt however simultaneously practs superiority for Osupa and mimicry and inferiority to Pasuma and even Wasiu Ayinde.
COMPARISON: Comparing one person or group with another in order to emphasize the good and bad side
Excerpt 7
… two elephants ni Ibadan o je tan, b’ase tu se double star l’eko o ro, sebi combination l’oti jeya to poju o, combination extra otu leju m’opatan. S’oye k’ole tuma s’oro ogun, sebi akinkonju eyan loye ko ma royin ogun. (Kolokolo Okota)
GLOSS
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Two elephants at Lagos you lost. Again when we did double star at Lagos you ran away. It was in combination that you were most beaten. Combination extra was even a bigger case for you. Should a coward narrate a war story? Only the real warrior should actually talk about war. . (Kolokolo Okota)
In the excerpt above, Osupa compares his and Pasuma’s experiences in the series of live performances that the duo had had together. In all of the performances, Osupa portrays himself as having musically molested Pasuma. There is a deliberate derogatory account of Pasuma in all of those events. At the end, Osupa’s reference to himself as a warrior and his reference to Pasuma as a coward is a deliberate attempt to pract superiority to himself and to pract inferiority and incompetence to Pasuma.
Excerpt 8
Paso wan s’oro wipe iru mi om’ara nmu. Iwo ton wo buba totu ma de Kango si, layi gun keke to tu ma lo gloves o, iwo t’olo igo welder ti mo ni gba designer mi.
GLOSS
Paso now says I do not dress well. You that wear native attire (buba) and wear a kango on it, you use gloves when you are not on bicycle. You that wore welder glasses and I offered my designer glasses. (Koloko Okota)
At the beginning of the excerpt, Osupa claims Pasuma started the comparison on their fashion sense. However, he evidently portrayed Pasuma in a derogatory manner especially when he said he (Pasuma) wore the type of glasses welders use to protect their eyes against the fire coming from welding irons. This is evidently derogatory as one can guess that even if Osupa had offered Pasuma his glasses at some point in the past, it will not translate into the caliber of Pasuma having to wear the kind of glasses welders use as Osupa has claimed. The reference to welders’ glasses as used by Osupa evidently practs ridicule to Pasuma.
IMPLICATION: Deducing or inferring implicit information.
Excerpt 9
N’owo n’owo ogo o.n’owo n’owo ogo t’on f’owo se fuja, won feron olorin l’on se n’owo, se wa ri b’on se fi ife n’owo, expectations t’oni l’asi ko yen nipe olorin no oye k’ofowo s’oun re.
GLOSS
The spender isn’t foolish. The spender isn’t foolish when they spend on fun. They spend because they love the artistes. And as they spend with love, the expectation on their mind is that the artiste should do good things with the money. (Oba Nla)
In the excerpt above, Osupa does not mention Pasuma’s name. However, SSK suggests to us that the reference is to Pasuma. This is because as at this time, Pasuma had not opened any big house to the knowledge of the general public of the Fuji fans and this act of opening a house with a big party is characteristic of Fuji artistes. Osupa has, as at this time opened two houses to the knowledge of all Fuji fans. One can therefore infer that the reference of the song is Pasuma and Osupa indirectly practs warning to Pasuma to engage in capital project with the money he makes. Again, an undertone behind this warning is also to claim superiority.( Oba Nla)
Excerpt 10
Tiwon ba sofun t’oba lohun o seun re, esi leti pe ko tete seun re, e la si ko ko duro d’eni konkon. Eni ba f’ere sise nigba to jere, se bo ni toun lo r’ere gangan je.
If they tell him and he refuses to do something good, he should be urged to quickly do something good. Tell him time waits for nobody and it is he who uses profit well that can really
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be called a beneficiary. (Oba Nla)
Excerpt 10 is similar to 9. Like in 9, Osupa tries to establish that he has been prudent with his wealth and he indirectly refers to Pasuma to also invest his wealth. This again can be said to pract warning to Pasuma and superiority to Osupa.
SELF GLORIFICATION: A device to create positive self representation by glorifying one’s self.
Excerpt 11
Eyin gan len ba Fuji je Fuji t’ojo rin ni, agbo k’ogbon ni, agbo mujo ni, orin ti gbogbo aye’n gbadun leso di papangolo. Tiwon ban konri won ani lelele, lele, ooooo. Awa gan lan fo fuji mo fuji t’ojo rin ni, agbo kogbon ni, agbo m’ujo ni, orin ti gbogbo aye’n feron kin sorin panpangolo.
It is you that are spoiling Fuji which is a sensible and danceable song. It is a song that the whole world enjoys and not a childish brand of music. When they sing, they say lelele, lele, oooo. It is we that sanitize Fuji, which is a sensible and danceable music. It is a music that the whole world enjoys and not a childish music. (Akuko Omole, Kolokolo Okota)
As seen in the excerpt above, Osupa exalts himself by claiming to be the sanitizer of Fuji while he ridiculously makes reference to Pasuma as the person who makes Fuji loses its value and make it childish. This reference is evident through the mentioning of ‘lelele lele ooo’ which is a kind of sound associated to Pasuma and his band. This self glorification is evidently to pass superiority to himself and to ridicule Pasuma.
Excerpt 12
Ekoko bami dupe l’owo Jibola, oti ra Navigator, Saheed Osupa. T’ori Alabi Pasuma Jibola, mowa j’owu Saheed moti koko ra navigator t’ele, mowa da pada s’America mo wa sodi Hummer. Osupa Hummer mi’nbo, gbogbo yin a fojuri, mafi Hummer yen s’ile ni …
GLOSS
First of all, help me thank Jibola; he has bought navigator. Because of Alabi Pasuma Jibola I became envious, I had earlier bought Navigator, I had to send it back to America to change it to Hummer. Osupa my Hummer will soon arrive and I shall be opening my house with it. (Combination)
The excerpt above is an obvious attempt to glorify one’s self. Mentioning openly that he had to return his own Navigator on the ground that Pasuma had got one and changing it to Hummer which supposedly is a better and more expensive vehicle is a clear attempt to display superiority. The self glorification is further evident in the announcement of his house which perhaps was nearing completion at that time.
Conclusion
This study is a confirmation of the fact that the language of music generally, and that of Fuji in particular, is always ideologically laced. An earlier study by Sunday (2011) has examined the crisis of Fuji ownership between Barrister and Kollingnton. This study however adds that since this feuding duo faced out, artistic craftsmanship and material possessions have been another basis for ideological clashes among the younger Fuji musicians.
Using the theoretical instruments of critical discourse analysis and pragmatic acts, the study reveals that Saheed Osupa directly and indirectly constructs the ideology of superiority and domination to his all-time rival, Pasuma. This domination is always in terms of being artistically more endowed and materially more successful than Pasuma.
As a further study, the author suggests a comparative study of the music of the two artistes in terms of confrontations to each other or a study of Pasuma’s reactions to Osupa’s self-constructed superiority.
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References
Aduonum, A. (1980). A compilation, analysis and adaptation of selected Ghanaian folktale songs for use in the elementary general class. Ph.D. dissertation. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan. Akpan, W. (2006). And the beat goes on? Popular music censorship in Africa. Eds. Drewett, M and Cloonan, M. Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing Limited. Mey, J. L. (2001): Pragmatics: An Introduction. Oxford: Blackwell. Odebunmi, A. (2006). Meaning in English: An introduction. Ogbomosho: Critical spheres. Odejobi, C.O. (2014). Yorùbá indigenous folksongs as a veritable source for revitalizing moral education among pre-school children in Osun State of Nigeria. International Journal of Innovation and Applied Studies. Vol. 9 No. 4, pp. 1786-1792. Olagunju, A.O. (1997). Orin as a means of expressing world views among the Yoruba. Journal of Yoruba folklore. Vol.2. Ago Iwoye. Ogun state University press. Sunday, A.B. (2011). Verbal assault in Fuji music: The case of Sikiru Ayinde Barrister and Kollington Ayinla. Journal of Pragmatics. 43:5. 1403-1421. van Dijk T. A.(2004a). Politics, ideology and discourse. Retrieved from http://www.discourse-in- society.org/teun.html. Wodak, R. (2001). The discourse-historical approach. In R. Wodak, & M. Meyer (Eds). Methods of critical discourse analysis. London: Sage. Yule, G. (1996). Pragmatics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Author
Ganiu Abisoye Bamgbose [email protected] Lagos State Polytechnic Ikorodu, Lagos
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WORK-LIFE BALANCE AND TEACHERS’ JOB SATISFACTION IN LAGOS STATE SECONDARY SCHOOLS
Olayemi Jumoke Abiodun-Oyebanji Oluwatosin Adijat Sanni University of Ibadan
Abstract
The purpose of this study is to establish the relationship between the work-life balance options and teachers’ job satisfaction in Lagos State secondary schools, Nigeria. The descriptive research design was adopted for this study. Data were collected from 742 secondary schools teachers in Lagos State, Nigeria using an instrument tagged, Work-life Balance and Teachers’ Job Satisfaction Questionnaire (WLBATJSQ). The developed items of WLBATJSQ yielded reliability co-efficient of 0.883 using Crombach alpha method of testing reliability. Data analysis was done using Statistical Packages for Social Sciences (SPSS) based on Pearson Product Moment Correlation (PPMC) and Regression analysis. The study showed significant joint and relative contribution of work-life balance options to teachers’ job satisfaction. Significant relationship between work-life balance and teachers’ job satisfaction was also established in the study. Based on the findings, recommendations that were made include: greater awareness should be created of available work-family balance options, assessments should be conducted regularly to recognize staff needs in balancing work and family. Teachers, school owners and policy makers should be enlightened on the consequences and benefits of work-life balance options, and there should be reassessment of active work-life balance options and upgrading of current practices; so as to ensure job satisfaction of teachers and which in turn might lead to better job performance.
Keywords: Work–Life balance options, Teachers’ Job Satisfaction, Lagos State, secondary schools.
Introduction
It is a universal fact that among the resources available for the survival and growth of organizations, labour seems to be the most vital and indispensable (Fajana, 2002; Armstrong, 2006). They are the most important resources in the organization, as they are reliable, responsible and capable of making valuable contributions to organizational development; hence, they should be treated with dignity and respect. Workers should be given access to some quality of work-life that would make them more committed to their works, home, as well as other life ventures in order to ensure that the corporate objectives of the organization and their aspirations in life are achieved. This is necessary because without the involvement of labour, other resources could remain passive and dormant in the production process (Abiodun – Oyebanji, 2012). If labour is therefore important in the organizational pursuit for survival and growth, their work-life should be balanced. When an individual is thus employed in an organization, he/she does not give up his/her life in exchange for work rather, he/she attempts to maintain a balance between them. This balance is necessary for a healthy and productive life (Nnabuife in Nwosu, 2014).
Work-life balance is an important issue in both professional business practice and academic research. It has become a popular research area in different fields. The term work life-balance is seen as a state of equilibrium in which the demands of both a person’s job and personal life are equal (The Word Spy, 2002). Work-life balance is based on the premise that everyone should have a complete life in which sufficient amount of time is given to personal interests such as continuing education, social/community work, sports, hobbies and family interest (Doherty & Manfredi, 2006). A central characteristic of work-life balance is the amount of time a person spends at work.
It is an issue that is important both to schools and to teachers. For instance, In the current situation of alleged falling standard of education at all levels in Nigeria, teachers are hard pressed for better performance and hence; most of the teacher’s time is spent in the school, making their work take over their lives as a whole. The implication however is that, teachers give more time to work and less time to other important aspects of their lives, thus creating a work-life imbalance with its resultant negative consequences for both the teachers, the students and the entire school system.
This has resulted into a lot of work related problems such as illness, stress and conflict between
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The African Symposium: An online journal of the African Educational Research Network
teachers’ roles as workers, parents and family members. Hence, the major priority of the school management is to provide work-life balance options so as to reduce and if possible avoid conflict between work and non-work domains, in order to maintain a balance between the teaching profession and the personal lives of teachers. An employee with better work-life balance (teachers’ inclusive) may likely contribute more meaningfully towards the organizational growth and success (Naithani, 2010).
Work–life balance in teaching profession is becoming one of the greatest challenges in the world of work. Every education stakeholders (government, policy makers, school administrators, parents, students and the society as a whole) should know that too much demand on teachers could contribute to uncertainty in terms of teaching roles and work conflicts among others. Aside teaching responsibilities, teachers are expected to perform other co-curricular activities such as being a class teacher, patron/ matron of clubs and societies based on their areas of specialization, talent and interest; participation in ad-hoc committees and any other responsibilities as the school may dim it fit (Akindutire, 2010). Multiple workplace roles by teachers alongside school, family and community pressures may likely influence their occupational attitudes, such as job satisfaction, commitment to work and desire to leave or stay in the school.
For many workers, teachers inclusive, the day is not over when they go home. Often, a second batch or stage of work starts at home (Vlems, 2005), and for most working mothers, they come home to the second shift (assuming the inescapable role of a wife and a mother). Spending more time at work, dealing with students, parents and the pressures of job can interfere and affect teachers’ personal life, sometimes making it impossible to even complete the household chores. On the other hand, personal life can also be demanding if the individual has a child (ren) or aging parents, financial problems or even problems in the life of a dear relative. It can create conflict between the professional and personal life of a teacher, thereby leading to absenteeism from work, creating stress and lack of concentration at work, especially in this part of the world (Nigeria) where the culture of extended family is being embraced. Teachers’ work load not only demand their time in the school but also extend to their homes so as to get prepared for the following day’s work, apart from maintaining students records and attending to various school related functions, teachers need to spend extra hours every day to be effective and productive in their profession so that they could reach higher levels and face the challenging atmosphere. The challenge of balancing work and family (non-work) demands is one of today‘s central concern for both individuals and organizations (Valcour, 2007). People who have better work-balance appear to have a greater job satisfaction and seem to perform better in their positions; they appear to have high level of loyalty and of trust (Vlems, 2005) than those who do not. (secondary teachers inclusive).
According to Fapohunda (2014), developing economies like Nigeria are faced with serious economic challenges and labour market pressures added to poor social infrastructures, poverty, high unemployment, insecurity, corruption, among others. These conditions further intensify the work and life of an average Nigerian worker (teachers inclusive) whose aim is to make a living and who may have to painstakingly build up accommodating arrangements and cognitive psychological coping behaviours that stimulate desirable satisfaction and effectual functioning both at work and at home. Most workers in Lagos State Nigeria which is the focus of this study appear to be affected by lack of work flexibility, elevated work pressures and long working hours; this may not be unconnected with the cosmopolitan characteristics of the state in which people of different ethnicity, religion, races and cultures live in close proximity resulting in its densely populated nature with its attendant problems of heavily congested traffic, high crime rate, overstressed infrastructures among others, a situation which may likely contribute to declining in workers’ job satisfaction (teachers inclusive). To ease the situation of these workers, there is a need for work-life balance options which are also referred to as strategies, policies, or initiatives put in place by an organization to help its employees achieve a balance between their work and other aspects of their lives and these include: fair pay, good working condition, flexible working arrangements, development/training programmes, wellness programmes, taking occasional breaks from work, child care assistance, compressed working hours, job-sharing, among others. There are various work-life balance options as listed above, but five of them will be considered in relation to job satisfaction in this study and these are: fair pay, good working conditions, flexible work arrangements, wellness programmes, and development/training programs.
Fair pay refers to the financial compensation that an individual receives as well as the extent to which such compensation is perceived to be equitable. Arubayi in Obineli (2013) stated that, money is an economic reward and a means of bringing about job satisfaction among the Nigerian workers
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(teachers inclusive). Wellness programmes on the other hand, are services sponsored by organizations in an attempt to promote good health or to identify and correct potential health-related problems. It includes employee assistance programmes, stress management workshops and seminars on family- related matters. These programmes are thought to reduce stress by improving the health of employees and providing educational programmes to help employees cope with stress at work (Aldana, Merrill, Price, Hardy,& Hager, 2005). Providing a work site wellness programme could engender a positive attitude, making employees happier with the organization and therefore more satisfied with their jobs. (Gronningsaeter, Hytten, Skauli, Christensen, & Ursin in Parks Steelman, 2008).
Working conditions refer to the totality of conditions under which a person works or performs his or her duties. It can be in from of physical environment, human environment and relationship with colleagues and administrators, interaction within the system and the general aura of the work climate. According to Obineli (2013), good working conditions provide greater physical comfort for teachers and increase their morale. While poor conditions breed frustration and regret and consequently a high sense of dissatisfaction (Olorunsola, 2010).
Flexible working arrangements is seen as an “employer provided benefits that permit employees some level of control over when and where they work outside of the standard workday” (Lambert, Marler, & Gueutal, 2008). Eaton, (2003), points out that all employees occasionally require day-to-day flexibility to manage demands arising from both work and family lives. Many of the teachers like their counterparts in other professions need flexibility to take time to deal with family matters, such as visiting children’s schools, attending social functions of family/friends, commitment to religious activities and taking elderly family members to the doctor.
Dex and Scheibl (2001) also affirmed that flexible work arrangements can help employees address their needs during a family emergency. As stated by Mcnall, Masuda& Nicklin, (2010), the availability of flexible working arrangements may signal that the organization cares about the well-being of its employees and when employees see evidence of this care and concern in the form of flexible policies, they are more likely to reciprocate in the form of more positive attitudes and behaviors such as higher productivity.
Development/Training Programmes refer to both formal and informal programmes provided to enable the employees to know more than yesterday and to put new knowledge into context. Development/training programmes provides opportunities for teachers to grow personally and professionally and increases their capacity for effectiveness. Activities such as graduate studies, participation in teachers unions and organizations, participation in workshops or conferences, getting grants to do research, observing other teachers in action or being observed themselves, seeking national board certification, etc. reward teachers by equipping them to accomplish what matters most to them – ‘personal satisfaction from a job well done’, McLaughlin and Yee in (Sentovich, 2004), are all embedded in development or training programme.
Job satisfaction means different things to different people. Sweeny and Mcfarln (2002), defined job satisfaction as the result of a psychological comparison process of the extent to which various aspects of workers’ job (e.g. pay, autonomy, work load) measure up to what they desire. Thus, the larger the gap between what employees have and what they want from their jobs, the less satisfied they are; employees tend to be most satisfied with their jobs when what they have match what they want. An employee‘s overall job satisfaction is the cumulative result of comparisons that he/she makes between what his/her job provides and what he/she desires in various areas. Olorunsola (2010) arques that job satisfaction do influence labour market behaviour and work productivity, Work effort, employee absenteeism and staff union turn over. Peretomode (2006) perceives job satisfaction as fulfillment acquired with experiencing various job activities and rewards.
Robbins (2001) in Mengistu (2012) also supports the view that job satisfaction is an individual’s general attitude towards his/ her job. Riqqio (2000) equally opines that job satisfaction is the feelings and attitude one has about one’s job. He further stated that all aspects of a particular job, good and bad, positive and negative are likely to contribute to the development of feelings of satisfaction or dissatisfaction.
However, Sousa – Poza and Sousa – Poza (2000) held a contrary view from other scholars, as they viewed job satisfaction more than feelings and attitude towards job but expressed that, job satisfaction depends on the balance between work role inputs such as education, working time-and
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working-role outputs. It therefore implies that, when an employee claims that he/ she is satisfied with his/ her job, it may then mean that such an employee generally likes and values what he/ she does and equally feels positive towards his/ her work.
Teachers’ job satisfaction is therefore very important to achievement of educational success and development. An educational system that is sound is usually considered to be the bedrock of a developing country and satisfied teachers are indispensable for the attainment of such an educational system. Thus, when job satisfaction as a result of balanced work-life is achieved, people feel that they have attained the best possible quality of life. Hence, provision of work-life balance options is an issue of strategic importance to schools in terms of boosting teachers’ job satisfaction and invariably their productivity.
2.10 CONCEPTUAL MODEL
WORK LIFE BALANCE OPTIONS FAIR PAY WORK-FAMILY GOOD WORKING CONDITIONS CONFLICT DEVELOPMENT/TRAINING JOB PROGRAMMES SATISFACTION FLEXIBLE WORK FAMILY-WORK ARRANGEMENTS CONFLICT WELLNESS PROGRAMMES
Figure 2.1: A conceptual model of work-life balance options and job satisfaction.
The conceptual model, which was personally designed by the researchers, shows the interrelationship between the variables. Work-life balance is the absence of unacceptable levels of conflict between work and non-work demands indicating that, when demands from work and non-work domains are opposing, conflict may occur between the two domains and this can affect or influence teachers’ job satisfaction. To reduce or avoid the conflict, work-life balance options are provided. Hence, the presence or absence of work-life balance options determines the presence or absence of work-family conflict and family-work conflict which in turn increases or decreases the level of teachers’ job satisfaction.
Statement of the Problem
With the alleged falling in the standard of Education at all levels in Nigeria, there seems to be heavy pressure on both the schools and the teachers to perform in terms of ensuring better students academic performance. Parents and the society often time use the performance of students, especially in external examinations such as West African School Certificate Examination (WASCE), National Examination Council (NECO) among others to pass judgment on the schools and teachers; and this has made the teaching profession which hitherto has been termed noble profession to be extremely challenging and demanding.
The situation has forced many teachers into a hectic and busy schedules which make them give more time and energy to their works at the expense of other important aspects of their lives, such as families and friends. This development seems to have created an imbalance between their works and their family lives; and consequently decrease their job satisfaction.
Also, school seems to deal with these tough economic times by cutting expenses, decreasing/ reducing staff strength and increasing the workload of the few staff left behind. The implication of this, however, is that many teachers most of the time tend to spend more time in school, making their works take over their entire lives; thus creating a work-life imbalance problem with its attendant negative consequences for both the teachers and the school. Hence, this study sets to investigate work-life balance and teachers’ job satisfaction in Lagos State secondary schools.
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Objectives of the Study
The study seeks to examine the relationship between work- life balance and job satisfaction of secondary school teachers in Lagos State, Nigeria. In specific term, the study would examine the correlation between work – life balance and teachers’ job satisfaction; and also the joint and relative contributions of work – life balance options to teachers’ job satisfaction.
Research Question
What is the level of job satisfaction among Lagos State secondary school teachers?
Hypotheses
To therefore solve the problems of this study, the following null hypotheses were raised and tested:
Ho1: There is no significant relationship between work-life balance and teachers’ job satisfaction in Lagos State secondary schools. Ho2: There is no significant relative contribution of work-life balance options to teachers’ job satisfaction in Lagos State secondary schools. Ho3: There is no significant joint contribution of work-life balance options to teachers’ job satisfaction in Lagos State secondary schools.
Methodology
This study adopted the descriptive design of the expo-facto. The population of the study comprises all secondary school teachers in the six education district of Lagos State. As at the time of this study, there were 666 public junior and senior secondary schools, and 19,600 teachers in Lagos State. Three (3) education districts were randomly selected out of the six (6) existing education district, three (3) local government areas were randomly selected from the three (3) education districts (Apapa, Mushin and Agege local government areas). A total of 800 teachers were randomly selected from the public secondary schools in the sampled local government areas. Lagos State was chosen for this study due to its cosmopolitan characteristics in which people of different ethnic groups, religion race and culture live in close proximity, thereby resulting in its densely populated nature.
A questionnaire titled Work-life Balance and Teachers’ Job Performance (WLBTJPQ) was designed to collect data for the study. The developed items of the questionnaire yielded reliability co- efficient of 0.88 using Crombach alpha method to find the reliability. The questionnaires were administered on the respondents who were randomly selected among public secondary school teachers in Lagos state, Nigeria and the return rate was 742 (93%). Multiple Regression Analysis and the Pearson Product Moment Correlation were used to analyze the hypotheses. All the hypotheses were tested at a significance level of 0.05.
Findings
Research Question: What is the level of job satisfaction among Lagos State secondary school teachers?
As shown in Table 1, the level of job satisfaction of secondary school teachers in Lagos State using the mean responses of the teachers to rate their satisfaction. It could be inferred from the table that teachers are more satisfied with time of payment of salary (M =3.22), followed by nature of relationship with colleagues and administrators (M = 3.09), job security (M = 3.00), promotion (M = 2.81), amount of salary (M = 2.65), freedom to accommodate other life issues (M = 2.53), nature of retirement/retirement packages (M = 2.51), cleanliness of workplace/conducive working environment (M = 2.51), subsidized or free medical care (M = 2.5), self-actualization (M = 2.38), prospects on the job (M = 2.35), adequate tools and equipment (M = 2.22), job sharing (several employees doing the same job) (M = 2.22), compressed work week (working for 3 or 4 days instead of 5) (M = 2.15), stress management programmes (M = 2.08), part- time work (M = 2.01) and finally, subsidized exercise or fitness centre (M = 1.87) was considered last by Lagos State teachers on job satisfaction scale. From the table, it can be observed that majority of the mean responses on the items are in the range of 2.01 – 3.00 which indicates a moderate level of job satisfaction, that is, the teachers level of job satisfaction is not extreme, and it is neither high nor low, it is simply moderate.
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The African Symposium: An online journal of the African Educational Research Network
Table I: Level of Job Satisfaction among Lagos State Secondary School teachers Highly Moderately Fairly Not Mean Std Item Satisfied Satisfied Satisfied Satisfied Dev. 106 353 201 82 2.65 0.85 Amount of salary 14.3% 47.6% 27.1% 11.1% 156 330 214 42 2.81 0.83 Promotion 21.0% 44.5% 28.8% 5.7% 262 265 168 47 3.00 0.91 Job security 35.3% 35.7% 22.6% 6.3% 70 195 177 300 2.5 1.02 Subsidized or free medical care 9.4% 26.3% 23.9% 40.4% 110 227 214 191 2.35 1.01 Prospects on the job 14.8% 30.6% 28.8% 25.7% 104 267 179 192 2.38 1.01 Self-actualization 14% 36.0% 24.1% 25.9% Freedom to accommodate other 99 321 199 123 2.53 0.92 life issues 13.3% 43.3% 26.8% 16.6% Nature of retirement/Retirement 127 252 232 131 2.51 0.97 packages 17.1% 34% 31% 17.7% Cleanliness of 127 271 196 148 workplace/Conducive working 17.1% 36.5%` 26.4% 19.9% 2.51 0.99 environment 68 172 200 302 2.01 1.02 Part time work 9.25% 23.2% 27% 40.7% 63 223 163 293 2.08 1.02 Stress management programs 8.5% 30.1% 22% 281 312 66 192 1.87 1.056 Subsidized exercise or fitness 37.9% 42% 8.9 25.9% centre
Nature of relationship with 92 170 282 251 3.09 0.92 colleagues and administrators 12.4% 22.9% 38.2 33.9 105 204 182 351 2.22 0.96 Adequate tools and equipment 14.2% 27.5% 24.5% 33.8 Job sharing (several employees 76 191 244 231 2.22 1.06 doing the same job) 10.2% 25.7% 32.9% 31.1 Compressed work week (working 10 191 244 231 2.15 0.97 for 3 or 4 days instead of 5) 2% 25.7% 32.9% 22% 304 317 99 22 3.22 0.78 Time of payment of salary 41% 42.7% 13.3% 3% Note: 3.01 – 4.00 = highly satisfied, 2.01 – 3.00 = moderately satisfied, 1.01 - 2.00 = fairly satisfied, 0.00 - 1.00 = not satisfied.
Hypothesis 1
There is no significant relationship between work-life balance and teachers’ job satisfaction.
Table II: Relationship between work-life balance and teachers’ job satisfaction Variable N Mean Standard Sig r P Remark Deviation (2tailed) Work-life balance 742 22.8934 8.53170 Significant Job satisfaction 742 41.6294 9.66435 0.006 0.101 <0.05
From the table, the result shows that a Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient was calculated for the relationship between work-life balance and teachers’ job satisfaction. A positive correlation was found (r = 0.101, p < 0.05) which was significant. This indicates a significant linear relationship between work-life balance and teachers’ job satisfaction. This implies that, the more balanced the work-life of teachers are, the more the teacher’s job satisfaction. Therefore, the hypothesis that states that there is no significant relationship between the two variables is rejected.
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The African Symposium: An online journal of the African Educational Research Network
Hypothesis 2
There is no significant relative contribution of work-life balance options to teachers’ job satisfaction.
Relative Contribution of Work-life Balance Options to teachers’ job satisfaction
Table III: Regression Coefficient Unstandardized Standardized Remark Coefficients Coefficients Sig. Model B Std. Error Beta t 1 (Constant) 2.237 .656 3.412 .001 Fair pay 1.944 .092 .242 21.153 .000
Ho2 Rejected Working conditions 2.003 .059 .436 34.026 .000
Wellness programs 1.268 .067 .328 18.825 .000
Flexible Work .980 .068 .253 14.335 .000 Arrangements
Development/Training -.473 .129 -.040 -3.675 .000 Programs a. Dependent Variable: Job Satisfaction
From the result displayed in the table, each of the work-life balance options made significant relative contribution to teachers’ job satisfaction. The result indicates the following beta weights which represented the relative contribution of the work-life balance options to teachers’ job satisfaction: working conditions made the highest contribution to teachers’ job satisfaction (β = .436, p < 0.05), followed by wellness programs (β = .328, p < 0.05), this was followed by flexible work arrangements with coefficient (β = .253, p < 0.05), followed by fair pay (β = .242, p < 0.05), and development/training programs (β = -.040, p = 0.05). Hence, there is significant relative contribution of work-life balance options to teachers’ job satisfaction.
Hypothesis 3
There is no significant joint contribution of work-life balance options to teachers’ job satisfaction.
Joint Contribution of Work-life Balance Options to teachers’ job satisfaction
Table IV: ANOVA Model Sum of squares Df Mean Square F Sig. Remark 1 Regression 63441.771 5 12688.354 1619.235 .000a Residual 5767.309 736 7.836 Total 69209.080 741 Model Summary Ho3 Model 1
a R . 957 Rejected R Square . 917 Adjusted R Square . 916 Std. Error of the 2.79929 Estimate Predictors: flexible working arrangement, Wellness programs, Fair pay, Development/training programs, working condition, Criterion Variable: Job satisfaction.
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The African Symposium: An online journal of the African Educational Research Network
From the table, the five variables namely: Flexible Work Arrangements, Wellness programs, Fair pay, development/training programs and working conditions taken together, jointly correlate positively (R = .957) with teachers’ job satisfaction. This implies that the five factors have positive multiple relationships with teachers’ job satisfaction. Hence they have the potential of explaining teachers’ job satisfaction to a certain extent. Also the five variables could explain 91.7% of total variance of teachers’ job satisfaction (R2 = .917). This leaves the remaining 8.3% to other factors that were not considered in the study and the error (chance). The level of significance of the joint contribution of all independent variable is presented in the ANOVA Table, the table shows that R value of .957 is significant (F = 1619.235, P < 0.05). This implies that the five variables have joint contribution to teachers’ job satisfaction. Therefore, the null hypothesis is rejected.
Discussion
For the research question raised, the result shows that the level of job satisfaction among secondary school teachers is moderate. This is in contrast with the findings of Bolarinwa in Afe (2003) that, majority of the teachers sampled in their works regretted being teachers, while a large percentage said they were not satisfied with the teaching profession.
For hypothesis one, the result shows a positive correlation, indicating a significant linear relationship between work-life balance and teachers’ job satisfaction. This implies that the more balanced teachers’ work-life, the more the teachers’ job satisfaction. Therefore, the null hypothesis is rejected. This result corroborates the finding of Bushra and Yasir (2014) that significant positive relationship exists between work- life balance and job satisfaction. Teachers that can better manage both work and family may likely be more satisfied, which in turn, may result in better job performance, job commitment, job retention, and organizational loyalty. If teachers are satisfied, job turnover and absenteeism would be reduced to the barest minimum. Supporting this, Sorensen and McKim (2014) affirmed that positive relationship exists between work-life balance and job satisfaction. They stated that, an organization that accommodates the work family balance concerns and constraints of its employees is able to sustain a higher level of work commitment and job satisfaction among its labour force.
For hypothesis two, the result shows that there is significant relative contribution of work-life balance options to teacher’s job satisfaction; working conditions made the highest contribution to teachers’ job satisfaction, followed by wellness programs, this was followed by flexible work arrangements, followed by fair pay, and development/training programs. The differences in the rate of contribution might be due to the fact that deriving satisfaction from the work-life balance options can vary from teacher to teacher because some options may be more profitable and productive to one’s personal problems, while other options may not just work for one, and this may be due to different circumstances or situations which might complicate the accessibility of incorporating these work-life balance options into one’s busy daily schedule.
This finding is in line with the work of Anwar, Nadeem, Sabir, Faiz and Hina (2012) that, good compensation packages (fair pay) and fair reward system positively affects faculty members’ job satisfaction. The work of Johnson, Berg and Donaldson (2005) equally affirmed that, the conditions of teachers’ work affect their ability to teach well and the satisfaction they derive from their work. Artz (2010) also argued in the same view that, flexible work hours remained a significant and positive determinant of job satisfaction; Daley and Parfitt in Kluczyk (2013) equally expressed that wellbeing (wellness) programmes; improve employees’ psychological and physical fitness and job satisfaction. In the same vain, Ewen in Obineli (2013) confirmed further that, teachers‘ satisfaction is directly linked with the quality and quantity of training and career opportunities provided. For hypothesis three, the result shows that there is significant joint contribution of work-life balance options to teacher’s job satisfaction. Fapohunda (2014) asserted that having work-life balance options for all stakeholders enhances ability to resolve work-life balance challenges and increases the levels of job satisfaction, loyalty and dedication to the organization and employee commitment. According to McDonald and Bradley (2005), work-life balance initiatives at organizational level directly benefit employers as well as employees. This in turn enhances the job satisfaction, work engagement and work productivity of employees. These direct benefits to employees in turn promote the overall performance of the organization. Employees feel more satisfied with their work and family, when they enjoy the benefits of work life balance programs provided by their employers, (Bushra and Yasir, 2014).
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The African Symposium: An online journal of the African Educational Research Network
Recommendations
The following recommendations were made based on the findings from this study:
Teachers, school owners and policy makers should be enlightened on the benefits of work-life balance options. Also, there should be reassessment of active work-life balance options and upgrading of current practices, so as to improve work-life balance and thereby maintaining and increasing teachers’ job satisfaction. Greater awareness and sensitization in schools should be created of available work-family balance options and assessments should equally be conducted regularly to recognize staff needs in balancing work and family or personal lives.
Conclusions
Work-life balance involves successfully managing paid work and other essential activities, such as spending time with family, participating in community service or pursuing additional study. Enhancing balance between work and personal lives by providing work-life balance options results in great benefits both for the school and teachers. For the teachers there is enhanced happiness, better sense of worth, health, attentiveness, and self-assurance, enhanced management of tasks, better driving force, and lower levels of stress. In the same vein, the school is able to take full advantage of existing human resources, attracts a wider variety of quality applicants, added commitment and drive from teachers, low absenteeism and greater output. The work-life balance options in the workplace (especially the secondary school system) should therefore support employees (teachers inclusive) in their work-life balance choices.
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Authors
Olayemi Jumoke Abiodun-Oyebanji Department of Educational Management, Faculty of Education, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria. EMAIL: [email protected]
Oluwatosin Adijat Sanni Department of Educational Management, Faculty of Education, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria. EMAIL: [email protected]
93 Volume 15, No. 3, July 2016 The African Symposium (ISSN# 2326-8077)
The African Symposium: An online journal of the African Educational Research Network
94 Volume 15, No. 3, July 2016 The African Symposium (ISSN# 2326-8077)