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Social Networks and Sexual Practices
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Adolescent Social Networks and Sexual Practices

Wassie Kebede

B.A., Addis Ababa University M.A., Addis Ababa University

A Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

In Social Work & Social Development

© Wassie Kebede, 2009 Addis Ababa University

All Rights Reserved. This dissertation may not be reproduced in whole or in part, by photocopying or other means, without the permission of the author

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Abstract

This study examines adolescent social networks and sexual practices (and how they differ among males and females of different ages) among ninth-grade students in two high schools in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Social exchange theory and group socialization theory guide the study. Other theories that the study utilizes are the theory of homophily, balance theory, the theory of self-interest, and the theory of early sexual practices. Up to now, there has been no systematic research in Ethiopia or the rest of Africa on the relationship between adolescent social networks and sexual practices. Mixed-methods research guides the study, which consists of two parts. Study A generated data from a 264-item survey of 167 respondents, to which parametric and nonparametric statistics (using a consistent alpha of .05) are applied. Study B used 10 critical cases to generate qualitative data. Critical cases are study participants selected based on their capacity to provide reliable data of interest. UCINET 6.0 was used to draw social network diagrams, and qualitative data were transcribed and subjected to content analysis. Friendship, immediate family, extended family neighborhood, and religious networks are key components of social network analysis. Friendship and family networks are two priority networks among adolescents. The family network is the most stable type and the friendship network is the most popular. The friendship network plays two important functions: information sharing and problem solving. Adolescents’ like having school friends who are of the same gender, and out-of-school friends of the opposite gender. Adolescent friendship networks are the primary means for finding sexual partners. Peer influence and personal curiosity are the primary factors related to adolescent sexual debuts. Male adolescents equate sexual practices with self-actualization and adventure, while female adolescents equate sexual practices with love and emotional attachment.
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___________________________________________________________________________ The adolescents’ own homes and their friends’ houses are the most popular settings for first

engaging in sexual activity. Female survey respondents reported having more than one boyfriend, whereas male adolescents had a single girlfriend. The hypothesized associations between adolescent-parent communication and age of sexual debut were not found to be significant. The hypothesized relationships between social network variables and sexual practices were significant, as were correlations between ages at which the respondents first watched live sex and when they first masturbated. These findings concerning adolescents’ relationships and reproductive health risk factors give us a better understanding of the role of social networks in adolescent health and sexual activity. Understanding adolescents’ social networks is particularly important in light of the looming problem of HIV/AIDS in Ethiopia and Africa. These findings are also important for social work and social development interventions.

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CONTENTS

  • Tables
  • xii

xiii xiii xiii xvi 1
Figures Box Diagram Acknowledgements

  • 1
  • INTRODUCTION

1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4

  • Background and Rationale
  • 1

  • Purpose and Significance
  • 4

  • Conceptual Framework
  • 5

  • Definitions of Concepts
  • 11

11 12 13 15
1.4.1 Concepts Related to Social Networks 1.4.2 Concepts Related to Adolescent Sexual Activity
1.5 Operational Definitions of Concepts and Terms 1.6 1.7
Research Questions

  • Research Hypotheses
  • 16

17

  • 2
  • LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 2.2

  • Why Is Theory Important?
  • 17

18 20 22 25 25
Theories of Social Network Analysis 2.2.1 Social Exchange Theory 2.2.2 Balance Theory 2.2.3 Theory of Self-Interest 2.2.4 Theory of Homophily
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  • 2.3
  • Theories of Human Behavior
  • 28

28 28 29 31 31 32 35 35 37 38 41 43

46

46 47 51 52

56

57 58 58 60
2.3.1 Social Learning Theory 2.3.2 Social Cognitive Theory 2.3.3 Group Socialization Theory 2.3.4 Ecological Theory 2.3.5 Theory of Early Sexual Practices

  • Relevance of the Selected Theories
  • 2.4

  • 2.5
  • Research on Adolescent Social Networks and Sexual Practices

2.5.1 Studies on Adolescent Social Networks 2.5.2 Adolescent Social Networks in Ethiopia 2.5.3 Studies on Adolescent Sexual Behavior and Activity Integrated Studies on Social Networks and Sexual Practices Summary
2.6 2.7

  • 3
  • RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7
Exploratory Study Methodological Stance The Role of the Principal Investigator Research Design: Mixed-Methods Research Data Sources Used to Develop Research Tools for Studies A and B Scope and Delimitation of the Dissertation Project Study A: The Survey 3.7.1 Population and Sample 3.7.2 Sample Determination

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  • 3.7.3 Survey Administration
  • 60

62 63 63 65 66 68 68 68 69 70 70 71 72 72 73 73 75 76 76 79 79 79
3.7.4 Data Collection 3.7.5 Measurement
3.7.5.1 Measurement Items 3.7.5.2 Statistics 3.7.5.3 Statistical Tests
3.7.6 Validity and Reliability of Instruments
3.7.6.1 Validity 3.7.6.2 Reliability
3.7.7 Analysis for Study A Study B: The Critical Case Study 3.8.1 Rationale for the Use of the Critical Case Study 3.8.2 Case Selection Criteria 3.8.3 Interviews
3.8
3.8.4 Data Collection 3.8.5 Data Validity and Reliability 3.8.6 Data Analysis

  • 3.9
  • Protection of Human Subjects

3.10 Methodological Limitations 3.11 Summary

  • 4
  • FINDINGS

  • 4.1
  • Descriptive Findings (Study A)

4.1.1 Independent and Control Variables
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  • 4.1.1.1 Sample Demographic and Social Profile
  • 80

84 85 91
4.1.1.2. Relational Variables
4.1.1.2.1 Friendship Variables 4.1.1.2.2 Sample Social Network Variables
4.1.1.3 Variables Concerning Knowledge and Perceptions of Sex 115

  • 4.1.2 Dependent Variables
  • 117

117 127 129 132 133 133 133 136 136 136 141 141 141 142 142 142 147
4.1.2.1 Sexual Practices 4.1.2.2 Having a Boy- or Girlfriend 4.1.2.3 Age at the Time of Sexual Debut

  • 4.2
  • Hypothesis Testing

4.2.1 Hypothesis 1 a. Research Hypothesis b. Null Hypothesis
4.2.2 Hypothesis 2 a. Research Hypothesis b. Null Hypothesis
2.2.3 Hypothesis 3 a. Research Hypothesis b. Null Hypothesis
2.2.4 Regression Tests a. Research Hypothesis b. Null Hypothesis

  • 4.3
  • Case Analysis (Study B)

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  • 4.3.1 Profiles of the Critical Cases
  • 148

149 149 151 153 153 155 156 156 159 161 163 170 177 181
4.3.2 Adolescents’ Friendship Networks: Definition and Functions
4.3.2.1 Social Network Choices 4.3.2.2 Comparison of Friendship and Other Social Networks 4.3.2.3 Geography and Friendship Formation 4.3.2.4 Functions of Friendships
4.3.3 Engagement in Friendship Networks
4.3.3.1 Formation of Friendship Networks 4.3.3.2 Size and Density of Friendship Networks 4.3.3.3 Criteria for Choosing Best Friends 4.3.3.4 Degree of Influence in a Network of Best Friends 4.3.3.5 Roles and Activities of a Network of Best Friends 4.3.3.6 Connections in Friendship Networks 4.3.3.7 Centrality and Power
4.3.4 Engagement in Sexual Activity
4.3.4.1 Perceptions of, Attitudes about, and Meanings Ascribed to 181
Sex
4.3.4.2 Externalization of Sexual Activity 4.3.4.3 Gendered Constructions of Sexuality 4.3.4.4 Sexual Intercourse
185 188 191 204 196 200
4.3.4.5 Determinants of Sexual Debuts 4.3.4.6 Integration of Social and Sexual Relationships

  • 4.4
  • Summary

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  • 5
  • DISCUSSION

204 204 208 210 218 221 224 228 233 236 239 239 244 246 249 249 249

252

269 273 289
5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9
Knowledge and Perceptions of Social Networks Knowledge and Perceptions of Sexual Engagements Adolescents’ Social Network Engagements Friendship: A Special Form of Social Network Social Network Factors Affecting Sexual Practices Gender, Social Networks, and Prediction of Sexual Activity Sexual Activity Communication and Sex Summary

  • 6
  • IMPLICATIONS

6.1 6.2 6.3
Implications for Social Work Education Implications for Social Work Research Implications for Social Work Practice a. b. c.
Parents Schools Health Agencies

REFERENCES

Appendix A: Tables Appendix B: Data Collection instruments Appendix C: Informed consent and assent forms

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TABLES

2.1 Balance-Imbalance State of Three People’s Interaction 3.1 Gender Stratification of the Survey Sample 3.2 School Stratification of the Survey Sample 4.1 Mean, Median, and Mode of Age of Sample by Gender 4.2 Gender and Academic History
25 59 60 81 82 84 87 87 93
4.3 Plans for the Future by Gender 4.4a Ages of Respondents and Their School Friends 4.4b Age of Respondents Their Out-of-School Friends 4.5 Respondents’ Knowledge of Possible Functions of Friendship Networks 4.6 Sample Respondents Knowledge and perception on friendship network

  • (Recoded result)
  • 94

  • 99
  • 4.7 Number of Female Members in Respondents' Network

4.8 Role of Friendship/Family Networks in Helping members Find Boy-or Girlfriends 102 4.9 Use of Friendship Networks to Look for Boy- or Girlfriends 4.10 Cross-tabulation for Sex x Friendship Network reduces Engagement in
Antisocial Activities
103 107 108 109 110 111 116 118
4.11 Five Types of Social networks and Their Nine Possible Functions 4.12 Length of membership in various Social networks 4.13 Three Priority Networks Chosen by Sample Respondents 4.14 Comparative Frequency of Preferred Membership Against Actual membership 4.15 Knowledge and Perceptions of Various Types of Sexual Activities 4.16 Sexual Activities in Which Adolescents Have Engaged
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  • 4.17 Types of Sexual Debuts and the factors that influence Them
  • 121

  • 4.18 Settings and Types of Sexual Debuts
  • 123

4.19: Statistical Significance of Associations Between factors and Settings of

  • Sexual Practices
  • 126

131 138 144 148 156 159 172 174 243
4.20: Measures of Centrality and Variability of Sexual Debut 4.21: Pearson's Correlation Coefficient for Different sexual Practices 4.22: Regression Analysis of Hypothesized Predictors on Adolescent sexual Debut 4.23: Socio-demographic Information on Critical case Participants 4.24: Profiles of Friendship Network Members of teh 10 Cases 4.25: Possible Number of Connections for Three Cliques in a Social Network 4.26: Adjacency matrix of Eight Actors in a network of best Friends 4.27: Adjacency matrix of Six Actors in a network of best Friends 6.1 Recommended Course Content on Social Network Analysis

FIGURES

4.1 Social Network Connections among Three Individuals 4.2 Friendship Networks of Six Best Friends
91 164 171 173 179 180 197 199
4.3 Interactions among Eight Friendship Network Members 4.4 Complete and Partial Network Connections among Six Friends 4.5 Partial Centrality Measure of Case 4 4.6 Complete Centrality Measure of Case 5 4.7 Connections between Social and Sexual Relationships 4.8 Bridging Social and Sexual Relationships

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BOX

  • 3.1 Correction Factor Adjustment Formula Used to Draw Sample Size
  • 58

64

DIAGRAM

3.1 Types of Variables
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To my wife and children,
Selamawit Assefa and Dagmawit and Bethlehem Wassie, and in memory of my mother,
Tewodie Bekele

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Acknowledgements

This dissertation could not have been completed without the support of many people.
First, I would like to express my gratitude to Alice K. Butterfield, a professor at Jane Addams College of Social Work, University of Illinois at Chicago, who is the chair of my dissertation committee and my mentor. Without her courageous engagement and enthusiastic support, the study would not have been completed. Her confidence in my intellectual independent functioning gave me the energy to complete this tough journey.
I want to thank Abye Tasse, associate vice president for international affairs at Addis
Ababa University, who was a critical reviewer of my dissertation proposal and research. His triple roles as a member of my dissertation committee, dean of the School of Social Work, and a reader of the dissertation made him particularly important to my success completing the research project. My heartfelt thanks go to Deirdre Kirke, a lecturer at the National University of Ireland, and David Ayuku, a professor at Moi University, both of whom served as external reviewers of the dissertation. I am grateful for the serious attention to my scholarship by Dr. Kirke and Lena Dominelli, professor at the School of Applied Social Sciences, Durham University, England, who served on the dissertation committee.
I also wish to thank other the faculty members and visiting professors who contributed to my success: Donna Petras, Valerie Chang, and Rosemary Sarri read and commented on my proposal; Margaret Adamek was member of the committee for the proposal defense; John G. Messer and Larry Kreuger read and commented on the dissertation report; and Bayable Balew, a social work practitioner, also contributed immeasurably in helping me complete the research by reading the report. Thanks to Sonia Elizabeth Fulop, the copyeditor who combined the flesh and bone of the dissertation. She has done an extensive job in correcting the English grammar and
Social Networks and Sexual Practices xvi
___________________________________________________________________________ choosing words that helped me improve my ability to communicate the content. I have a deep

appreciation for her contribution.
Throughout every part of my PhD journey and this dissertation project, my wife,
Selamawit Assefa, my daughter Dagmawit Wassie and my brother in-laws Michael Assefa and Beruhtesfa Ibrahim have been the spices in my life. I do not have the words to express my appreciation for their patience and tolerance when I did not have time to spend with them while I worked on my doctoral studies for the last three years. Thank you, my family members. I am now rejoining you.
Without the interest and full participation of the adolescents in Gedam Sefer who were part of the dissertation project, my dream to obtain the doctorate degree would never have had a chance of becoming reality. I thank all the participants of the dissertation project. I would also like to extend my thanks to the community committee members for their active participation and Mulu Yeneabat, Coordinator of the Gedam Sefer Community University Partnership project for the provision of the necessary resources, including the use of their office and computers.
I will never forget the 87-year-old woman who lives in poverty in Gedam Sefer. She was the reason for my interest in research on social network analysis. I will never forget what she told me: “It is because of my connections to my neighbors that I am able to survive.” Finally, I would like to thank God, who helped me survive throughout the work of this dissertation.
Social Networks and Sexual Practices
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  • 1
  • INTRODUCTION

  • 1.1
  • Background and Rationale

The study of social networks and the sexual practices of adolescents is the subject of this dissertation. Social network researchers have worked for nearly a century to understand the nature, characteristics, and functions of social networks of people, organizations, and institutions at large. Social network research began in the early 1930s with the 1934 publication of the pioneering book Who Shall Survive, written by Moreno. But even before the publication of that book, John Almack published an article in 1922 that anticipated the development of sociometric measurements related to social networks.
The precursors of social network study, as summarized by Freeman (1996), include the works of Wellman, who wrote on the schoolchild’s choice of companions; Chevaleva-Janovskaj, who conducted large-scale observation-based research on group structure; Bott, who developed a systematic method of observation of play activities in nursery schools; Hubbard, who developed a method of researching spontaneous group formation; and Hagman, who conducted research on the friendships of preschool children.
The University of Twente (2004) reports, Barnes coined the term social network in his research of a Norwegian Island parish in the early 1950s. Social network analysis is an interdisciplinary field with a long history in various humanistic, behavioral, and physical science disciplines. Sociology, anthropology, statistics, mathematics, electrical engineering, information sciences, education, psychology, and other disciplines have contributed to the theoretical and methodological development of social network research (Duijn & Vermunt, 2006).
Social work research has shown limited interest in social network analysis. “Social workers have been showing some interest in social network analysis for about [only] the last 30
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2
___________________________________________________________________________ years” (Gray & Webb, 2009, p. 135). MacNair (1998) describes the multilevel use of social

network data for social work services: “Using network analysis [it is possible to] establish boundaries of the community as its members perceive it” (p. 23).
In social network research, there are at least two general levels of data: the ego-centered or personal network and the complete or one-mode network (Brass, 1995; Duijn & Vermunt, 2006). Hersberger (2003) explains, “Social network theory examines the social relationships of individuals (ego-centric network) at a micro level and at the macro level, whole networks of communities or groups are studied” (p. 105). Social network analysis shows the connections of actors. It also shows the way in which networks exist among individuals, within groups, or at a larger community level by examining historical evidence. A good example of this kind of network analysis is the social network analysis conducted to explain the dearth of tributes written upon William Shakespeare’s death (Hayes, n.d.). By applying social network methods and techniques, researchers can study the causes of tragedies. For example, network analysis of communications between British scientist and weapons inspector John Kelly and high officials was used to investigate the cause of Kelly’s suicide (Richards, 2005). Social network analysis is also an important tool for investigating terrorist networks and information flow in the military (Svenson, Svensson, & Tullberg, 2004).
Theoretically, social networks make both positive and negative contributions to human life. Through their social networks, individuals assist each other in job search, information exchange, and other social supports. Social networks can also have negative consequence such as the transmission of disease, epidemics, and mob movements (Foth, 2006). Social network

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  • Retrospective Network Imputation from Life History Data: the Impact of Designs

    Retrospective Network Imputation from Life History Data: the Impact of Designs

    Social Network Models Sociological Methodology 2020, Vol. 50(1) 131–167 Ó American Sociological Association 2020 DOI: 10.1177/0081175020905624 3 http://sm.sagepub.com RETROSPECTIVE NETWORK IMPUTATION FROM LIFE HISTORY DATA: THE IMPACT OF DESIGNS Yue Yu* Emily J. Smithy Carter T. Butts*,z Abstract Retrospective life history designs are among the few practical approaches for collecting longitudinal network information from large populations, particu- larly in the context of relationships like sexual partnerships that cannot be measured via digital traces or documentary evidence. While all such designs afford the ability to “peer into the past” vis-a`-vis the point of data collection, little is known about the impact of the specific design parameters on the time horizon over which such information is useful. In this article, we investigate the effect of two different survey designs on retrospective network imputation: (1) intervalN, where subjects are asked to provide information on all partners within the past N time units; and (2) lastK, where subjects are asked to pro- vide information about their K most recent partners. We simulate a “ground truth” sexual partnership network using a published model of Krivitsky (2012), and we then sample this data using the two retrospective designs *Department of Computer Science, University of California-Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA yDepartments of Mathematics and Sociology, University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, CA, USA zDepartments of Sociology, Statistics, and Electrical Engineering and Computer Science and Institute for Mathematical Behavioral Sciences, University of California-Irvine, Irvine, CA, USA Corresponding Author: Carter T. Butts, Department of Sociology, University of California-Irvine, SSPA 2145, Irvine, CA 92697, USA.
  • Social Context, Sexual Networks, and Racial Disparities in Rates of Sexually Transmitted Infections

    Social Context, Sexual Networks, and Racial Disparities in Rates of Sexually Transmitted Infections

    SUPPLEMENT ARTICLE Social Context, Sexual Networks, and Racial Disparities in Rates of Sexually Transmitted Infections Adaora A. Adimora1,2 and Victor J. Schoenbach2 1Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, and 2Department of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Background. Social context (demographic, socioeconomic, macroeconomic, and sociopolitical features of the environment) influences the epidemiology and consequences of individual behaviors that affect health outcomes. This article examines the role of social context in heterosexual networks that facilitate the spread of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection and other sexually transmitted infections (STIs), particularly in relation to persistent racial disparities in rates of STIs in the United States. Methods. Review of the medical, public health, and social science literature. Results. Contextual factors, such as poverty, discrimination, epidemiology of illicit drug use in the community, ratio of men to women, incarceration rates, and racial segregation, influence sexual behavior and sexual networks directly and indirectly through a variety of mechanisms. Disparities in these contextual features likely contribute substantially to the persistence of marked racial disparities in rates of STIs. Conclusions. Given the importance of contextual factors and the sharply contrasting social contexts for blacks and whites, exclusive emphasis on individual risk factors and determinants is unlikely to produce solutions that will significantly decrease HIV rates among blacks. Effective HIV prevention in this population will require mul- tidisciplinary research to address the contextual factors that promote patterns of sexual networks that facilitate transmission of STIs. Sexual networks are critical in the spread of sexually CRITICAL ROLE OF SEXUAL NETWORKS transmitted infections (STIs).
  • Social Networks IZA Dpno

    Social Networks IZA Dpno

    IZA DP No. 4621 Social Networks Joan de Martí Yves Zenou December 2009 DISCUSSION PAPER SERIES Forschungsinstitut zur Zukunft der Arbeit Institute for the Study of Labor Social Networks Joan de Martí Universitat Pompeu Fabra and Barcelona GSE Yves Zenou Stockholm University, IFN and IZA Discussion Paper No. 4621 December 2009 IZA P.O. Box 7240 53072 Bonn Germany Phone: +49-228-3894-0 Fax: +49-228-3894-180 E-mail: [email protected] Any opinions expressed here are those of the author(s) and not those of IZA. Research published in this series may include views on policy, but the institute itself takes no institutional policy positions. The Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA) in Bonn is a local and virtual international research center and a place of communication between science, politics and business. IZA is an independent nonprofit organization supported by Deutsche Post Foundation. The center is associated with the University of Bonn and offers a stimulating research environment through its international network, workshops and conferences, data service, project support, research visits and doctoral program. IZA engages in (i) original and internationally competitive research in all fields of labor economics, (ii) development of policy concepts, and (iii) dissemination of research results and concepts to the interested public. IZA Discussion Papers often represent preliminary work and are circulated to encourage discussion. Citation of such a paper should account for its provisional character. A revised version may be available directly from the author. IZA Discussion Paper No. 4621 December 2009 ABSTRACT Social Networks We survey the literature on social networks by putting together the economics, sociological and physics/applied mathematics approaches, showing their similarities and differences.
  • Sexual Networks As Social Capital

    Sexual Networks As Social Capital

    UJ Sociology, Anthropology & Development Studies W E D N E S D A Y S E M I N A R Hosted by the Department of Sociology and the Department of Anthropology & Development Studies Meeting no 25/2009 To be held at 15h30 on Wednesday, 9 September 2009, in the Anthropology & Development Studies Seminar Room, DRing 506, Kingsway campus Sexual networks as social capital Prof Robert Thornton Wits Department of Anthropology - Please do not copy or cite without authors’ permission - - Programme and other information online at www.uj.ac.za/sociology - Sexual networks as social capital: Why 'multiple concurrent sexual partnerships' may be rational responses to unstable social networks Robert Thornton Abstract: While multiple concurrent sexual partnerships (MCPs) are prevalent in southern Africa and have been identified as a primary cause of very high HIV prevalence in this region, many sexually active individuals appear to neglect their biological risk of HIV infection in order to maximise their 'social capital.' Through increasing the size and diversity of their sexual networks they extend their social networks through sexual liaisons. This maximisation of social capital also maximises their risk of infection. The result seems 'irrational' when viewed from the perspective of any individual actor, but at a larger, social scale, the result is greater 'social capital' and, as a consequence, better access to many other social and economic goods. This article argues that people in ordinary, non- promiscuous relationships, and those who are in unstable and less- connected parts of the network that are most dynamically active in building their sexual networks, thus increasing their exposure to HIV infection.
  • Chains of Affection: the Structure of Adolescent Romantic and Sexual Networks1

    Chains of Affection: the Structure of Adolescent Romantic and Sexual Networks1

    Chains of Affection: The Structure of Adolescent Romantic and Sexual Networks1 Peter S. Bearman Columbia University James Moody Ohio State University Katherine Stovel University of Washington This article describes the structure of the adolescent romantic and sexual network in a population of over 800 adolescents residing in a midsized town in the midwestern United States. Precise images and measures of network structure are derived from reports of re- lationships that occurred over a period of 18 months between 1993 and 1995. The study offers a comparison of the structural charac- teristics of the observed network to simulated networks conditioned on the distribution of ties; the observed structure reveals networks characterized by longer contact chains and fewer cycles than ex- pected. This article identifies the micromechanisms that generate networks with structural features similar to the observed network. Implications for disease transmission dynamics and social policy are explored. INTRODUCTION This article describes the structure of adolescent romantic and sexual networks in an American high school, accounts for the emergence of this 1 Data for this article are drawn from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health), a program project designed by J. Richard Udry and Peter Bear- man, and funded by a grant from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (HD31921). The authors thank Douglas White, Martina Morris, Mark Handcock, J. Richard Udry, and the AJS reviewers for helpful comments on previous drafts of this article. Direct correspondence to Peter Bearman, Institute for Social and Economic Research and Policy, 814 SIPA Building, Columbia University, New York, New York 10027.