L'accès Comme Facteur Essentiel De L'influence

Total Page:16

File Type:pdf, Size:1020Kb

L'accès Comme Facteur Essentiel De L'influence AVERTISSEMENT Ce document est le fruit d'un long travail approuvé par le jury de soutenance et mis à disposition de l'ensemble de la communauté universitaire élargie. Il est soumis à la propriété intellectuelle de l'auteur. Ceci implique une obligation de citation et de référencement lors de l’utilisation de ce document. D'autre part, toute contrefaçon, plagiat, reproduction illicite encourt une poursuite pénale. Contact : [email protected] LIENS Code de la Propriété Intellectuelle. articles L 122. 4 Code de la Propriété Intellectuelle. articles L 335.2- L 335.10 http://www.cfcopies.com/V2/leg/leg_droi.php http://www.culture.gouv.fr/culture/infos-pratiques/droits/protection.htm NANCY UNIVERSITÉ École doctorale LANGAGE, TEMPS, SOCIÉTÉ LOBBYISTES ET DÉCIDEURS EUROPÉENS : VALIDATION DES THÉORIES SUR L’INFLUENCE DANS LE CONTEXTE DU LOBBYING EN RELATION AVEC L’EXPÉRIMENTATION SUR LES ANIMAUX DE LABORATOIRE thèse de doctorat nouveau régime discipline : science de l’information et de la communication présentée et soutenue publiquement par Paul Alexander SHOTTON sous la direction de MONSIEUR RÉGIS LATOUCHE Laboratoire : CREM (centre de recherche sur les médiations, équipe d’accueil 3476) 2011 1 2 Remerciements Je remercie les professeurs Roger Viry-Babel et Louis Philippe Laprévote. Tous deux m’ont encouragé au début de cette aventure lorsque le temps pour travailler se faisait très rare. Le départ, trop précoce, de ces deux hommes de Lettres a laissé un grand vide. Je remercie Régis Latouche, de l’IECA à Nancy, grâce à qui j’ai pu amener à bien ce projet. Je remercie Nancy Université pour m’avoir permis d’entreprendre ma re- cherche, pour avoir profité de l’expertise de ses chercheurs et de ceux du laboratoire CREM (Centre de recherche sur les médiations). Finalement je tenais à remercier toutes les personnes qui ont acceptées d’être interviewées ainsi que tous celles qui ont contribué par leurs idées et opinions à ma recherche. 3 4 Pour Nadia, Louis, Juliette et Marie. « Think twice before you speak, because your words and influence will plant the seed of either success or failure in the mind of another. » Napoleon Hill, auteur américain, 1883-1970 Professeur Roger Viry-Babel : Papi Nougat nous manque beaucoup. Professeur Louis Philippe Laprévote : Voila! Enfin fini… 5 6 SOMMAIRE INTRODUCTION ET DÉFINITIONS ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ 11 DÉFINITION ET CHAMPS D’INTERVENTION ..................................................................... 12 TROIS ÉTUDES DE CAS ............................................................................................. 18 EXPÉRIMENTATION ANIMALE ...................................................................................... 23 INSTRUMENTS ET MÉTHODES �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 33 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................... 33 ANALYSE D’UNE LITTÉRATURE ESSENTIELLEMENT PRATIQUE ................................................. 33 ANALYSE D’UNE LITTÉRATURE THÉORIQUE ..................................................................... 42 CONCLUSIONS ...................................................................................................... 50 DIRECTIVE COSMÉTIQUE : L’INFLUENCE DANS UN ENVIRONNEMENT BIPOLAIRE AVEC PEU D’ACTEURS ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 53 PRÉSENTATION DES PRINCIPAUX ACTEURS ..................................................................... 54 Les ONG de protection des animaux de laboratoire ����������������������������������������������������55 L’industrie cosmétique ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 57 Le Parlement européen ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������58 La Commission européenne ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������60 Le Conseil des ministres ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������61 LES CAMPAGNES DE LOBBYING .................................................................................. 64 Le contexte ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 64 Une action initiée par les ONG ������������������������������������������������������������������������������64 Un contexte favorable à l’industrie ������������������������������������������������������������������������� 68 Les actions de lobbying �����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������72 Lobbying du Conseil des ministres ��������������������������������������������������������������������������72 Lobbying du Parlement Européen ��������������������������������������������������������������������������� 75 7 Le point de vue des décideurs �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������81 ANALYSE D’UN ÉCHEC POUR L’INDUSTRIE .................................................................... 90 ÉPILOGUE ............................................................................................................ 92 RÈGLEMENT REACH : L’INFLUENCE DANS UN ENVIRONNEMENT MULTIPOLAIRE AVEC BEAUCOUP D’ACTEURS ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 95 L’OBJECTIF DE REACH ............................................................................................. 95 PRÉSENTATION DES PRINCIPAUX ACTEURS ..................................................................... 96 Les ONG ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 99 Les représentants de l’industrie chimique ������������������������������������������������������������������103 Le Parlement européen ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������106 La Commission européenne ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������108 Le Conseil des ministres ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������110 LES CAMPAGNES DE LOBBYING ................................................................................ 113 Le contexte ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 113 Spécificité d’une arène à multipes objectifs ���������������������������������������������������������� 113 Un contexte politique équilibré ����������������������������������������������������������������������������114 Les actions de lobbying ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������115 Lobbying de la Comisson européenne ������������������������������������������������������������������115 Lobbying du Parlement européen ������������������������������������������������������������������������� 117 Lobbying du Conseil des ministres ������������������������������������������������������������������������119 Le point de vue des décideurs �����������������������������������������������������������������������������������122 ANALYSE D’UN COMPROMIS FAVORABLE À L’INDUSTRIE ET À CERTAINES ONG ....................... 133 ÉPILOGUE .......................................................................................................... 137 DIRECTIVE 86/609/CEE : L’INFLUENCE DANS UN ENVIRONNEMENT BIPOLAIRE AVEC BEAUCOUP D’ACTEURS ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 139 OBJECTIF DE LA RÉVISION DE LA DIRECTIVE 86/609/CEE .............................................. 139 PRÉSENTATION DES PRINCIPAUX ACTEURS ................................................................... 141 Les ONG de protection des animaux de laboratoire ��������������������������������������������������142 8 L’industrie et les associations de défense de la recherche ������������������������������������������ 144 Les organismes nationaux ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 145 La Commission européenne ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������146 Le Parlement européen ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������147 Le Conseil des ministres ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������149 LES CAMPAGNES DE LOBBYING ................................................................................ 150 Un contexte hésitant ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 150 Les actions de lobbying ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������153 Lobbying de la Comission européenne �����������������������������������������������������������������153 Lobbying du Parlement européen ������������������������������������������������������������������������� 156 Analyse d’un compromis inévitable �������������������������������������������������������������������������� 163 SYNTHÈSE DES ÉTUDES DE CAS ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 165 CHOIX POLITIQUE : UNE MAUVAISE
Recommended publications
  • For European Biotech? Continued from Page 1 Around the World, Including the French Academies of Science by the Fact That the Complainants Did Not Challenge Them
    Competitive Enterprise Institute - Volume 19, Number 2 - March/April 2006 Neeww EEra,ra, oror ‘‘AncienAncien RRégime,’égime,’ fforor EEuropeanuropean BBiotech?iotech? by Gregory Conko he long-awaited World Trade all remain in effect argues in favor of Organization (WTO) decision intervention by the WTO. (Ironically, Ton biotech food is due to be the current WTO Director General is released this spring, but a leaked copy none other than Pascal Lamy.) of the report has already elicited The most important victory for the considerable buzz. Most United States and its partners is the analyses score it a resounding WTO’s judgment that the EU failed to victory for the United States abide by its own regulations by “unduly and its co-complainants, and a delaying” fi nal approval of otherwise stinging defeat for European state complete applications for 25 food biotech protectionism. When it came time for products. The culprit here is the European The reality is that the decision their WTO defense, Commission’s highly politicized, two-stage is only a partial and largely symbolic however, the Europeans approval process: Each application must victory. For not achieving a more complete actually denied that a moratorium had ever fi rst be cleared for marketing by various and meaningful success, the United States, existed. Fortunately, the WTO decision scientifi c panels, and then voted on by Canada, and Argentina, which jointly fi led acknowledges the EU’s illegal practices— elected politicians. the complaint, have their own excessively and the disingenuousness of the EU’s Signifi cantly, the WTO assumed that risk-averse policies to blame.
    [Show full text]
  • The Use of Non-Human Primates in Research in Primates Non-Human of Use The
    The use of non-human primates in research The use of non-human primates in research A working group report chaired by Sir David Weatherall FRS FMedSci Report sponsored by: Academy of Medical Sciences Medical Research Council The Royal Society Wellcome Trust 10 Carlton House Terrace 20 Park Crescent 6-9 Carlton House Terrace 215 Euston Road London, SW1Y 5AH London, W1B 1AL London, SW1Y 5AG London, NW1 2BE December 2006 December Tel: +44(0)20 7969 5288 Tel: +44(0)20 7636 5422 Tel: +44(0)20 7451 2590 Tel: +44(0)20 7611 8888 Fax: +44(0)20 7969 5298 Fax: +44(0)20 7436 6179 Fax: +44(0)20 7451 2692 Fax: +44(0)20 7611 8545 Email: E-mail: E-mail: E-mail: [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] Web: www.acmedsci.ac.uk Web: www.mrc.ac.uk Web: www.royalsoc.ac.uk Web: www.wellcome.ac.uk December 2006 The use of non-human primates in research A working group report chaired by Sir David Weatheall FRS FMedSci December 2006 Sponsors’ statement The use of non-human primates continues to be one the most contentious areas of biological and medical research. The publication of this independent report into the scientific basis for the past, current and future role of non-human primates in research is both a necessary and timely contribution to the debate. We emphasise that members of the working group have worked independently of the four sponsoring organisations. Our organisations did not provide input into the report’s content, conclusions or recommendations.
    [Show full text]
  • Animal People News
    European Commission votes to ban dog &cat fur B R U S S E L S ––The European Commis- sion on November 20 adopted a proposal to ban the import, export, and sale of cat and dog fur throughout the European Union. “The draft regulation will now be considered by the European Parliament and the Council of Ministers for adoption by the co- decision procedure,” explained the EC Asian dog. (Kim Bartlett) announcement. “There is evidence that cat and dog fur been found not just on clothing, but also on a is being placed on the European market, usually number of personal accessories, as well as chil- dren’s soft toys.” Asian rabbits. (Kim Bartlett) undeclared as such or disguised as synthetic and other types of fur,” the EC announcement sum- “Just the idea of young children playing marized. “The vast majority of the cat and dog with toys which have been made with dog and Olympics to showcase growing fur is believed to be imported from third coun- cat fur is really something we cannot accept,” tries, notably China.” European Consumer Protection Commissioner Fifteen of the 25 EU member nations Markos Kyprianou said. Chinese animal testing industry have already individually introduced legislation “Kyprianou stopped short of calling B E I J I N G ––The 2008 Olympic Glenn Rice, chief executive of Bridge against cat and dog fur. “The proposed regula- for every product containing fur to have a label Games in Beijing will showcase the fast- Pharmaceuticals Inc., is outsourcing the tion adopted today addresses EU citizens con- detailing its exact origin,” wrote London Times growing Chinese animal testing industry, work to China, where scientists are cheap cerns, and creates a harmonized approach,” the European correspondent David Charter, the official Xinhua news agency disclosed and plentiful and animal-rights activists are EC announcement stipulated.
    [Show full text]
  • Animal Research Essay Resources 2013
    Animal research essay resources 2013 Animal Research Essay Resources (Manage) and AO2 (Use Resources) assessment objectives of their EPQ. Click on one of the links below for resources on the specific area of interest surrounding the AO1 requires students to identify their topic and issue of animal testing: the project’s aims and objectives. They must then produce a project plan and complete their History of animal research work, applying organisational skills and Ethics of animal experiments strategies to meet stated objectives. This page Costs and benefits of research aims to help students get a handle on the topic Regulatory systems and the 3Rs of animal research and provide some inspiration Animal rights activism and extremism for possible areas of further study. General Websites AO2 requires students to obtain, and select Many students, from primary school to from, a variety of resources, analyse and apply university, write assignments that relate to the this data in a relevant manner and demonstrate issue of animal research. This page aims to an understanding of appropriate links. This page support this by providing links to useful will provide links to large amounts of relevant materials. It is especially useful to any students information that students can use for their carrying out the Extended Project Qualification project, however it remains up to students to (EPQ) alongside their A-levels or Extended Essay critically analyse and apply it to their specific as part of their International Baccalaureate project focus. studies. Those students should read the section below. History of animal research Beneath each link is a Harvard Reference for the The use of animals in scientific experiments in book, webpage or document in question which the UK can be traced back at least as far as the can be used in the footnotes or endnotes of 17th Century with Harvey’s experiments on your project paper.
    [Show full text]
  • Animal Ethics Committees and Animal Use in a Monitored Environment: Is the Ethics Real, Imagined Or Necessary?
    Animal Ethics Committees and animal use in a monitored environment: is the ethics real, imagined or necessary? Proceedings of the ANZCCART Conference held in Wellington, New Zealand, 26–28 June 2005 ANZCCART 2005 © 2005 Australian and New Zealand Council for the Care of Animals in Research and Teaching (ANZCCART) C/- Royal Society of New Zealand, PO Box 598, Wellington, New Zealand ISBN 1-877264-18-0 The Proceedings were edited by Dr Pat Cragg, Professor Martin Kennedy, Associate Professor Don Love, Dr John Schofield, Professor Kevin Stafford, Dr Jim Webster and Mrs Gill Sutherland. Acknowledgments The Chairman and Board of ANZCCART New Zealand would like to express their appreciation to the following sponsors for financial assistance to this conference: AGCARM AGMARDT Animal Welfare Science and Bioethics Centre, Massey University Health Research Council Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry Ministry of Research, Science and Technology New Zealand Veterinary Association Royal Society of New Zealand Contents Introduction ...........................................................v Session 5: Alternatives and cost Development of acceptable alternative methods: Session 1: Animal Ethics Committees: what do a review of methods, validation and ethical aspects they really do, what should they do, and why associated with alternative methods ...........51 should they do it? in vitro Dr Richard Clothier Animal Ethics Committees: a help Public accountability of animal use for scientific or a hindrance? ........................................................3
    [Show full text]
  • Reporting the Implementation of the Three Rs in European Primate and Mouse Research Papers: Are We Making Progress?
    ATLA 38, 495–517, 2010 495 Reporting the Implementation of the Three Rs in European Primate and Mouse Research Papers: Are We Making Progress? Katy Taylor British Union for the Abolition of Vivisection, London, UK Summary — It is now more than 20 years since both Council of Europe Convention ETS123 and EU Directive 86/609?EEC were introduced, to promote the implementation of the Three Rs in animal experi- mentation and to provide guidance on animal housing and care. It might therefore be expected that reports of the implementation of the Three Rs in animal research papers would have increased during this period. In order to test this hypothesis, a literature survey of animal-based research was conducted. A ran- domly-selected sample from 16 high-profile medical journals, of original research papers arising from European institutions that featured experiments which involved either mice or primates, were identified for the years 1986 and 2006 (Total sample = 250 papers). Each paper was scored out of 10 for the incidence of reporting on the implementation of Three Rs-related factors corresponding to Replacement (justification of non-use of non-animal methods), Reduction (statistical analysis of the number of animals needed) and Refinement (housing aspects, i.e. increased cage size, social housing, enrichment of cage environment and food; and procedural aspects, i.e. the use of anaesthesia, analgesia, humane endpoints, and training for procedures with positive reinforcement). There was no significant increase in overall reporting score over time, for either mouse or primate research. By 2006, mouse research papers scored an average of 0 out of a possible 10, and primate research papers scored an average of 1.5.
    [Show full text]
  • Harnessing Opportunities in Non-Animal Asthma Research for a 21St-Century Science
    WellBeing International WBI Studies Repository 11-2011 Harnessing Opportunities in Non-Animal Asthma Research for a 21st-Century Science Gemma L. Buckland Humane Society International Follow this and additional works at: https://www.wellbeingintlstudiesrepository.org/acwp_arte Part of the Bioethics and Medical Ethics Commons, Laboratory and Basic Science Research Commons, and the Research Methods in Life Sciences Commons Recommended Citation Buckland, G. L. (2011). Harnessing opportunities in non-animal asthma research for a 21st-century science. Drug discovery today, 16(21), 914-927. This material is brought to you for free and open access by WellBeing International. It has been accepted for inclusion by an authorized administrator of the WBI Studies Repository. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Harnessing opportunities in non-animal asthma research for a 21st-century science Gemma L. Buckland, Humane Society International CITATION Buckland, G. L. (2011). Harnessing opportunities in non-animal asthma research for a 21st-century science. Drug discovery today, 16(21), 914-927. ABSTRACT The incidence of asthma is on the increase and calls for research are growing, yet asthma is a disease that scientists are still trying to come to grips with. Asthma research has relied heavily on animal use; however, in light of increasingly robust in vitro and computational models and the need to more fully incorporate the ‘Three Rs’ principles of Replacement, Reduction and Refinement, is it time to reassess the asthma research paradigm? Progress in non-animal research techniques is reaching a level where commitment and integration are necessary. Many scientists believe that progress in this field rests on linking disciplines to make research directly translatable from the bench to the clinic; a ‘21st-century’ scientific approach to address age-old questions.
    [Show full text]
  • Propaganda About Animal Rights John Sorensona a Department of Sociology, Brock University, St
    This article was downloaded by: [Canadian Research Knowledge Network] On: 4 February 2011 Access details: Access Details: [subscription number 932223628] Publisher Routledge Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 37- 41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK Critical Studies on Terrorism Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information: http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/title~content=t780786797 Constructing terrorists: propaganda about animal rights John Sorensona a Department of Sociology, Brock University, St. Catharines, Ontario, Canada To cite this Article Sorenson, John(2009) 'Constructing terrorists: propaganda about animal rights', Critical Studies on Terrorism, 2: 2, 237 — 256 To link to this Article: DOI: 10.1080/17539150903010715 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17539150903010715 PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE Full terms and conditions of use: http://www.informaworld.com/terms-and-conditions-of-access.pdf This article may be used for research, teaching and private study purposes. Any substantial or systematic reproduction, re-distribution, re-selling, loan or sub-licensing, systematic supply or distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden. The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date. The accuracy of any instructions, formulae and drug doses should be independently verified with primary sources. The publisher shall not be liable for any loss, actions, claims, proceedings, demand or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material. Critical Studies on Terrorism Vol.
    [Show full text]
  • APVMA Comments on Animal Welfare Policy
    APVMA Comments on animal welfare policy Dangers of relying on animal experiments to determine human reactions. It has already been widely acknowledged that extrapolation from animals to humans can and does result in dangerously misleading outcomes. Species differences occur in respect of anatomy, the structure and function of organs, metabolism of toxins, rates of detoxification and protein binding, absorption of chemicals, mechanisms of DNA repair and lifespan, and more. So if such differences can occur between similar species then it’s negligent to extrapolate from say a rat to a human – two totally different species with a totally different genetic make-up. Another major difference is in the regulation of our genes. A mouse and a human for example, may share 99% of the same genes, however they are regulated differently. Both a mouse and a human have the same gene that enables us to grow a tail. In the case of a mouse that gene is “turned on”, but in humans that gene is “turned off.” The argument that we share a large proportion of genes with another species cannot therefore be used as a reason for selecting a particular animal model to predict human responses. Researchers often claim that animals are used because they need to test in a living system rather than on isolated cells or tissue, however an entire living system creates more variables which can further affect the outcome of any results. A point of interest is that most animal models used in toxicity testing have never been formally validated.1 Regulatory bodies often argue that alternative non-animal tests cannot be relied upon due to them not having been validated.
    [Show full text]
  • The Failure of the Three R's and the Future of Animal Experimentation
    University of Chicago Legal Forum Volume 2006 | Issue 1 Article 7 Reduce, Refine, Replace: The aiF lure of the Three R's and the Future of Animal Experimentation Darian M. Ibrahim [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: http://chicagounbound.uchicago.edu/uclf Recommended Citation Ibrahim, Darian M. () "Reduce, Refine, Replace: The aiF lure of the Three R's and the Future of Animal Experimentation," University of Chicago Legal Forum: Vol. 2006: Iss. 1, Article 7. Available at: http://chicagounbound.uchicago.edu/uclf/vol2006/iss1/7 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by Chicago Unbound. It has been accepted for inclusion in University of Chicago Legal Forum by an authorized administrator of Chicago Unbound. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Reduce, Refine, Replace: The Failure of the Three R's and the Future of Animal Experimentation DarianM Ibrahimt The debate in animal ethics is defined by those who advocate the regulation of animal use and those who advocate its aboli- tion.' The animal welfare approach, which focuses on regulating animal use, maintains that humans have an obligation to treat animals "humanely" but may use them for human purposes.2 The animal rights approach, which focuses on abolishing animal use, argues that animals have inherent moral value that is inconsis- tent with us treating them as property.3 The animal welfare approach is the dominant model of ani- mal advocacy in the United States.4 Animal experimentation provides a fertile ground for testing this model because a unique confluence of factors make experimentation appear susceptible to meaningful regulation.
    [Show full text]
  • The Use of Nonhuman Animals in Biomedical Research
    SYMPOSIUM ARTICLE The Use of Nonhuman Animals in Biomedical Research Dario L. Ringach, PhD Abstract: Opposition to the use of animals in biomedical research rests CLAIM: HUMANS DO NOT BENEFIT FROM on diverse scientific and ethical arguments. Here I offer a response to ANIMAL RESEARCH key objections and argue that the responsible use of animals in One extreme view holds that information gathered from biomedical research with the goal of advancing medical knowledge, animal research cannot, even in principle, be used to improve science and human health, is scientifically and morally justified. My human health. It is often accompanied by catchy slogans such views are unlikely to be shared uniformly across the scientific com- as “If society funds mouse models of cancer, we will find more cures for cancer in mice.”4 It is argued that the physiology of munity. Thus, I hope this personal perspective persuades other scien- animals and humans are too different to allow results from tists, public health officials, scientific organizations and our academic animal research to be extrapolated to humans.5 leadership to join the debate and invites opponents of animal research Such a blanket statement is falsified by numerous cases to create an atmosphere where civil discourse can take place, free of where experimentation on animals has demonstrably contrib- threats and intimidation. The public deserves an open and honest debate uted to medical breakthroughs. The experiments on cardiovas- on this important topic. cular and pulmonary function in animals that began with Key Indexing Terms: Animal research; Medical research; Animal Harvey and continued with the Oxford physiologists6 estab- rights; Ethics; Public policy.
    [Show full text]
  • Lives in the Balance: Utilitarianism and Animal Research
    Lives in the Balance: Utilitarianism and Animal Research ROBERT BASS University of North Carolina at Pembroke [This may differ in detail from the final published version in The Ethics of Animal Research: Exploring the Controversy , MIT Press 2012] In the long history of moral theory, non-human animals – hereafter, just animals – have often been neglected entirely or have been relegated to some secondary status.1 Since its emergence in the early nineteenth century, utilitarianism has made a difference by focusing upon happiness or well-being (and their contraries) rather than upon the beings who fare well or suffer. Inevitably, that has meant that human relations to and use of other animals have appeared in a different light. Some cases have seemed easy: once admit that the interests of animals matter and there can be little hesitation in condemning their cruel treatment. Among the more difficult cases has been the bearing of utilitarianism upon the use of animals in various kinds of research where, though the animals might suffer, there were believed to be prospects of great human benefit and where no cruel or malicious motives need be involved. What I shall provide in the current paper is an extended discussion of the bearing of utilitarianism upon practices of animal research. Since such practices have attracted both utilitarian criticism and defense, this will require the examination of arguments on both sides, including consideration of the human benefits, the animal costs, and the ways which one can be weighed against the other. I. UTILITARIANISM AND ANIMAL RESEARCH: THE HISTORICAL AND THEORETICAL BACKGROUND The historical connection of utilitarianism to animal research is both complex and disputed.
    [Show full text]