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Pyrene in the Amphibian Xenopus Laevis DEVELOPMENTAL SENSITIVITY AND IMMUNOTOXICITY OF BENZO[A]PYRENE IN THE AMPHIBIAN XENOPUS LAEVIS Melanie J. Gallant A Thesis Submitted to the College of Graduate and Postdoctoral Studies In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy In the Toxicology Graduate Program University of Saskatchewan Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada © Copyright Melanie Gallant, 2019. All rights reserved PERMISSION TO USE In presenting this thesis in partial fulfillment of the requirements for a postgraduate degree from the University of Saskatchewan, I agree that the Libraries of the University may make it freely available for inspection. I further agree that permission for copying of this thesis in any manner, in whole or in part, for scholarly purpose may be granted by the professors who supervised my thesis work or, in their absence, by the Head of the Department or the Dean of the College in which my thesis work was done. It is understood that any copying or publication of use of this thesis or parts thereof for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written permission. It is also understood that due recognition shall be given to me and the University of Saskatchewan in any scholarly use which may be made of any material in my thesis. Requests for permission to copy or to make other use of material in this thesis in whole or parts should be addressed to: Chair of the Toxicology Graduate Program Toxicology Centre, University of Saskatchewan 44 Campus Drive Saskatoon, Saskatchewan S7N 5B3 OR Dean College of Graduate and Postdoctoral Studies University of Saskatchewan 116 Thorvaldson Building, 110 Science Place Saskatoon, Saskatchewan S7N 5C9 Canada i ABSTRACT The immune system is increasingly recognized as a vulnerable and sensitive target of contaminant exposure. Disruption of this critical system can lead to significant morbidity and/or mortality of organisms in contaminated environments. Amphibians can be simultaneously exposed to both pathogens and contaminants within aquatic habitats, making contaminant- induced immunotoxicity particularly relevant for this taxonomic group. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are a major group of environmental contaminants that widely occur as mixtures in aquatic environments, including amphibian habitats. Benzo[a]pyrene (B[a]P) is recognized as the most potent toxicant of PAH mixtures and is the most extensively studied PAH with demonstrated adverse effects on the immune system of many vertebrate species. Understanding how aquatic contaminants, such as B[a]P, can impact the immune system of amphibians is imperative since contaminant-induced immunotoxicity is hypothesized to exacerbate disease-driven amphibian population decline. Thus, the overall goal of this thesis was to gain a better understanding of developmental and contaminant-induced changes in the immune system of amphibians, and ultimately how exposure to B[a]P modulates the response to immune stimulation. Specific research questions were addressed through four studies conducted within the broader goal of this thesis. The objective of the first study was to characterize the expression profiles of various pro-inflammatory cytokines in the model amphibian species, Xenopus laevis, throughout larval developmental stages and determine the impacts of thyroidal modulation on their expression. Results suggest that expression of two cytokines, tumor necrosis factor- (TNF) and interleukin-1β (IL-1β) varied over development, increasing with developmental stage, while interferon- (IFN-) remained relatively unchanged. Exogenous manipulation of thyroidal status was successful, as demonstrated by an altered rate of development and thyroid gland histology; however, thyroidal modulation had negligible effects on basal cytokine expression. The dynamic nature of the tadpole immune system suggested that the immunotoxic impacts of environmental contaminants may depend on the stage of development at the time of exposure. Therefore, the second study aimed to identify the sensitive developmental phases for sub-lethal effects of B[a]P exposure in terms of the development (stage, weight and length) and changes in the expression of immune- and detoxification-related genes. Exposure to B[a]P at all life-stages tested (embryo-larval, pre-metamorphic, and pro-metamorphic tadpoles) resulted in ii CYP1A7 mRNA induction (43, 53, and 47-fold, respectively) as well as stage-specific modulation of pro-inflammatory cytokine expression. Exposure of pre-metamorphic tadpoles to B[a]P demonstrated the greatest effect on weight, length and stage of development. Taken together, these initial studies indicate that the unique development of the tadpole immune system influences their susceptibility to contaminant-induced immune modulation despite having biotransformation capacity across tadpole life-stages. In the subsequent two studies, the ability of B[a]P to alter immune variables and impair a coordinated immune response was evaluated using an immune challenge model both in vivo and in vitro. Juvenile X. laevis were exposed to B[a]P for seven days and then immune stimulated with an injection of lipopolysaccharide (LPS). The highest concentration of B[a]P (350 g/L) impaired the inflammatory response to LPS as indicated by an inability to induce granulocyte:lymphocyte (G:L) ratio or IL-1β mRNA expression, demonstrating that B[a]P can impair the inflammatory immune response to a simulated pathogen. Next, to assess the mechanisms underlying B[a]P-induced effects in amphibians, X. laevis kidney A6 epithelial cell line were used to evaluate the cellular response to B[a]P exposure and identify if B[a]P could directly alter the ability of these cells to respond to an immune stimulation. A time-course of B[a]P exposure showed the progression from up-regulation of biotransformation-related genes, to reactive oxygen species production, and ultimately to cytotoxic effects; pre-exposure to B[a]P did not appear to impair the ability of the A6 cells to mount an inflammatory response to LPS. Taken together, the immune challenge models showed that B[a]P exposure can alter immune variables and impact the ability of juvenile X. laevis to appropriately respond to immune stimulation and that B[a]P-induced biostransformation pathways and production of reactive oxygen species may play a role in this response. Overall, the research presented in this thesis contributes to our understanding of developmental and contaminant-induced changes in the immune system of amphibians. This research provides a strong foundation for further study into the mechanisms underlying chemical-induced immunotoxicity in amphibians. The tools and approaches developed as part of this research could be used in screening chemicals for immunotoxic potential in amphibians and be expanded to evaluate immune responses of ecologically relevant species that are under real risk of compromised immune function and increased disease in contaminated environments. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS As this project comes to a close, there are many people that I would like to recognize who have helped make this endeavor possible: First and foremost, my graduate supervisor Dr. Natacha Hogan for her constant support, encouragement and invaluable guidance throughout my thesis. I would also like to thank my committee members, Dr. Christy Morrissey, Dr. Lynn Weber, Dr. Barry Blakley, Dr. David Janz and Dr. Trent Bollinger for providing guidance and helpful feedback during my thesis and for pushing me outside my comfort zone. I would like to recognize the countless students and staff at the Toxicology Center who helped me with everything from technical assistance to navigating administrative processes. In particular, Kim Pastl, Breda Muldoon, Kean Steeves, Zac Currie, Nicole Baldwin, Emilie Vizcko, Laura Halyk, Samantha Lindquist, Dana Tkatchuk, Tara Stang, Anita Masse, Landon MacPhee, Tomohiro Hamaoka, Jason Marshall and Iris Chen for providing lab and animal care assistance. Furthermore, a special thanks goes to all the past and present Hogan lab members for providing technical help, emotional support, and making this experience so memorable. I would also like to thank my funding sources, without which this project would not have been possible: Dr. Natacha Hogan’s NSERC Discovery Grant, and funding provided to me through the NSERC Postgraduate Scholarship (PGS-D), NSERC Alexander Graham Bell Scholarship and the Toxicology Devolved scholarship as well as various travel awards that allowed me to attend and present this my research at scientific conferences. And last, but certainly not least, my friends and family for their steadfast love and support. Specifically: my parents and my brother, for instilling in me a love of learning and always believing in me – merci du fond de mon coeur; my best friend Necola Guerrina, for never being more than a phone call away; and my husband Kirk Campbell, who has done more for me in the last six years than I can put into words – his endless love, support, comfort and patience have been invaluable throughout this process. iv TABLE OF CONTENT PERMISSION TO USE ................................................................................................................. i ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................... ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................................ iv TABLE OF CONTENT ...............................................................................................................
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