American Indian Representations in Film 1990 to Present

Home , Adam Beach, Ashley Greene, Chris Eyre, Chris Weitz, Dances with Wolves, Irene Bedard

A MOVEMENT FOR AUTHENTICITY: AMERICAN INDIAN REPRESENTATIONS IN FILM 1990 TO PRESENT

A thesis submitted to the Kent State University Honors College in partial fulfillment of the requirements for University Honors

by Raya Williamson May, 2017

Thesis written by Raya Williamson

Approved by

______, Advisor

______, Chair, Dept. of Marketing and Entrepreneurship

Accepted by

______, Dean, Honors College

TABLE OF CONTENT ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS……………………..………………………………………..iv SECTIONS I. Introduction………………………………………………………..………1

II. Dances with Wolves (1990)……………………………………………….6

III. The Last of the Mohicans (1992)…………………….……….………….11

IV. Pocahontas (1995)…………………………………………..……………18

V. Smoke Signals (1998)……………………………..……………………..25

VI. Atanarjuat: The Fast Runner (2001)………………………….……….....32

VII. Flags of Our Fathers (2006)……………………………...…..…………..38

VIII. The Twilight Saga: New Moon (2009)…………………...….…………..43

IX. The Revenant (2015)……………………………………….…………….52

X. The Reel Impact………………………………….……...... …………….58

XI. Conclusion……………………………………………...………………..66

REFERENCES…………………………………………..………………………………69

iii

Acknowledgements

Some time ago, I was fortunate to visit the Ohio History Center for one of its staff

‘brown bag lunches.’ During their open lunch, a few staff members went over what they learned at a recent seminar regarding American Indian relations. Museums in Ohio – and across the nation – have been involved in a de-colonization effort. Rather than retelling

America’s history through the lenses of those who settled here, de-colonization and

‘truth-telling’ seek to right the wrongs of the past and open communication for Natives to tell their peoples’ stories. By bringing Native stories and Native people into the narrative, museums attempt to present a more balanced retelling of our shared past. When discussion was opened at the luncheon, one staff member voiced her concern for

Hollywood movies in creating inaccurate perceptions of American Indians. The statement intrigued me. I had always had a love for movies and was working at an American Indian mission site, so when it came time to declare a topic for my thesis, I used her comment as the baseline for my thesis. To the woman at the Ohio History Center: thank you for the inspiration.

I would also like to acknowledge a few people who helped me along the way.

First, I would like to thank Professor Don Thacker who served as my advisor for this project. I must also acknowledge my committee members – Dr. Leslie Heaphy of the

Kent State Stark History Department, Dr. Lucas Engelhardt of the Kent State Stark

Economics Department, and Professor Harkness of the Kent State Stark Sociology

Department – and thesis readers – Dr. James Seelye of the Kent State Stark History

Department and Stacey Halfmoon, Director of American Indian Relations, for the Ohio

History Connection. I would also like to extend my sincere appreciation to Ted Guedel of the Kent State Stark library for his help in finding reference material.

Lastly, I would like to thank my family, including my mother Ronda, father John, brother Ben, aunt Debbie, significant other Zach, and his mother Zita. Thank you for reading – or letting me read to you – this project, in parts or whole. Your input and constant reassurance motivated me and helped me complete what has been undoubtedly the hardest endeavor I have ever pursued. I am grateful for your unwavering support, love, and guidance.

Introduction

From the feared warrior and the noble savage to the Indian princess and helpless squaw, American Indians have fallen into constructed stereotypes on film. These constructs, which began as early as the arrival of Europeans to the New World, eventually formed the ‘Hollywood Indian,’ a culmination of the American Indian stereotypes represented throughout American film. As described by Jojola (1998), “[t]he

Hollywood Indian is a mythological being who exists nowhere but within the fertile imaginations of its movie actors, producers, and directors” (p. 12). Something of a Plains

Indian, the Hollywood Indian often appears adorned with a glorious headdress or headband, long, black hair, and atop a stampeding horse. The Hollywood Indian might put up a hand and grunt a deep-throat “How!”, cheer crazily, or remain silent and stoic.

Cox (2010) explains,

With a monopoly on writing, directing, and acting – even in the Native roles –

non-Indians controlled the construction of Native identity and culture for the first

century of filmmaking in the United States. To construct cinematic Indians, non-

Native filmmakers relied on visible ethnic markers, such as artificially browned

skin, feathers, paint, and buckskin, that reduced Native identities and cultures to a

code of signs easily translatable by a non-Native audience. (p. 74)

The makeup and props rarely distinguished Native tribes. “Rather than try to make [the

American Indians on screen] look regional,” explains movie costume designer Richard

Lamotte, “everybody was identifiable…[Moviemakers] weren’t interested in explaining the tribes” (Fon, Bainbridge & Ludwick, & Diamond, 2009). Cox (2010) explains that shows and films with Indian characters, despite their inauthenticity, have long been popular and especially profitable for studios and filmmakers. Consumers of the American

Westerns enjoyed the raw and romantic depictions of their early country, and the films gave them an escape into a simpler time. Audiences were thrilled with the grand conquests, adventures, and heroes; however, others viewed the films as consistent reminders of defeat, betrayal, and unimaginable loss. Distinct and significant American

Indian cultures were washed away and replaced by fanciful depictions on screen; characters were reduced to mere stereotypes or caricatures; white actors played Native characters with the help of spray tan; and entire nations of people were insinuated to be utterly removed – to be remembered only as remnants of a time gone by. Many are familiar with the cultural wrongdoings of Western-era films, but where does the

Hollywood Indian live in our modern-day cinematic productions? What impacts do these films have on society?

Before delving too deep, I would like to define terms that are frequently used in this paper and explain why I chose to focus on American Indian representations in film only. Authenticity becomes a focal point throughout my paper, and I use the term to describe those films that I believe: purposely hire Natives for Native roles; make attempts to remove American Indians from harmful stereotypes and distinguish various tribes by

correcting costuming, setting, language, and the like; allow Native people to share their own stories their own way; and develop American Indian characters within the story, rather than simply including the group as plot devices or elements of the setting.

Moreover, I frequently make use of the term ‘American Indian’ to describe Native people. I use this term because it has been deemed the most appropriate term to use by the Ohio History Connection (formerly the Ohio Historical Society). Lastly, although many representations of American Indians exist across many mediums, I chose to limit my focus to representations in film only. I believe film to be an exceptionally powerful medium for the following reasons: its accessibility, captivating nature, and subtle tendencies. There are over 40,000 indoor and outdoor movie theatres in the United States alone, not to mention the availability of films online (Number of U.S. Movie Screens, n.d.). Additionally, even those with particular disabilities or language limitations can understand and enjoy films, and the activity is not limited to specific social classes. Films are also entertaining and still manage to capture our attentions in an age where consumers are bombarded with competing media. When patrons visit a movie theatre, cell phones are silenced and eyes and ears fixate on the big screen; for approximately 90 minutes, films capture our undivided attention. Finally, films are often less forward about their messages than other mediums, so they can convey specific ideals with less criticism from consumers. For example, a viewer may scrutinize a news program more closely if they feel the outlet is biased, but a movie with subtle messaging may remain outside of the viewer’s radar. Michelle C. Pautz, an associate professor at the University of Dayton, has

found that films can influence our opinions, so she suggests viewers recognize that seeing a movie is “more…than just entertainment,” as “there are all sorts of messages being conveyed” (Guida, 2015, para. 17).

While many films feature American Indian characters, both significant and minor,

I decided to narrow my focus to a select group of films. I chose to focus my project on modern day films about or containing significant contributions from American Indian characters. In addition, the chosen films received a distinct level of notoriety from the general American film audience or the Native community. Unfortunately, comparing financial success is rarely measuring apples-to-apples for American Indian films. For example, although Pocahontas (Pentecost, & Gabriel & Goldberg, 1995) was a financial hit for The Walt Disney Company and reached audiences across the United States, Smoke

Signals (Rosenfelt & Estes, & Eyre, 1998) signified priceless societal gains for the Native community. Native and non-Native filmmakers continue to spar for the right to Native storytelling; in an effort to bring equity to the fight, I chose to weigh significance and impact over pure financial and popularity aspects alone. After all, the effects of movies remain long after the financial rewards have been reaped. Cobb (2003) explains: “Film, an undeniably powerful medium, significantly shapes what and how we think of others and ourselves. For too long Hollywood filmmakers have created and disseminated stereotypical and frequently racist images of American Indians” (p. 206).

In the following sections, I will analyze American Indian representations in film – and their impacts on society – from 1990 to present. I argue the era, despite its faults

carried from the earlier Western films, caters to a consumer-driven period for authenticity. In addition, I believe consumers’ concerns for authentic practices in filmmaking will lead to the development of more authentic and progressive films in the future.

Dances with Wolves (1990)

Deemed a Western failure before its release, Dances with Wolves (Costner &

Wilson, & Costner, 1990) starring Kevin Costner proved to be a box office hit. Upon achieving decoration as a Civil War hero, Lieutenant John Dunbar (Kevin Costner) chooses to be stationed at a U.S. outpost on the frontier. Not alone for long, Dunbar soon befriends the neighboring Sioux Indians who previously frightened him. Communication is aided by Stands With A Fist (Mary McDonnell), white adopted daughter of Kicking

Bird (Graham Greene) and survivor of a childhood Pawnee attack. Although her English is weak, Stands With A Fist acts as an interpreter for Dunbar and the tribal members. In a turning point of their friendship, Dunbar accompanies Kicking Bird and Wind In His Hair

(Rodney A. Grant) on a buffalo hunt. Dunbar successfully kills his first ‘tatanka’ and celebrates with the Sioux. During this time, Kicking Bear and Wind In His Hair witness

Dunbar playing with a friendly wolf (known as Two Socks to Dunbar) and give Dunbar the name ‘Dances With Wolves.’ Dunbar finds connectedness, understanding, and love through the Sioux people, but trouble is on the horizon.

When the Sioux decide to break camp and move to their winter dwelling, Dunbar races to retrieve his personal journal from his outpost, only to find his fellow U.S. Army members have finally arrived. Dunbar, now dressed in Sioux regalia, is held at the outpost and questioned for treason. When he refuses to act as an interpreter between the

Sioux and the U.S. Army, Dunbar is shackled and placed on an east-bound wagon as a

prisoner. The Sioux come to his rescue, but Dunbar and Stands With A Fist must eventually leave the tribe to protect the people they love.

The film earned $184 million at the North American box office and over $420 million worldwide (Aleiss, 2005). The film won several Oscars (including Best Picture) at the 1990 Academy Awards and snagged several Golden Globes and an award for Best

Film at the 1990 American Indian Film Festival.

Outside of its financial and rating success, Dances received praise for its alternative view of American Indians. As noted by Aleiss (2005), some applauded

Costner for “‘single handedly righting all the imperialistic wrongdoings of the entire

[Western] genre’” (p. 141). When asked about the film, Doris Leader Charge explained

“that by ‘making a movie that told people all over the world that the Lakota people still live – will always live…’ he [Kevin Costner] has already given American Indians a gift more valuable than money” (Johnson, 1995, para. 21). Leader Charge starred as Pretty

Shield in Dances and taught the cast the Lakota language used in the film. Travers (1990) feels the film “tells a personal story” and describes it as “a beauty” and “an epic that breathes” (para. 5). In addition, for the group’s portrayal on-screen, the Sioux nation even recognized Kevin Costner as an honorary member (Svetkey, 1991).

Still, others were critical of Dances’ success in reversing social perceptions of

American Indians. Jesse Wente (Ojibway film critic) noted in the documentary film Reel

Injun (Fon, Bainbridge & Ludwick, & Diamond, 2009), “[Dances with Wolves] is a very

sensitive and sympathetic approach. It doesn’t erase the fact that, at its core, the film is not a Native movie.” Cuthand (1992) adds,

We are once again portrayed as the tragic but lovable losers. We are once again

cast as supporters of one white man’s vision. Dances with Wolves is Kevin

Costner’s baby. To tell the Indian stories, we’ll just have to give birth to our own.

(para. 11)

Blackfeet filmmaker George Burdeau’s comments mirror Cuthand’s. “[N]o matter how sensitive and wonderful this movie is, you have to ask who’s telling the story,” explains

Burdeau. “It’s certainly not an Indian.” (Aleiss, 2005, p.146). Moreover, movies such as

Dances firmly place American Indians as relics of the past, amusing civilizations of a time gone by. Aleiss (2005) adds, “Dances with Wolves’ many accolades reiterated that the Indian’s movie image appeared to be firmly embedded within the American Western”

(p. 141). It seems, without Westerns, American Indians have struggled to find their place in modern film – despite their place in our modern world. Considering its perspective set in the past, I must agree with those critical of its focus.

Although unlike the Westerns (in story) that predated Dances, the film takes a historic perspective of American Indians. As Rose (2013) states, “[Dances with Wolves] presented Indians as tipi-dwelling, buffalo-hunting, eco-warriors living in peace and harmony with the land” (para. 15). I can understand the point in Rose’s argument. While the Lakota Sioux depicted in the film live historically accurate lifestyles, many audiences know American Indians only within the context of feathers, tipis, and buffalo. In this

way, Dances does little to remove the imagery used in making the ‘Hollywood Indian.’ In addition, Cuthand (1992) notes,

[American Indians] are always seen as defeated, powerless people overcome by

the inexorable need or greed of White American expansionism. Whether we are

depicted as the good guys or the bad guys, filmmakers have supported the myth

that we are a dying race. (para. 1)

Cuthand’s (1992) feelings are confirmed in the last scene of Dances. As a final note to viewers, the fate of the Lakota Sioux appears on the screen:

Thirteen years later, their homes destroyed, their buffalo gone, the last band of

free Sioux submitted to white authority at Fort Robinson, Nebraska. The great

horse culture of the plains was gone and the American frontier was soon to pass

into history. (Costner & Wilson, & Costner, 1990)

Lt. Dunbar’s request to be stationed at the frontier foretells the inevitable demise of the film’s Lakota Sioux. Dunbar’s wish to see the frontier “before it’s gone” suggests the disappearance of the elements that make up the frontier (Costner & Wilson, & Costner,

1990). One might assume key ingredients of the frontier are American Indians.

In the end, Dances with Wolves earned the recognition it received. The story is compelling, and its makers sought to capture a more accurate representation of American

Indians, particularly the Lakota and Pawnee. After all, the American Indians portrayed in the film are Native actors; authentic Lakota was learned and used by the film’s characters; costuming and set design paid careful attention to authenticity; and the

Natives in the film had personality and depth. It cannot be ignored: Dances with Wolves marked the beginning of a new era of portrayals and cultural understanding. With the release of Dances with Wolves, the Western saw another revival.

The Last of the Mohicans (1992)

As noted by director Neil Diamond in Reel Injun (Fon, Bainbridge & Ludwick, &

Diamond, 2009), “[w]ith the huge success of Dances with Wolves, playing Indian meant box office hits for Hollywood and its stars. Scenes, stories, and roles were designed to cash in on the new popularity. Being Indian was lucrative and cool again.” In this new era, The Last of the Mohicans (Mann & Lowry, & Mann, 1992) was reborn. Set in 1757 during the French and Indian War, The Last of the Mohicans opens on Chingachgook

(Russell Means), his son Uncas (Eric Schweig), and adopted son Nathanial a.k.a.

Hawkeye (Daniel Day-Lewis) on an elk hunt. From the beginning, we understand the three men represent “the last of a vanishing people” – the Mohicans. In the midst of the struggle over the continent, the British call for support against the French and their Indian allies. Meanwhile, Cora Munro (Madeleine Stowe) and her sister Alice (Jodhi May) prepare for a journey to see their father, Colonel Edmund Munro (Maurice Roëves), at

Fort William Henry. Before their journey, Major Duncan Heyward (Steven Waddington) asks Cora to marry him, but she declines. The group embarks on their journey accompanied by a troop of British soldiers and led by Native scout Magua (Wes Studi).

However, Magua is a revengeful Huron, and his people descend on the troop. Hawkeye,

Uncas, and Chingachgook come upon the fighting but are only able to save Cora, Alice, and Duncan. The group vows to lead the survivors to Fort William Henry, and the girls are reunited with their father amidst a battle with the French. Colonel Munro loses hope

for reinforcements when he learned his calls were interjected, but he threatens sedition to any soldier who abandons the fort. Nevertheless, Hawkeye aids his fellow colonists in their escape and is sentenced to hang. The fort is eventually overrun, and Colonel Munro chooses to surrender and leave the fort. As the soldiers march away, they are ambushed by Magua and his Hurons. Hawkeye and his group as well as Cora, Alice, and Duncan escape the fighting, but the Hurons eventually capture Duncan and the women. When

Hawkeye arrives at the Huron village to save the captured group, Duncan – in a moment of sacrifice – convinces Magua to kill him instead of Cora. Magua leaves with Alice, and

– in the struggle to get her back – Uncas is killed and thrown from a cliff. Alice chooses to fall to her death after witnessing Uncas’ fate, and Chingachgook avenges his son’s death by killing Magua. In the end, Chingachgook is left as the last surviving member of the Mohicans.

Despite its delayed release in September 1992, roots in a historical novel, and relatively unknown actors, The Last of the Mohicans proved to be a box office hit.

According to Aleiss (2005), the film grossed over $72 million. The film also earned a number of awards, including an Oscar for Best Sound.

After its publication in 1826, James Fenimore Cooper’s The Last of the

Mohicans; A Narrative of 1757 saw many revivals in many mediums. Walker (1998) explains,

From its first adaptations in 1909 as a D.W. Griffith one-reeler and in 1911 as two

different one-reelers by the Powers and Thanhouser Film Companies to its latest

incarnation in 1992 as a Michael Mann potboiler, more than a dozen

interpretations of the novel have appeared in various forms: silent picture, Mascot

serial, animated version, BBC television series, and Hollywood epic. (p. 170)

Like Cooper’s original novel and its many subsequent adaptations, Mohicans faced a number of compliments and criticisms. Supporters of Mohicans note its strides for authenticity. Woodward (1992) explains the reconstructed Fort William Henry was built using an 18th century building plan, American Indians – many Iroquois-speaking from

New York State – were hired to play the Native roles, and lead Day-Lewis spent time learning the trades of the time. Woodward (1992) mentions Day-Lewis “learned to track and skin animals, build canoes, fight with tomahawks, [as well as] fire and reload a 12- pound flintlock on the run,” a weapon he took everywhere – even Christmas dinner (para.

11). His commitment to the role turned heads: director Michael Mann called Day-Lewis

“fearless” and someone who “will do and try anything” (Woodward, 1992, para. 16);

Russell Means, Oglala Lakota Sioux activist turned actor, feels “Daniel is the embodiment of someone I would adopt as a non-Indian” (para. 17). UCLA American history Professor Joyce Appleby described the film as “an excellent way to interest people in history” (Galbraith, 1992, para. 4). However, Appleby, who suggested her students see the film as part of her class “Pre-Revolutionary America to the Civil War,” also added: “I’m thrilled if they’re interested in learning more and I take a great deal of pleasure in demonstrating how it’s inaccurate. When you explain its inaccuracies, you teach something” (Galbraith, 1992, p. 1). Galbraith (1992) goes on to add Appleby’s concerns of the film, including the modernized manner in which key characters carry

themselves, the downplay of social class systems and formalities, and the insinuations the film makes about the disappearance of the Mohican people – whose descendants live on today. In the end, Appleby praises the film for coming closer to achieving a level of

Colonial American authenticity that was not accomplished in “any of the previous

Hollywood generation” (Galbraith, 1992, p. 2). Although Appleby may have a wonderful time correcting the inaccuracies with her students, I imagine most viewers’ resulting perceptions went unchecked.

As Edgerton (n.d.) notes, Mohicans – like Dances with Wolves (Costner &

Wilson, & Costner, 1990) – reestablishes longstanding stereotypes of ‘good’ and ‘bad’

American Indians. Uncas and Chingachgook appear wise and stoic for most of the film, while Magua and his Hurons are represented as bloodthirsty savages. Edgerton (n.d.) explains, “Michael Mann chose to base his remake as much on the 1936 screenplay by

Philip Dunne as the original novel by Cooper” (p. 7). Like the 1936 version of the film, the 1992 version “impl[ied] that individual Indians can be ‘good,’ but the group must ultimately be depicted as ‘bad’ in order to justify their eventual extermination”

(Edgerton, n.d., p. 7). Despite Mann’s desire to right the wrongs of previous films,

Mohicans, instead, worked to secure misconceptions. Although Mohicans was a sympathetic movie – like Dances with Wolves – it did little to remove American Indians from America’s colonial history. Meaning, the film continued to place American Indians within a historic context instead of a modern context. Aleiss (2005) notes that the film maintained “a safe distance from the harsh realities of contemporary Indian life” (p. 147).

Moreover, despite its title, the film rarely focuses on Uncas or Chingachgook – the last of

the Mohicans. Like Dances with Wolves, the focus is on a white male lead who learns a different way of life through the American Indian characters, and eventually falls for a planted white female supporting character. When Edgerton (n.d.) breaks down the film to the screen-times allotted to each character, it is easy to see how little the film focuses on the Natives:

Hawkeye, not surprisingly, is given the most attention with 23 primary scenes of

the 26 in which he appears. His love interest, Cora is next (6 primary and 7

secondary scenes). Magua is third (7 primary and 3 secondary scenes)…What is

most revealing about the remaining characterizations is that Heyward (2 primary

and 4 secondary scenes), Jack Winthrop, the leader of the militia (1 primary and 3

secondary scenes), and Colonel Munro (2 primary and 1 secondary scene), all

match or exceed the dramatic focus and attention provided to either

Chingachgook (2 primary and 1 secondary scene) or Uncas (1 primary and 1

secondary scene). (p. 13)

The focus of Mann’s Mohicans is hardly about American Indian people or their way of life; rather, the film reminisces of colonial life and savors the romance between Hawkeye and Cora. Still, consumers appreciated that many of the representations of the time and characters were authentic.

According to Woodward (1992), Mohicans was originally budgeted at $33 million but reached closer to $40 million by the end of the film’s four-month shoot.

Distributed by 20th Century Fox, the film’s marketing and advertising budget was

estimated at around $15-$20 million (Fox, 1992); however, 20th Century Fox denies the promotion budget was that expensive. According to Fox (1992), “competitors credit [20th

Century] Fox for ‘smart media buys’ – including paying such premium prices as

$310,000 for a 30-second spot on the season premiere of ‘Murphy Brown’ – in order to reach the picture’s targeted core audience of adults aged 25-49” (para. 11). Travers

(1992) describes the TV spot with Day-Lewis “running, running, running, with long hair flapping, flapping, flapping, as his hoarsely sexy voice tells Madeleine Stowe to ‘stay alive no matter what occurs – I will find you’” (para. 3). Travers (1992) adds, “[t]he commercial has been repeated so relentlessly that Day-Lewis could have won the year’s hunk sweeps even if no one went to see his movie” (para. 3). The film’s promotions – as well as the hype surrounding the quincentennial of Columbus’ voyage to the New World

– turned Mohicans into a success. The Christopher Columbus Quincentenary Jubilee

Commission (CCQJC), created in 1984 and headed by James Kuhn, was formed to “plan, encourage, coordinate, and conduct the commemoration of the voyages of discovery of

Christopher Columbus” (National Archives and Records Administration, 1993).

Celebrations of the 500th anniversary began in late 1991 and continued through

Columbus Day of 1992, with some celebrations even reaching into 1993 (Baer, 1991 &

Yenckel, 1992). The quincentenary commemoration events included fireworks displays and parades to seminars and exhibits. In addition to the more than 5,000 planned events,

Baer (1991) mentions,

Christopher Columbus, the opera. And Christopher Columbus, the Hollywood

movie (make that movies). And Christopher Columbus, the lecture series, the

encyclopedia, the comic book, the ballet, the jigsaw puzzle, the exhibit, the

puppet show, the 5K race, the essay contest, the commemorative key chain, the

softball tournament, the luxury cruise… Welcome to Christopher Columbus, the

year. (p. 1)

Rightfully, Johns Hopkins University history professor called the events and related products “more commercialism than celebration or commemoration” (Baer, 1991, p. 1).

With the bevy of nation- and world-wide extravaganzas in place, America’s beginning was surely on everyone’s mind.

Pocahontas (1995)

Just as Strong (1998) explains her own personal connections to Pocahontas

(Pentecost, & Gabriel & Goldberg, 1995) – such as playing the film’s theme song

“Colors of the Wind” for her daughter’s school choir – I, too, have individual memories of the film. After all, I was a baby when the film was released and grew up with expectations of forest companions and perfect, wind-swept hair. I still own my childhood

VHS tape of Pocahontas, but it has been rendered useless from constant playing; white streaks fall from the top of the screen down, severely disrupting the once unflawed picture.

A free spirit and adventurer, Pocahontas (Irene Bedard) discovers a whole new world from her own when a ship from England lands on the shores of Jamestown,

Virginia. The settlers disembark and begin their search for gold. Eventually, the curious

Pocahontas and adventurous John Smith (Mel Gibson) meet and forge an understanding between their cultures, but their respective societies are far less accepting. When

Pocahontas’ expected husband Kocoum (James Apaumat Fall) catches the pair together, he attacks Smith. The search party for the rogue Smith is close and witnesses the attack, and one member, Thomas (Christian Bale), shoots and kills Kocoum. Smith accepts responsibility for Kocoum’s death and is taken captive by Powhatan warriors. When it is time for Chief Powhatan (Russell Means) to execute Smith for his crimes (an act to surely begin war between the American Indians and English settlers), Pocahontas throws

her body across Smith. In that moment of sacrifice, Chief Powhatan yields to Pocahontas’ wishes and spares Smith’s life. Seeing an opening to ambush the Powhatan people,

Governor Ratcliffe (David Ogden Stiers) demands that the English settlers attack. When the settlers refuse his commands to fire, Ratcliffe grabs a gun and aims at Chief

Powhatan. Smith intercepts Ratcliffe’s shot and is able to push Chief Powhatan out of the way. Smith is badly injured in the struggle and must return to England for intensive care.

Smith invites Pocahontas to accompany him on his journey home, but she refuses.

Instead, Pocahontas stays to fulfill her duties to her people.

Pocahontas grossed over $140 million and won two Oscars and a Golden Globe for its original song “Colors of the Wind” by Alan Menken and Stephen Schwartz.

According to Edgerton & Jackson (1996), Pocahontas would go on to make more than

$300 million in theatres worldwide.

According to Dutka (1995a), Walt Disney hired Native Americans for all of the

Native American roles in the film and sought advice from consultants, as well as Native

American organizations in the state of Virginia. Animators also made trips to Jamestown and sought Pocahontas’ real story from her descendants. The company most likely wanted to avoid future upset after facing criticism for both Aladdin (Musker & Clements,

1992) and The Lion King (Hahn, & Allers & Minkoff, 1994). Aleiss (2005) notes Walt

Disney faced complaints for its interpretations of the Middle-eastern population in

Aladdin as well as representations of both Hispanics and African Americans in The Lion

King. Although Walt Disney paid closer attention to its portrayal of American Indians in

Pocahontas in a move toward authenticity, the company still faced criticism. Many argue

the historical inaccuracies strip away the real story of the real Pocahontas. For example,

Pocahontas was a child when she would have met John Smith, and her life was filled with more tragedy than romance. Named Matoaka, and nicknamed ‘Pocahontas,’ she was taken captive in Jamestown. As part of her release, she was Christianized as ‘Rebecca’ and married to John Rolfe. She was later taken to England where she died at the age of

21. Besides the historical inaccuracies of Pocahontas, others are critical of Disney’s portrayal of the young American Indian girl. Aleiss (2005) describes Pocahontas as having a “convexly curved” African face, “dark slanted” Asian eyes, and the body proportions of a Caucasian (p. 150). Even before the film’s release, Aleiss dubbed

Pocahontas’ look “much more ‘Disney’ than Indian” (Dutka, 1995a, p. 2). Edgerton &

Jackson (1996) explain that the evolution of Pocahontas’ look was inspired by four women: Pocahontas was modeled after original paintings, Native consultant Shirley

“Little Dove” Custalow McGowan, then 18-year-old art student Dyna Taylor, and finally white supermodel Christy Turlington. “After studio animators spent months sketching her, their Pocahontas emerged as a multicultural pastiche,” explain Edgerton & Jackson

(1996). “They started with Native American faces but eventually gravitated to the more familiar and Anglicized looks of the statuesque Turlington” (para. 31). As to her final look, animators could say they made the beautiful Pocahontas much more marketable to the general population. Despite Pocahontas’ bevy of criticisms, Russell Means told the

Los Angeles Times the film “teaches that pigmentation and bone structure have no place in human relations. It’s the finest feature film on American Indians Hollywood has turned out” (Dutka, 1995b, p. 2). Russell Means plays Powhatan, Pocahontas’ father, in the

animated film. In looking at Means’ work protesting the use of American Indian images for sport mascots, Strong (1998) adds, “[o]ne can only wonder: what is the exotic, sensual, copyrighted Pocahontas if not the mascot for a feminine, earthy, New Age spirituality?” (p. 197).

Still, like Means, some view Disney’s work as progress. In The Making of

‘Pocahontas’: A Legend Comes to Life (1995), Glen Keane, Supervising Animator for the film notes: “We’ve never before done a story…based on somebody who actually walked and lived here on earth. All the other [movies] have been based on fairytales and imaginary stories.” Disney creators were aware of Pocahontas’ story and the conflicting opinions that surround certain events in her life. Due to this uncertainty, the creators felt it understandable to take dramatic license with the film. “We wanted to offer an ennobling and empowering view of Native Americans that hadn’t been provided in cinema before,” explains Peter Schneider, former Disney animation president (Dutka,

1995a, p. 1). In The Making of ‘Pocahontas’: A Legend Comes to Life (Boothe, 1995), producer Jim Pentecost adds: “Pocahontas is the strongest heroine we’ve ever had in a

Disney film. She is open, athletic, vivacious – she’s also quite beautiful. She is the kind of person I think that would be everyone’s best friend.” While Pocahontas may have been

Disney’s strongest female lead at the time, her representation does not necessarily reflect a triumph for American Indians.

The marketing of Pocahontas is another talking point. The marketing and advertising budget came in around $25 million, and promotional efforts began roughly five months before the film’s release in June 1995 (Edgerton & Jackson, 1996).

Beginning in February, Disney launched the “Pocahontas Animation Discovery

Adventure” that toured malls nationwide, visiting 24 cities in total. According to

Weinberger (1995), visitors to the interactive display in Fashion Mall outside of Fort

Lauderdale, Florida saw Chief Powhatan’s lodge, where a Disney animator discussed the creation of animated Pocahontas. Disney also brought to life Cpt. John Smith’s ship, the

Susan Constant, by erecting a 26-foot replica (Weinberger, 1995). A “mystical forest maze…interactive lily pads and a giant video wall playing music from the film” completed the interactive promotion (Weinberger, 1995). Pocahontas also garnered dozens of tie-ins. According to Edgerton & Jackson (1996), “Burger King distributed 55 million toy replicas of the film’s characters with kids’ meals, Payless Shoes featured a line of moccasins, and Mattel peddled a Barbie-like Pocahontas doll” (para. 11). Ramirez

(1995) also notes deals with Hallmark greeting cards, Nestle Crunch bars, and Cheerios cereal. Pocahontas also received some promotion help when Disney attached the trailer to home video tapes for The Lion King. Nearing the release of Pocahontas, Walt Disney held a special premiere on June 10, 1995 in New York City’s Central Park. In attendance were Walt Disney executives Richard Cook (President, Buena Vista Pictures) and Roy

Disney (Vice Chairman), Pocahontas actors Russell Means and Irene Bedard, and more than 100,000 guests. The film was projected onto four 80-foot-high screens and required a 400,000-watt sound system, notes Lee (1995). In grand Disney fashion, the night ended with a fireworks display. Edgerton & Jackson (1996) add the “extravaganza was not only covered amply by print and electronic news media, but it was also telecast live as programming on the newly launched United Paramount Network” (para. 12). After the

movie was released, products using the Pocahontas story and characters hit the shelves.

Disney also wanted to use Pocahontas’ success to influence public opinion for another project: Disney’s America, a theme park planned for Northern Virginia. Under the direction of Michael Eisner (former CEO), the 3,000-acre area 35 miles southwest of

Washington, D.C. was set to feature important eras of American history. Much like

Disneyland and Walt Disney World, guests would begin their adventures into Disney’s

America on a historic “main street,” named the Crossroads USA, built to match 1800-

1850. Perez-Pena (1994) notes some of the features planned for the park, including

A ride through a black furnace; virtual reality Revolutionary War battles, in which

visitors would have had a chance to fire muskets, and nightly recreations of the

Civil War battle between the Monitor and the Merrimack, the first duel between

ironclad ships. (para. 17)

Pocahontas was supposed to lend a particularly warm welcome to ‘Native America,’ a section of Disney’s America that focused on the years 1600-1810, respectively.

According to Shear (1994), ‘Native America’ would also boast a Lewis and Clark themed raft ride. Due to the site’s proximity to Washington, D.C. (a location that already draws millions annually), Disney hoped to operate a shuttle system to and from the nation’s capital. The new theme park was estimated to cost $650 million in development and was scheduled to open in 1998; however, Eisner’s dream never came to fruition. The theme park faced harsh criticism from Virginians and historians alike. According to Perez-Pena

(1994), some noted the disruptions the park would cause for locals, including an increase in traffic and air pollution. In another article, Appelo and Daly (1994) found historians

were concerned with Disney’s planned portrayals of American history, as well as the economic damage the new park would do on existing historic parks and museums. In many ways, the issues that moviegoers had with Pocahontas mirrored the conflicts brought against the Disney’s America theme park. Many felt Disney attempted to

“commercialize” or “corporatize” history, leading to an over-emphasis on making money and an under-emphasis on depicting American history accurately.

Smoke Signals (1998)

While movies such as Dances with Wolves (Costner & Wilson, & Costner, 1990) and The Last of the Mohicans (Mann & Lowry, & Mann, 1992) “reminisced of Indian life long ago,” Smoke Signals (Rosenfelt & Estes, & Eyre, 1998) forged a path for American

Indians as citizens of the 21st century (Aleiss, 2005, p. 146-7). Set on the Coeur d’Alene reservation in Idaho, Smoke Signals tells the story of two young men, the quirky Thomas

Builds-the-Fire (Evan Adams) and the tough Victor Joseph (Adam Beach). The two become unlikely friends when they journey to Phoenix together to retrieve the ashes of

Victor’s father; however, the boys’ story really begins in 1976, when a fire broke out on the reservation after a Fourth of July celebration. Thomas, just a baby, is thrown from the second story window, and Arnold Joseph (Gary Farmer), Victor’s father, catches him.

Unfortunately, Thomas’ parents do not survive the fire. Thomas is eternally grateful to

Arnold and grows up with many happy memories of him, including partaking in frybread-eating contests and visiting Denny’s for breakfast.

Meanwhile, Victor’s world couldn’t be more different. To him, Arnold is a drunk and an unforgiving father. Eventually, Arnold leaves the reservation for good. When

Victor and his mother (Tantoo Cardinal) receive word of Arnold’s passing, Thomas offers to bust open his piggybank to foot the cost of bus fare. When the pair arrive at

Arnold’s mobile home, they meet Suzy (Irene Bedard) – a friendly neighbor and confidant to Arnold who helps Victor come to terms with his past. Victor learns that his

father was the one to start the fire in 1976 and also the one that ran back into the burning house to save him. Victor is able to move forward from his anger, and the boys make it back to the reservation with Arnold’s ashes.

According to Hearne (2010), the film “cost about $2 million to produce and grossed $6.8 million at the box office” (para. 1). Its success made Smoke Signals “the second highest grossing independent film of the year” (Hearne, 2010, para. 35). The film won a bevy of awards, including the Audience Award and the Filmmaker’s Trophy at the

Sundance Film Festival, where Smoke Signals premiered in January 1998 (Hearne, 2010).

Smoke Signals also claimed the “top prize at the First San Diego Film Festival,” naming the film “the best American independent film in a competition that exhibited roughly 80 entries and some 300 screenings over 10 days” (Herman, 1998, para. 2). Herman (1998) also notes director Chris Eyre (Cheyenne/Arapaho), screenplay writer Sherman Alexie

(Spokane/Coeur d’Alene), and actor Adam Beach were awarded for their contributions to the film.

Adapted from a short story in Alexie’s novel The Lone Ranger and Tonto

Fistfight in Heaven (1993), Smoke Signals became the “first feature film written, directed, acted, and co-produced by Native Americans” (Cobb, 2003, p. 206). Cobb

(2003) also notes that, given the film’s distribution partnership with Miramax, Smoke

Signals became the “first widely distributed feature film in which Native people tell their own story” (p. 208). Smoke Signals was well-received by the general population and film critics alike. Stack (1998) calls the film “unpretentious, funny and soulful” as well as

“well-acted, well-written, with spare, beautiful imagery” (para. 1). Thomas (1998) refers

to the film as “neither earnest nor indignant” (para. 2), with a “most inviting and unpretentious yet sophisticated look and feel” (para. 9). “[Smoke Signals] was a big to do at the time,” explains Eyre, in an interview with Hearne (2010). “President Clinton screened it at the White House” (para. 35). However, others criticized Smoke Signals’ adaptations to fit into pop culture and the larger American population. Some claimed the film compromised its integrity by catering to ‘mainstream America.’ Alexie explains,

[W]hen people look at my work they always say I’m wrestling with popular

culture. I mean I guess in some sense I am, but I’m engaged with it, we all

are…I’m recalling specific reviews or interviews especially by Indian scholars

that sort of treat my engagement with popular culture as some sort of

betrayal…That whole line of thinking always assumes that we Indians are outside

of it. (Hearne, 2010, para. 70)

Cobb (2003) applauds Eyre and Alexie for challenging “popular culture by creating popular culture, using the very medium that has arguably threatened Native American sovereignty the most – the Hollywood film” (p. 208). By utilizing film, Eyre and Alexie were able to take back some control of Native stories. In fact, Cobb (2003) views Smoke

Signals as a “pivot point” for American Indians and film (p. 226). Eyre and Alexie were able to introduce alternative images of American Indians without speaking for the entire

American Indian population.

The release of the feel-good, road trip movie took a combination of the right time and place. “[M]arketed as a Native cinema first,” Smoke Signals benefited from the rise

of independent films in the 1990s (Hearne, 2010, para. 1). With the screenplay ready,

Eyre submitted Smoke Signals to the Sundance Labs and was able to spend a month learning from Robert Redford (director and founder of the Sundance Film Festival) and

Denzel Washington (actor, producer, and director), as well as a host of other mentors

(Hearne, 2010). Eyre was one of only eight directors selected to receive the intensive training that year. Still, even with help from the Sundance Institute, it took Alexie and

Eyre a year and a half to secure funding. After the film finally attracted investors, they began the 23-day shooting schedule and subsequent six months of editing (Hearne, 2010).

Upon its release, Smoke Signals became a landmark achievement for the cast and crew as well as the Native community. Cobb (2003) explains,

This may, at first, seem overstated: how can this effort of a first-time director – an

eighty-nine minute, low-budget, road trip/buddy movie starring relatively

unknown Native American actors – be much of an achievement of any kind? But

when placed in the context of the long and colonizing history of American Indians

and film, it is an achievement because it exists at all. (p. 206)

Even after the movie was completed, one decision plagued its prospects – at least that is what Eyre thought.

In Smoke Signals, Adam Beach’s character, Victor, chooses to cut his hair. Given that it often places an undue burden on the Native actor to cut his or her hair, Eyre ordered a wig for Adam to wear after he ‘cuts’ his hair in the scene. When Adam arrived

on set ready to shoot on day 19, Eyre explained, “[the wig] was much worse than what I remembered it to be” (Hearne, 2010, para. 31). Eyre remembers,

Adam looked at me and said, ‘How do I look, dude?’ I looked at him and I said,

‘You look great.’ I said, ‘Give me just a minute.’ I turned around, I walked behind

a trailer and I thought to myself: I think I’ve just ruined my movie. (Hearne, 2010,

para. 31)

Given the tight shooting schedule that was almost at a close, as well as the cost (close to

$75,000) in lost production, the wig stayed. Despite its struggles, the movie was completed and sparked an appreciation nationwide. Alexie notes the lighter and more comical effects the film had on the Native population:

Over the last ten years I’ve met 90 guys names Victor, who cursed at me, because

they spend their entire lives getting, ‘Hey, Victor’ from every Indian they

know…And pretty much every reading I do in Indian country, two or three people

come dressed in Fry Bread Power t-shirts. It has enormous cultural value in our

world. (Hearne, 2010, para. 52)

Alexie’s reference to ‘Hey, Victor’ refers to Thomas’ quirky and common address to Victor that usually preceded an inquiry. As to the ‘Fry Bread Power’ t-shirt, that reference stems from a discussion between Victor and Thomas. Victor is tough and strong, and he wears his long, black hair loose. Thomas prefers his hair in two braids and often sports an out-of-place suit. During the pair’s road trip to Phoenix, Victor and

Thomas discuss what it means to be a real Indian. Victor explains that a real Indian

doesn’t grin like Thomas, and Victor urges him to “get stoic” (Rosenfelt & Estes, & Eyre,

1998). Moreover, even though the pair’s tribe were fishermen, Victor insists a real Indian must look like “a warrior,” one that came back from “killing a buffalo” (Rosenfelt &

Estes, & Eyre, 1998). Thomas’ hair, all tied up in braids, has to be let down because “[a]n

Indian man ain’t nothing without his hair” (Rosenfelt & Estes, & Eyre, 1998). And lastly,

Victor explains, “you’ve got to get rid of that suit, Thomas. You just have to” (Rosenfelt

& Estes, & Eyre, 1998). When the bus stops for a break, the audience sees Thomas emerge from the truck stop wearing the ‘Fry Bread Power’ t-shirt and jeans, with his hair undone. The characters of Smoke Signals make frequent reference to the stereotypes that long accompanied ‘Indian-ness,’ and yet quietly inform viewers of the laughability of the stereotypes.

As Cobb (2003) notes, Smoke Signals “points out to non-Native viewers that many of their assumptions about what ‘real’ Indians are like come from Hollywood movies, by making them laugh instead of making them feel guilty or uncomfortable” (p.

216). Smoke Signals presents authenticity in a new light: instead of making sure costuming was right or props were period-correct (like the historical films of this era),

Smoke Signals made sure the charm and personality of everyday American Indians was shown to American audiences. The film offered a look into the lives of contemporary

Native people.

Smoke Signals represented a major advancement for American Indians. “It’s an anthem, I think for Indian country, a filmic anthem that people seem to really love,” explains Eyre (Hearne, 2010, para. 36). The film represented a true turning point for

American Indians in cinema. In a way, Smoke Signals answered Cuthand’s (1992) call:

“To tell the Indian stories, we’ll just have to give birth to our own” (para. 11). Smoke

Signals removed American Indians from the past and released them from harmful stereotypes; Victor and Thomas stand out as participants in modern America. European descendants did not control the story; instead, Eyre and Alexie became curators of a new

American Indian narrative. For the first time, American Indians told American Indian stories. Moreover, the story of Smoke Signals avoids the struggle between Natives and non-Natives, and instead focuses on Victor’s inner turmoil surrounding his father. The story is relatable to both groups because it is an authentic, human story. “I think we were immediately aware that we were doing something revolutionary, that it was a revolutionary moment,” explains Alexie (Hearne, 2010, para. 125). Smoke Signals brought a laugh to Natives and non-Natives alike and helped the American Indian community take a tremendous step into modern day. Cobb (2003) beautifully describes the lasting importance of Smoke Signals:

Smoke Signals is tremendously significant because it is the first feature film

written, acted, directed, and co-produced by Native Americans; because it proved

that a Native American film could be commercially viable; because it forced

viewers to examine Hollywood stereotypes of Native Americans; and most

importantly, because it was a vehicle through which Native Americans told their

own story, and by which they demonstrated that Indians are American, Indians are

Indian, and Indians are people. (p. 225-6)

Atanarjuat: The Fast Runner (2001)

Director Neil Diamond (Reel Injun) explains, “Atanarjuat: The Fast Runner captures one of the Inuit’s most cherished legends and brings it to the world” (Fon,

Bainbridge & Ludwick, & Diamond, 2009). In the Eastern Arctic, an evil shaman named

Tungajuaq (Abraham Ulayuruluk) and clan leader Kumaglak (Apayata Kotierk) engage in a spiritual battle. When Kumaglak loses, Sauri (Eugene Ipkarnak) rises as the new clan leader and humiliates Tulimaq (Kumaglak’s ally; Felix Alaralak) and his family. While they struggle to survive, Tulimaq and his wife have hope that their two boys, Amaqjuaq

(Pakkak Innukshuk) – the Strong One – and Atanarjuat (Natar Ungalaaq) – the Fast

Runner – will grow up to be strong men. Twenty years pass, and the boys grow into young men. Although Atuat (Sylvia Ivalu), is betrothed to Sauri’s son Oki (Peter-Henry

Arnatsiaq), she falls for Atanarjuat, who eventually wins her in a fight against Oki.

Atanarjuat and Atuat have a baby who they name after Kumaglak, and Atanarjuat takes a second wife – Puja (Lucy Tulugarjuk), Oki’s sister. Puja is lazy, demanding, and a troublemaker who divides the family when she has an affair with Amaqjuaq, Atanarjuat’s married brother. Atanarjuat catches them in the act and slaps Puja, causing her to run to

Oki’s camp where she spreads lies of mistreatment. In retaliation, Oki and his gang ambush Amaqjuaq and Atanarjuat while they sleep in their tent. The men stab through the tent, which kills Amaqjuaq and forces Atanarjuat to lurch from the tent and run naked across the rough ice. Atanarjuat finds safety and is able to recover, but – with him gone

and Amaqjuaq dead – Atuat is left with little protection from the cold, hunger, or Oki – who eventually rapes her. Atanarjuat recovers and returns home, and Atuat runs to see him. He sees her worn and dirty coat, cuts it off her, and replaces it with a beautiful, new coat. Puja, seeing this, also runs to Atanarjuat. He sees Puja looks clean and wears a new coat, unlike his first wife. He cuts Puja’s coat; however, this time, he does not replace it and instead lets Puja run home crying. Oki, who assumed Atanarjuat died on the ice, is invited to meet with Atanarjuat in an igloo he built upon his return. They share a meal together, but Atanarjuat finally attacks Oki for his wrongdoings. Atanarjuat becomes the new clan leader, and the evil shaman Tungajuaq returns and is exorcised. Oki and Puja, the evil ones, are exiled, and order is at last restored.

Atanarjuat: The Fast Runner (Kunuk, Angilirq & Cohn, & Kunuk, 2001) grossed nearly $4 million between Canada and the United States, making it the second highest- grossing Canadian film in 2002 (Wise & McIntosh, 2017). Even before the film’s release,

Atanarjuat garnered attention. Wise & McIntosh (2017) explain,

[Atanarjuat] became the first Canadian film to win the coveted Camera d’or at

the Cannes [Film Festival] and went on to receive 19 awards worldwide, as well

as five Genie Awards and the Claude Jutra Award (now the Canadian Screen

Award for Best First Feature). The film was named one of the top 10 Canadian

films of all time in a poll conducted by the Toronto International Film Festival in

2004, and No. 1 overall in 2015. (para. 10)

When Zacharias Kunuk, director of Atanarjuat, was called to accept the award at the

Cannes Film Festival, he spoke to the audience in Inuktitut. His speech marked the first time his native language was broadcast internationally (From a Sod House, 2015).

When asked why Kunuk makes films such as Atanarjuat, he explains: “I see it as talking back. We picked up the camera to start recording our own history. The stories that we used to hear when we were children, what do we believe and why we are here” (Fon,

Bainbridge & Ludwick, & Diamond, 2009). For Kunuk, Atanarjuat was not only a way to tell his community’s story but also preserve his culture. Kunuk and other Native storytellers are in a race against time; elders in Native communities are aging, and the

Native stories must be documented. Kunuk explains the elders’ knowledge is invaluable in describing the Inuit way of life:

I had a problem. I wanted to do a romantic scene where two people are kissing,

French necking, but French necking is not our culture. So we’re making this story,

[and] I’m sitting down with the elders, asking them, “How did you get married?

What is Inuit kiss like?” [On the screen, two Atanarjuat characters rub noses,

commonly referred to as an ‘Eskimo kiss.’] That’s what we’d be using the camera

for, how much trouble they went through to get us here, to capture it now, because

ten years down the road, most of the elders will be gone. (Fon, Bainbridge &

Ludwick, & Diamond, 2009)

Utilizing independent research and information from the elders helped make Atanarjuat truly authentic. Kunuk explains, “[h]unters helped us make props, like a sealskin tent,

that hadn’t been used in ages. We brought the past back to life. Luckily for us, the elders still knew how to make these objects.” (From a Sod House, 2015, para. 30). The elders also hand-made costumes for the cast, using string to measure each actor, and advised the building of igloos. The actors learned to sing traditional ajaja songs of the Inuit and draw on themselves customary tattoos. Kunuk notes, “[t]here was also no catering, because we used animals for props and then we would eat them” (From a Sod House, 2015, para. 31).

The authenticity and passion of the film is palpable. Those involved in its making understood the film’s value to their people and the future of their culture. In the most telling scene, Natar Ungalaaq (Atanarjuat) runs naked through the freezing water and across the rough ice. In order to capture the iconic scene, producer Norm Cohn explains the scene had to be shot roughly “50 times” (Fon, Bainbridge & Ludwick, & Diamond,

2009). Director Chris Eyre (Smoke Signals) notes, “that’s not an actor, because an actor wouldn’t do that” (Fon, Bainbridge & Ludwick, & Diamond, 2009). Ungalaaq and his fellow cast members felt so strongly, so deeply, for the film, they were willing to risk their lives and comfort to create it. Garnering commitment from the Native actors, though, wasn’t the only commitment Atanarjuat needed.

Like its earlier contemporary Smoke Signals (Rosenfelt & Estes, & Eyre, 1998),

Atanarjuat came from humble beginnings. Kunuk was born in a sod house near Kapuivik on Baffin Island, Canada. He describes his earliest memories, from being carried on his mother’s back and sleeping with his sealskin boots to his family’s dog team and meeting his first white man (From a Sod House, 2015). At eight years old, Kunuk and his older

brother were taken to Igloolik on Igloolik Island to attend school and “learn the white man’s language” (From a Sod House, 2015, para. 14).

During his time in Igloolik, Kunuk discovered movies, and he eventually purchased his first Sanyo colour video camera. He went on to work for the Inuit

Broadcasting Corporation (IBC), doing “camera, sound, lights and editing” (From a Sod

House, 2015, para. 20). Kunuk rose to station manager at IBC, and the station won many awards for its productions. Apart from his time with IBC, his own tinkering (including three dramas and a series), and a brief training intensive, Kunuk had little formal education in serious movie-making before shooting Atanarjuat. Like the makers of

Smoke Signals, Kunuk struggled to find financial backing for Atanarjuat. He explains,

Unfortunately, being an aboriginal company we kept running into brick walls. We

didn’t know we could not do a feature film. The financing money mainly went to

English- and French-language films, and there was not enough to do an

aboriginal-language one. (From a Sod House, 2015, para. 27).

Many times, the crew would begin shooting only to stop after money ran low. Many times, they had to stop and restart. Unlike Smoke Signals, shooting for Atanarjuat took an extended period. To capture the seasons, shooting took place over 6 months, and a year of editing followed (From a Sod House, 2015).

Jesse Wente explains, “Atanarjuat, to me, was that point where cinema was being altered to tell our stories our way, and gone were the stereotypes of [the] past… It’s a gloriously sexy film set in the Arctic” (Fon, Bainbridge & Ludwick, & Diamond, 2009).

Chris Eyre adds, “I always say that that’s the most Indian movie ever made. It’s much more Indian than Smoke Signals. Smoke Signals was made for Indian people, but certainly for the overculture” (Fon, Bainbridge & Ludwick, & Diamond, 2009). In the

Atanarjuat: The Fast Runner Press Kit (n.d.) Jim Hoberman of Village Voice called the film, “mysterious, bawdy, emotionally intense, and replete with virtuoso throat singing”

(p. 2). Hoberman adds, the film is “so devoid of stereotype and cosmic in its vision it could suggest the rebirth of cinema” (Atanarjuat Press Kit, n.d., p. 2). Liam Lacey of The

Globe and Mail called Atanarjuat “a milestone…a fascinating cultural document”

(Atanarjuat Press Kit, n.d., p. 2).

The volume of Westerns, which often featured Native characters, slowed over time. The 1990s saw a revival of the once-popular genre, and, in the years that followed, a movement for authenticity. However, despite the authenticity of Atanarjuat: The Fast

Runner and its popularity with Canadian audiences, the film went largely unnoticed in the

United States. In a study by Nielson, it was found that action and adventure, comedy, and sci-fi and fantasy movies appeal most to American audiences (U.S. Moviegoers, 2013).

Atanarjuat is considered a drama, and the film is long – close to three hours – with no celebrities, entirely in subtitles, and was made in a foreign country. Nonetheless, the film represented a new way for Native people to tell their stories and share their culture with the world.

Flags of Our Fathers (2006)

Diamond (2009) explains, “[i]n his starring role in Clint Eastwood’s Flags of Our

Fathers, Adam Beach puts a human face to the stereotype of the drunken Indian” (Fon,

Bainbridge & Ludwick, & Diamond, 2009). In a series of flashbacks, Flags of Our

Fathers (Eastwood, Spielberg & Lorenz, & Eastwood, 2006) tells the story behind the iconic flag raising at Iwo Jima. The film opens in a dream sequence, where corpsman

John “Doc” Bradley (Ryan Phillippe) is being called for help. The retired war vet awakes from his nightmare and is later hospitalized during an episode from a disorienting flashback. We soon find that James Bradley (Tom McCarthy), Mr. Bradley’s son, is in the process of interviewing those like his father – the men who became American heroes after their picture was taken during a flag-raising in Iowa Jima. The interviews take the story back in time, and the scene of a struggling, post-depression America is set. The iconic photo is printed on the front page of newspapers nationwide, and citizens find hope in its message.

At Iwo Jima, thousands of soldiers fight and die for their country. During a lull in fighting, a group of soldiers successfully climbs to the top of Mount Suribachi and places an American flag at the top. Soon after, however, the flag is removed and replaced by another flag. In the second raising, Joe Rosenthal (Ned Eisenberg) snaps the famous shot.

When Rene Gagnon (Jesse Bradford) is asked to describe those in the photograph, he names himself, Mike Strank (Barry Pepper), Doc, Franklin Sousley (Joseph Cross), Hank

Hansen (Paul Walker), and Ira Hayes (Adam Beach); however, Gagnon mixes up the names, and it is really Harlon Block (Benjamin Walker) in the photograph, not Hansen.

The three surviving ‘heroes’ of the iconic photograph are sent back to the United States and used for a government marketing campaign to sell war bonds. The men are welcomed home in grand fashion, featured at rallies and baseball games, chauffeured to meet congressmen and the president, and the like.

During their initial visit with Bud Gurber (John Slattery) of the Treasury

Department, the truth of the photograph comes out: Hansen is not in the picture, and the iconic photograph was really a shot of the six men replacing the American flag – not the original, ‘real’ flag. The “7th War Loan” drive continues, despite its issues; the American forces depend on its success to finish the war. As the story continues, Gagnon progresses as Hayes deteriorates; Gagnon thrives in the limelight, while Hayes turns to alcohol to forget the memories of war and deal with his inner turmoil surrounding his newfound

‘heroism.’ Hayes is asked to exit the campaign after a few weeks of touring. After the war, the three men part ways, and the truth of the photo surfaces.

Flags of Our Fathers was released in October 2006 and grossed over $33.6 million in the U.S. box office and more than $65.9 million worldwide (Pond, 2008). The film was nominated for two Oscars and a Golden Globe and won a number of other awards.

Critics praised the film. Hunter (2006) called Flags “passionate, honest, unflinching, gripping, and it pays respects” (para.17), and Charity (2006) felt the film

was “a thoughtful, honest accounting of World War II’s bloodiest and most iconic battle”

(para. 15) Beach, in particular, received acclaim for his role. Hunter (2006) felt Beach should have been nominated for an Oscar for his portrayal of Ira Hayes. Alleva (2006) called Beach’s performance “excellent” (p. 15), and Charity (2006) felt “Beach’s agonized performance as Hayes [was] the film’s standout” (para. 10).

Flags is an interesting film because it deals with both inauthenticity and authenticity. With the falsities surrounding the photograph, the narrative focuses on an inauthentic bond drive that spurs true hope in a desperate country. In uncovering the mystery in the film (as well as the book on which the film is based), audiences are opened to the real story behind the legend. As a historical film, the depictions are accurate. In an interview with National Public Radio (NPR), chief historian of the U.S. Marine Corps

Chuck Melson supports the film, citing accuracies with the war-bond drive, the scenes of the ships as they reach Iwo Jima, and the “congestion on the beach during the invasion”

(Siegel, 2006, para. 4). Melson also notes accuracies in the “dangers faced by Navy medics” and confirms the famous image that persists is of the second flag-raising (Siegel,

2006, para. 7). Additionally, Beach’s portrayal of the struggling Hayes mirrors his unfortunate real-life story. Hayes’ anguish is intense, and his struggles as shown onscreen outline the reasons for his alcohol dependency. As Beach explains, Hayes “was consumed by alcohol” (Fon, Bainbridge & Ludwick, & Diamond, 2009). Beach brought a genuineness to the role, having described himself as “a child of an alcoholic” and someone who experienced racism like Hayes (Fon, Bainbridge & Ludwick, & Diamond,

2009). “[T]hroughout that film when you watch it, that’s me,” explains Beach. “It’s not acting” (Fon, Bainbridge & Ludwick, & Diamond, 2009).

In an interview with Time, Beach recalls being named “Chief,” as Hayes is referred to many times in Flags:

When I was growing up, my white friends would call me: ‘Hey, Chief!’ Even

when I go to work now, people call me ‘Chief’… People think they have the right

to use that term with an Indian person. I don’t get upset because I know they don’t

know any better. It’s how people acknowledge Indians. Hollywood has portrayed

such a negative image of who we are as people up on screen. They don’t realize

that there is a culture. There’s another part of us that exists. (Miranda, 2007, para.

13-15)

Filmic stereotypes have effected Beach in other ways. In consequence to depictions of the drunken Indian stereotype, Beach often avoids drinking alcohol in public settings, so he is not labeled outright (Fon, Bainbridge & Ludwick, & Diamond, 2009). The story of

Hayes, despite its likeness with the common Indian stereotype, is an important story to tell. By walking through Hayes’ struggle, viewers are able to see Hayes as more than a drunk Indian. Beach explains, “[w]hen [Hayes] drank, it was just his way of coping.

That’s how a lot of veterans coped with their emotions. This isn’t a one-dimensional only-Indians-drink-alcohol portrayal. He was a person fighting a battle” (Miranda, 2007, para. 11). [much like many American Indians who struggle with disenfranchisement, poverty, addiction? Hayes wasn’t the only one who drank in the film.] Flags depicts the

reality of Hayes’ life, and, in doing so, the realities of many who struggle with addiction

– including and beyond the reservation.

Flags demonstrates that a farce that sells can overcome reality, and that reality eventually becomes truth. Meaning, despite that the second flag raising signified little to those involved, the story shared by the iconic image was momentous enough to cover up reality. The image’s story was shared so much, it virtually became truth to the American people. By this definition, Flags is a narrative for American Indians in film history. At one time, filmmakers latched onto American Indians as exotic creatures that intrigued and, therefore, could sell. Over the years, costumes, stories, characters, and whole nations were simplified to be easily identifiable villains, setting supports, or sources of sympathy.

While the image of the flag-raising spread hope, the images of American Indians spread misunderstanding to the American people. After uncovering the lies and misbeliefs of early times, it is no wonder Americans have an increasing desire for authenticity, for the truth. Films such as Flags uncover reality: for the photograph, for war, for those who are

‘heroes,’ and for the struggles of American Indians.

The Twilight Saga: New Moon (2009)

In an odd twist to the historical and more modern images of American Indians that surfaced during this period, The Twilight Saga: New Moon (Godfrey & Rosenfelt, &

Weitz, 2009) brought a particular Native people into the spotlight for their roots in mystical folklore. Bella Swan’s (Kristen Stewart) life changed forever after meeting and falling in love with Edward Cullen (Robert Pattinson), a more than 100-year-old vampire who is forever stuck as a youthful 17-year-old. The pair are happy, but an unfortunate event involving another Cullen forces Edward to break ties with Bella, and the entire

Cullen family leave Forks, Washington. Bella falls into a depressive state for months. Her only solace is the diary emails she hopelessly writes to Alice (Ashley Greene), another of the Cullen siblings – until she rekindles her relationship with Jacob Black (Taylor

Lautner), a friend from the nearby Quileute reservation. The two bond over repairing a pair of motorcycles. Jacob begins to fall for Bella, but her love for Edward remains strong.

Meanwhile, Jacob changes: he cuts off his long hair and begins to spend less time with Bella and more time with a new group on the reservation. In addition, Bella discovers that a ghost of Edward appears every time she is reckless, so she ventures into the woods (despite increasingly frequent stories of hikers going missing). She encounters a former vampire foe, but Edward cannot save her; instead, a pack of giant wolves comes to her rescue. She later finds out it was Jacob and his pack, all wolves, who helped her.

Given the reemergence of Edward’s ghost in the fight, Bella resumes her reckless behavior and cliff dives into the ocean near the reservation. Jacob is able to revive her after she is knocked unconscious in the water, and she finds Alice has returned to Forks after making it home. Alice, who can see into the future, presumed Bella was dead after she jumped into the water. Due to Jacob’s powers as a wolf, mortal enemy to the vampire, his resuscitation of Bella went unseen in Alice’s vision. Edward, unfortunately, was able to read Alice’s mind and see her vision of Bella’s death, and a misunderstanding leads Edward to believe Bella is truly gone.

With a guilty conscience, Edward seeks to expose his vampirism to humans and be put to death by the Volturi, an ancient governing body for all vampires. Bella is able to make it to Edward in time to stop his reveal, but the Volturi demand she eventually be turned into a vampire; she knows too much to remain a human. In the end, Edward vows to turn Bella, as long as she marries him first.

When The Twilight Saga: New Moon opened in November 2009, the film became the “third-largest opening in domestic box-office history,” behind the Warner Brothers’

The Dark Knight (Nolan, Orleans, Roven & Thomas, & Nolan, 2008) and Sony’s Spider-

Man 3 (Ziskin, Arad & Curtis, & Raimi, 2007) (Fritz, 2009). (Since 2009, New Moon has dropped to #16, The Dark Knight to #10, and Spider-Man 3 to #14; box office hits Star

Wars Ep. VII: The Force Awakens (Abrams, Burk & Kennedy, & Abrams, 2015),

Jurassic World (Marshall & Crowley, & Trevorrow, 2015), and The Avengers (Feige &

Whedon, 2012) have replaced the films in their respective first, second, and third rankings.) New Moon grossed $72.7 million on its first day, making it the “biggest single

opening day in Hollywood history” at the time (Kay, 2009, para. 2). (New Moon has since been shifted to #9, with Star Wars Ep. VII: The Force Awakens at #1 with over

$119 million for its single day gross.) New Moon grossed over $296 million domestically and over $413 million in foreign theatres, totaling over $709 million worldwide. The film was nominated for countless awards but claimed most of its wins from kid-friendly and teen-driven award shows, such as Nickelodeon’s Kids’ Choice Awards, the MTV Movie

Awards, and Fox’s Teen Choice Awards.

Based on the book by first-time author Stephenie Meyer, Twilight took America – and the world – by storm. As dedicated fans note in documentary film Destination Forks

(Baur & Brown, & Brown, 2010), the books and movies reached a wide audience – from the young and old and to people in such far away countries as Indonesia, Russia, the UK, and Israel. The Twilight Saga: New Moon was no exception. Gibbs (2009) applauds the movie, especially Taylor Lautner’s performance:

Where Pattinson’s Edward is cold, bloodless and trapped in his head, Taylor

Lautner’s Jacob is warm, tawny, genial and able to get Kristen Stewart’s shrink-

wrapped Bella to stretch out and relax a little onscreen. It’s as though the sun can

come back out once Edward leaves. (para. 4)

The most positive reception for the film, however, came from its incredibly loyal fan- base. Some fans even felt the film should be nominated for an Oscar (Ditzian, 2009). At no surprise to director Chris Weitz, critics largely disliked the film (Sperling, 2009).

Turan (2009), unlike Gibbs’ review, felt the film lacked passion or interest with

Edward away for the bulk of the scenes. In an interview with NPR, Julian Roman – contributing editor to MovieWeb.com and a member of the African-American Film

Critics Association – calls the film “okay” (Ludden, 2009, para. 21). Puig (2009), as well, did not enjoy the film: “[t]hough an improvement over the first Twilight film, this sequel drags and sputters, even in scenes that are meant to be shot through with intense passion”

(para. 3). Puig (2009) adds,

The lovelorn Bella has little to recommend her as a romantic heroine. She’s sullen

and self-absorbed. That such a bland character elicits the devotion of both Edward

and Jacob is mystifying. New Moon does nothing to add depth to a shallow tale.

(para. 11)

Puig (2009) went on to rate the film at half of one out of four. Rainer (2009) notes, “It probably won’t make a jot of difference to all the screaming tweeners lining up to see this movie, but ‘The Twilight Saga: New Moon’ is not wonderful” (para. 1). Rainer (2009) was correct; the critics of New Moon did little to slow its momentum down.

New Moon’s success was catapulted by “Twihards,” self-named Twilight fanatics.

Women and girls made up the majority (roughly 80%) of New Moon’s audience (Kay,

2009). The film gave them a reason to flex their incredible purchasing power for New

Moon’s countless tie-ins. Baker (2009) notes just a few of the companies that jumped on the New Moon craze: Vitamin Water launched commercials advertising its ‘thirst- quenching’ ability; Burger King introduced special-edition gift cards, BK crowns, and

holiday burger packs with New Moon coupons, offers, and collectibles (Palmer, 2009);

Hot Topic and Nordstrom stores nationwide hosted New Moon cast members and movie songwriters for special events leading up to New Moon’s release (Bierly, 2009); and

Volvo featured commercials with Edward and his own Volvo, and the company launched

‘whatdrivesedward.com’ to attract potential customers and offer a lucky fan the chance to win his or her way into a premiere and a new Volvo XC60 (Hein, 2009). Mattel made

Barbie- and Ken-like dolls for Bella and Edward and added a tanner, more shirtless Jacob

Black to its line-up of toys. Jacob’s look is completed with a six-pack, cut-off jean shorts, and matching tribal tattoo (Burke, 2011). After the release of New Moon on video, retailers such as Target and Walmart offered bonus disk content; Borders offered a collectible medallion; and Barnes & Noble “offered a dreamcatcher bag clip” (Latchem,

2010, para. 2). The interest in vampirism – Twilight-related or not – rose in the years surrounding the releases of Twilight books and movies. Those years could be considered an era of ‘vampire-everything’: more books, more movies, more merchandise. The interest only started to wane after zombies evolved as the next hot, mythical being – a much-anticipated change for many consumers.

Possibly more than the acting, the marketing, the story, or the craze, critics were especially concerned about the messages New Moon sent to its teen and pre-teen viewers.

Trapped in the middle of “Team Jacob” and “Team Edward” was a deeper, more troubling issue: New Moon’s racial messaging and its portrayal of Native people. Burke

(2011) argues Jacob’s portrayal falls into a new generation of the ‘noble savage’ entitled the ‘Romantic Savage.’ Burke (2011) explains,

The Romantic Savage is a lost soul, caught between the pressures of civilization

and tradition. He is passionate, always attractive, elegiac about his doomed

people, and yet, still exotic, still at one with nature, and still – if threatened –

capable of savage violence. (p. 208)

Jacob is clearly caught between the pressures of modern life and tradition, and his struggle is most apparent in the time before he transitions into a shape-shifter. He often questions and rebels against the actions and mentality of the other young men on his reservation – those that have already changed. In one scene, Jacob refers to the group as a

“cult” and “hall monitors on steroids,” explaining “they…think they run this place”

(Godfrey & Rosenfelt, & Weitz, 2009). Jacob eventually conforms to the traditional pack mentality of his fellow American Indians/wolves.

Moreover, Jacob is especially passionate about Bella and exhibits his protectiveness for her. One of Jacob’s primary roles in the film is to protect and comfort

Bella. He is a friend to her when they work on the motorbikes, and he transitions to a love interest after the bikes are completed. In one scene, he instructs her to “hold out for someone with a stronger stomach, someone who laughs at the gore that makes weaker men vomit” (Godfrey & Rosenfelt, & Weitz, 2009). Obviously, he is referring to himself as Bella’s best-matched protector, and these scenes coincide with the beginning of

Jacob’s eventual rise to alpha male in his wolf pack. Later, after he obtains his shape- shifter abilities, he tries to separate himself from Bella to keep her from danger; he explains, “I promised I wouldn’t hurt you, Bella, and this is me keeping that promise”

(Godfrey & Rosenfelt, & Weitz, 2009). Jacob later defends Bella against a fellow wolf.

There are countless scenes of Jacob as Bella’s protector. Like the ‘Romantic Savage,’

Jacob’s attractiveness is a key aspect of his character. Jacob’s overt sexualization comes to a climax when Bella wrecks her motorbike. Jacob rushes to her side and quickly takes off his shirt to hold against Bella’s injured head, revealing his hard-earned, six-pack abs; however, Jacob is not the only Quileute to be sexualized. Of the other young men in the

‘wolf pack,’ Burke (2011) notes, “[a]ll of them are equally gorgeous, and all of them have perfectly sculpted forms, usually shot so that the viewer can see their bare chests and the very top of their jean shorts” (p. 210). Jacob’s exoticism is amplified when Bella discovers he can shape-shift into a wolf, and the transition makes him not only ‘one with nature’ but nature itself. Lastly, the ferocity of the wolf pack is demonstrated throughout

New Moon; shots of the creatures fighting show their capabilities for violence, and a visit to the Quileute reservation where Bella meets Emily (whose face is permanently scarred from an accident with her shape-shifter fiancé) emphasizes the danger an angry American

Indian/wolf poses. Wilson (2010) argues these frequent acts of aggression by the

Quileutes (in contrast with the often-calm personas of the Cullens) further “[uphold] dominant ideas about race that associate whiteness with civility, beauty, and intellect on the one hand, and indigenous people with animality and primitivism on the other” (p.

231). Even the lifestyles of the Cullens and Blacks mark a distinction between white and non-white:

The Cullens are presented as living the good life and their activities and tastes

tend toward those things associated with high culture: they like classical music,

appreciate art, value education, like to travel, and have sophisticated fashion and

home décor know-how. (Wilson, 2010, p. 233)

In contrast, Jacob lives in a modest home, enjoys working on cars, and must be reminded to do his homework. The white vampires and the Native wolf pack couldn’t be more different.

Taylor Lautner’s role as Quileute Jacob Black also saw some backlash. Although

Lautner met with Quileute tribal members to better understand their tribe, Lautner can only claim a small portion of Native ancestry. Lautner explains, “I’m French, Dutch and

German, and on my mother’s side, she has some Potawatomi and Ottawa Indian in her”

(Carroll, 2008, para. 18). To be of Native ancestry and culturally Native, Burke (2011) explains, are “not synonymous” (p. 213). Conversely, the rest of the primary Twilight

Quileute tribe members are made up of American Indian actors: Chaske Spencer (Lakota,

Nez Perce, Cherokee, Creek) plays Sam Uley; Gil Birmingham (Comanche) plays Billy

Black; Graham Greene (Oneida) plays Harry Clearwater; and the list goes on. By playing an American Indian on screen, despite little Native heritage, Lautner fills a role that could have been filled by an American Indian actor, which would have made the film more authentic. Director Chris Eyre explains ‘playing Native’ is hardly new, and many big stars – including Charles Bronson, Elvis Presley, Chuck Connors, and Burt Reynolds – have donned red faces to fill lead roles (Fon, Bainbridge & Ludwick, & Diamond, 2009).

While none of my selected films resort to quite the same level of extreme instances of

‘playing Indian,’ the issues that arose with Lautner demonstrate the need for more authentic depictions.

Lastly, while New Moon is set in modern-day, the film does not mention any of the struggles faced by current American Indian reservations. Issues such as “poverty, unemployment, and social disenfranchisement” are not present in the film (Wilson, 2010, p. 239), even though the very reservation in which the film is based experiences all those hardships (Nelson, 2012).

On the surface, New Moon is a struggle between vampires and a wolf pack; however, just below, it becomes apparent that the film contributes to a recurring narrative

– one of degradation and in-authenticity. Despite its situation in fantasy, Wilson (2010) argues The Twilight Saga: New Moon “contribute[s] to dominant notions of race shaping

U.S. culture,” noting that “because so many young people are reading the series, it is even more crucial to remember that the fantasies portrayed in media texts are often held up as ideal” (p. 239). In New Moon’s situation, the film experienced most of its backlash from its failures to be authentic – an increasing expectation for filmmaking by consumers.

The Revenant (2015)

The Revenant (Milchan, Golin, Iñárritu, Parent, Redmon & Skotchdopole, &

Iñárritu, 2015) stunned audiences with its raw portrayals of life in 1823. Hugh Glass

(Leonardo DiCaprio) and his half-Native son Hawk (Forrest Goodluck) are elk hunting when they hear their fellow frontiersmen and fur-trappers suffering an attack by the

Arikara Indians (also known as ‘Ree’). Glass, Hawk, and a handful of the frontiersmen are able to escape the fighting and move down river on their boat. The Arikara, we find, are searching for the chief’s (Chief Elk Dog played by Duane Howard) daughter, Powaqa

(Melaw Nakehk’o), who was kidnapped by unknown white men. Glass urges the frontiersmen to abandon their boat, but John Fitzgerald (Tom Hardy), a vulgar and overtly racist frontiersman, protests the order. Nonetheless, captain Andrew Henry

(Domhnall Gleeson) follows Glass’ suggestion, and the group sets off on foot for Fort

Kiowa. Later, while hunting in the woods, Glass comes between a mother bear and her cubs and is brutally attacked. Glass suffers immobilizing injuries.

Meanwhile, the Arikara acquire five horses from a group of French fur traders to aid in their search for Powaqa. Back with the frontiersmen, the rest of the group decides to carry Glass, but – with winter setting in – the burden becomes overwhelming.

Fitzgerald suggests Glass be killed and put out of his misery, but Henry decides to offer a monetary reward to those willing to stay behind with Glass. Hawk, Jim Bridger (Will

Poulter), and Fitzgerald elect to stay behind. Fitzgerald again suggests a mercy killing,

instructing Glass (who cannot speak) to blink if he agrees. After holding his eyes open for as long as he can, Glass slowly closes and opens his eyes. Fitzgerald intentionally accepts the motion as a blink and begins to smother Glass, only to be interrupted by Hawk. Glass, helpless, witnesses his son’s death at the hands of Fitzgerald, who then convinces Bridger that Hawk ran off and that the Arikara are quickly approaching. Despite his doubts and internal struggles to leave Glass, Bridger leaves with Fitzgerald to escape an (imaginary) impending attack. Miraculously, Glass makes a slow but steady recovery and embarks on his own journey to Fort Kiowa. Fitzgerald and Bridger arrive at the outpost, and

Fitzgerald fabricates a tale of Glass’ death and respectful burial and collects his promised

$300. Meanwhile, Glass happens upon the French fur trader camp and witnesses one man abuse a Native woman – Powaqa. Glass frees Powaqa and escapes with the traders’ horses. Fort Kiowa hears about the attack on the French camp and Henry leads a search party to find the perpetrator. They find Glass, and Henry takes him to the fort and charges

Bridger with treason. Fitzgerald, however, escapes. Glass eventually catches up to him and is finally able to take his revenge.

The Revenant grossed over $183 million at the domestic box office and over $349 million internationally. The film was nominated for 12 Oscars and won three, including

Best Performance by an Actor in a Leading Role (Leonardo DiCaprio), Best

Achievement in Directing (Alejandro González Iñárritu), and Best Achievement in

Cinematography (Emmanuel Lubezki). The Revenant also nabbed Best Motion Picture,

Best Performance by an Actor in a Motion Picture (DiCaprio), and Best Director at the

Golden Globes – not to mention many more wins and nominations. During his Golden

Globe acceptance speech, DiCaprio advocated for the Native community:

I want to share this award with all the First Nations People represented in this film

and all the indigenous communities around the world. It is time that we recognize

your history and that we protect your indigenous lands from corporate interests

and people that are out there to exploit them. It is time that we heard your voice

and [protect] this planet for future generations. (Shahrukh, 2016)

According to Schilling (n.d.), the “gesture of goodwill [was] praised throughout Indian country” (para. 30).

Despite its incredible critical and consumer popularity, some felt the film – like other films in this era – did little to advance American Indians beyond their constructed stereotypes. Similar to contemporary westerns – such as Dances with Wolves and the Last of the Mohicans – The Revenant, Jesse Wente (2016) argues, “is an American fable that uses First Nations characters to support its allegorical intent, and one that never escapes the colonial gaze of the western genre” (para. 4). The American Indian characters in the film exist to complete an aspect of the time period, are minimally developed, and – while they add to the overall story – are far from the center-of-focus. American Indians had little control over their story in The Revenant, a point contradicted in DiCaprio’s Golden

Globe acceptance speech. While DiCaprio feels indigenous people should have their voices heard, The Revenant exemplifies another motion picture with little to no Native voice.

In reality, Ross (2017) feels the film lends Glass as a ‘white savior.’ In short, the

‘white savior’ trope is a common narrative where a white character is often the protagonist hero that helps characters of color overcome odds that would have been impossible without the white character. Moreover, in helping, the white character is able to learn lessons about his or her own self. The trope is demonstrated in The Revenant when the Pawnee man teaches Glass that “revenge is in the creator’s hands” (Milchan,

Golin, Iñárritu, Parent, Redmon & Skotchdopole, & Iñárritu, 2015) – a line later used by

Glass in his final fight with Fitzgerald. Later, the Pawnee man is found dead, assuring the audience his only role was to teach Glass this lesson. The trope is again demonstrated when Glass finds Powaqa at the French camp. Although the Arikara had already been to the camp, Powaqa is not discovered until Glass arrives there. In closing, Ross (2017) explains, “Natives are always the objects in Hollywood’s movies, never the subjects”

(para. 12). One factor of the film, however, went uncontested: its authenticity.

The Revenant could be considered a fitting capstone of the era for authenticity, demonstrated repeatedly by the sacrifices of the cast and crew to depict the brutal realities of the 1820s. While shooting in Alberta, Canada, the crew endured temperatures that fell

40 below zero (Warner, 2015). In addition, given Iñárritu’s insistence on using only natural light, some production days were limited to only 90 minutes (Segal, 2015).

DiCaprio himself spent long hours in makeup for the application of “47 different prosthetics made to look like bloody wounds,” but that was the least of the actor’s struggles (Warner, 2015, para. 4). DiCaprio also got sick with the flu many times during shooting, came close to hypothermia and frostbite, ate a raw bison liver for one scene,

and slept in a mock dead animal carcass for another (Warner, 2015 & Grauso, 2016). In a story by The New York Times, DiCaprio described his hardest scenes:

Standing in a freezing river and eating a fish, or climbing a mountain with a wet

bear fur on my back – those were some of the most difficult sequences for me.

This entire movie was something on an entirely different level. But I don’t want

this to sound like a complaint. We all knew what we were signing up for. It was

going to be the elements, and it was going to be a rough ride. (Segal, 2015, para.

20).

In the same story, Iñárritu defends his final product: “I’ve heard people say the movie is violent, [b]ut there is no gratuitous violence. These guys were eating animals, wearing animals; they were threatened by accidents, diseases, tribes, wars. This is the real world.

This isn’t pasteurized” (Segal, 2015, para. 13). Iñárritu demanded a lot from his cast and crew, but the hard work paid off: The Revenant received a great deal of recognition for its authenticity.

Wente (2016) concedes, “The Revenant takes great strides to get period details correct around clothing, language, housing and combat” (para. 7). Gignac (2016) adds,

“[The Revenant] is beautiful, powerful and – most remarkable for a Hollywood production – comprehensive and accurate in its depiction of indigeneity” (para. 1), citing the films accurate use of “culturally appropriate indigenous garb, construction and languages” as well as “hundreds of indigenous extras and actors” (para. 3). The film rightfully “depicted this very gritty kind of environment that the mountain men operated

in,” explains author Eric Jay Dolin. “You also saw…the tension that often arose between the Indians whom they traded with…the French trappers or the American trappers”

(Aneja, 2016).

DiCaprio created quite a draw for the film, as the underdog actor had yet to win an Oscar. The Revenant, then, was touted as the film that would finally reward DiCaprio for his years of acting contributions. According to Lincoln (2016), DiCaprio was the main reason many went to see the film, and the film’s early screenings in major cities generated a buzz that fueled viewership when it was released nationwide. Besides its

“marketable, appealingly cultural group” of cast and crew, The Revenant’s authenticity was a key selling point for the film (Lincoln, 2016, para. 8). Grauso (2016) explains,

The marketing campaign, including every interview on the press tour, took pains

to illustrate just how brutal and unforgiving the conditions were, how relentlessly

hard it was on cast and crew alike. ‘This is as real as it can get’ boasted the promo

material. (p. 1)

Even the normally reclusive DiCaprio appeared on programs such as The Ellen

DeGeneres Show, the Today Show, and Entertainment Tonight to talk about the grueling filming conditions (Stanley, 2016). Grauso (2016) adds, “audiences, just like Academy voters, are attracted by the premise of how difficult a movie is to film” (p. 2). It seems audiences push for authenticity in making films and the depictions films present, and The

Revenant exceeded both qualifications. To consumers, brutal shoots for brutal scenes might make the magic of movies feel all that more real.

The Reel Impact

It is important to recognize that the previously discussed films, as well as the countless films before them, make real and lasting impacts on society. From upticks in tourism and increases in roles for American Indians (due to genre popularity) to political and perception changes, the following section outlines a few impacts each movie had on society and consumer behavior.

Despite defense of previous and current films as strictly entertainment, even fictitious plots and representations affect public perceptions. According to Cobb (2003), stereotypes have real impacts in the political environment for the more than 550 federally recognized tribes. Cobb (2003) explains,

During the wave of Indian sympathy films in the 1980s and early 1990s, Indian

causes became popular with philanthropic foundations, and even with the U.S.

leaders who construct important Indian policy and legislation. Author N. Bird

Runningwater (Cheyenne/Mescalero Apache) points out a particularly interesting

statistic: during the year Dances with Wolves won several Academy Awards, “the

Senate Select Committee on Indian Affairs had the highest number of senators

wanting to serve on it.” (p. 212)

For American Indians, political pull is of exceptional importance. For example, American

Indians’ rights have come under fire in the recent proposal for the Dakota Access

Pipeline. Despite efforts from both Natives and non-Natives, the project continues to move forward. In this situation, I wonder what the outcome would have been given the release of another sympathetic blockbuster. Would our elected officials have taken more interest in the opinions of those affected? Beyond politics, public perception and interest also led to more Natives in Native roles.

Given the shift in public opinion, American Indian actors and actresses were favored to play Native roles. Although films such as Dances with Wolves, The Last of the

Mohicans, Pocahontas, and other films of the era were based on historical events (which often trap American Indians as relics of the past), the films did provide ample work for

American Indian actors and actresses. Aleiss (2005) explains,

By 1993, the number of lead and supporting Indian actors (in theatrical film and

television) had jumped to 436, up from only 87 in 1985… In addition, 1993 saw

the formation of the Native American Stunt Association, which assisted American

Indian stunt performers in locating jobs and advised producers where to find

them. (p. 148)

However, while the films created a boost for American Indian roles, the group only represented 0.9% (436 out of 47,150) of all working Screen Actors Guild (SAG) members (Aleiss, 2005). Still, the work provided was significant for those American

Indian actors and actresses.

Cinema continued to influence the public with the release of Pocahontas in 1995.

Edgerton & Jackson (1996) explain,

After the release of [Pocahontas] in June 1995, admissions to the Jamestown

Settlement rose 60 percent over those of July 1994 (Holland, 1995), eventually

reaching 38 percent more than the average for the previous five summers

(Renewed, 1995). Although other factors contributed to Jamestown’s increased

tourism, such as various marketing strategies and the 400th anniversary

celebration of the birth of Pocahontas, the Disney film contributed greatly to the

upturn. (para. 52)

While Disney’s Pocahontas had positive impacts on tourism to Jamestown, the film – and its inaccuracies – spreads misinformation that may be used by others.

In February 2017 (and during his campaign), President Donald Trump referred to

Senator Elizabeth Warren as ‘Pocahontas,’ claiming that “Pocahontas is now the face of

[the Democratic] party” (Capriccioso, 2017). The Pocahontas Reframed Film Festival –

Native American Storytellers set for November 17-19, 2017 hopes to combat current misconceptions regarding Pocahontas’ story (Schilling, 2017). The new film festival hopes to educate audiences, like Smoke Signals did in 1998.

Smoke Signals made an impact in the education of both Natives and non-Natives alike. Shorter & Lewis (2012) explain,

As soon as it was available on DVD, [Smoke Signals] became one of the most

popular Native films taught on college campuses and in high schools in the

United States and Canada, where it was used widely to introduce students to

contemporary Native issues in English, anthropology, history, Native American

studies, and American studies courses from Maine to California. (p. xi)

Shorter & Lewis (2012) also note that Smoke Signals was often “forced to stand alone in a curriculum designed to exclude certain realities” (p. xi). Director Chris Eyre likes to believe that the movie inspired future indigenous filmmakers:

I know that there’s a whole generation of Native filmmakers right now that didn’t

exist ten years ago…I think that there’s a whole new wave of Native filmmakers

that will find their way, myself included, to new ways of being seen and heard.

(Hearne, 2010, para. 39)

The film represented a true change of pace in the way current issues for American

Indians were taught and studied. Hearne (2012) describes the film’s effect for Natives and non-Natives: “For some viewers, this was the first film to tell a story they recognized; for others it was a gateway to understanding perspectives outside of their experience” (p. xv). Smoke Signals was both inclusive and exclusive: for the large

American audience, the film offered an insight into the lives of contemporary American

Indians, and the American Indian community benefited from the accurate depiction of their everyday lives. Atanarjuat: The Fast Runner helped one native nation to secure accurate retellings of its oral history.

Atanarjuat: The Fast Runner, a truly Native cultural film, as well as the aboriginal films that were being created worldwide, moved critics. Director Neil

Diamond (Reel Injun) explains, “These films revolutionize the Native image for the world” (Fon, Bainbridge & Ludwick, & Diamond, 2009). Jesse Wente adds,

[Y]ou have a whole aboriginal cinematic movement springing up all over the

world, where you have filmmakers in New Zealand, filmmakers in Australia, and

filmmakers in North America and South America making truly aboriginal

movies… To see it come in my lifetime is very empowering for our culture. We

can’t describe the importance now. They’ll be described years from now by critics

far…more important than me. They will talk about, I think, what those movies

meant. (Fon, Bainbridge & Ludwick, & Diamond, 2009)

While Atanarjuat secured a story from Inuit tradition, Flags of Our Fathers uncovered the real story behind an American icon and demonstrated a continued need for diversity in film.

Flags of Our Fathers impacted society in a few ways: the film shed light on the horrors of war, lent itself as an anti-war narrative amidst an era of fighting, and demonstrated issues of diversity at the Oscars. Despite that Flags was backed by Clint

Eastwood and Steven Spielberg, the film struggled at the Oscars and only received nominations for Best Achievement in Sound Mixing and Best Achievement in Sound

Editing – hardly the awards viewers sit at the edge of their seats for. Adam Beach’s performance as Ira Hayes, although heralded as Oscar-worthy by critics, did not receive a nomination. At the time, the lack of inclusion was just another drop in the bucket for non- white actors. Still, even a nomination for an Oscar would be an accomplishment for an

American Indian actor. Only two Native actors have received Oscar nominations: Chief

Dan George received a nomination for his supporting role in Little Big Man (1970), and

Graham Greene received a nomination for his supporting role in Dances with Wolves

(Costner & Wilson, & Costner, 1990).

The lack of diversity in the Academy Awards reached a climax in 2015, the second time in less than five years that no non-white actors were nominated for an Oscar

(Dockterman, 2017), and #OscarsSoWhite started trending on social media. The hashtag resurfaced again in 2016 when the Academy Awards failed to nominate any non-white actors for the second year in a row, making it the third time in ten years that this occurred

(Dockterman, 2017). After the Oscars suffered momentous public backlash, the

“Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences pledged to double its membership of women and minorities by 2020” (Safdar, 2007). The effort was noted in the most recent

Oscars, as 7 non-white actors were nominated – matching the record set in 2007 – and over 600 new members were added to the Academy in an effort to create diversity of gender, age, and ethnicity (Dockterman, 2017). However, there is more work to be done: to date, no American Indian actor or actress has won an Oscar. Generally, the most consistent recognition for Native contributions comes from the American Indian Film

Festival and the First Americans in the Arts Awards. While it was not considered a contender for high-level recognition at award shows, The Twilight Saga: New Moon helped illuminate the contributions of the real-life Quileute tribe.

Unbeknownst to some, the real Quileutes, outside of The Twilight Saga: New

Moon, “have an ancient and deep association with wolves, an animal whose toothy visage

appears over and again in Quileute baskets, rattles, masks and carvings” (Mapes, 2010, para. 16). Whether for better or worse, some tribal members argue, The Twilight Saga:

New Moon has made a significant impact on the once-quiet reservation in La Push,

Washington. The Forks, Washington Chamber of Commerce notes the surge in tourist visits: “5,000 in 2004 to 19,000 in 2008 to 73,000 in 2010” (Nelson, 2012, p. 1). While the Quileutes have largely been open to ‘Twihards,’ the tribe has had to take measures to protect their sacred locations and objects, many of which are outdoors. Still, the sudden interest in the area and Quileute people has yielded positive effects, even beyond the tourism boom:

For decades, the tribe has fought to win back some higher ground. [In February

2012], Congress finally passed the Quileute Tribe Tsunami and Flood Protection

Act, which transfers 785 acres of national park property and an additional 184

acres of non-federal tribal land into a trust for the tribe – more than doubling the

reservation’s size. In addition to the culturally significant floodplain known as

Thunder Field, an upland parcel to the south will allow the reservation to move its

school, tribal offices, elder center and other crucial infrastructure to safer

locations. (Nelson, 2012, p. 3)

Quileute tribal members cite Twilight fan-led social media campaigns for some of the positive political impacts (Nelson, 2012).

The Revenant has also impacted political discussions for American Indians.

DiCaprio’s Golden Globe acceptance speech made a statement about the mistreatment of

indigenous people in the United States and Canada. His stand has been compared to

Marlon Brando’s stunt with Sacheen Littlefeather at the 1973 Oscars, where Brando refused his award for Best Actor in The Godfather (Ruddy & Coppola, 1972).

Littlefeather, dressed in traditional Apache regalia, delivered a short speech in regard to

Brando’s refusal, citing the “treatment of American Indians today by the film industry and on television in movie re-runs” (Oscars, 2008). At the time, Littlefeather was the first person of color to use the Oscar stage for delivering a political statement, and her words shined a light on American Indian issues (Women in the World, 2016). Forty-three years later, The Revenant and DiCaprio’s Golden Globe acceptance speech reminded the world that American Indian issues are American society issues, and they are just as relevant today as they were in 1973 – a mini-documentary about the making of The Revenant outlines this point (20th Century Fox, 2016). The conversation has also been paralleled with the issues of diversity within award shows such as the Oscars. While it is difficult to estimate a lasting impact of the movie and DiCaprio’s speech, the two drew attention to current American Indian issues in a time where consumers are becoming increasingly concerned with the struggles of minorities and the environment.

Despite that entertainment media is often written off as pure entertainment, the messages and values they present have true-to-life impacts on our society. Perceptions formed in result of the consumption of media – including film – impact our decisions, ideas, purchasing behavior, and beliefs. Even so, some do not feel filmmakers have a responsibility to cater to non-white audiences or commit to authentic representations; however, I argue this belief is changing.

Conclusion

Washburn (1998) argues, “[t]he image of the American Indian, more than that of any other ethnic group, has been shaped by films” (p. ix). Whether constructed as the

“villain, victim, hero, or worthy foe,” Native characters have amused audiences for decades – much to the benefit of American film studios and producers (Washburn, 1998, p. x). The culmination of American Indian representations in film eventually formed the

‘Hollywood Indian,’ a make-believe Native complete with feathers, tan skin, and howls.

White filmmakers controlled American Indian stories, and white actors controlled

American Indian appearances. Western-era films produced countless misrepresentations of American Indians, and the effects have been lasting. Fortunately, the way Natives are being represented in modern cinematic productions is changing.

At the beginning of this thesis, I defined authentic films as those that: purposely hire Natives for Native roles; make attempts to remove American Indians from harmful stereotypes and distinguish various tribes by correcting costuming, setting, language, and the like; allow Native people to share their own stories their own way; and develop

American Indian characters within the story, rather than simply including the group as plot devices or elements of the setting. All the analyzed films succeed in addressing elements of authenticity to create better representations of American Indians. Dances with Wolves made distinctions between tribes and introduced the Lakota language to audiences across the United States and world alike. The Last of the Mohicans and

Pocahontas put American Indian actors to work. Smoke Signals and Atanarjuat: The Fast

Runner thrived in their countries for their truly authentic depictions that completely removed American Indians from harmful stereotypes. Flags of Our Fathers developed and explored the stereotype of the ‘drunken Indian.’ The Twilight Saga: New Moon established Native characters as integral parts to a larger story, and The Revenant included Native actors in the cast and Native realities in the film. However, the films are not without their faults. While Washburn (1998) notes “there has been a dramatic shift from white actors portraying Indians to Indian actors (finally) portraying Indians” (p. ix), white actors still tend to be the primary focuses of my selection of movies and American movies, in general. Additionally, American Indian characters have often been confined to historical contexts, and while this era has its exceptions, the period as a whole does little to establish American Indians as citizens of the 21st century. The strides for authenticity by the modern films, though, have more impact than ever before: Washburn (1998) explains that we live in a time where “the public prefers to see – rather than read about – the past” (p. xi). Now, I feel the public would rather see than read, period – regardless of the content. If the rise in image- and video-based communication is any indication, I would assert the American public has only become more inclined to interpret information and form opinions based on visuals – making film an incredibly important medium.

The authenticity versus entertainment argument is monumental and will undoubtedly continue to arise as films are created in the future. Filmmakers that maintain authenticity and highly accurate representations in their films do not create blockbusters; they create documentaries. Filmmakers that focus on entertainment and marketability

maintain that an emphasis on accuracy makes the narrative less appealing to wide audiences. Ultimately, the movie business is just that – business. Brownlow (2005) explains,

Westerns were not made for educational purposes, but simply to make money.

They had to be as entertaining as possible, and if that meant putting Sioux war

bonnets on Navajo Indians, so be it. Worse mistakes were made in other movies,

and producers knew that few in the audience cared. (p. xi)

While the notion that consumers did not care about inauthenticity may have been true at the time, I feel public attitudes are changing. Interest in authenticity has been especially prominent in the millennial generation (Byron, 2016). In addition, despite the ‘strictly entertainment’ stances of previous and current films, I have demonstrated that even fictitious plots and characters can produce real-life effects. While some outcomes are more serious or lasting than others, filmmakers must recognize their roles in those outcomes. By producing more authentic depictions of Native people, filmmakers can help correct some of the shortcomings of Western-era films that have so negatively impacted

American Indians. While Washburn (1998) feels that “[f]ew will agree on what films truly represent the American Indian” (p. xi), I believe we will continue to see trends for more authentic films involving American Indian characters in the future.

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