A MOVEMENT FOR AUTHENTICITY: AMERICAN INDIAN REPRESENTATIONS IN FILM 1990 TO PRESENT A thesis submitted to the Kent State University Honors College in partial fulfillment of the requirements for University Honors by Raya Williamson May, 2017 Thesis written by Raya Williamson Approved by _______________________________________________________________________, Advisor ________________________________, Chair, Dept. of Marketing and Entrepreneurship Accepted by ___________________________________________________, Dean, Honors College ii TABLE OF CONTENT ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS……………………..………………………………………..iv SECTIONS I. Introduction………………………………………………………..………1 II. Dances with Wolves (1990)……………………………………………….6 III. The Last of the Mohicans (1992)…………………….……….………….11 IV. Pocahontas (1995)…………………………………………..……………18 V. Smoke Signals (1998)……………………………..……………………..25 VI. Atanarjuat: The Fast Runner (2001)………………………….……….....32 VII. Flags of Our Fathers (2006)……………………………...…..…………..38 VIII. The Twilight Saga: New Moon (2009)…………………...….…………..43 IX. The Revenant (2015)……………………………………….…………….52 X. The Reel Impact………………………………….…….......…………….58 XI. Conclusion……………………………………………...………………..66 REFERENCES…………………………………………..………………………………69 iii Acknowledgements Some time ago, I was fortunate to visit the Ohio History Center for one of its staff ‘brown bag lunches.’ During their open lunch, a few staff members went over what they learned at a recent seminar regarding American Indian relations. Museums in Ohio – and across the nation – have been involved in a de-colonization effort. Rather than retelling America’s history through the lenses of those who settled here, de-colonization and ‘truth-telling’ seek to right the wrongs of the past and open communication for Natives to tell their peoples’ stories. By bringing Native stories and Native people into the narrative, museums attempt to present a more balanced retelling of our shared past. When discussion was opened at the luncheon, one staff member voiced her concern for Hollywood movies in creating inaccurate perceptions of American Indians. The statement intrigued me. I had always had a love for movies and was working at an American Indian mission site, so when it came time to declare a topic for my thesis, I used her comment as the baseline for my thesis. To the woman at the Ohio History Center: thank you for the inspiration. I would also like to acknowledge a few people who helped me along the way. First, I would like to thank Professor Don Thacker who served as my advisor for this project. I must also acknowledge my committee members – Dr. Leslie Heaphy of the Kent State Stark History Department, Dr. Lucas Engelhardt of the Kent State Stark Economics Department, and Professor Harkness of the Kent State Stark Sociology iv Department – and thesis readers – Dr. James Seelye of the Kent State Stark History Department and Stacey Halfmoon, Director of American Indian Relations, for the Ohio History Connection. I would also like to extend my sincere appreciation to Ted Guedel of the Kent State Stark library for his help in finding reference material. Lastly, I would like to thank my family, including my mother Ronda, father John, brother Ben, aunt Debbie, significant other Zach, and his mother Zita. Thank you for reading – or letting me read to you – this project, in parts or whole. Your input and constant reassurance motivated me and helped me complete what has been undoubtedly the hardest endeavor I have ever pursued. I am grateful for your unwavering support, love, and guidance. v 1 Introduction From the feared warrior and the noble savage to the Indian princess and helpless squaw, American Indians have fallen into constructed stereotypes on film. These constructs, which began as early as the arrival of Europeans to the New World, eventually formed the ‘Hollywood Indian,’ a culmination of the American Indian stereotypes represented throughout American film. As described by Jojola (1998), “[t]he Hollywood Indian is a mythological being who exists nowhere but within the fertile imaginations of its movie actors, producers, and directors” (p. 12). Something of a Plains Indian, the Hollywood Indian often appears adorned with a glorious headdress or headband, long, black hair, and atop a stampeding horse. The Hollywood Indian might put up a hand and grunt a deep-throat “How!”, cheer crazily, or remain silent and stoic. Cox (2010) explains, With a monopoly on writing, directing, and acting – even in the Native roles – non-Indians controlled the construction of Native identity and culture for the first century of filmmaking in the United States. To construct cinematic Indians, non- Native filmmakers relied on visible ethnic markers, such as artificially browned skin, feathers, paint, and buckskin, that reduced Native identities and cultures to a code of signs easily translatable by a non-Native audience. (p. 74) 2 The makeup and props rarely distinguished Native tribes. “Rather than try to make [the American Indians on screen] look regional,” explains movie costume designer Richard Lamotte, “everybody was identifiable…[Moviemakers] weren’t interested in explaining the tribes” (Fon, Bainbridge & Ludwick, & Diamond, 2009). Cox (2010) explains that shows and films with Indian characters, despite their inauthenticity, have long been popular and especially profitable for studios and filmmakers. Consumers of the American Westerns enjoyed the raw and romantic depictions of their early country, and the films gave them an escape into a simpler time. Audiences were thrilled with the grand conquests, adventures, and heroes; however, others viewed the films as consistent reminders of defeat, betrayal, and unimaginable loss. Distinct and significant American Indian cultures were washed away and replaced by fanciful depictions on screen; characters were reduced to mere stereotypes or caricatures; white actors played Native characters with the help of spray tan; and entire nations of people were insinuated to be utterly removed – to be remembered only as remnants of a time gone by. Many are familiar with the cultural wrongdoings of Western-era films, but where does the Hollywood Indian live in our modern-day cinematic productions? What impacts do these films have on society? Before delving too deep, I would like to define terms that are frequently used in this paper and explain why I chose to focus on American Indian representations in film only. Authenticity becomes a focal point throughout my paper, and I use the term to describe those films that I believe: purposely hire Natives for Native roles; make attempts to remove American Indians from harmful stereotypes and distinguish various tribes by 3 correcting costuming, setting, language, and the like; allow Native people to share their own stories their own way; and develop American Indian characters within the story, rather than simply including the group as plot devices or elements of the setting. Moreover, I frequently make use of the term ‘American Indian’ to describe Native people. I use this term because it has been deemed the most appropriate term to use by the Ohio History Connection (formerly the Ohio Historical Society). Lastly, although many representations of American Indians exist across many mediums, I chose to limit my focus to representations in film only. I believe film to be an exceptionally powerful medium for the following reasons: its accessibility, captivating nature, and subtle tendencies. There are over 40,000 indoor and outdoor movie theatres in the United States alone, not to mention the availability of films online (Number of U.S. Movie Screens, n.d.). Additionally, even those with particular disabilities or language limitations can understand and enjoy films, and the activity is not limited to specific social classes. Films are also entertaining and still manage to capture our attentions in an age where consumers are bombarded with competing media. When patrons visit a movie theatre, cell phones are silenced and eyes and ears fixate on the big screen; for approximately 90 minutes, films capture our undivided attention. Finally, films are often less forward about their messages than other mediums, so they can convey specific ideals with less criticism from consumers. For example, a viewer may scrutinize a news program more closely if they feel the outlet is biased, but a movie with subtle messaging may remain outside of the viewer’s radar. Michelle C. Pautz, an associate professor at the University of Dayton, has 4 found that films can influence our opinions, so she suggests viewers recognize that seeing a movie is “more…than just entertainment,” as “there are all sorts of messages being conveyed” (Guida, 2015, para. 17). While many films feature American Indian characters, both significant and minor, I decided to narrow my focus to a select group of films. I chose to focus my project on modern day films about or containing significant contributions from American Indian characters. In addition, the chosen films received a distinct level of notoriety from the general American film audience or the Native community. Unfortunately, comparing financial success is rarely measuring apples-to-apples for American Indian films. For example, although Pocahontas (Pentecost, & Gabriel & Goldberg, 1995) was a financial hit for The Walt Disney Company and reached audiences across the United States, Smoke Signals (Rosenfelt & Estes, & Eyre, 1998) signified priceless societal gains for the Native community. Native and non-Native filmmakers continue to spar for the right