Chapter -2

DANCING IN

Social, religious and spiritual significance and functions of have already been discussed in the T' chapter. The said description is well enough to explain that dance is a part of Indian culture and traditions and it has achieved its own space in Indian society. However the history of Indian dancing helps to know more about it.

A Brief History of Indian dance

A History of Dancing that can be Traceable in Myths:

In India, art has been always considered as a means of understanding of the ultimate reality. It is considered as spiritual, idealistic and inspiring in nature. Every art has its own features and the ways of expression and interpretation. It is not only a matter of sensuous enjoyment. Not a luxury to be enjoyed by the leisured rich, powerful people and not something to amuse oneself with. It has a deeper moral and spiritual basis. It has emerged as an effective means of worshipping god. It is considered to be as vital for human progress as devotion or knowledge. An art is believed to be a path to leading to something good and for achieving salvation. Great sages in ancient

44 India have been great artists; many great sages were the authors of some of our art traditions. Almost all art expressions in India had a spiritual background.

In ancient India art and religion were interrelated. Temples have been the centers for all performing arts. The great works of art were not made to order, they came as a result of a deep inner urge and hence art maintained its unique greatness.

Traditional Indian classical art has been idealistic, spiritual and symbolic rather than realistic. The so-called realism in art is alien to Indian art expression. A work of art is to express one's feelings about God. The classical dance had also emerged out of devotion.

There are some Indian myths about the emergence of dance. One of the famous stories is as follows.

It is believed that Sage Bharata who is considered as a father of Indian traditional dance forms, who wrote the '', staged his first play with his hundred sons and Apsaras (celestial dancers who came out of by Amrita Manthana, the churning of the divine ocean). The play was staged in the Himalayas. Lord Shiva, the greatest dancing God, was so enchanted that he sent his disciple Tandu to Bharata, to teach him the true elements of dance. These

45 elements are described in the Natya Shastra, in its chapters collectively named Lakshana.

Social History of Indian Dance:

India is a large country. The Indian subcontinent extends southward from the Himalayas to the Indian Ocean; it is bordered on the west by the Arabian Sea and on the east by the Bay of Bengal. There are several socio economic, political and geographical variations. There are different languages in different states. Such elements and their interactions have produced various cultural patterns in India. Difference in language is a reliable indicator of other variations, such as those of dresses, customs, and food and unsurprisingly dances too.

There are certain references in history of ancient India about dancing. For example, there is an image of a dancing girl from Mohanjo Daro relics, and the broken upper body of Harappan period clay figure indicative of dance poses. There are beautiful descriptions in Vedas based on the art of dance.

The documented dance and theatre history begins at least as early as the first century of the Christian era. The distant past of Indian dance is often claimed to date to the period of the Vedas, the sacred books of Hinduism. But the more realistic and substantial historical

46 evidence found in the Natya Shastra of Bharata, a treatise probably composed between the 200 B. C. to 200 A. D. By the later medieval period, there emerged a variety of regional styles in art, including various representations of dance. This period witnessed the rise of vernacular literatures and the development of regional variations.

The history of Indian dance can be divided into two periods, one from the T^ century B.C. to the 9"^ century A.D., and the other from the lO"^ century to the 18"^ century A.D. During the first period, Sanskrit exercised a great impact on the intellectual life of the people and its rich literature motivated the development of arts in the country as a whole with unity and continuity. In the second period there was a marked development of regional styles. The later half of this period coincides with the period of the growth of the various regional languages.

Manuals on dance prepared from the 13 century onwards can be found in almost every cultural region of the country. There is Nrittaratnawali from , Sangitopanishad at Sarodhara of Gujarat, Hastamuktawali of , Gobinda Sangita Lila Vilas from Manipur, Abhinav Chandrica from Orissa, Sangita Damodara from Bengal, Adi Bharatam from Tamil Nadu, Hastalakshana Dipika from , Natyaratnakosha from Rajasthan and Sangitamalika

47 from North India. The Hst is not complete. In fact it merely gives examples from various regions of India.

Even a cursory study of these manuals emphasizes two broad facts:

1. Despite regional variations, all classical dance forms followed the basic principles of the Natya Shastra tradition. The dance continued to be divided in to Natya (drama) and Nritta (technical part in classical dance) on the one hand and into Tandava (vigorous and manly danc6f and (feminine part in classical dance) on the other. 2. Though all the major dance forms follow the extensive principles of Natya Shastra, many distinctive regional styles got evolved and each region ultimately developed a native vocabulary. This second fact led to the formulation of different classical forms in India. The beginning of the classical dance forms - Bharata Natyam, , Mohini Attam, Manipuri, Oddissi, Kuchhipudi, and - can be traced back to developments in the medieval period, roughly from 1300 A. D. to 1800 A. D.

After the l?"" century social, political and economic conditions were not in favour of the development of dance. Arts were affected due to political disturbances. But still in such situation the artists continued to practice classical dance. There was a lack of social

48 patronage to these artists. In this period family traditions, called the sampradayas or gharanas, grew within styles and the artists preserved these styles in such critical conditions. These artists frequently contributed to its growth in spite of the lack of basic education or academic knowledge and unfamiliarity with the Sanskrit language. In the Muslim rule the tradition of temple dancing also started loosing its importance and dance reached to the courts of these Mughal emperors. But the devotees of the art continued to practice it in the seclusion of their homes. During this period due to declining religious importance classical dance started to be looked down upon as a tool for entertainment.

However during the rule of the Vijaynagar emperors and their patronage of Hindu cultural Institutions, the major development of present dance drama began; they established and develop themselves in the unstable social environment of the 18 and 19 centuries.

In the British rule the system of formal education was started. It did not consider the arts as a subject of curricula. The generations that went to the schools and colleges founded by the British in India in the 19th century, remained afar from the art traditions of the country.

Apparently the art of dancing had almost ruined by the 20"^ century and what could be seen of it was only a diluted, almost

49 degenerated form of what was known as the '' in the North, and the 'sadir' in the south. It was Hke a shadow of a big reahty.

The recent revival of interest in dance, developed as a symbol of national pride. And this brilliant indigenous art and culture started developing, which has proved helpful to the revival of Indian dancing that took place in 20 century.

The Revival of Indian Dancing:

The art of Indian dancing has faced several ups and downs in the course of centuries and still it has been survived. Its worst eclipse started with the Mughal invasion and ended with the last years of British rule in India.

Foreign cultural aggression led to the neglect of our local arts. The love for the foreign culture resulted in the loss of our own. Consequently, among the young people of modem India, western dance and popular dances (mainly film dances) are far more popular than classical dances. But despite all kind of upheavals - social, political and economic - our dance art was never completely wiped out. All over the country the flame was kept burning by some devotees of the art.

50 In the coastal region, the people of Kerala went on dancing the dances that were their traditional heritage. It is from here the ancient art of Kathakali emerged.

In Tanjore, and in the rest of the South of India Devadasis guarded the Bharata Natyam technique.

Up in the North, Bindadin and Kalakaprasad Maharaj preserved the art of Kathak, as it was a holy fire for them. In Assam and Manipur, Manipuri has been kept alive by the efforts of its exponents.

It was only in the 20* century that members of the upper classes started taking interest in the oldest of Indian arts. They went to the masters to learn dance and brought back sufficient knowledge of the technique to teach new generations. This led to the renaissance of Indian classical dances. forms started developing and growing vigorously. It was not only about the classical dances but also about the folk dances in India that many took interest in the survival and preservation of this rich cultural heritage of India.

In order to trace the changes in the Indian classical as well as tradition, it has become necessary to take a brief review of all the types of Indian dance from a sociological point of view. The classification of dance can be done in following manner.

51 Types of Dancing:

Human being has always expressed his feelings through bodily movement and gestures, and dancing is one of the oldest forms of man's emotional expressions. Different types of dances perform different functions in society and different societies have different t>Tpes of dance forms.

According to Dr. Robin Tribhuvan and Pt. Nanda Kishor Kapote, there are two major kinds of dancing'^, namely:

1. Theatrical dancing 2. Social dancing.

1. Theatrical Dance is performed mostly for entertainment of the audience. It may include modem dances, musical comedy dances, and tap dancing. Theatrical dance gives to the artists the feeling of great personal satisfaction in creating something beautiful. Their own enjoyment and need for self-expression are important than their ability to interpret the dance effectively. The audience is also considered very important in this type.

" TribhuWan Robin and N. Kapote. 1999. 'Types of Dance'. In Tribhuvan, Robin and Preeti Tribhuvan.(eds) Tribal dances of India.ev/ : Discovering Publishing House, p.2

52 2. In collective or social dancing, the participants dance for their own pleasure rather than for entertainment of the audience. Folk and tribal dances, ritual dances and even classical dances are main examples of social dances. Most of them have specific steps, rhythm and meanings as well.

Dancing is a composite phenomenon. All types of dancing involve movement, energy, rhythm and design.

Movement is the action of the dancers as they use their bodies to create organized patterns.

Energy provides the force needed to perform movement.

Rhythm is the pattern of timing around which the dance movement is organized. Most of the dance movements are related to the rhythm of accompanying music.

Design refers to visual pattern made by the movements of a dancer's body.

There is variety of dance forms in India. Indian dance cannot be understood properly without the consideration of all these types. Dance in India can be broadly categorized in following way.

53 1. Folk Dance (Folklore) 2. Classical Dance 3. Popular Dance

A number of scholars have discussed such categories of arts in general through different theories and concepts. Although they have talked about the arts in general but these theories and terms used in those theories can be applied to the above mentioned types of Indian dancing. Some of these theories and concepts are discussed below in brief

Some scholars have used the concepts like Little Tradition and Great Tradition to explain different types of arts. Different types of Indian dance can also be understood in terms of these terms. It can be said that the folk dance styles are a part of Little Traditions and classical dance styles are a part of Great Traditions of society.

Robert Redfield in his studies of the Mexican communities used this approach to analyse social change with the help of the concepts of Little Traditions and Great Traditions. Milton Singer and McKim Marriott were influenced by this model and conducted some studies on social changes in India utilizing this conceptual framework. The basic ideas involved in this approach are, 'civilization' and 'social

'^ Singh, Yogendra Singh. 2005. Modernization of Indian Tradition. Jaipur: Rawat Publications, p. 13

54 organization' of tradition. It is based on the evolutionary view that the structure of tradition grows in two stages: first, through indigenous evolution, and second, through heterogenetic contacts with other cultures. The social structure operates at two levels, first, that of the folks and second, that of the elites. The cultural processes in the indigenous evolution comprise the Little Tradition and those in the other constitute the Great Tradition. There is a constant interaction between the two levels of tradition.

According to Yogendra Singh, in this approach it is assumed that all civilizations start from a primary level of cultural organization and, slowly get varied through contacts with other civilizations. The direction of this change is mainly from folk or peasant to urban cultural structure. According to this approach the elements of Little Tradition move upward to the level of Great Tradition and are recognized with its legitimate forms. Similarly some elements of the Great Tradition also move downward to become a part of Little Tradition.

This conceptual framework is useful for studying the Indian dance. The folk dance styles belong to the category of Little Traditions of Indian society and the classical dance styles come under the category of Great Traditions of Indian society. Some folk dance forms have developed in the course of time and come to be known as classical dance. Kathakali, one of the classical dance forms can be

55 cited as an appropriate example of it. Kathakali had its origin in a type of folk dance.

Thus this approach divides dance into two parts as Little Tradition and the Great Tradition. One more framework, which throws a light on the different types of the art forms, can be cited here.

O. P. Joshi in his book, The Sociology of Indian Art, talks in terms of three art forms normally classical, popular and folk. He has given the characteristics of these three types of arts and artists. His study is focused on the art of painting. But the same model becomes useful to elaborate the categories of Indian dance. It helps us to know the differences in three types of Indian dancing that is classical, popular and folk dance. As the popular dance form has become popular as a form of Indian dance, it needs to be taken in to consideration and this model has explained this art form. In this model he has used certain criterion to compare the three art forms, which highlights the differences between them.

56 Differences between Three Types of Art 17

Characteristics Classical Popular Folk

1. Creativity Highly creative and Imitative and Traditional, less specialized sentimental specialized and repetitive

2 Experiments Innovations and Quickly changing Restricted experiments are not and adoption of experiments only possible but other's creation encouraged also

3 Originalism Continuous search Mechanical Hereditary styles for originality production

4 Forms Open forms Dramatic forms Closed forms like traditional formulas

5 Style Changing styles Imitation of styles Decorative, (slowly) and simplification traditional styles (fast changing) (slow changing)

6 Themes With a selective Hero worship- Day-to day life- attitude - popular themes Traditional Huminisism legends

17 Joshi, O. P. 1985. The Sociology of Indian Art. Jaipur: Rawat Publications, pp. 21-22

57 7 Material Search for new but Cheap and useful Traditional used to keep the material for the mass material as hand (Drapery) away from the mass production made canvas and production natural colours

8 Artists An idealist and An intelligent Devoted to devoted to art and craftsman and traditions and themes devoted to popular styles tastes

9 Training In art schools or Commercial art Through under the guidance school under the hereditary of artists artists profession orientation

10 Class Rich, merchant, Masses, middle and Middle or lower attachment, prince, lower class class and rural art public Government, society middle class

11 Functions Aesthetic Entertainment, Ritualistic and requirements, decoration, prestige religious prestige item for culture status symbol, preservation of traditions

58 In this way O. P. Joshi has drawn eleven characteristics of art and using these characteristics as criteria he has differentiated between three types of arts and artists.

The same theoretical model can be applied to Indian dance to understand its categorization. It helped to obtain a clear idea about all the types of Indian dances, their characteristics and differences between them. All the above-mentioned characteristics of Indian art can be observed in three types of Indian dancing; classical, popular and folk.

In order to know the changes that have taken place in the field of Indian dance, the nature of popular dance and its features need to be taken in to consideration. The popular dance has its vast impact on society as well as it affects classical and folk dance to a great extent. The main example of popular dance can be mentioned as film dance that can be considered as mass culture also. Classical dance forms come into category of high culture or under the category of classic art. And folk dances are the part of folk culture. To examine the present position of dance in India it is also necessary to find out the differences and relationship between these three categories. It shows how in changing social process popular dance tries to become more popular and threatens classical and folk dance. To understand the changes that have taken place in the field of Indian dancing, the role

59 of popular dance should be taken into consideration and in this regard the following theory helps a lot.

Dwight MacDonald's theory, "A Theory of Mass Culture", distinguishes between folk art, high culture and mass culture. Through this theory he has tried to explain that how popular culture lays its impact and how high culture is being saved in society. He saw folk art as the culture of common people. It is a spontaneous expression of the people, shaped by them, attractive but without the benefit of high culture, to suit their own needs. It does not aim at producing great art. It emerges out of interaction between members of community with one another.

According to his theory mass culture is apparently different from either folk culture or high culture. It is mostly designed to appeal to the common people. It is straightforward and nothing of significance to say. It does not express a genuine culture in the way that folk-art does. It does not even reach artistic value of high culture. It is just saleable or marketable popular culture. It is imposed by business on the masses to make a profit. MacDonald thought mass culture as a threat to high culture. The appropriate example of such kind of mass culture in Indian society in present times is film dance, which has its immense impact on society, especially on younger generation. It creates a threatening situation for the high culture that is for classical

60 dance styles. This process is discussed in the later chapter of the present study.

MacDonald's theory becomes useful for the present study as it throws light on the impact of mass culture on society, which affects high culture and folk culture to a large extent. Due to changing social conditions mass culture becomes popular and it governs the tastes of society. It creates a threatening situation for the high culture. Its main aim is to become popular and conduct the market in order to get more and more profit. MacDonald has discussed the problems that mass culture creates in society. They are as follows.

He believed that bad culture tries to eject good. And it becomes possible because people find it easier to understand and it takes less mental efforts. In this way it seeks to weaken high culture.

He believed that high culture could also survive in society. The artists who develop challenging and original work in a given field can save such high culture. Most such artists become trapped in a mass society and mass culture, their sensibilities and will to resist it are dulled by several generations' output of mindless mass culture. Still some of them can resist such pressure, but they are few and far between.

61 However he had some hopes in mind regarding this situation. According to him high culture can be survived in society. Despite of declining number and influence, small cultural elite could maintain the glorious tradition in its original manner.

MacDonald's theory also throws light on the changes that occur in society, due to the impact of popular culture. Such kind of impact and threat has been created by popular dance in Indian society. The impact of film dance on Indian society can be easily observed. It is being discussed in later chapters in the present study, while analysing the present situation regarding classical dance and dance artists in India.

While comparing these types of dances, one thing has to be kept in mind that it is very difficult to keep these forms of dance away fi-om each other. This can be done only under the ideal conditions, but practically it is not always possible to compartmentalize these forms. In reality the classical dancer sometimes works as a popular artist or a film dance director or he dances for money and even sometimes borrows symbols and hand gestures (mudras) or steps from folk art to make his creation popular. There is certain kind of connection between these types of dance and dance artists.

Though all the three styles differ from each other in some important aspects they also have certain common features such as,

62 1. Though the creation level is different all the dance forms are basically creative arts. 2. The dancers are also creative artists and besides other things their art is a source of genuine pleasure for them. 3. For performing any type of dance particular training is needed. 4. All the dance forms have tried to conserve the tradition up to some level. 5. All the three forms have some functions to perform in society. And all are used for entertaining people in modem society. 6. All of them try to accommodate themselves as far as possible within the normative framework of society. 7. All the forms have social contexts. They change along with their social context. 8. Innovations are possible in all the forms. But the classical and folk forms are more innovative than the popular one. Any change in classical dance form is accepted only if a competent well recognized authority introduces it. 9. There are regional versions of each form. A popular dance form is influenced by the regional or local cultural traditions at least to some extent. Many a time the traditional or folk dance form enters into its modem version and becomes a popular dance form. Dandia (a traditional dance form in Gujarat) is the convincing illustration of this change. So far as the classical dance forms are concemed each of seven of them has traditional geographical jurisdiction.

63 And even if a particular dance form is performed in a different locale, the performance needs to have its original stylistic details.

Dance undergoes certain changes when it looses contact with masses or gives up its place as an integral part of the occupational and community life. In such a situation, intellectuality and accuracy become more important and dominates the natural urge, and then the dance becomes professional and the artist becomes professional dance artist. There are many differences in professional and traditional or folk art. These differences between them are recognizable in several ways. Today some classical dance forms have attained the status of professional dance. The professional artist has a wider variety of styles, movements and repertoire. He performs for the most part solos rather than group dance. His art is primarily designed for public entertainment rather than for public participation. Dance at this stage looses its religious importance. Creativity and originality take greater importance, because the individual is free to invent than the group. Costume and performance become the matter of choice rather than the tradition. In general, when dance becomes professional, it becomes more sustained and complex. To understand the process in the Indian context all the major forms of Indian traditional dance have been taken into consideration that are folk dance, classical dance and popular dance forms.

64 Folklore:

Folk dances belong to the vast tradition of folklore. Folklore is such an aspect of culture, which explains people's socio-cultural systems, beliefs, values and attitudes through folksongs, folk-dances, folk-tales, proverbs, riddles, legends, ornaments, fairs, festivals, religions, customs, and traditions. Folklore is the oral tradition of the people, which is transmitted through the process of socialization. Folklore reveals contemporary life, shows traditional behaviour and reinforces systems of belief. It throws light on the numerous aspects of a social organization. The study of folklore helped the present researcher to understand the relationship between dance and society and the relationship between individual and culture. William Thomas,

1 O a British antiquarian in 1846, first coined the term 'folklore'.

India is a land rich in folklore. Indian civilization is ancient, rich and full of cultural heritage, myths, legends, folk verse, folk-dances and the like. Only a few countries in the world would have folklores coming to the level of Indian folklore in their richness, depth and wisdom. There was a close relationship between the socio-cultural life of a society and its traditions, customs, social values, and rituals and it is reflected through oral literature. Folksongs, music and dance of the tribal community are very important as they form one of the dominant

'^ Jadhav, Kishor. 1998. Folklore and Its Modefs In Modem Literature. New Delhi: Manas Publications, p. 12

65 characteristics of their culture. Folk-dance as one of the important components of folklore also signifies man's relation with nature and human behavior at different stages of life. Thus folk-dances not only help in understanding the socio cultural and religious life of the community but also the adaptive nature of the individual to his social and natural environment.

The origin of folk dances may be very ancient. They might have grown out of the creative inspiration of human being. And they must have developed from the imagination of individuals and groups, people of all classes who understand the traditions of their social and natural environment.

Folkdances are considered important as they execute certain social functions. Some scholars already have mentioned bringing about social solidarity as the important function of folk dance. For example, Durkheim has explained the latent and manifest fiinctions of folk dance, giving an example of rain dance of Hopi community. According to him though the tribal dance is performed to celebrate the rainy season, its latent function is to sustain and maintain unity and solidarity among the members of that particular community. Folk dances have social, religious, cultural and communal functions to perform. The folk dances are fiinctional in the sense that they are not only for the entertainment of the people or of particular aesthetic interest, but they are an accompaniment to other activities. It is a

66 picture of the common experience of people of the locale to promote self-esteem, self-preservation and social solidarity.

Folk Dances in India:

Folk art has its roots in tradition. The folk tradition of art in India is extensively rooted in rural structure of society. Folk dances are tradition oriented and the artists accept the tradition voluntarily. Folk dances are collective oriented. Mainly they are group dances. Folk artist learns his art in traditional manner, which is handed down from one generation to another generation and keeps the tradition alive.

Folk dance is easy to understand and symbolic in expressions which are known to the members of the society. There is hardly any scope for experimentation and violation of the tradition is condemned. Through the dance the folk dancers present stories, characters and symbols known to people. These dances are stereotyped. Repetition with accuracy is considered important to keep the tradition alive and intact. The folk artists have tried to keep their art pure and untouched. This art is found as closed art and static in expression as there is less chance for changes in it.

Folk dances are easy to understand and interpret. They are romantic, patriotic, conventionally moral and traditional in style, and

67 generally depict mythological and folk tales. It fulfils the requirements of traditional society in its rituals and social festivals.

Once upon a time there were folk dances everywhere in India. But they are gradually diminishing and now are found mostly in small villages and tribal areas. In India people of such communities are still dependent on folk arts for their only amusement. Such dances are largely independent of Indian classical dance. They are yet to be uninfluenced by the outside world.

Unfortunately, because of the modernization of India and the increasing force of modern lifestyle, these dances are rapidly disappearing and seem destined for forgetfulness. In India variety of people are living within the single country. There is variety of religions, languages, food habits, clothing pattern, religious rituals and even folklore. This variety extends, of course, to the folk dances. Each region and ethnic group has its folk dances. Each is distinguishable by its peculiarity of different movements, forms, costumes, music and gestures. The geographical separation of different regions in India can be considered in term of the various folk dances.

While giving an account of its importance, Faubion Bowers argues that 'in observing all these folk dances of India, the spectator feels overwhelmed by a sense of their importance to the world as a source of reference and as an example of the varied forms of movements and

68 uses to which the human body can be put. Each whether it is well or badly performed by good or poor dancers, belongs in a special place of vital importance. Each is a part of that vast world of physical activity and graceful motion, which is waiting for transformation into public and professional art.' '^

From Kashmir in the North, to Kanya Kumari in the in South, from Saurashtra in the West, to Manipur in the East, the village life is expressed with the natural happiness, which expresses itself in these folk dances.

Mulk Raj Anand has described the origin and nature of folk dance in the following manner. 'Originating in the harvest festivals of our ancient ancestors, when the gods appeared through magical verses and the dancing foot, the folk dances retain the spontaneity and vitality of much of their primary desires. In earlier times man has tried to bridge the distance between this world and the other world through the dance by assuming the role of Gods and demons, so, now, he celebrates these moments by his varying steps, taking colour from nature which he conquers, and with which he allies himself

''^Bowers, Faubion. 1953. The Dance in India. New York: Columbia University Press, p. 169 ^° Anand, Mulk Raj. 1957. The Dancing Foot. Delhi: Publication Division, p. 7

69 People in ancient times believed in unsure relationship between man and nature and in order to appreciate and understand folk dances one has to be aware of this relationship.

The farmers were totally dependent on the nature for their crops. This dependency can cause a great sense of uncertainty and so, we find that he fights against nature, though he loves and respects it greatly. The life in the past ages was very difficult. Chances of natural calamities and their direct influence on lives of people were to a great extent. And human being has tried to drive out the fears of these dreaded forces through these dances.

The farmers' happiness and joy due to good harvest is expressed through these dances. It means that when he becomes happy and contented his inner feelings move him and make him dance. Even the magic of rhythm moves little children to dance. People believe that through dance they could convey their feelings of gratitude to the God and seek his blessings.

This depiction helps to understand the spirit of people in ancient times, which made them dance and ultimately, it led the emergence of this art.

Man adopted the movements from nature. He unconsciously imitated the movements of birds, animals and flowers in his rhythmic

70 postures. Like the swings of the branches, he started swinging the legs and the arms and like the waving grasses started waving the body. The sea, the rivers and the streams and brooks have also inspired him.

In this way, in the most obvious manner, the folk dances of India show, the connection between man's outside movements and inner feelings, Man has coordinated such rhythmic movements with his routine activities, such as fetching water, milking the cows, churning the butter, pounding the rice, the honking of cattle behind the plough, the scattering of seeds and the ultimate reaping. Certain typical movements have been fetched from all those movements, from those actions, and they have been reduced to the simplest forms of beats. It raises man's everyday life from the daily routine, tensions and stresses and provides him a better life.

The folk dances are socially very important. They reveal the individual talents of the people and the distinct traditions of each part of our countryside and the characteristics of the community living. It would be correct to say that the individual talent is not of much importance as far as folk dance is concerned. It is considered important in the case of classical dance forms.

The differences in geographical and climatic conditions of the each region have brought about a great variety of rhythms, musical compositions, costumes and dance styles in India. The fundamental

71 religious feelings, which were bound with the nature-cults of ancient and medieval India, have become a part of this distinctive tradition.

There is variety of folk dances in India. According to Mulk Raj Anand, a vast variety of folk dances of India may be grouped under three heads,

1. Community dances which are usually performed on the major religious festivals and special social occasions; 2. Tribal dances, routed in aboriginal cults and expressive of their magical philosophies of life; 3. Folk dances preserved by hereditary professional families and troupes, which they perform at the time of birth, betrothal and marriage in the villages .

All these categories of folk dances are visible even today.

Some scholars have divided Indian folk dance in the following categories. L. P. Vidyarthy and Binay Rai, have classified further tribal folk dances in terms of their formation into:

1. 'Group Dances 2. Couple Dances 3. Single Dances

21 Ibid. P. 9

72 Single or solo dances are not very common among tribal communities. Some other forms of folk dance that are found in different tribes are as follows.

1. War and Hunt Dances: They are found only in a few tribes. 2. Sacred Dances: It is the most common dance form among the tribals. The object around which it is performed is sacred one. It may be an idol, an animal, a holy tree or a well. These dances are mostly ritualistic in origin and in nature, planned mainly for the propitiation of and will of gods, and ancestor spirit. 3. Social Dances: These dances are connected with seasons, festivals, marriage, funeral, birth and some other social occasions. 4. Marriage Dances: These types of dances are practiced in many tribes. These dances are performed only at the ceremonies or marriage rituals such as, in mate selection or on the occasion of the wedding. 5. Funeral Dances: Dancing on the occasion of the death of a person is prevalent among several tribes.'

^^ Tribhuwan Robin and N. Kapote. 1999. 'Types of Dance'. In Tribhuwan, Robin and Preeti Tribhuwan. (eds) Tribal Dances of India. New Delhi: Discovering Publishing House, pp. 5-6

73 These dances constitute a major part of daily life, work joys and sorrows of the tribal people. Through these dances people express their feelings for each other, for nature and for community.

The amazing range of linguistic and ethnic groups, religions and social organization and structuring in India, caused the unique richness of folk music and dance forms. Here forms have survived, whose origin can be traced back to pre historic times; new forms have grown up in other places and have continued in spite of many historical and social changes.

These folk dancers can be divided into three major groups.

1. For some groups dance is an integral part of their daily life. 2. Peasant or agricultural communities in India are the creators of folk dances. 3. A third group, who is a part of the village community, such as craftsman, entertainers, musicians and dancers, has been the chief repository of the folk traditions.

Here some representative traditional folk dances of various regions in India have been described briefly to have a clear picture of folk dances in India.

74 1. Rajasthan:

Rajasthan is known for the heroic deeds of Rajputs, the local community. The feudal houses of Rajasthan struggled to retain their forts and to save their empires from the external aggression. There was an intense quest for the dignity of the free life. Traditions of honour and love were prevalent in this community. People were proud of the gracious deeds of the courageous heroes and heroines. Such feelings helped them to develop various traditions. Dance is one of them. Dance is an expression of human emotion as much as music and it is found in almost limitless variations in Rajasthan.

Ghumar Dance:

Ghumar dance is the most popular in Rajasthan region. The Ghumar, as well as many other folk dances of Rajasthan, have been derived from religious ceremonials. However now they have become secular and now are helping in knitting village communities together. The famous Ghumar gets its name from 'ghoomna' that displays spectacular colors of the flowing 'ghagra', the long skirt of the Rajasthani women. Men have a range of their own more vigorous dances.

75 2. Himachal Pradesh:

Himachal Pradesh is a region of the lower reaches of the Himalayan Range. Scaling the heights with heavy loads on their backs, these people walk slowly. Therefore they dance slowly, and the soft music of their songs is a tone of voice.

Pangi Dance:

It is very exciting and thrilling moment for them to get together at the religious fairs and seasonal festivals, when their markets are full of commodities. In several parts of these mountainous regions, people dance for sheer pleasure. Viewers can experience an exact teamwork and almost perfect synchronization, for instance, in the dance of the Gaddi shepherds of the Kangra Valley.

The presentation of their community dances is often seen during the Dussehra festival, which enacts the epic battle of the King Ram and Lakshmana against the demon king, Ravana. Then, the symbolic gods dance, and the men and women join in.

76 Dance:

Nati is also an important folk dance in Himachal Pradesh. The Nati is not a dance for professional dancers but is open for participation by all age groups. It is a slow-moving dance from Lasya variety and lasts through three or four days and nights. Earlier the men and women danced separately but now they dance together. This dance has a special aim. Nati dance not only greets the New Year, but it also celebrates the rich harvest that men of Himachal Pradesh have strived to produce. The reaping and harvesting of crops is celebrated with Nati dance.

3. Kashmir:.

As the nature is different in different fclimatic regions it causes different -moods and feelings of the people hving in that particular area. It creates different social atmosphere in each region. The snow bound and extremely cold winter of Kashmir makes the people of the beautiful valley group together. There is dim light and gloomy atmosphere for months together in the region. When the winter passes then only people can think about festivals. In the summer season snow melts the land becomes green and flowery and

77 water in lake loses its frostiness. Their craftsmanship also flourishes in this atmosphere. This situation and atmosphere make everyone akin, happy and satisfied and make them join together and celebrate this moment. Such a situation creates the perfect atmosphere for the folk dance. The dance arises as a completion of a song.

Dhumhal and Rouff Dance:

Dumhal of Kashmir is a dance performed by the menfolk of the Wattal tribe of Kashmir on specific occasions. The party moves in a procession carrying a banner in a very ceremonial fashion. It is dug into the ground and the men begin to dance, forming a circle. The musical accompaniment comprises a drum and the vocal singing of the participants. Dumhal is performed on set occasions and at set locations.

Rouff is also a folk dance of Kashmir. It is danced solely by women on festive occasions. Rouff displays simple footwork.

78 4. Madhya Pradesh:

Folk dance is an expression of the feelings of our rural communities, and it is also the part and parcel of the life of the tribal people. Their dance is a reflection of their lifestyle. It comes out of their daily, routine work, such as walking through the jungle, their body bending to plant and replant, hunting, etc. Jawara is one of the most important folk dances that reflects the life style of the local community in Madhya Pradesh.

Jawara Dance:

Jawara is performed in the Bundelkhand area of Madhya Pradesh. It is essentially a harvest dance reflecting the gaiety and pleasure of the farmers who have reaped a good harvest. The men and women perform the dance together. The costume and jewellery worn by the women are colourful. They carry baskets full of Jawara (Jawar Crops) on their heads. The accompaniment includes a rich variety of beating, stringed and wind instruments.

Most of the folk dances of the tribal people in Madhya Pradesh, Vindhya Pradesh, Orissa, Bengal and Andhra Pradesh are similar in movements and rhythms as well as in the imaginations they bring to this activity. Their dances are more directly connected with the daily life and with the harvest.

79 5. Gujrat: and Ras

Ras Lila is the most popular dance in Gujrat. It is based on the songs of the myth of Radha , which is dominant cultural theme in the area. Apart from the devotional Ras Lila, based on this legend, an equally popular form of dance in Gujrat is the Garba. As water is scarce in Gujrat, the water pot i. e. Garbi, in which women carry water from the well is traditionally worshiped.

On the nine nights of Navaratri festival, the girls dance the Garba. The name of dance is derived from the clay pot Garbi. This pot is painted with earth-colors and a light is placed within it. Then it is ceremoniously placed in the house. And, village girls go from house to house and dance around the household Garbi with their own Garbis

80 on their heads. The woman of the house sings the first line of the song while the rest repeat it in chorus. Beating claps gracefully, to the left and right at each step, with sweeping gestures of the arms, they move upwards and downwards, and on the sides, clapping at the end of each movement.

Dandia Ras:

The Dandia Ras is yet one more popular dance in Gujrat in which the dancers use sticks. It is mainly danced by men; women accompany them ^ and bring flashing colours with their flowing skirts and hip cloth. The movements in this dance are very fast. Due to its gracefulness and force it has become very popular all over the country.

6. Assam:

Some of the tribes in Assam live isolated lives. They possess some cultural peculiarities. These aboriginals also follow a particular normative system and specific tradifions. And, due to the conditions of their civilization patterns, they have gathered their strength from the experience of the collective life. Oral

81 invention is a major aspect of creativity among these folk.

The dance of the Jaintia tribe is a precise example of a community dance. The strong feeling of unity reflects in the synchronization of footwork and hand gestures.

Bihu Dance:

Bihu is a popular folk dance of Assam. The is an integral part of the Bihu festival of Assam. The Bihu festival is celebrated in mid- April, during the harvesting time and lasts for about a month. Young men and girls perform the Bihu dance together to the accompaniment of drums and pipes. The dances are performed in circles or parallel rows.

The Zemis, Zeliangs and several other tribes of Assam have a number of folk dances. Most of these folk dances are performed during the harvest period. The Nagas live in the border between Assam and Northern Burma. There are many tribes of the Nagas and

82 each of these has a distinctive dance styles. The Naga tribals too have their harvest dances and celebrations. "Khamba Lim" is one such folk dance and is performed by two groups of men and women who stand in two rows. Being traditional warriors and hunters, their dances are warlike in character and present abstract concepts of hunt. They use magnificent head-dressed and ornaments. Their dance movements are vivid, fantastic and energetic and express their excessive imagination and emotions.

7. Mizoram:

The Mizo people live among the bamboo forest in isolated valleys of the region. The bamboo is the mainstay of the daily life. They build their houses with it, and they fetch water from the well with it. In the same way bamboo plays a vital part even in their dance. The bamboo dance appears to be very simple. But actually it is very complex and difficult to perform. The square formed by the four long bamboo poles, placed across one another looks simple. It becomes complex when opened and closed to the beat of the drum by men who sit near the ends of the poles. Dancers hop, on one foot outside the square, and inside when it

83 opens, with the increasing tempo of the drum, their leaps and jumps become more complicated. It is an astonishing pattern of folk dance.

8. Maharashtra:

There are several folk dance forms in Maharashtra, such as Koli dance Lavani, Waghya-Murali, Tamasha, , etc. out of which Koli dance and Lavani dance are most famous.

Koli Dance

The Koli fishing folk live on the seacoast of Maharashtra, in the Western Ghats. They are entirely dependent on sea for their livelihood. There religious life, as well as their customs in food and dress is related to the customs and principles of the villages of the interior. But some aspects of their life are dependent on the sea. The association of the Koli community with the sea reflects from their social and cultural life. Even their dance reflects the rhythms of the sea. Their dance movements are very similar to the sea waves. In short there is a great impact of the sea on their lives.

They celebrate the yearly festivals with the unique popular dance. This dance is known as Koli Dance, which is full of vitality, grace and good humour. The fishermen stand in two rows holding miniature oars in their hands. Their movements are the imitation of the movement of rowing a boat. And thus, swaying forwards and

84 backwards they create the dramatic illusion of a boat flinging on the waves of the sea. Thus their daily life and respect and fear about the sea are reflected through their dance. The fisher women also stand in rows, arms enlinked, and dance with the men.

Lavani:

Lavani is a combination of traditional song and dance, which particularly performed to the enchanting beats of'', a drum like instrument. This dance is performed by attractive women wearing nine-yard saris. The women dance on the exciting beats of traditional music.

The word Lavani originates from "Lavanya", meaning beauty. Earlier, this art form dealt with different and varied subject matters such as society, religion, politics, romance, etc. Lavani was used as a form of entertainment in Maharashtra. Many famous Marathi poets like Honaji Bala, Ramjoshi, Prabhakar, Patthe Bapurao, Uma Mang etc. contributed to the popularity of Lavani. Lavani was used as a musical discussion. The songs have a quick tempo. Dance is performed by a group of women wearing nine-yard sarees, heavy gold jewellery and heavy ghoongru in feet.

85 In recent years, this dance form confronts several problems; exploitation of the dancers, hypocrisy of society, lack of funds, no national/international acclaim and caste bias.

9. Punjab: and

Bhangra and Giddha are the rich traditions of folklore in Punjab. The surplus of harvest makes people very happy, contented and lively. It makes them feel comfortable and tension free. This results in the

86 bright sensitiveness to the real Hfe. Such feelings help them to create fantasies and heighten the spirits. Such a mood and spirit produce a healthy community life. Their unity reflects in the warmth of the community dance, the Bhangra.

The season for the Bhangra dance starts with the sowing of wheat. At that time the young men of the village gather together in some open field and dance under the light of full moon, on the beats of the Bhangra drum. The Bhangra season concludes with the Besakhi fair when the wheat is harvested and the granaries are stocked full for the year. Besakhi is another dance form of the Punjab region. This dance is mainly performed by men

87 with the stiks.

The atmosphere and the mood, which is created by the Bhangra, can also be created by the Giddha dance of the women of the Punjab.

These are some representative examples of folk dances in India. There are several such dances in different parts of India that cannot be listed here entirely such as Poika, Kuthirai of South India, Devarattam and of Tamil Nadu, Dhamyal of Haryana, Dollukunitha of Manipur, Garadi of Pondicherry, Ghode Modni of Goa, Ghoomer of Rajasthan, Karma of Bihar, Lahoo of Meghalaya, of Kerala, Panthi of Madhya Pradesh, Dalkai of Orissa, Tamasha, Dhanagari Gaja of Maharashtra etc.

This brief survey of folk and tribal dances in India makes our vision clear that all these dances have social origin and are related to day-to-day life of people. These dances reflect the culture of the particular tribe or region. The movements, formations, costumes, ornaments and music used in these dances reflect local culture, traditions, religious rituals and even patterns of their occupational life. These dances have close relationship with functions of daily life. These dances have maintained continuity with tradition. They are performed on every possible occasion such as, to celebrate the arrival of seasons, birth of child, wedding and religious and social festivals. India, with its vast variety of social and geographical conditions has

88 been an absolute treasure house of dance forms for many centuries. Most of the prevailing forms of Indian classical dancing, which are governed by elaborate techniques and shown high degree of sophistication, have had their origins in the dances of common people, which still survive in tribal and agricultural communities. The characteristics of folk-art that have been given in the model of O. P. Joshi's theory are clearly visible in folk dances of India.

Simplicity is the main characteristic of Indian folk dance. Though simple in nature one can observe certain power and directness of expressions in folk dances of India, which are of great artistic values. These dances are considered very important in India as a cultural heritage.

The dance forms, which are enduring in spite of many crucial historical and sociological changes, present a rich and complex phenomenon. Both folk dances and highly sophisticated classical dances have not only influenced each other but also nourished each other.

Man's adjustment to the environment, for his own survival, created both the original dance rituals and their several subsequent functional and formal patterns. This is the case of folk dance but the situation is different about popular dance and classical dance. A study

89 of Indian dancing would remain incomplete if popular dance is not taken into consideration.

Popular Dance

The present day popular dances are mostly the dances, which are the parts of films shown on the screen, some of the folk dances and imitations of western dances. Popular art and dances are considered to be of inferior quality because of the manner in which they ere produced and presented. The popular dance has a large audience. Popular dance is a mass production. It is meant for masses. It is not performed for any particular group or any particular individual. Following are the chief characteristics of popular dance.

1. Popular dance is a commercial activity. 2. It is performed mostly for the entertainment of common people and mostly for the remuneration. 3. It is vivid in experience and false in sensation. 4. It changes according to public demand. 5. It doesn't have any major social functions to perform in society other than entertaining people and actually it aims at collecting money.

Popular or film dance generally do not produce any original art. The popular artists skillfully borrow a major part of their dance from

90 classical and folk dances. They borrow styles, themes, techniques, movements and gestures, ideas and values and convert them into a dance that is known as the popular dance. And the popular artists pretend that they and their art are creative, innovative and mind blowing. Popular styles and its productions are found in cities as well as in villages.

The popular dancer doesn't require being a philosopher, thinker or an imaginative but simply a dancer. It is important and sufficient for him to concentrate only on his or her skills and some external things such as, costumes, make-up and understanding of the popular demand. These are the major contents of his art. The popular dancer cannot create any individual identity of his own but he remains just one among many. He remains popular only if he remains in style.

Popular dance has been a matter of worry and anxiety for the moralists and classical dance artists. They always criticise popular dance and dancers because these dances are vulgar parodies of the other original dance forms such as, classical, folk or western dance forms.

The popular dancers are always very careful about the audience of their performances. They try to ftilfill the popular demands. They use the inventions and researches done by the classical dancers in applied form. The popular dancers and film dance directors have to be very

91 active and receptive in order to change their old methods and adopt new techniques, themes and styles speedily. Their main interest lies in money and seeking popularity, which is mostly cheap popularity. In other words they produce marketable commodities.

In spite of all these facts film dances have become very popular in India. People like to watch, to imitate and to perform them. Today these dances have become more popular than the tradhional classical dance in India. Classical dance styles are being threatened by popular dances in all ages. Even today such a situation is in existence. Thus the classical dance and dance artists have a great challenge before them. The present situation regarding this is discussed in the later chapter of the present study.

Indian Classical Dances

As it has been mentioned in previous chapter that this is a case study of classical dance in India as a form of performing art, it becomes important to take into account all forms of Indian dance. Mainly there are three types of dances in India; folk, popular and classical dance styles. The term classical dance is used here to indicate the dance forms, which are based on the techniques prescribed in Natya Shastra written by Bharat Muni. Today these dances are known as classical dance forms. The term 'classical dance' is been used actually since colonial period. Now in India this term has become

92 familiar and has been used legitimately. The people who have devoted their lives for classical dance forms are trying to maintain its purity. At the same time demands of modernization are compelling this dance form to change. The classical dance is caught between the tradition and the modernity. This has created an anxiety or a pressure on the classical artists. As this is a sociological study of dance, the reasons of this pressure or anxiety become important and need to be studied. Before analyzing the situation of classical dance in society or changes that have taken place in this field, it becomes necessary to analyse the major classical dance forms or styles from sociological point of view.

There are seven classical traditional dance styles in India. These dance styles are associated with the distinct historical, cultural and social traditions. They all have their own peculiar techniques and there own style of performance. They have developed in different parts of the country in different historical periods. In spite of these variations all styles share a common trait that they all are socially originated. They all have religious contents. The origin of these styles lies in religious rituals and thus considered important means of worshipping Gods. These styles have gone through different critical phases in different historical periods. We fmd them today in highly developed stages. They are developing and flourishing in India as well as all over the world. There are people who have devoted their lives to maintain the standard and purity of this art. Today in India hundreds

93 of dancers are teaching this art and thousands of students are learning it. It gives them happiness, peace of mind, high status in society, and means of Hvelihood also. Many students are aiming to devote their life to dance and to make a career in it. It is not possible to learn any classical dance in a short period. Dance training is very extensive, exhaustive, time consuming, expensive and difficult. Why so many people are then attracted towards it? What is its importance in present times? To find the answers of all such questions one should know first as to what these styles are. There are seven major classical dance styles in India, namely Bharata Natyam, Kathakali, Manipuri, , Mohini Attam, and Kathak. We will now discuss here briefly their peculiar features.

94 harata Natyam:

BHARAT NATYAM'S GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

Bharata Natyam initially known as Dasiattam is one of the oldest dance forms in India. It was nurtured in the temples and courts of southern India since ancient times. The term Bharata Natyam in its restricted sense, applies to the dance technique evolved in the South India and practiced in temples of Shiva. It is a highly specialized

95 science with a traditional background and strict codes and principles. Nattuvans and Devadasis have handed down the highly cultivated art of Bharata Natyam over the centuries. The teachers were called Nattuvans and ritualistic dancers were called Devadasis, in the temples of south India.

This style is a direct descendant of devotional dances performed in the temples of South India from the 10'^ century to the middle of 20'^ century.

Until recendy the chief exponents of Bharata Natyam were Devadasis, or temple girls specifically designated to the task of dancing for Gods. The temple dancer, acquiring her professional knowledge from Nattuvans, often forms with him a life long agreement rarely broken by the temple officials. The institution of Devadasis and her offering of prayer through the dance medium have its roots in religion, as is clear from the nature of the vocation. After some period it started to be known as the art of Devadasis. Unfortunately over a period of time due to economic and social pressures these Devadasis fell into disrepute. This led to dance itself receiving a bad reputation because of the

96 practitioners who were in an untenable situation. And this dance became a means of livehhood of them. It lost its religious and social status.

Today the situation has been changed and it has become prestigious to know and perform Bharata Natyam. Devadasis gradually excluded from it. The art of Bharata Natyam and its prestige today is being slowly restored to its former position. It stands in the forefront of all the classical dance arts now prevalent in India, owing to its religious origin and its highly developed technique. It is, moreover, the form of dance most akin to the code complied by the sage Bharata Muni in his famous Natya Shastra, from which source it derives its name. In 1930s the pioneers like Rukmini and E. Krishna Iyer revived dancing traditions and tried to attain the status of Bharata Natyam dance traditions of today. Such pioneers brought the dance out of the temple area and onto the stage. Still it has to retain its devotional character to some extent.

The modern form of the Bharata Natyam presentation is credited to four Nattuvans of Pandanallur. They were brothers. Vidwan, Menakshi Sunderam Pillay of Pandanallur, the greatest living teacher of Bharata Natyam, is the direct descendent of these four brothers, affectionately known as 'Tata' or Father. This Grand Old Man of the South keeps his rich inheritance alive with religious dedication. This

97 Pandanallur School is characterized by the verve and vigour as opposed to the softening influences that have crept in to the art as taught by other Nattuvans, may be due to misconception that softer movements lend grace to the art. Vidwan Pillay's technique is rich in adavus (basic steps in Bharata Natyam) that avoided dullness. 1

1 Mil 1li

This technique includes a throbbing rhythm and skillful patterns of beauty and perfection. The movements of the hands are powerful, while the neck movements are executed with grace. Robustness is the characteristics of this school. Without it Bharata Natyam would not have become a dull art.

The major musical instruments required for Bharata Natyam are the Mridangam and the pair of cymbals. These instruments are

98 essential for the Laya (timing) and (beats). A Tambura is often incorporated in the orchestra to provide swara, or scale for the refrain. According to some scholars, for example Ram Gopal, a classical dance artist and a writer, though there are strict rules and codes of this particular dance form, it is an art with vast possibilities for new expressions, it fits in to the old pattern and is not just the individual peculiarities or vulgarities of particular dancers. New motif can be produced only by those with a good knowledge of the basic principle of this art. Bharata Natyam is amongst the finest of our art treasures, the noblest of our inheritance.

Today Bharata Natyam is one of the most popular and widely performed dance styles and is practiced by male and female dancers all over India. It is having a wider range of movements and postures and the balanced combination of the rhythmic and mimetic aspects lends itself to experimental and fusion choreography.

99 2. Kathakali:

KATHAKALI'S GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

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Kathakali means, literally, musical dance drama (katha = dance + drama; = music). Its technique is complicated and training is difficult and time consuming. Kerala or Malabar is the land of its origin. It is exotic and powerful in nature and practiced on the remote coastal strip in the South-west of India.

100 The origin of Kathakali may be traced back to the fifteenth or sixteenth century, when the Rajah of Kottarakkara is beheved to have coordinated the folk dances of Kerala and gave them their present form, which embodies much of the essence of the Bharata Natyam technique.

Though it dates back a few hundred years, it is evidently derived from primitive worship and witchcraft. The mating of cosmic and mystic forces has given rise to this complex and colourful dance form.

Lives of animal and bird are faithfully portrayed in Kathakali dances. The Peacock Dance is the better known and appreciated. In this type of dance representation, the affinity of the Kathakali technique with nature can be seen.

All the dances in Kathakali form, both tribal and others, adhere to the basic ' conventions of physical rhythm. The choreography is involved and stylized. Before some decades, Kathakali was called Ramanattam, because it portrayed the events in Valmiki Ramayana, whose hero is, of course, Ram.

The other important epic that serves as

101 a theme for Kathakali dances is the Mahabharata. There are symbols for every representation of Gods and celebrity as well as for the smallest of action in Kathakali dance. Such as movements, hand gestures, costumes, ornaments or make-up style. It is a difficult task to acquire a deep knowledge of all the 'mudras' (hand gestures), which is a core part of the dance and their permutations. The Kathakali dancers' training is therefore long and labourious.

In Kathakali mainly some characters are presented. The characters are well defined, and divided into three distinct groups.

1. Satvic or virtuous characters,

2. Rajasic or heroic characters,

S.Tamasic or destructive, diabolic ones.

Costumes and make-up in Kathakali:

Make-up and costume in Kathakali are elaborate and take hours for preparation. Masks that give almost a horrid effect are generally used. The face itself is painted vividly so that the expressions assumed may be clearly visible.

102 The colouring of the face varies according to the character portrayed. A faint green is used for satvic, i. e. virtuous and noble characters: their opposites, the Tamasic or rakshasa characters, have layers of chutti, i. e. white lines of rice paste, outlining the face from one ear to the other, with the nose reddened and a white spot on the tip of it. Such vicious characters wear red beards. For women, the colouring is white on a base of yellow or red.

Kathakali costumes are a great splendour. A sequence of scarf is woven round the neck, and the skirt is full and bellowing. On the head is balanced a tall cone backed by a circular ring of the same material. The costumes are always very bright and colourful.

The costumes are cumbersome, but they produce the impressive, almost amazing, effect to a Kathakali performance. Performances of Kathakali are finely tuned by the expressive mime in its which predominates over the pure nritta or technical part of a particular dance style. Women do not normally take part in Kathakali, the female roles being taken by men, who perform the Lasya (soft and feminine) movements. Women cannot dance a sixteen-hour ballet, and so they are exempted by tradition of Kathakali.

Kathakali is meant to be performed in the open air. Kathakali cannot be performed in the limitations of the modem stage, unless the setting is arranged as per the requirements of Kathakali. Many young

103 Indian dancers have adapted it to new setting i. e. the simple setting, consisting of a shamiyana or improvised canopy, supported with four simple poles or bamboo sticks. A large bell mettle lamp lights up the stage with a soft light.

The music accompanying the drama is very much like that in Bharata Natyam. It also includes the throbbing of temple drums. Those who are ignorant with the Kathakali technique and its traditions, the full implications and effects of Kathakali cannot be easily appreciated.

The , the poet Vallathol's dance academy in Kerala, is the largest center in India for the training for Kathakali dancers. In it Kunjukurup, Ravuni Menon, and Narayan , three of the foremost gurus give training to many pupils.

Ragini Devi and Gopinath, trained in the Kerala Kalamandalam have done much to bring Kathakali to the people of the cities. Instead of presenting it in a traditional way, they have adopted some new methods for its performance.

However this form of classical dance has remained unchanged for many years. The most important reason for it may be the peaceful and undisturbed life in Kerala. Thus it can be said that the social, economic and political changes lead cultural changes. And due to the

104 lack of such changes on a large scale in the land of Kathakali, it also remained unchanged.

3. Mohini Attam:

MOHINI ATTAM'S GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION ¥

Mohini Attam is one of the most lyrical classical dances in India, originating from Kerala. The word Mohini stands for an enchantment, a beautiful woman who tempts others for a particular purpose. Attam

105 means dance. So Mohini Attam is the dance of the enchantment. The eariiest known textual reference about Mohini Attam is found in a commentary on the Vyavaharamala, a Sanskrit text written by Mahamangalam Namboodiri during the 16th century. In this text the word Mohini Attam was used for dancers. Another reference of Mohini Attam can be found in the Ottanthullal (a semi-classical and semi-folk dramatic art form of Kerala) script Ghoshayatra, authored by during the 2nd half of the 18th century.

Mohini Attam was subject to several revivals and renaissance. Some scholars believe that like Bharata Natyam, Mohini Attam too was associated with Devadasi tradition and some other scholars think that Mohini Attam was a dance form performed by women but was not associated with Devadasi system.

106 Whatever it is, for several reasons the male members of the affluent and powerful Namboodiri and Nair families exploited the Mohini Attam dancers. Gradually the dance got degraded and there were few takers for it. The efforts of some revivalists and the attempts of Kerala poet Vallathol Narayana Menon, during 1930 to 1950, to revive Mohini Attam are important endeavors, which are now considered as crucial chapters in the history of this art.

The tradition of this dance form sustained through the contributions of two experienced person, Guru Kalyanikutti Amma and Guru Satyabhama. While Guru Kalyanikutty Amma's effort was at her individual level. Guru Sathyabhama got the platform of the Kerala Kalamandalam, where since 1957, until her retirement as its Principal in 1993, she was faculty.

While dance forms like Bharata Natyam and Oddissi attained both national and international significance until recently Mohiniattam was sidelined. There are a few reasons behind this. 1. Kerala is a land gifted with classical arts unlike any other States of India. While Tamil Nadu is known as the land of Bharata Natyam and Orissa as the land of Oddissi (Orissi), Kerala is better known as the land of and Kathakali. Parallel to the development of Bharata Natyam in Tamil Nadu, Kerala saw a development in sustaining Kathakali as a rich art form,

107 followed by Koodiyattam. Hence Mohini Attam did not get much attention. 2. Mohini Attam was revived and preserved through the efforts of Kerala poet Vallathol's Narayan Menon through the institutionalization of the art at the Kalamandalam. However, even at the Kalamandalam Kathakali enjoyed all sorts of priority, followed by Koodiyattam. 3. Certain requirements of Mohini Attam were set similar to the Bharata Natyam. Like the Bharata Natyam, Kamataka music too was adopted for Mohini Attam. During those periods no serious research was done into the music of Kerala, the Sopana Sangeetam, which is more suitable for Mohini Attam. 4. No serious efforts were made to take Mohini Attam to the national performing scene, after independence, as were done in the case of other dance forms. 5. Compared to Bharata Natyam, Mohini Attam is a slow, soft and graceful dance. It is basically Lasya-oriented dance form. Further, no serious research was done to develop the beauty and grace of the dance form. The costume of Mohini Attam was too restricted to off-white dresses. Very limited attempts are made so far to make the costume more attractive which is one of the important aspects of any dance form to satisfy the visual needs of the audience. Actually there is historical evidence that formerly Mohini Attam dancers used coloured blouses. Due to such

108 reasons this dance form couldn't become popular like other classical dance forms. 6. Imitating the pattern of Bharata Natyam in terms of repertoire and music and being a slow dance form with off-white dresses naturally pulled down Mohini Attam to be treated it as a poor version of Bharata Natyam. 7. Mohini Attam is not yet completely free from controversy about style and excessive influence of Bharata Natyam. Some self- esteemed traditionalist had also faced a lot of difficulties to its development. Due to this, several talented young dancers were compelled to refrain themselves from doing any serious work in Mohini Attam. 8. Generally, almost all the Kerala dancers practiced three dance forms, including Mohini Attam. However their priority was Bharata Natyam, followed by Mohini Attam and Kuchipudi.

Now, slowly Mohini Attam started getting its due share in both the national and international performing scene. The identity of Sopana Sangeetam (Kerala music) as the music of Mohini Attam is recognized. New dancers made remarkable attempts to set down the art from being identified as the subordinate of Bharata Natyam, by choreographing new items. Jayadeb's Ashtapadi got always appealing attraction in Mohini Attam. Scholar-poet Kavalam Narayana Panicker took efforts with new compositions and researched theories to attain

109 Mohini Attam its original grace and depth. He has also tried to make the dance form free from the influence of Bharata Natyam repertoire, by emphasizing on the aesthetics and ethnic influence of the art form. Artists like and took initiative to take it tomore and more platforms.

While thinking about the aesthetics of an art form, one cannot afford to overlook the ethnic or regional feel of the art form. No doubt, the change in the nature of the dance form to give it more a Kerala touch was a remarkable contribution in this direction.

Now, gradually, Mohini Attam started getting its due share both at the national and international performing scene. Art lovers and experts started recognizing the performance potential and significance of Mohini Attam. Mohini Attam is getting the long deserving recognition in lead festivals of the country, especially outside Kerala.

4. Manipuri:

Manipuri is the astonishing dance form that reaches to the heart. It represents the beauty and richness of nature.

Manipuri is comparatively recent classical dance form. Manipuri dance style has its roots in folk art. It is simply the natural expression of people's understanding of harmony with nature. It has been

110 assumed that Manipuri dance is the artifact of the nature worship of Aryans.

The origin of Manipuri is to be found in a legend. Roughly five centuries ago, there was famine among the Naga tribes of Manipur in the far Eastern corner of India, believed to be brought about by evil spirits. Then the Goddess of power is believed to have appeared before the tribal chief, advising him that the calamity could be banished by worshiping the Gods through music and dance. Then all the people of the community, young and old, joined in the ceremony, their joyous celebration putting the demons to flight, and a rich harvest being their reward.

Manipuri dances are usually performed at springtime during the Vasanta-Utsava and Holi festivals (festival of colours).

The Ras-Leela has been a popular theme of Manipuri dance. Manipuri is soft and graceful dance form. The ^ dances appear like corn stirring in the breeze, or, waves rippling in soft undulations. They are as one with

111 nature.

In Manipuri the village girls seem to absorb dancing with their mother's milk. It seems that they have the natural abilities and grace and ease necessary for this dance. Their natural ability is encouraged and developed in various state-supported institutions. This is the only part of India where such a system prevails. Every Manipuri village has a temple dedicated either to Chaitanya, a dancing Saint, or to Krishna. Attached to each temple is a dancing hall known as a nauch ghar.

The musical accompaniment to Manipuri dances is played on an instrument rather like a guitar called Khol, and the Mridangam and Dholak.

12 The costumes are very charming and colourful. The women wear a tight-fitting conical cap, knitted with a border of synthetic pearls, under a thin white covering. A tight-fitting blouse is usually of velvet, with tight sleeves knitted with gold embroidery. The ghagra is of yellow, red, or green colour, with a wide border at bottom of the skirt that consists of a design of glitter. The material used for costume is usually silk and velvet. Tiny mirrors are scattered all over the skirt, which has a transparent garment over it, which is embroidered with silver thread. When the dancers spin around, the flashing mirrors reflect the light that produces a striking effect. The male dancer wears a dhoti with embroidered bands across his chest ending in flaps that fall over both hips.

The Ras dances go on for several hours at a stretch. Generally they are presented on the poems of Jayadeva or Meerabai. Manipuri dancers firmly believe that when they dance the gods come down on earth to join their festivities.

Manipuri owes much of its popularity to the revivalist efforts of Rabindranath Tagore, who used this technique for his musical plays at Shantiniketan. Rabindranath Tagore encouraged the art and pupils and invited Naba Kumar, one of its best exponents to teach them. Still Manipuri can be found in most original manner like Kathakali. It has also remained untouched from foreign aggressions.

13 5. Kuchipudi:

>^^ Kuchipudi's GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

The dance is named after the village of its birth, Kuchelapuram or Kuseelavapuri in Andhra Pradesh. The Kuseelavas were groups of actors going from village to village. Kuchipudi is the informal rendering of the Sanskrit term Kuseelavapuri.

Kuchipudi is dominantly a dance-drama in which different episodes from Indian mythology are taken up and enacted. The

14 technique of Kuchipudi Dance very closely resembles the theory put down in 'Natya Shastra'.

Kuchipudi dance form may be traced back to the dance dramas enacted by Brahmins in temples. It was traditionally a male preserve. In the 14" century, the Southern parts of India were ruled by a succession of dynasties committed to propagation of art and literature. The rulers not only gave land and money to Gurus and performers of art, but also paid for the upkeep of several hundred-temple dancers, the Rajanartikas and Devadasis. Around this time (some scholars date this a hundred and fifty years earlier); there came a young orphaned boy called Siddappa to Srikakulam (Krishna District in Andhra Pradesh). Nothing was known about him except that since childhood he had followed dance troupes wherever they went. Falling asleep one afternoon, he dreamt that the Lord Krishna was dancing on his body. He awoke screaming "Krishna Krishna" and started searching widely for the Lord. At that time he was staying in a Math built by Swami Narahari Tirtha. He was a wise and farsighted man. He calmed the child and realizing that he was not an ordinary child, and sent him to the main Math at Udipi for religious instructions. After some years he settled in the village of Kuchelapuram and started teaching. Here, he instructed Brahmin boys in devotional dance dramas based upon religious themes. These religious plays were presented as offerings to God in the tradition of the Natya Shastra.

15 The Vijaynagar kings patronized this dance form, as did the Golkonda rulers after them. Some of the leading families of the Kuchipudi dancers were given land shares in the village. Gurus of these families have preserved and handed the art and traditions down the generations.

The dance is accompanied with Carnatic music (Music in South India) with instruments like Mridangam, flute and violin. The best thing about dance drama is that no matter which state it belongs to or which language it is in, it can be understood by each and every spectator.

Kuchipudi, however, remained confined to remote village temples of Andhra Pradesh till the early 20'^ century when a renowned Guru and artist Balasaraswathi helped to bring it out of obscurity. The strictly male preserve was brought to the people by famous female dancers - ,

116 , . Raja and Radha are famous husband and wife team excelling in Kuchipudi.

6. Odissi:

ODISSI'S GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

The Odissi (Orissi) dance is the Indian classical dance form from the eastern state of Orissa. It has a long, yet broken tradition. Although the dance form Odissi may be traced back to more than 2000 years, it was brought to near extinction during the colonial period. Therefore, modern Odissi dance is a reconstruction.

17 HISTORY

Like other forms of Indian classical dance, the Odissi style traces its origins back to antiquity. The Natya Shastra speaks of the dance from Orissa region and refers to it as Odra-Magadhi.

Over the centuries three schools of Odissi dance developed: Mahari, Nartaki, and Gotipau.

1. The Mahari tradition is the Devadasi tradition; this is practiced by the women attached to deities in the temple. 2. The Nartaki tradition is the school of Odissi dance, which has been developed in the royal courts. 3. Gotipau is a style characterized by the use of young boys dressed up in female clothing to perform female roles.

Odissi dance was holding high esteem before the 17th century. Nobility were known for their patronage of the arts, and it was not unheard of for royalty of both sexes to be accomplished dancers. However, after the 17th century, the social position of dancers began to decline. Dancing girls were considered to be little more than prostitutes, and the "Anti-Nautch" movement of the British brought Odissi dance to near extinction.

118 Before Independence, the position of Odissi dance was very pitiable. The tradition of dancing girls at the temple at Puri was abolished. In the British Rule the royal patronage of Nartaki had been severely eroded. The only viable Odissi tradition was the Gotipau. This had battered the British Anti-Nauch movement simply because it was danced by males. Yet even the Gotipau tradition was in a very bad state.

Independence brought a major change in the attitudes of officials toward ian Dance. Like the other classical arts, dance was seen as a way to define ia's national identity. Governmental and non-governmental patronage reased. The few remaining Odissi dancers were given employment, and a ssive job of reconstructing the Odissi dance began.

119 There were a number of people who have worked for the reconstruction and popularization of Odissi dance. Most notable among them are Guru Deba Prasad Das, Guru , Guru , Guru Mahadev Rout, Guru Raghu Dutta, and Guru Kelu Charan Mahapatra.

Today once again Odissi dance has become a popular classical dance form.

THEMES

The themes of Odissi are almost exclusively religious in nature. They most commonly revolve around Krishna. Although the worship of Krishna is found throughout India, there are local themes, which are emphasized. The Ashtapadi's of Jayadeva are a very common theme.

This survey of folk and classical dance in India helped the researcher to know the categories of Indian dancing and the tradition and significance of Indian dancing in Indian society. It can be said that all the classical dance styles are becoming professional dances and dancers the professional artists. Still they are trying to maintain traditions and purity as far as possible.

120 Kathak dance has some special features that impressed the researcher to study it as a representative of classical dance in India.

121