Exploring the Relationship Between Outer Space and World Politics: English School and Regime Theory Perspectives Jill Stuart A thesis submitted to the Department of International Relations of the London School of Economics and Political Science for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in International Relations UMI Number: U615931 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Dissertation Publishing UMI U615931 Published by ProQuest LLC 2014. Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code. ProQuest LLC 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 Author Declaration I certify that the thesis I have presented for examination for the MPhil/PhD degree of the London School of Economics and Political Science is solely my own work other than where I have clearly indicated that it is the work of others (in which case the extent of any work carried out jointly by me and any other person is clearly identified in it). The copyright of this thesis rests with the author. Quotation from it is permitted, provided that full acknowledgement is made. This thesis may not be reproduced without the prior written consent of the author. I warrant that this authorization does not, to the best of my belief, infringe the rights of any third party. I Jill Stuart Abstract This thesis uses regime theory and the English School of International Relations (and particularly the social constructivist reformulation by Buzan in From International to World Society: English School Theory and the Social Structure o f Globalisation 2004) to address the question: Why have actors decided to cooperate on outer space issues, and what does that cooperation tell us about wider international politics and international society? Rational actors have at times determined that it is in their interest to coordinate activity for outer space. This coordination has led (either intentionally or unintentionally) to the creation of international regimes, and those regimes have conversely come to exert influence over actors’ interests and behavior over time. Processes within international society (such as the rise, evolution, and decline of international society institutions, and shifts between pluralism and solidarism) also influence—and are influenced by—outer space politics. The thesis focuses on five case studies: geosynchronous orbit, the International Space Station, Global Navigational Satellite Systems, the company Sea Launch, and comets and asteroids. Pre-existing outer space treaties (“diffuse regimes”) have established basic understandings between states about governance over outer space, and implicit or explicit regimes have also evolved to facilitate coordination amongst actors on the specific issue- areas of each case study. The tools used by regime theorists help explain the development of these various regimes and the relationship between them; however, because of regime theory’s relatively narrow focus (on actors’ rational interests in specific issue-areas) it provides few insights into how outer space politics are embedded in wider world politics and international society. An English School approach expands the analysis and puts into perspective how the Space Race was mutually constitutive of Cold War pluralist international society, and how space cooperation and commercialization over time also reflected and reinforced globalization and cooperative international society. However it is extremely difficult to operationalize the English School in order to draw more specific explanatory conclusions about individual case studies. It is necessary to use both approaches together to develop a thorough explanation of actors’ behavior with regards to outer space politics, as well as an understanding of how outer space politics relate to wider world politics. I«^|8@W^Sc*nc© Acknowledgements “See, in all our searching, the only thing we've found that makes the emptiness bearable, is each other.” —Alien to astronaut in the movie Contact (based on the book by cosmologist Carl Sagan) It is often said that writing a PhD is a lonely experience. I feel incredibly lucky that this has never been the case for me. I have felt my family, friends, colleagues, and mentors with me at every step of this project. What follows in the 95,000 words of this thesis is my own responsibility—but I would never have gotten to the point of submitting them without each of you. It is perhaps strange to start with those who never read much of what I wrote.. .but who absolutely believed in me anyway: The “K105/H318 crew” at the LSE regularly helped to build me up and put things in perspective when I was down. I am so grateful for all the support and also all of the laughs over the years. Fellow students such as Stephanie Carvin, Karen Barnes, and Kirsten Ainley helped me at many times with their honesty about the highs and lows of the PhD processes— thank you for helping me see that I wasn’t crazy, but simply “a PhD student” (which doesn’t always lend itself to sanity). Many people kept me motivated by patiently reading draft chapters, giving excellent feedback, and simply engaging in conversations over the years. I am grateful to Peter Wilson and Barry Buzan for the generous time they gave me in early stages of the thesis. The students and staff of the International Relations and Government Departments at the LSE provided inspiration with their own passion and also feedback on my work—both in serious seminars and over drinks, alike. The informal network of outer space and International Relations researchers served to challenge and also inspire me in our common interest. To my family: You are my backbone, my foundation. I thank you for loving me, supporting me, and being proud of me for what I’ve achieved—but more importantly, for loving me, supporting me, and being proud of me, regardless of what I’ve achieved. Finally, I want to acknowledge the two people who were most involved in this project: my supervisor Professor Kimberly Hutchings and my partner Craig MacDonald. I am incredibly lucky and privileged to have shared in each of your knowledge, advice, support, sympathy, understanding, wisdom, motivation, and friendship. To Kim: thank you for your constant academic support and extra emotional support when I needed it. To Craig: thank you for your constant emotional support and extra academic support when I needed it. I am forever grateful to you both. Table of Contents Author Declaration i Abstract ii Acknowledgements Hi Table of Contents iv Acronyms vii Chapter 1: Introduction 1 Main Question 4 Local and Global Commons 6 Outer Space Law: An Overview 9 Regime Theory 12 Different Regime Theory Strands 15 Applications of Regime Theory to Outer Space Politics 19 The English School 22 Institutions 24 Applications of the English School Approach to Outer Space Politics 35 Regime Theory and the English School: Similarities and Differences 36 Thesis Plan 40 Application of the Regime Theory Approach 41 Application of the English School Approach 41 Chapter Outline 43 Chapter 2: Geosynchronous Orbit 47 The Inception of Outer Space Governance: What and Why? 48 Geostationary Satellites 53 GSO Radio-Frequency Usage: Why and How to Coordinate? 54 GSO Orbital Placement: Why and How to Coordinate? 58 Controversy Regarding GSO Governance 60 Bogota Declaration 65 Interim Outcomes o f GSO Governance Challenges 69 A More Specific GSO Regime with Shifting Principles 72 Resolution of GSO Governance Issues: Bogota Declaration 73 Resolution of GSO Governance Issues: Efficiency versus Equality 75 After Resolution 80 Current Situation and Speculation About the Future 84 Conclusion 86 Chapter 3: The International Space Station 88 Early Motivations for and Understandings of Space Stations 89 Early Competition and Cooperation 93 iv Space Station Freedom: Why and How to Cooperate? 95 Space Station Freedom: A Specific Regime Embedded in Diffuse Regimes 99 The Early Space Station Regime 103 The International Institutional Context and “Big Science” 105 From Space Station Freedom to the International Space Station 106 Changes to the Regime: What and Why? ■ 110 The ISS: What Financial and Political Price Tag? 112 The Influence of Interdependence 114 The Evolving ISS Regime: Open for Business? 116 Reflections of Globalization? 120 Current Situation and Speculation about the Future 121 Conclusion 122 Chapter 4: Global Navigational Satellites 124 GPS: An American Project Embedded in International Regimes 125 GPS: A Free Global Public Good 126 GPS: An International Regime? 128 Galileo 131 US Reactions to Galileo: What and Why? 135 Reconciling GPS and Galileo 139 Expanded Galileo Membership 142 Current Situation and Speculation about the Future 144 Conclusion 146 Chapter 5: Sea Launch 148 The Market and Outer Space Commercialization 149 Smooth Sailing: Sea Launch Prepares for Business 154 The Regulatory and Institutional Context 160 Regime Characteristics? 162 Rough Waters: Controversy Regarding Sea Launch 163 A Reflection of World Society? 165 The Interstate Domain Reasserted 168 After the storm: Sea Launch Becomes Operational 171 Current Situation and Speculation about the Future 175 Conclusion 177