RECLAIMING VOICES COLONISATION OF THE NAVAJO LANGUAGE

JESSICA NASSIF JESSICA

2020 / II WAR WORLD DURING 1. John Woo, WindTalkers, INTRODUCTION (MGM Home Entertainment,2002).

2. The Code Talkers exploits The blockbuster Hollywood movie were only recognised for the first time in 1968. Windtalkers1 takes place during WWII in the Pacific Islands. A U.S Marine, played 3. Suzanne Broderick, Real War vs. Reel War: Veterans, by Nicolas Cage, is painted as the tormented Hollywood, and WWII, American hero assigned as the bodyguard (Rowman & Littlefield, 2015), p. 88. of a Navajo Code Talker, the Marine secret “human” cryptologic weapon. His only mission is to protect the code at all costs, even if it requires killing a Code Talker. Inspired by true events, the story directed by John Woo was released in 2002, a year after the Code Talkers program was declassified and became public knowledge. They were publicly acknowledged and were awarded a medal by President G.W. Bush in an expression of gratitude.2 The Code Talkers were a group of Navajo Marines during WWII. They designed a code based on their mother tongue and used it as a cryptologic tool during WWII against U.S enemies. The movie was supposed to portray the Code Talkers, but focuses instead on two white male leads, contrary to the historical facts. Even if it is a fiction for the film industry, Woo misrepresents the Navajo Code Talkers’ merits as well as many details depicting the Navajo lifestyle and facts, especially the story plot of a code talker being assigned a bodyguard. According to Code Talkers Roy Begay and Chester Nez, they never had bodyguards, and no one ever died trying to protect the code.3 How does a language, such as the Navajo language, rendered almost extinct 02 Reclaiming VoicesReclaiming INTRODUCTION 03 Code Talkers Paulin A. is alsotold by Doris welfare withnoconditions. project Native asa thatisusuallydepicted Americans ofIndianAdministrationby on theBureau areformJohn Collier’s “New installed Deal”, of understandingoftheconsequences better Affairs World War II:Toward aNew Era inIndian Bishop Franco Nation. Thebooks theU.S between relationship andtheNavajo ofview andmentionsrapidly the point Code is thefirstandonlymemoirofa Talker. Talker, Nez. Chester ofthebiographyrelease ofoneNavajo Code widelyknown more withthe2018 become libraries. Recently, Talkers’ theCode have US from come oftheresources and most Very few available, are primarysources archives.Arizona, andtheMarineCorps archives inUtah,College Park,StLouis, Talkers to theCode tonational isspecific not widelyknown, andtheinformation linked Talkers.Code Talkers’ TheCode storyisstill by theNavajo designed and uncover thecode Reclaiming Voices isanattempt torecover machines weremachines attheirpeak? and breakers duringWWII,whilecryptology makers ascode and inhumansbeings inlanguages, suchaninterest there weapon ontheU.S. military?Andwhy was government thetreasured laterbecome oftheU.S.by policies thecolonialist The history of the Code Talkers’The history oftheCode apersonal thestoryfrom He recalls 6 by Alison R. Bernstein gave byBernstein mea AlisonR. 7 andby McClainin Sally 5 andA Crossing thepond The Code Talker merican Indians and merican Indiansand

The Navajo

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dissertation ofthegranddaughter ofCarl It’sof thecode. onlyin2019, inthe they thecreation didn’twritemuch about first handmanyCode of Talkers. However, tointerview hadtheopportunity Islands. Both intervention Talkers by theCode inthePacific andfocus oneach standpoint historical Weapon. There was no comparison between a device a device wasThere between nocomparison vulnerabilities ofvarious cryptologicdevices. were the different discussed comparisons toarticles, theonly thesis, books from IhaveIn alltheresearch done for thisMaster Talkers.Code examplesnone ofthose of thesubject broach Language Harry Hoijer and Navaho language The PhonologyandMorphology ofthe W.Robert Young andWilliam Morgan, theNavajoconsulted Dictionarywrittenby understand thecomplex Navajo semantics, I tobeauty,regards nature, andart. to In order ramifications oftheNavajo language with Universe writings the Navajo language. Witherspoon’s Gary tounderstand theinnerlogicof I needed To understandwhy worked, andhow thecode theendofconflict. through the code thefirstdiscussions about from happened, made ithermissiontounderstandwhat wasof thecode) extensively covered. She part ofthemission(thecreation that thefirst Talkers, oneoftheoriginalCode Gorman, 10 8 Language andArt intheNavajo In their books, both defend both a Intheirbooks, explains thecultural andideological 12 by Margaret Speas. However, by Speas. Margaret 11 Phrase Structure inNatural by Edward and Sapir

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Publishers, 1990). Language Phrase Structure inNatural Speas, 12. Margaret California Press, 1967). Language, Morphology oftheNavaho Hoijer, 11. Edward Sapir, andHarry of Michigan Press, 1977). Navajo Universe Language andArt inthe 10. Witherspoon, Gary of New Mexico, 2014). TheUniversity (Albuquerque: II, TheFirstTwenty-Nine, Code Talkers ofWorld War 9. ZonnieGorman, Publishers, 2002). Talkers Weapon: theNavajo Code 8. McClain, Sally 1973). Publishing, Dorrance Code Talkers, 7. Paul, A. Doris Press, 1991). University ofOklahoma in IndianAffairs War II:Toward aNewEra American IndiansandWorld 6. Bernstein, AlisonR. Press, 1999). II, American Effort inWorld War Crossing thePond: theNative 5. BishopFranco, Jere 2018), unpaged. (Toronto: DuttonCaliber, Avila,Schiess 4. Nez,andJudith Chester (University ofNorthTexas , (Tucson: RioNuevo The Phonologyand , (Kluwer Academic (University of (Pittsburgh: Code Talker, , (University , (Norman: The Navajo Navajo The Navajo

04 Reclaiming VoicesReclaiming INTRODUCTION 05 molded into a disruptive tool. intoadisruptivemolded tool. identityoftheNavajostrong language, they language.existing, oppressed Alongwith the anew outofan them toconstruct vocabulary Talkers theCode The concept allows designed function, butit’s toproduce. amedium identity.” nothasafix somethingthatdoes about of knowledge wethen, can abody establish changing.an activitythatisconstantly How down pinned like is Design be butterfies.can notsignifyaclass that ofobjects does design Iwantputs it“thepoint tomake isthat here History attheUniversity ofIllinois, Chicago, Victor Margolin, Professor EmeritusofDesign init’sunderstand design sensoras broader Code 29 first Talkers designers.were If we Talkers toothercryptologicdevices. topic, oftheCode aswell asacomparison Talkers, themain withthelanguage being thestoryofCode talksThis thesis about achallenged relation. becomes warfare.element ofmodern Theman-machine development forces asakey ofmechanized putininnovationthe amountofmeans and inthemilitarysector, applied be regarding it’squestions expansion. achievements however ofmecanization, Gieldonhighlightsallthe (1948), Siegfried In hisbook effectivemore andrelevant thanmachines. waswas thatahumanbeing atitspeak, in theturmoilofWWII,whenengineering Nevertheless, toobserve that itisinteresting Talkers.and thecryptologyofCode I alsoraise thehypothesis, thatthe 14 Design is not limited toaform isnotlimited or Design Mecanization Takes Command 13 This reflection can can This reflection

concepts relating tonature. relating system Adesign concepts which didn’texist intheir language, into ofthemilitaryvocabulary, theconcepts coined ones. They intopositive such asbombs, words asnegatively connotated considered asystem thattransformedcreate whatthey Navajos andidentityto theirbeliefs stillused Talkers however language used asa military of information anddisinformation. TheCode source aprecious were considered and speech forms ofspies. Language possible toadviseagainstthe different cartoons and posters silent by usingpropaganda The government to stay encouraged people devices. coding theuseofthese through information ofdelicate communication governments,most the hadtosecure was oral, theU.S government, like communication to humanspies. most Since andwiretapping technological devices information from techniques collection Talkers. theCode isnothingabout there in theNationalCryptologicMuseum.Andyet, exhibited during WWIIare collected messages mechanically, devices allthese anddecode tocode Created the Americans). by andSIGABAPURPLE (used Japan), by (used bydevice ENIGMA(used theGermans), thecryptologic of WWII.They outstripped codes unbreakable oneofthemost to be Talkersthe Code invention isstillconsidered at thetime. accurate thanany cryptologicdevices that revealed itselfstronger, andmore potent Tempted by Western Culture, the WWII instigated avarietyWWII instigated of cryptology, whenresearching Indeed,

Midal, Essays,” 220, inAlexandra in Studies tory andDesign 14. His Margolin, “Design 2019), p. 70. Accidentby 13. Alexandra Midal, op. cit. , (Stenberg Press, , (Stenberg Design - 06 Reclaiming VoicesReclaiming INTRODUCTION 07 American-English, the U.S has imposed their the U.S their American-English, hasimposed diversity, ofpromoting Instead through language used in thedigitalspace. the most english,which the world isalso whospeak over allovercount from 1.5 billionpeople dominant, to make theEnglishlanguage globally Churchill andFranklin D. Roosevelt 1940s,and soon.Intheearly Winston invented, language, such as theCreole thatwere countries, those by colonised theworld, thatwerearound modified those thedifferentshe discloses found englishes vanNicoline Harskamp. Inhercourse, Englishes While writingmy anMOOC- thesis, Itook by artificialintelligence. and understood in theworld, allofwhich spoken are habits. speaking from learning on deep andisconverted totext based is recorded to citejustafew. Without notice, thespeech –Alexa, Home,space andSiri, Google intheintimate intelligence present constantly withartificial equipped andare microphones Phones, contain computers, andsmartobjects actingasmundanespies. technological tools themselves ornot-with –consciously surround The majorityofhumanbeings surveillance, butitisvery different. tovisualanddata compared is oftenignored society.in apanoptic However, sound isnodoubtthatweThere live currently even world.resonates now inourcontemporary was notonlyinstrumentalduringthewar, it andsound ofthemeaning Thecapture tool. Nowadays, 24mainlanguages are there 16 15 course proposed by theartist proposed course which today. isthecase We can

aimed aimed

15

fingerprints collection but rather through but fingerprintsrather through collection at the Copenhagen Business School, argues argues School, Business at theCopenhagen Professor Phillipson, Emeritus Robert slowly todisappear. andcontinue native most languagesglobalisation, have andtoday’show colonisations duetopast universal language andlifestyle. makingitacompelling andcodes, culture document) to a2008agencyreveal files (according her voice. TheEdward Snowden whistleblower onthis/ based only find theidentityofsomeone own in1985, citizens. Beginning theFBI could enemy, theU.S government eavesdrops onits exclusive power for thesurveilling entities. an internationalhomogeneity andtherefore the language. thesamelanguages creates Speaking by andsurveillance through globalisation posed andissues salientproblematics contemporary the studyhighlightsandconnects case Talkers inWWII,theCode Implemented andcommercialisation. economics, as politics, theinvisiblefrom forces ofpower such not todetach theuseofEnglish language important thatitwouldhis readers be economy.of global warns Phillipson andexpandare thevalues ofanideology with theNavajo language. Theoutcomes toEnglishlike ithappen in opposition countries, native languagesneglected are incolonised systems,schools especially ineducation due tohierarchisation processes languages, it’s un-problematic. Nevertheless, inadditiontoother that ifEnglishislearned In addition to eavesdropping on the In additiontoeavesdropping onthe It isnotnew toexplore anditiseasy 18 thatitwas dataor notthrough

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17. com/364776000. (2019), www.vimeo. Imperialism,” onLinguistic Phillipson Harskamp,“Robert 16. Van Nicoline es-mooc.org/. www.englishMOOC,” Harskamp, “Englishes 15. Van Nicoline Ibidem. Vimeo , - 08 Reclaiming VoicesReclaiming INTRODUCTION 09 well asthe fight versus man andthe machine. language regarding andvoice as globalisation by power posed ofpolitical highlights issues Talkersto WWII,theCode studycase For reasons, even allthese back ifitdates his artwork entitled AbuHamdan’sLawrence demonstration in the speaker. ofartist Itiswhatatthecore recorded. being person withouttheknowledgeremotely ofthe passively and collected features. be Itcan toDNAorfacialor change compared human voicedifficulttohide ismore and gender-based onavoice sample. The a determinetheage,sentence nationality, andthetimeittakes tosay pronounced, are voice. explicit, More theway thephonemes andtoneof accent theinflection, to record able programsare these andretained; analysed nottheonlyelementsthatwereare recorded, surveillance. AgencySecurity (NSA)much ofits conducted voiceprints thattheNational identification an individualidentity? voice andlanguage define, reveal, or expose Therefore, we wonder: can towhatextent do ofthevisual. dominance pervasive, ofthe ourperception despite thatis all wesince lack anaudio-culture Voices rejected. betray,be even so more asylum,orifthey granted should tobe need which from acountry theythey from come their voice andlanguage todetermineif on which through immigrantstested are theprocess (2012). Hamdanexposes Today speech andvoiceToday actsagainst speech

The contents ofaconversationThe contents Conflicted Phonemes 19

Hopi, andsoon. Wampanoag, Cherokee, Seminole, Navajo, nations, such astheNavajo, Hopi, in thetext, ofdifferent Irefer tohundreds Whenever Iusetheterm“Native American” Note: and itscultural ramifications. Navajoof thedisappearing language lightonthesingularity toshed tries Nation.“Reclaiming Voices”or colonised and thepsychology ofadecimated tounderstandthecomplexity I don’tproclaim as primitive. Iuseitastheformer. oforiginoritisconnoted as intheplace or negative attribution;either“native” However, have “Native” can positive both given anoutsider’s from perspective. and cultural sensitivity. It’s anattribution toitspolitical withregards is stilldebated The useoftheterm“Native American”

nology-nsa/. voice-recognition-tech cept.com/2018/01/19/ www.theinterunpaged, The Intercept ‘NSA Reigns Supreme,’” Voice the Identification, to - WhenItComes SiriandAlexaAbout 19. Ava Kofman, “Forget org/public/search/. www.documentcloud. nition,” 18. “NSA Recog Speaker DocumentCloud , (2018), - - , - RE

CLAICOLONISATION OF THE NAVAJO LANGUAGE

MINGDURING WORLD WAR II VOI

CESJESSICA-MARIA NASSIF WA R M E S T THANK YOU to Alexandra, for our long talks, her advice and her contagious passion, to Noam, for introducing me to the Code Talkers’ story, to Celia, for her relentless support, to Oliver, for his corrections, to my co-Trojans, Helena, Jeanne and Netillo, for knowing I can always count on them, to my Mom, Celia and Melissa, for being my pillars. CONTENT . 16 17 Introduction pp. 1-9

Reclaiming Voices I. Spotlight on the Oppressed Navajo language pp. 18-35 — The Navajo language oppressed by the U.S — Appropriation of the Navajo language

II. Colonisation of the Navajo language for the international cryptologic war pp. 36-59 — The Code Talkers — Controversy: A sacred language used as a weapon

III. The Navajo Code: A vital weapon during WWII pp. 60-73 — The Code Talkers in training — The Pacific Theatre — Back in motherland

Conclusion pp. 74-79

Sources pp. 80-85 CONTENT SPOTLIGHT ON THE OPPRESSED I. N AVA J O L A N G UA G E 1.“War of Secrets: enemy’s cryptologic system and decode every Cryptology in 20 21 The Navajo language message. WWII.” National Museum of the United States Air oppressed by the U.S Force™, 1 May 2015, Apart from arming themselves with cypher unpaged, https://www. Reclaiming Voices nationalmuseum.af.mil/ machines, both sides also had English- Visit/Museum-Exhibits/ Japanese speaking soldiers and spies to Fact-Sheets/Display/ Article/196193/war-of-se- MAGIC CRYPTOLOGY intercept radio communications, since not all crets-cryptology-in-wwii. communications were encrypted. 2. Cipher Machines, In December 1941, the United States military Covert listening was one of the main ways unpaged, https://cipher- knew of a possible imminent attack that enemies learned government secrets and machines.com/purple. by the Japanese army, but didn’t know so even speech was regarded as a potentially 3. Ibidem. 1 the target. They had developed “Magic,” dangerous activity if one was not careful. 4. “Protecting the Army a cryptanalysis project which was mainly Propaganda posters were designed to advise Communication,” Army 2 Code Talkers - Native used to decode “PURPLE,” the code name caution when talking, or even keeping silent, Americans in the United assigned by the Americans to the Japanese and cartoons were designed with creative States Army, https://www. army.mil/americanindi- cipher machine used to encrypt its diplomatic eavesdropping tools to advise everyone, even ans/code_talkers.html. messages. “PURPLE” was based on the Enigma children, against all-pervasive spies. machine, a gift from the Germans, whose code was broken in secret in 1930 by Polish and German mathematicians who were able, with LANGUAGE, AN the help of cryptanalysts, to replicate ENCRYPTING TOOL? the Enigma device. However, the Japanese army was at that time using different methods for During WWI, many of the Comanche Indian sending encrypted messages such as “JN-25”, languages, such as Choctaw, Cheyenne, the cryptological device used for military Osage, and Yankton Sioux, were used as communication3, therefore the U.S couldn’t coded messages.4 Since these languages were decode all their military communications. unheard of in Europe, communication between During WWII, wireless radio was the best Native Americans was an easy and effective means of transmitting information for secret communication that adversaries military forces around the world. One of the couldn’t, which prevented assaults and most critical issues of this mission, and of the disclosure of troop movement without WWII more generally, was to avoid message the need for encryption. The instability of The Navajo Language oppressed by the U.S oppressed Language The Navajo interceptions and eavesdropping by using Europe during the interwar period set the

I. SPOTLIGHT ON THE OPPRESSED THE ON I. SPOTLIGHT N AVA J O L A N— G UA G E an encrypted communication tool to discuss stage for WWII which cause a large influx of military intelligence and strategies during Japanese and German scholars to the United combat, as well as finding ways to break the States to learn and familiarize themselves with 10 5. Robert Young (1912 – Comanche Indians languages. of the reservation in Fort Wingate, 2007), professor of 22 23 In September 1940, Robert Young5 wrote Robert Young and William Morgan,11 two linguistics at the University of New Mexico a letter to the Secretary of War, Henry Americans linguists, developed bilingual was an American linguist L. Stimson, in which he proposed the texts and a bilingual dictionary, creating known for his study on Reclaiming Voices the Navajo language. development of a secure communication the first common phonological alphabet. network with Native Americans, using 20 Since the treaty of Fort Laramie with the 6. Zonnie Gorman, op. cit., pp. 12-16. or more Native American languages as United States Federal Government in 1868, 7. Philip Johnson (1892 - part of their communication to confuse different attempts were made to create a 1978) was a 50-year-old eavesdroppers. Young’s was thanked and Navajo vocabulary list. Some missionaries engineer in L.A. who had served in the war at the acknowledged by Major General E.S Adams, tried to design an alphabet over the years, 319th Engineers District Adjutant General, U.S Army, but no further but none were consistent and most were in France. He proposed 6 the idea of using the Na- action was taken. However, two years later, too different from one another because vajo language as a Navajo in 1942, Philip Johnston7 approached the the Navajo language was not built on a code in the Pacific during World War II. Marine Corps about the particularity of the Latin alphabet12 and had a tonal quality Navajo language and its potential use for and complex phonetics that were very 8. Clayton B. Vogel, Commanding General to coded communication. As well as not having different from the English language or API The Commandant, U.S. Marine Corps, Memo- been used during WWI, it was also the only phonetics. Since the Navajo dialect didn’t randum, 6 March 1942, Native American reservation that hadn’t been have a direct translation to the Latin unpaged. 8 “infected” by Japanese and Germans scholars. alphabet or phonetics, every proposed 9. Sally McClain, As a child, Philip Johnston grew up learning translation differed from the others. op. cit., pp. 24-25. 9 Navajo languages, rituals, culture and songs. 10. Fort Wingate, He was the son of a protestant missionary, Katarina Zdjelar,13 an artist researching New Mexico. William Riley Johnston, and was stationed processes of learning new languages 11. William Morgan was with his family in the Navajo reservation since claims “There are no sounds that are a Navajo Scholar. In the 1930s, John Collier, the the age of four. unfamiliar to the human ear, but it’s head of Indian Affairs and Willard Beatty, the head of trained in such a way that it cannot Indian Education, decided recognise to be able pronounce them”14 that a standard Navajo If Katarina Zdjelar doesn’t deny that a alphabet was needed and N AVA J O, they commissioned John human being might have heard sounds not Harrington, Robert Young, William Morgan and A COMPLEX LANGUAGE found in the phonological lexicon of his Oliver LaFarge to create the known languages, however, she emphasis alphabet, and to publish Navajo language materials. Telling stories was a pivotal part of on the fact that their analysis might not By 1939, the new alphabet was finished and during transmitting Navajo heritage since their be enough to imitate them. In the Navajo the 1940s the first bilingual The Navajo Language oppressed by the U.S oppressed Language The Navajo languages did not have alphabets and language, the phonetics and sounds are primers, Navajo language children’s books, a modern I. SPOTLIGHT ON THE OPPRESSED THE ON I. SPOTLIGHT N AVA J O L A N— G UA G E were officially non-written languages until very unique, and therefore very hard to dictionary, and a monthly 1940. In 1937 however, after studying learn for non-natives. The Navajo language newsletter were published. the Navajo language in the vicinity is categorised as a tonal language with 12. Unfortunately, this four tones, high, low, low-rising and falling structural lexical system. Regarding the alphabet was not popular 24 25 as well as using glottal15 and aspirated Navajo language, if the person designated among the Navajo. (See Diné Bizaad), https:// 16 stops. Children are socially trained to in the sentence, is part of the family circle, www.omniglot.com/writ- express themselves in the language of he is described by kinship terms as “my ing/navajo.htm. Reclaiming Voices their community, they listen, imitate oldest maternal nephew.” 13. Katarina Zdjelar (Belgrade, 1979) is an and reproduce the sounds they hear, The syntax of a mundane sentence artist based in Rotterdam. appropriating it as their own. However, in English is constructed as followed: first Her practice consists of working with moving being confronted with the imperative to the subject, then verb and usually it ends image and sound, perfor- express sounds they have not mastered with the object. In the Japanese language, mances, book projects and creating different or are unfamiliar with requires a different the object comes before the verb and in the platforms for speculation use of the muscles to reinvent the way to Navajo language, it depends on the context. and exchange. shape air into sounds.17 Navajo is not a The verb stem depends on the object acted 14. Deidre M. Donoghue et al., Resonant Bodies, language that can be learned easily if it’s upon, and the subject is sometimes inverted Voices, Memories in Anke not learned while growing up. with the object.21 Having a random order Bangma (ed.), (Rotter- dam: Piet Zwart Institute, makes it harder to decode for Japanese 2009), pp. 147-156. In 1942, only a few Americans had studied and English since they are used to a more 15. Glottal stop, in Navajo, and the ones who were able to consistent word order. phonetics, is a mo- speak it were unable to speak with native The semantic intentions are also mentary check on the airstream caused by 18 proficiency. Philip Johnson stated different between the three languages. In closing the glottis (the space between the that the Navajo language is “completely English, the personal pronouns which are vocal cords) and thereby unintelligible to all other tribes and all most used are “I”, “me”, “you” “them.” stopping the vibration of the vocal cords. other people, with the possible exception However, the Japanese communicate Upon release, there is a of as many as 28 Americans who have depending on the social dynamics and slight choke, or cough- like explosive sound. made a study of the dialect” in his the structure of the society. For example, The glottal stop is not encounter with General James E. Jones, seniority requests a young person talking a separate phoneme (or distinctive sound) in 19 Area Signal officer at Camp Elliot. with respect to his elder. Yet, in Navajo English. See The Editors Comparing the three languages language, those semantics intention are in of Encyclopaedia Bri- tannica,“Glottal Stop,” English, Navajo and in the context of the regards to nature and ancestral practice. Encyclopædia Britanni- ca, Inc., 20 July 1998, war, Japanese; there are more similarities https://www.britannica. between Navajo and Japanese than Navajo com/topic/glottal-stop.

and English, considering that both are 16. For example, con- tonal languages and both have an open CONTAMINATIONS, sonant sounds such as the English voiceless honorific tone compared to English, EXCHANGE stops p, t, and k at the The Navajo Language oppressed by the U.S oppressed Language The Navajo which is deprived of honorific tone.20 beginning of words (e.g., “pat,” “top,” “keel”)

I. SPOTLIGHT ON THE OPPRESSED THE ON I. SPOTLIGHT N AVA J O L A N— G UA G E For example, American English uses The statement made by Philip Johnson are aspirated because they are pronounced with tone of voice to imply the power/status “that the Navajo language is completely an accompanying forceful relationship, however the Japanese use a unintelligible to all other tribes and all other expulsion of air. “Aspirate.” Ibidem, people” was recently described as inaccurate “Long Walk”, the first Navajo tragedy. Nearly https://www.britannica. 26 27 by Zonnie Gorman, the granddaughter one third of those who interned there died com/topic/aspirate. 25 of one of the Code Talkers, in her master of disease, exposure and hunger. Moreover, 17. Deidre M. thesis entitled “The Navajo Code Talkers of Gorman mentions Catholic and Protestant Donoghue et al., op. cit., Reclaiming Voices pp. 147-156. World War II, the First Twenty-Nine.” She missionaries living in the Navajo reservations 18. Vogel. B. Clayton, contradicts Johnston statement because to document and research Navajo living op. cit. it ignores the generations of commercial, conditions,26 thus appropriating and learning 19. Ibidem. cultural and language exchange between their language, as Philip Johnson and his Navajo and Spanish, Mexicans and other family did. 20. Richard L. Lanigan, “Familiar Frustration: Euro-Americans for trading purposes when Gorman’s final point is the shared The Japanese Encounter 22 with Navajo (Diné )‘Code they were not at war with them. Gorman experience of different Native American Talkers’ in World War refers to the first, second and third Navajo tribes at the federal Indian boarding II,” in Languages in 27 Contact 2011, (Philologi- Wars. Before being declared as a Nation schools. Since the treaty, Navajo children ca Wratislaviensia: Acta on August 12th, 1868 in a treaty with the were forced, like all Native Indians, to et Studia. Vol 9): 58.

United States Federal Government, there attend a boarding school to ultimately “turn 21. Chester Nez, and were many tensions between the Navajo red Indian into noble savage”28 since their Judith Schiess Avila, op. cit. and the Apaches; first, from the late 16th culture didn’t match European criteria. century through 1821 against the Spanish; This sentence used by Capt. Richard Pratt 22. Zonnie Gorman, op. cit., pp. 21-27. again from 1821 through 1848 against the with regards to the education of Native 23. Richard L. Lanigan, Mexican government; and lastly in 1847 with Americans is racist. It reflects the sentiment op. cit., pp. 47-69. the Americans.23 of superiority of white Americans over the 24. Zonnie Gorman, Gorman’s second argument concerns Native Americans, and even the use of the op. cit., pp. 21-27. the belonging of the Navajo language to the name of “Native Americans” displays an 25. Chester Nez, and Apaches who are culturally related to the explicit hierarchy, indicating that the natives Judith Schiess Avila, Navajos and are scattered between Arizona will always remain savages compared to op. cit. 24 and New Mexico. During the last war, white Americans, no matter what system 26. Zonnie Gorman, known as the “Indian War” in 1863, Colonel of assimilation is implemented. The op. cit., pp. 21-27. Kit Carson was instructed to destroy and colonisation was imperative: matrons would 27. Ibidem.

attack “Indian Settlements” as revenge assign English names to Navajo pupils; they 28. History Matters against the Native Americans attacks would cut their hair and fingernails. (2017), “”Kill the Indian, and Save the Man”: on white settlers. After destroying their These measures went against the Navajo Capt. Richard H. Pratt on settlements and taking the Navajos captive, traditions of self-presentation and identity. the Education of Native Americans,” Official the U.S Government decided to dislocate the Speaking in their mother-tongue was also Report of the Nineteenth The Navajo Language oppressed by the U.S oppressed Language The Navajo 10,000 remaining Navajos and Mescalero grounds for punishment.29 To a certain Annual Conference of Charities and Correction

I. SPOTLIGHT ON THE OPPRESSED THE ON I. SPOTLIGHT N AVA J O L A N— G UA G E Apaches to Fort Sumner, a desolate extent, these efforts failed because children (1892), 46–59.

reservation in eastern New Mexico called from different tribes were mixed together 29. Chester Nez and Bosque Redondo. This event is known as the and shared their languages with each other. Judith Schiess Avila, op. cit. 30. Deidre M. Donoghue It’s difficult to repress or forget a mother et al., op. cit., pp. 147-156. 28 29 tongue as it’s deeply imprinted in a person’s Appropriation of the manner of speech. It’s nearly impossible to 31. Zonnie Gorman, Navajo language op. cit., pp. 21-27. eradicate a native language; even as we learn Reclaiming Voices 32. Doris A. Paul, a new one, the mother-tongue will influence op. cit., pp. 9. the person’s understanding of their acquired 33. Amanda Dahl, “The 30 language. Gorman hypothesizes that even Navajo Code Talkers A DEMONSTRATION: of World War II: The though the various groups that participated Long Journey Towards in trade, and therefore linguistic exchange T H E N AVA J O Recognition in Historical Perspectives: Santa Clara with the Navajo, may not have acquired LANGUAGE IN MILITARY University Undergraduate a native knowledge of the language, they Journal of History, Series COMMUNICATIONS II, vol. 21, no. Article 11, could have understood it sufficiently well 2016): 70–81., http:// enough to present a tactical vulnerability in scholarcommons.scu.edu/ historical-perspectives. military communication.31 However, Johnston In the presence of Major General also suggested that the Navajo language Clayton B. Vogel, commanding general 34. Clayton B. Vogel, op. cit. was not to be used as a covert language for of the Amphibious Corps, Pacific Fleet military communication but rather the basis at Camp Elliott and his staff, Johnson for the creation of a code to completely first tested the idea of using Navajo secure the meaning of messages in case an language in military communications enemy combatant familiar with the language using four bilingual Navajo speakers. intercepted the message.32 The demonstration was a reproduction of an exchange via radio using the Navajo The reason for Johnson’s lie that the Navajo language to communicate. The four Navajo language was not intact from language speakers, each fluent in English, were set contamination is not clear. Perhaps he was in different rooms while messages were looking for more arguments to plead his case brought to them in English. to the Marines and get his project accepted. Nevertheless, thanks to the Code Talkers, They were asked to translate them in Johnston not only joined the Marines, but Navajo through the radio so that the he was also portrayed in the papers as the receiver could translate and write them “father” and “responsible” for the Navajos back in English. Vogel described the recruits success.33 process, mentioning that before the Nevertheless, all of Johnson’s demonstration “it was necessary to give Appropriation of the Navajo language of the Navajo Appropriation arguments about the specificity of the them a few minutes”, to improvise words 34 I. SPOTLIGHT ON THE OPPRESSED THE ON I. SPOTLIGHT N AVA J O L A N— G UA G E Navajo language convinced General James E. for dive-bombing, anti-tank gun, etc.” Jones enough to ask him to recruit bilingual The demonstrators had to invent codes speakers to present a demonstration. for the non-existent military vocabulary 35. Ibidem. of the Navajo language on the spot. Indeed, translations, the technical training required 30 31 most of the Navajo vocabulary was related for each Navajo recruit, the potential loss, 36. Zonnie Gorman, op. cit., p. 34. to ritual and prayers and was based on capture or death of recruits, and the risk their relationship with mother-earth. Since of losing the code. He suggested reducing 37. Clayton B. Vogel, Reclaiming Voices op. cit. they were never exposed to the American the number of Navajo recruits from 20035 38. Noah Jed Riseman, military service, hierarchical systems to 30: “an effort be made to enlist a group “Regardless of History’?: or technological weapons, they never of approximately 30 Navajo Indians having Re-Assessing the Navajo Codetalkers of World War developed the words that would convey the qualifications normally required for II ,”in Australasian Journal these concepts. Nevertheless, the 4 bilingual enlistment in the Marine Corps and that of American Studies, (vol. 26, no. 2, Dec. 2007): 48– Navajo speakers succeeded in translation the linguistics qualifications in English and 73., https://www.jstor.org/ most of the military messages. their tribal dialect which would make them stable/41054076?seq=1. suitable for the use in the transmission Unfortunately, the demonstration was of messages by voice.” If approved, the not recorded and research shows that the Navajo recruits would “be ordered to the translations that were invented that day were Amphibious Corps, Pacific Fleet, for duty not archived. Thus it’s impossible to know if upon completion of recruit training.”36 the military translations were any different Using the Navajo language as a from what the Code Talkers developed. communication tool required the Marine Corps to find Native Navajo with a high level of bilingual proficiency. They were required to rapidly decode and translate English to Navajo and vice-versa. However, PLANNING NAVAJO Philip Johnson over-estimated the number RECRUITMENT of eligible Navajo men, bilingual speakers, of eligible age and physically fit for With the success of Philip Johnson’s the mission: “1,000 if that many were demonstration, the Marine corps saw the needed could be found with the necessary potential of using Navajo language for qualifications.”37 Johnson’s overestimation military communications in the U.S Marines. of Navajo literacy is surprising considering However, Colonel Allen H. Turnage, the his childhood on a Navajo reservation and director of the Division of Plans & Policies, his own knowledge of the language and who was reviewing the case, had his customs of the Navajo nation. In fact, this doubts. Technical and cryptic machines statement was demonstrated inaccurate by Appropriation of the Navajo language of the Navajo Appropriation were considered more secure, and he was Zonnie Gorman and by Noah Jed Riseman

I. SPOTLIGHT ON THE OPPRESSED THE ON I. SPOTLIGHT N AVA J O L A N— G UA G E sceptical about using the Navajo language in his article “Regardless of history’?: as a tool because of the potential human Re-assessing the Navajo Codetalkers of error in translation, the variable speed of World War II”38 who stated that within the 39. Zonnie Gorman, population of 50,000 Navajos in 1940, purposes in 1824, the Bureau of Indians op. cit., p. 24. 32 33 4000 were men from the ages of eighteen Affairs (BIA), part of the federal government to thirty-five, of which 88% were illiterate of the United States, was directed by 40. Ibid., p. 34. despite the mandatory Federal Boarding Americans and was tasked with the 41. Chester Nez, and Reclaiming Voices Judith Schiess Avila, op. cit. Indian Schools put in place to eradicate the administration and management of Native Indian cultural heritage.39 It was not an easy Americans lands, education and health 42. Ibidem. task to hire the proper individuals for this care after their colonisation. The Bureau of 43. Alison R. Bernstein, serious matter. Indians Affairs was responsible for initiating op. cit., pp. 11-21. In order for the U.S Military plan the boarding school-system and the poor 44. Noah Jed Riseman, recommendations made by Colonel Allen living conditions of the Navajos. The agency op. cit., p. 50. H. Turnage to be approved, Lieutenant was also behind the livestock reduction Colonel Wethered Woodworth from the which was known as the second Navajo Commandant’s office had to meet with tragedy41 after the great Depression in 1920. members of the Bureau of Indian Affairs in The BIA reduced the number of farm animals Washington, D.C: Fred H. Daiker, acting owned by Navajo Nation, per family, because chief of Welfare; Lucy W. Adams, Chief of their lands were being eroded by drought Community Service Bureau and Education; and severely overgrazed lands. The U.S Dr. L. W. White, assistant director of Government believed it was a threat to the Health; and J. C. McCaskill, chief of the Navajo life, thus they killed their livestock Planning Division. They provided the U.S over-night. However, from the perspective Military with the statistics they needed on of a Navajo, owning livestock was their only the Navajo Nation, such as the name of two reference of wealth.42 or three older Navajo interpreters to help This reform was part of the “New recruits develop the proper vocabulary and Deal”43 advocated by John Collier, provide the list of volunteers that signed up commissioner of Indians Affairs in 1934 and for the war.40 drew controversy amongst Navajos regarding the BIA as “beneficial and detrimental to indigenous communities.44 The position of John Collier was similar to that of Johnston. From his position as a white American, he REPERCUSSIONS OF tried to be part of and help Native Americans, PAST COLONISATION however it resulted in more damage than good. Nevertheless, contrary to his Appropriation of the Navajo language of the Navajo Appropriation Since the beginning of the process of using predecessors, John Collier had a progressive

I. SPOTLIGHT ON THE OPPRESSED THE ON I. SPOTLIGHT N AVA J O L A N— G UA G E the Navajo language, none of the people view to preserve Indian heritage and culture. involved in decision making were Native He supported a pluralistic education and was Americans. Initially set up for trading installing reforms to give the Navajo more rights and ownership of their lands. Despite to use it on the frontlines as a cryptological 45. Ibidem. 34 35 broadening education with the “New Deal”, communication tool in order to fight a war 46. Ibidem.

a quarter of the Indian males had no access that wasn’t theirs. 47. Ibidem. to education, compared to 8% of black Reclaiming Voices population and 1% of total male population.45 Even the Navajos who had gained higher levels of education couldn’t find suitable work in the reservation which resulted in them working in the fields.46

By 1930, the lack of seeds, fertilisers and equipment rendered the land an insufficient source of income and the Navajos already poor living conditions worsened. They were left without access to electricity, infrastructure, work opportunities and in poor health.47 In 1939, the Navajos yearly household income was a fifth of the 2500 USD for Americans. Native Americans were technically citizens of the United States however they were not able to vote and exercise the full rights of citizenhood.

Ultimately, Collier’s reforms were unsuccessful and they resulted in increased inequality between Americans and Navajos, widening the gap initially caused by American colonization. It was with Collier’s agreement, and without consultation from the Navajo, that Philip Johnston and Major General Clayton B. Vogel were planning to use bilingual Navajo, without informing them of the exact nature of their mission. Appropriation of the Navajo language of the Navajo Appropriation The directive was to train them as Marines,

I. SPOTLIGHT ON THE OPPRESSED THE ON I. SPOTLIGHT N AVA J O L A N— G UA G E and then order them to modify and codify their complex and unique language, in order COLONISATION OF THE N AVA J O L A N G UA G E FOR THE INTERNATIONAL II. CRYPTOLOGIC WAR 1. Alison R. Bernstein, Iroquois Confederacy, felt it was not their op. cit., pp. 22-39. 38 39 The Code Talkers war, since they refused the Citizen Act of 1924 and decided to test the legitimacy of 2. Ibidem. the daft and citizenship in court, asking 3. Ibidem. Reclaiming Voices THE PEACE-TIME 5 exemption. However the head of the 4. Ibidem. tribal council “J.C. Morgan” reached out to DRAFT: A MAYHEM 5. Ibidem. Collier requesting the creation of an “all- In 1940, before the beginning of the second Navajo” division stating that “The Navajo 6. Ibidem. World War, America enacted its first peace- will cheerfully accept any assignment of 7. Chester Nez, and Judith time conscription, which required that selective service.”6 Morgan’s voluntarism Schiess Avila, op. cit. men between 21 and 45 years old register was a surprising decision regarding the 8. Ibidem.

with local draft board. Considering that Navajo situation that Chester Nez, one of 9. Richard L. Lanigan, Native Americans were not U.S Citizens in the original Code Talker, explained as such: op. cit., p. 53. WWI, they never had to drafted, and were “It might surprise non-Navajos to read considered volunteers.1 However since John this declaration of allegiance.7 No Navajo, Collier’s “New Deal,”2 Native Americans were however, would be surprised. We have always U.S Citizens and were required before WWII, felt a deep allegiance to our motherland, like all Americans, to sign up for the draft, our Navajo Nation, and our families. To this which caused a lot of mayhem. allegiance is linked a sincere desire to protect all three.”8 His position is not with or against Because of the isolation, some Indians Americans but reflects Navajos relationship didn’t understand the complexity of the to nature and their dedication to protecting draft, and were even unaware of their new that land prevailing over years of suffering status as American citizens, feeling duped and colonisation. At that time, Navajos did once again.3 For example, the chief of the not see or understand the propriety of a land Choctaw Reservation, asked the BIA how as a Western person might: a land that can be they could even be citizens if “they don’t owned and passed to the next generation. In pay tax or vote,” Fred Daiker, one of Collier the Navajo culture, “males have no property commissioner, answered that “the matter rights and instead rely to a cosmological view of voting is governed by the laws of each of Nature in which anything that is “found” is state.”4 This was a vague answer from Daiker “community property” and may be taken and who knew and was one of the members used until no longer needed where upon the responsible of the blurred and advantageous item is simply discarded.”9 Their land was not The Code Talkers The Code relationship of the American government labelled as American nor Native American but

COLONISATION OF THE NAVAJO OF THE NAVAJO COLONISATION INTERNATIONAL THE FOR LANGUAGE WAR CRYPTOLOGIC — with regards to Native Americans, since considered in a more broad view. they couldn’t vote but had to go to war. Others, such as the Tribes of the The cultural difference led Collier to ask 40 Reclaiming VoicesReclaiming COLONISATION OF THE NAVAJO LANGUAGE FOR THE INTERNATIONAL

CRYPTOLOGIC WAR 41 — The Code Talkers headed towardsheaded Window Rockon the John Shannon, aMarinerecruiter, first were senttoArizona andNew Mexico. In April1943, ofrecruiters two groups seventeen andthirty two, health. andgood EnglishandNavajo,in both age between mission. the special Navajo of men,withoutdisclosing thepurpose for 30 tolook theperfect Marine recruits two andsent interpreters hired Holcomb Training.Marines Navajosof treating training asrigorously US ofthemission,withexceptionthe secrecy by ThomasHolcomb, Colonel accepted for and Navajo. Yet, was thisrecommendation fortheyboth English were selected fluency in language barrier. oftheNavajoof therejection duetothe trauma ofcolonization, Indians andWorld War II. explains inAmerican Bernstein Alison R. as recognised” andspecially “specifically andwantedAmericans tohave theiridentity withwhite did notwishtomixtheirculture J.C. Morgan,for different reasons. Morgan council by ofthetribal thehead supported Navajo, topreserve IndianHeritage. divisionandtraining forfor the aspecial RECRUITMENT TECHNIQUES FOR PROPAGANDA Regarding the unit of Code Talkers,Regarding theunitofCode 12 13 14

Perfection meant fluency Perfection fluency meant Morgan was afraid 11 Because ofthe Because 10 Hewas Fort Defiance, on a fifty-foot trailer equipped Fort onafifty-foot Defiance, equipped trailer ontheNavajo directly recruits reservation at FrankSergeant hissearch for Shinndirected North ofFlagstaff. inArizona,Newschools: Mexico, and federal three boarding from on recruiting Navajo reservation mainly andfocused Apart from patriotism andfinancial gain patriotism from Apart our Race.” of life usamongthegreatest thathasplaced minorityrightsandawaywhich recognises of andpledge ourloyaltyconflict to thesystem institutions againstall subversive andarmed 1918, toaidanddefend ourgovernment and Navajo asthey didin Indiansstandready Navajo Tribal declaration Council stated 1940, OnJune3rd Germany andJapan. the War inWWII anddeclared States against The Navajo theUnited Nationsupported fit theprofile. tofindthethirtyNavajorecruiters menthat 3weeks afterHolcomb’s forIt took decision volunteers. werethat theMarines seeking even overDodge allowed abroadcast radio approval Chee soughtandgranted, hadbeen Shinn’scouncil, campaign first Once failed. thechairman Dodge, to Chee ofthetribal However, theBIAdidn’tgive since notice musictodraw andused Center thecrowd. themselves oftheNavajo infront Medical with asoundsystem. They firststationed “Now therefore, we resolvethatthe 18

17

15

16 18. op. cit., 17. McClain, Sally op. cit. 16. ZonnieGorman, op. cit. 15. McClain, Sally 14. op. cit. 13. ZonnieGorman, 12. 11. op. cit. 10. Bernstein, AlisonR. Ibidem. Ibid Ibidem. Ibidem. , pp. 38-46. , p. 35. , pp. 32-33. , pp. 32-33. . p. 34. p. 38.

42 Reclaiming VoicesReclaiming COLONISATION OF THE NAVAJO LANGUAGE FOR THE INTERNATIONAL

CRYPTOLOGIC WAR 43 — The Code Talkers a steady income,a steady would militaryservice believed grant them thewar) andjoined theirjobs theyhad lost many thelivestock reduction, Navajo(since combat that can lastfor thatcan combat years, andmore. living conditions, handling theexigencies of involves riskingyour killingpeople, life, poor uniform girls,than agreat andmeeting it Enlistment obviously includes much more experience. enlistmentasagreat presenting to attract underfalse recruits, by pretences, by used techniques therecruiters propaganda girls.” get tomeet foreign countries, andespecially would theworld see andrideonaship, see Jr. would Recruiters “thatthey promise toJohnBrownvery influential according was ofmilitaryservice also the possibilities overseas. Theway framed inwhich recruiters was thewishtotravel andfindadventure Lynne motivation thataparallel Escueargues Navajo strove for. somethingthe stuckAmericans andbecame forcing theyoung Navajo uplike todress system, oftheboarding the colonisation Talkers. Eugene Crawford, oneofthe originalCode sharp! Iwanted auniform justlike that”says he looked bluematerial,boy against thedeep Crisp whitehatandgloves, brass buttons it for mewas uniform thedress ontheposter. TalkersCode inseveral interviews. “Whatdid which wasappealing, by mentioned afew were oftheMarines broadly presentation imagesmen. Theheroic andpropagandistic offered excitement for many young Navajo 21 Inthisstatement, 20 Crawford’s statementshows that 19 and joining the Marines andjoiningtheMarines Brown exposes the Brown exposes assess approximativelyassess theage ofpotential Both ShannonandShinnhadto certificate. home, itwas tohave notcommon birth given.were no otherspecifications volunteers. Themissionwas and stillasecret, filterthe such asagehelped andeducation A few setby therecruiters oftherequirements duly swore into the United States Marines Marines States duly swore into theUnited at Fort Wingate, New Mexico they where school up attheFederal IndianBoarding and onMay 4th,1942,30ofthem met Talkerson May 29th,Code were selected Corps.Early Marines States into theUnited Wingate, New Mexico they where duly swore atFort School the Federal Indian Boarding the 4thofMay, 1942.Thefirst29metupat pass aphysical to andon Fort test Defiance then senttotheNavajo in Center Medical thelanguage. hespoke assumed Marines that nointerviews were madein Navajo. The his family however andeducation, hementions interviewed inEnglishabout mentions being proficiency. Inhisbiography, Nez Chester interviews were heldtoevaluate English language skillsfornecessary themission, were notlooking. recruiters form consent the negative whenthe parent Hethrewhis recruitment. outthefilewith Yazzie whowas atthetimeof onlyfifteen claimed hewas onlythirty-two thoughhe thirty-three whenheenrolled, the father whowas ofZonnieGorman, ontheiragelied anyway, like Carl Gorman, andthey hadtobelieve them.Manyrecruits Since most Navajos most Since at were born All the successful NavajoAll thesuccessful were recruits To hadthe thattherecruits ensure 23 22 andWilliam 24

op. cit. 24. ZonnieGorman, 23. op. cit. McClain, 22. Sally op. cit. Riseman, Jed 21.Noah op. cit., 20. Paul, A. Doris op. cit 19. Bernstein, AlisonR. Ibidem. ., p. 38. , p. 38. , p. 57. , pp. 24-25. p. 13. 44 Reclaiming VoicesReclaiming COLONISATION OF THE NAVAJO LANGUAGE FOR THE INTERNATIONAL

CRYPTOLOGIC WAR 45 — The Code Talkers the recruitments of the marines were of themarines abig the recruitments twentieth century.” thefirsthalf ofthe throughout the Corps feelings thatpermeated ofracial superiority inthe1920s Marine officers the exacerbated ofall upbringingof40percent Southern historian,confers a MarineCorps that“the thearmy.joined during WWIIblack andwomen Americans was anexclusively however malewhitecorps, purpose. specific a platoon for was created time thataspecific Itwasmen, was very odd. the first considered ofonly29 382,comprised 70 men.Platoon by 50or were numbered Marine platoons William Yazzie. HarryTsosie,Thompson, JohnWillie, and Oliver, Frank Pete, BalmerSlowtalker, Nelson MaCabe, Nez,Jack Chester Nez,Lloyd Johnny Manuelito, Leonard, Alfred William Dixon, Ithma,Dale June, Oscar Carl Gorman, James Lowell Dennison, Damon, George Cleveland, Eugene Crawford, David Curley, Bitsie, Brown, Cosey JohnChee, Benjamin Begay, Beguay, Samuel JohnBenally, Wilsie Present onthatday were CharlieBegay, Roy Diego.11 San near Depot the MarineRecruit 382at theywhere thePlatoon integrated Corps. They were driven toCamp Pendleton TOON O O AT O L P J AVA N T S R I F PLATOON382, THE 25 27 26 Heather Pace Marshall, Marshall, Pace Heather Before WWII,theMarine’s Before 28 During WWI and WWII, DuringWWI andWWII, American superiors. American oftheNavajo relationship the obedient to tobe,andalsodemonstrate were depicted that theNavajo notthe“savages” are they “attentive”,“tractable”, “loyal” first reflects by used The adjectives Hallinhisreport, platoons.” inordinary ten percent five isusualattritionfrom unusual, there to ofthegroup.to keep upwiththerest Thisis sickness, disciplinaryactionorlack ofability and loyal back dueto …nonehasdropped They very are tractable,this Depot. attentive hasdoneexceptionally group “This well at Holcomb, to mentions inhisreport Depot recruits T.George ofthe officer HallCommanding platoon, and the first time that they earned andthefirsttimethattheyearned platoon, inwhichinstance they ahigh-ranked joined 382 positions. Platoon was thefirst dignified to enlistintheMarines, however notinthe Nevertheless, Native always could Americans duringWWIandWWII. in theMarines physical andracewere attributes abigissue issue, onRacism duetocolonisation, based training, Platoon 382wastraining, Platoon highlypraised. they unabletoadaptAmerican would be that Dismantling Collier’s expectation June 27th,1942. the rank ofPrivate on Class. Itallhappened 29

31 30

31. op. cit 30. McClain, Sally op. cit 29. ZonnieGorman, tute Press, p. 2011), 121. Naval(Annapolis: Insti Marine Corps, 1936-1943 Making oftheModern Thomas Holcomb andthe Preparing For Victory: 28. David J. Ulbrich, 7. 2 op. cit. 26. ZonnieGorman, 25. Ibidem. Ibid., Ibidem. ., pp. 40-46. ., p. 82. , p. 80. p. 82. - , 46 Reclaiming VoicesReclaiming COLONISATION OF THE NAVAJO LANGUAGE FOR THE INTERNATIONAL

CRYPTOLOGIC WAR 47 — The Code Talkers mental asphysical. ofthedaily demands Some mentalandphysical,both Navajo underwent various recruits trainings, During theirseven weeks oftraining, the anymore, they stand the pressure couldn’t because know.” out, you some oftheguys they useto poop fill itwith And carry itaround. wet sand... togiveused us abucket... aluminiumbucket... the...They Run around thebeach. runaround outfront,everybody’s you know. Calisthenic. wakehard “Five ups o’clock inthemorning, during training.Nezmentionsthe Chester theirenlistment soldiers second-guessed fewan easy weeks andsomeoftheNavajo feltMarines towards itwasn’t theirPlatoon, andaffection the by therespect pleased together, marching, etc. dismantling aradio andputtingitback training, schedules, weapon at specific and discipline:drills, andsleeping eating physicalabout enduranceasobedience were taughttotheNavajos were asmuch they onsite. mightwitness Thedrills that scenarios possible field training,recreating militaryinstruction,then withbasic started oftheMarines. They the sameasrest first were training for. why they onthesite, were really orwhatthey ALKERS S R E K L TA ORIGINAL CODE INTRODUCING THE Though theNavajo were recruits 35

Some of them used to cry at night tocry atnight of themused Some the training requirements were as thetraining requirements 33 Theirtraining was largely 34

32 withoutknowing reservations lacked good transportation reservations transportation lacked good earlier, Asrecruits. mentioned theNavajo and marching werecomfortable more for the such asstandinginthesunfor afew hours power andcommand. the eyes shoutingtoreflect or theconstant in directly someone such asnotlooking oftheNavajo theculture conflicted recruits, 66. However,66. was there thatpassed no road the reservation, such astheUSHighway the reservation. in transportation ofthecomplicated because even notifyhis family ofhisenlistment mentions inhisbiography thathecouldn’t togo home.the opportunity Nez Chester got injured, end ofthewar, orrather untilone of them until the the momentoftheirrecruitment 382didn’thavePlatoon furlough Even ifthey achieved remarkable training, minor offence. doghouse andtheyard; for allasretribution a scrubbing thedog’s nose, ears, cleaning his mascot. WilsieMarine Corps Bitsie recalls Duffy, theSergeant bathe abulldogandthe anyone madeamistake, they were to forced military training, it, asthey called was thatif One “punishment” orextra work ofthe western view ofdisciplineandpunishment. tothe exposed given, been andhadalready thatwaswearing auniform, food thecanteen they were familiar withthemarching drills, schools, inboarding of themhadalsostudied sheep.in thesunwhileherding towalking used andstanding longdistances systems andthus, oftheNavajos most were 39 noneofthe29Navajo menhad 40 Some roads went around roads Some 36 Otherexercises, 37 Since most most Since 38 . From op. cit. Avila,Judith Schiess 40. Nez,and Chester going back towar. home for before rest back andbrought heal flown outtothe to U.S during thewar, hewas 39. IfaMarinegot injured 38. 37. 36. 35. op.cit. Avila,Judith Schiess 34. Nez,and Chester 33. 32. Ibidem. Ibidem. Ibidem. Ibidem. Ibidem. Ibidem. through the reservation, which consisted of 41. Sally McClain is the Controversy: author of “Navajo 48 49 over 24 000 square meters of sandy desert or Weapon” in which she mountains, making it very difficult to go from conducted interviews A Sacred language with many of the original one point to another. Code Talkers and she Reclaiming Voices was the first to bring used as a weapon light on the mission of In June 27, 1942, they moved on to the second the Code Talkers. part of their training, where their secret 42. Sally McClain, op. cit., p. 49. mission would be delivered. SECRET MISSION 43. Chester Nez, and REVEALED: THE Judith Schiess Avila, op. cit.

N AVA J O L A N G UA G E 44. Ibidem. AS AN ENCRYPTED TOOL

Sally McClain41 writes in Navajo Weapon that on their way to Camp Elliot, home of the Amphibious Corps Pacific Fleet, the Navajo recruits were all excited and happy about the bootcamp session and to have the opportunity to be part of the Marines and, at last, be equal with white Americans.42 However this feeling changed as they became anxious when they were greeted by a U.S Marine in a classroom, with security bars across the windows, who wasted no time in revealing their secret mission: they were commanded to invent a code based on the Navajo language which would be used for encoded communication during wartime.43 When hearing this, Chester Nez recalls how shocked he felt. The army was asking them to create a code based on a language Controversy: A sacred language used as a weapon used language A sacred Controversy: the United States fought hard to eliminate

COLONISATION OF THE NAVAJO OF THE NAVAJO COLONISATION INTERNATIONAL THE FOR LANGUAGE WAR CRYPTOLOGIC — through the very strict boarding school system.44 Chester Nez wasn’t the only one to be surprised. Indeed, some might have never 45. Sally McClain, enlisted if they knew beforehand what was to relationship with nature and the belief that op. cit., p. 50. 50 51 be expected of them.45 In an interview held everything that happens within a Navajo’s 46. Zonnie Gorman, by Zonnie Gorman, Chester Nez stutters his life happens in relationship to the world op. cit., p. 101. disturbance: surrounding them. In his book Language Reclaiming Voices 47. Gary Witherspoon and Art in the Navajo Language, Gary is professor of Native “That’s got something to do with our Witherspoon47 noted that “it is through American studies at the University of Washington. religion, you know. So they... some of the guys language that the world of Navajo was 48. Chester Nez, and they didn’t think that was right. But uh... created, and it is through language that Judith Schiess Avila, when we started to name all these animals, the Navajo control, classify, and beautify op. cit. 48 you know. And all these creatures and stuff their world.” Instead of stating facts, the 49. Gary Witherspoon, like that, you know. Uh... we gradually, you Navajo language evokes an emotional and op. cit., p. 7.

know, forgot, you know, what uh... some of strong visual image. Chester Nez gives the 50. Ibid., pp. 13-27. these things that were related to our religion, following example: in English one would you know. We...we... we gradually forgot, you say “I am hungry” however in Navajo the know, and said, “Well... we might as well go sentence would become “Hunger is hurting ahead and use it,” ... you know. If that’s what me.”49 For the Navajos, how one speaks is a a... what our commander, the general wants... representation of a thought, of a palette of and uh...we’re just going to have to do it.”46 emotion, and thus, every word pronounced has a direct consequence in the universe. This statement shows once again the position of weakness and duty felt by the Navajos As Witherspoon describes it, a word starts in relation to the American Marines. This from the thought before becoming speech. statement also demonstrates how none of He argues that “their interpretation of them declined doing the task, even if this the constitution of reality and causation mission was contradictory to their culture of events are all based on the connection and religion. Every word pronounced by a between mind and matter, speech and Navajo has a conceptual and an emotional event.”50 He emphases that those four pillars charge that doesn’t only concern them but are linked and are interdependent from each affects the world they live in for which they other. In fact, in the Navajo Universe, the will bear the responsibility. spoken word is sacred and powerful, and one bears personally the responsibility for maintaining harmony. If someone thinks, thus speaks, Controversy: A sacred language used as a weapon used language A sacred Controversy: N AVA J O, A S A C R E D about good fortune, good fortune will come,

COLONISATION OF THE NAVAJO OF THE NAVAJO COLONISATION INTERNATIONAL THE FOR LANGUAGE WAR CRYPTOLOGIC — LANGUAGE and vice-versa; if one thinks, thus speaks, about bad fortune, it will come as well. If The Navajo language illustrates the Navajo not treated and cleansed through a specific ritual, these prophecies would happen. item or concept permanently.”54 Indeed, the 51. Ibidem. 52 53 In case one provokes disorder, it is idea of a “bomb” was coined as the concept 52. Ibidem. 51 through the use of the prefix “nà” used of “eggs” falling and breaking when hitting 53. Ibid., pp. 92-93. in restorative rituals and in the repetition the ground. The idea of the word “invade” 54. Ibidem. Reclaiming Voices of spoken words that Navajos return to with the word “moved into”, the word a balance. If one repeats something four “destroyer” with the word “shark” and so on. 55. Zonnie Gorman, op. cit., p. 30. times, it will occur, because in the Navajo As well as transforming the 56. Gary Witherspoon, culture if a wish or a request is mentioned internationally known military vocabulary op. cit., pp. 63-73. four times, it can’t be denied.52 However, into a positive new concepts, thus harder through the use of various prefixes, one can to decode, the position of the verb stem utter and restore harmony. The war would in Navajo, is not set by grammatical rules last for years, and hasn’t had a very positive compared to the English or Japanese or harmonious outcome towards human language. It is determined by the power beings, nature and mother-earth. relation of the elements involved in the The terms usually used while communicating sentence. For example, the sentence: “The in a context of war are heavily negative. girl drank the water” cannot be “the water This was a concern for the Code Talkers was drunk by the girl”. For the Navajos, since their responsibility of choice of words the order of the nouns is important and affects Mother-earth, and it is imperative putting the water as a subject means that to maintain a harmonious communication the water controls the girl willingly. It’s as if between the earth, nature, and the universe. the sentence was saying, the water got the In the Navajo language, most words girl to drink it.55 Indeed, the subject and the and linguistic expressions label concepts, noun, not belonging to the same status, are and therefore sometimes the same word is not interchangeable. The subject and the used to express similar conceptions and noun can only be inverted if they belong to act as metaphorical extensions. In Navajo, same hierarchy depending on their common the word “mother”, applied to a human is status and their ability to do the controlling also applied to the “earth” mother for the or to act upon. Many have tried to class this people living on it. It can also be applied hierarchal list; however, none are completely to “the sheep” or “the corn field”, set in true. Humans are listed as the 1st class of different categories they all give and sustain the hierarchal list, but babies, since they life.53 Mother is used in the Code Talkers only cry and eat, are in the same category as dictionary to signify “America”. Zonnie animals as well as deaf and blind people. As Controversy: A sacred language used as a weapon used language A sacred Controversy: Gorman highlights that “Navajos coined new for objects, they are categorised and defined

COLONISATION OF THE NAVAJO OF THE NAVAJO COLONISATION INTERNATIONAL THE FOR LANGUAGE WAR CRYPTOLOGIC — terms in a unique way. It was not a matter of by the components animate or inanimate, substitution, but rather an invention of new contained or not contained, proportional, words or phrases to represent a new physical flexible, rigid, flat, etc.56 The construction of a Navajo the U.S Marine in charge.59 57. Ibidem. 54 55 sentence can seem random for Japanese The first rule was to construct an 58. Ibidem.

and English speakers who are used to alphabet. Since the Navajo phonetics are very 59. “CODE: Meaning in a more consistent structure. However, different from the English one, they couldn’t the Cambridge English Reclaiming Voices Dictionary,” Cambridge since it’s based on particular undisclosed find an official way of representing it. They Dictionary, https://dictio- beliefs, the Navajo sentence structure will first started by assigning one word per English nary.cambridge.org/dic- tionary/english/code. play a big part in the code’s structure. It’s letter and then translate this word in Navajo 60. Sally McClain, not a repeated pattern, since the subject, with the requirement that it didn’t start with op. cit., p. 50. the noun or the verb are never at the the same morpheme. For example, for the same place in a sentence because of the letter “a”, the word “ant” was given, translated 61. Ibid., p. 52. complex hierarchisation status. Without into Navajo: “wol -la- chee”. It was Wilsie knowing the core behind its construction, Bitsie and Oscar Ilthma, that came up with the the sentences are even harder to decode. idea of inventing a code out of the phonetic alphabet. Since Bitsie’s dad had worked on creating a Navajo phonetical alphabet, he had knowledge on the subject.60 DESIGNING THE The second rule was to choose NAVAJO CODE: 4 words that were accurate equivalents. The code had to adapt to the specificities of war RULES TO FOLLOW communications. Since the Navajo vocabulary didn’t have the words or vocabulary for As a cautionary measure, this project needed such a war, they had to design new codes to be kept secret from other Marines. The Navajo for every other word they might use during recruits were not allowed to talk to anyone about communications, such as military equipment, their task, and everything that was written and countries, communication tools, calendar printed during the hours of designing the code months and days, transportation, and had to be locked away securely at night and general vocabulary. As mentioned, in the brought back in the morning.57 Navajo language, most words and linguistic expressions label concepts, and sometime A code, as defined in a dictionary, is a system the same word is used to express similar of words, letters, or signs used to represent conceptions and act as metaphorical a message in a secret form.58 To design the extensions. One man had the idea of using code, every word designating military terms, this thought process to switch military Controversy: A sacred language used as a weapon used language A sacred Controversy: equipment, weapons as well as picture charts vocabulary into words that were familiar to

COLONISATION OF THE NAVAJO OF THE NAVAJO COLONISATION INTERNATIONAL THE FOR LANGUAGE WAR CRYPTOLOGIC — of elements of transportation: planes, ships them, inspired by the reservation, making it had to be chosen with precaution as well as easier to remember and carrying a positive taking in consideration the 4 rules assigned by connotation.61 Thus, most of the words used to translate military terms were metaphors drawn down, the stories were told many times for the 62. Ibidem. 56 57 from nature elements and this idea served as new generations to learn and remember.66 63. Doris A. Paul, the system to translate all the terms needed. A op. cit., p. 53. “Submarine” would be concieved as “Iron Fish” 64. “Azee,’”Navajo Lan- Reclaiming Voices guage (Diné Bizaad), 31 in English and then translated in the Navajo as Dec. 2014, https://nava- “Besh Lo”, “Dive Bomber” would be coined by jowotd.com/word/azee/. 62 ENCRYPTION DEVICES “Chicken Hawk”, translated to “Gini”. 65. Chester Nez, and VS. LANGUAGE Judith Schiess Avila, The third rule was to choose short op. cit. terms for rapid transmission. Navajo took extra care to design a selection of terms that The rules designed to create the code were 66. Ibidem. sounded different from one another to avoid not truly compatible with the rules of creating 67. “War of Secrets: Cryp- confusion and misunderstandings since all encryption devices used during WWII, tology in WWII,” op. cit. communications were transmitted via radio however there were some similarities. 68. Ibidem. frequency.63 For example in Navajo, some words The most famous encryption machines are pronounced the same way but are different used during WWII were the American device by tone, like the words medicine “Azee’” and “SIGABA” and the German machine called mouth “Azéé’.”64 Chester Nez underlines that “ENIGMA”, both being “rotor” machines. “every syllable, a slight change in tone, or Enigma has between 3 or 4 rotors and a glottal stop could totally change a word’s “SIGABA” has 15, which makes it more secure. meaning in the complicated Navajo language.”65 The rotors are activated by an electrical charge The Navajo had to make sure there was no which would substitute the letters of the difference of dialect between them, and that message entered with other letters. The number they pronounced exactly the same code. of modifications was limited by the rotors, The last rule was to memorise all the each letter would be transformed four times terms since they wouldn’t be able to write in the case of “ENIGMA” and fifteen times for anything down once on the war field. If SIGABA”.67 In the Code Talkers system, each the code fell into the wrong hands, it could word is substituted two times. For example, jeopardise the whole mission. Beyond learning the letters of the alphabet are substituted with the correct allocated words, they had to words that start with the same sound in English practice pronunciation based on an invented and then translated to the Navajo language. written phonetical reading of the Navajo words. In the rotor machines a daily key was inserted and defined the pattern/formula Nevertheless, verbal tradition and memorising for substituting letters.68 In the Code Talker Controversy: A sacred language used as a weapon used language A sacred Controversy: the words of the Navajo was an asset in this system, the code was changed only once and

COLONISATION OF THE NAVAJO OF THE NAVAJO COLONISATION INTERNATIONAL THE FOR LANGUAGE WAR CRYPTOLOGIC — mission. Navajo cultural history and myths defined by their cultural context, which made it were passed down from generations through personal. It’s not something that could be found oral stories. Since they didn’t write anything or decoded through mathematical formulas. Just like the Code Talkers, for the hiding codes in more unconventional ways like 69. Ibidem. 58 59 message to be decrypted, the two devices had disguising it in their radio weather forecast, 70. Ibidem.

to communicate with a twin device that had through language, and using wind names to 71. Chester Nez, and the same “keys” to figure out the substitution indicate countries with which they were at Judith Schiess Avila, op. cit. Reclaiming Voices of each letter. In the case of the Code Talkers, war. The United States, for example, would the “key” represents the common definition be referred to as “east wind rain.” The 72. Cypher Machines, op. cit. of every coded word memorised by the two choice of words was limited and this coded 73. Chester Nez, and communicating person. communication resulted only in being used Judith Schiess Avila, The “rotor” mechanical substitution in case of emergency and to announce a op. cit. of letters, that created the code, done by a breached relationship.71 machine in both American and German cases, was encrypted through the language of the The Japanese had a cypher renamed by the US Code Talker who memorised the coded words.69 as “J-25” which worked by substituting the Contrary to “SIGABA”, “ENIGMA” messages using a printed book of codes.72 needed two people in a communication transaction: someone that entered the From June to late September 1942, the Platoon message and someone that wrote down the 382 worked on building the unbreakable code. However, “SIGABA” automatically code under the supervision of John W. Hood, printed the decrypted message and only Corporal Massey and Caddel. Since being needed one person for the transformation.70 recruited and in training, the Navajo’s culture Also, since the devices didn’t send out was constantly tested against the western messages, they could only encrypt and lifestyle. However, they ended up creating decrypt messages entered by a third party. over 220 terms while respecting their beliefs The message was then to be communicated by and transforming a negative connoted military radio, just like the system of the Code Talkers. vocabulary into a positive one inspired by Nevertheless, the message transmitted nature. The code ended up being so complex by the devices was the spelling of a succession that even a Native Navajo speaker was unable of letters, while in the Code Talkers to crack it.73 system, the words of the sentences were substituted with other words which made the communication faster. Additional time was saved by eliminating the device which required time for input, translation, and transmission. Controversy: A sacred language used as a weapon used language A sacred Controversy: The Japanese “PURPLE” cypher worked

COLONISATION OF THE NAVAJO OF THE NAVAJO COLONISATION INTERNATIONAL THE FOR LANGUAGE WAR CRYPTOLOGIC — exactly like “ENIGMA” and was the most secure instrument they had during WWII. They worked with other systems, such as THE NAVAJO CODE: A VITAL WEAPON III. DURING WWII 1. Zonnie Gorman, two teams: one team would emit messages op. cit., pp. 24-25. 62 63 The Code Talkers to the receiving team and would change roles depending on the situation. In the emitting 2. Nez Chester, and in training Judith Schiess Avila, pair, one would crank the radio while the op. cit. Reclaiming Voices other would handle the microphone to code 3. Doris A. Paul, and decode messages4 while the receiving op. cit., p. 32. TRAINING IN team would translate and write down the 4. Nez Chester, and Judith Schiess Avila, SIMULATED BATTLE message back in English. op. cit. Just like the demonstration set by During the last two weeks of the 8-week Johnston, a message arrived written in English 5. Ibidem. training in Camp Elliot, many practical by a runner called Spotter to the emitting team. tests were set in order to recreate the real The Code Talker translated and transmitted conditions of war.1 This conditioning started the message in Navajo to the receiving team, with the arrival of the Navajo recruits at who translated and wrote the message back Camp Elliot, who were training for the “buddy to English. If mistakes were made, listening system.” They had to move everywhere Code Talkers would send multiple red signals in pairs, even if they wanted to use the to the emitting radio notifying them of a bathroom.2 They were taught about different possible error. Chester Nez also mentions in his communication methods and trained for biography, that they learned how to dismantle all types of communication equipment and and reconstruct a radio.5 procedures like Field Telephone, TBX Radio, SCR Portable Radio, Semaphore and the To simulate field training, the Code Talkers International Morse Code. were spread out between the air, ships, and ground, from tanks and half-tracks to the After creating the alphabet, they had to message centre. To test the security of the train on a set of sentences that they would code, the U.S Marines invited non-military most likely translate in combat. Doris A. Navajo speakers to attempt to decode the Paul cites a few examples in The Navajo codes, but they were unable to do so. The Code Talkers: “Reached objective at 1945, messages transmitted were all about the am reorganising”, “Enemy riflemen under enemy’s information, known or estimated, as the protection of heavy artillery support” or well as schemes, mission, direction of attack, “Machine gun fire on right flank”, “Continue general locations.” Cryptologists also took to advance”, “Am forced to dig in.”3 notes and sat around trying to decode the The Code Talkers in training Talkers The Code The communication between the messages for weeks.

THE NAVAJO CODE: NAVAJO THE WWII DURING WEAPON A VITAL — Navajos was done via the TBX radio. To be able to communicate, the Code Talkers would In their book The Procurement and Training pair up and be coupled with another pair as of Ground Combat troops, Robert R Palmer, 6. Robert R. Palmer, Bell I Wiley and William R. Keast mentions Following the training at Camp Elliot, John et al., The Procurement 64 65 Even though they trained day and night, no Benaly and Johnny Manuelito, two of the and Training of Ground Combat Troops, (Histori- one knew how the Navajo recruits would react original Code Talkers stayed in Camp Elliot cal Division, Dept. of the in the stress of combat, however the training while the other 27 left for Guadalcanal. Army, 1948), p. 11. Reclaiming Voices might simulate the war.”6 Apart from sending They took on the role of recruiters to form messages, the Code Talkers would witness and train the new Navajo recruits and to the real war, they would communicate under continue expanding the number of terms in exploding bombs, and face extreme level the code. Following Stilwell’s advice, they of exhaustion while being responsive and came up with two different words for the keeping the communicated code intact. letter A, “Ant”, “Apple” or Belsana in Navajo, and “Axe” or tsenhil in Navajo which made the word Guadalcanal spelled into: Goat – Ute – Ant – Deer – Apple – Lamb – Cat – Axe – Nut – Axe – Lamb, making it harder to EXPANDING THE CODE determine the pattern.

Captain Stilwell, a cryptographer, analysed The code was being used to transmit combat and monitored Navajo communications and details from the front line to the rear echelon. gave a few notes. He proposed inventing They would report back on the locations of more words since 220 terms didn’t cover the American or Japanese troops, the number entire military vocabulary. The Code Talkers of captured soldiers, the number of dead had to spell out the missing words which took American soldiers, and to signal a code more time and made the communication less black, red, yellow, etc. The additional 200 secure because of the repetition of letters terms created in response to Stilwell’s used thus creating a pattern. recommendations were mostly vocabulary.

For example, in the word Guadalcanal, These were codes for words such as translated to: Goat – Ute – Ant – Deer – Ant – important, obstacle, wood, and emergency Lamb – Cat – Ant – Nut – Ant – Lamb, the word thus, making the communication and Ant was repeated too many times and could transmission faster. Keeping these pieces of quickly be decrypt as the letter A. The letter information secret was crucial to keeping the A was part of the six letters most used in the war strategy intact. English language, at the same level as the letters The Code Talkers in training Talkers The Code E, T, O, I, N. Therefore, Stilwell suggested The new Code Talkers had to remember the

THE NAVAJO CODE: NAVAJO THE WWII DURING WEAPON A VITAL — creating at least 3 translations for each of the 411 terms from scratch. As such, every month letters and 2 translations for the letters: S, H, R, a gathering was made amongst Code Talkers D, L, U which are also frequently used. to learn the new codes. message in a random selection of letters and The Pacific Theatre 7. Chester Nez, and 66 67 numbers that a soldier would enunciate using Judith Schiess Avila, the radio. On the receiving end, the message op. cit. was heard by a soldier and inserted back to 8. Ibidem. Reclaiming Voices USING THE CODE: a machine that could deciphered it into an 9. Doris A. Paul, op. cit., p. 32. DO AND DON’T coherent sentence. This system took 4 hours, and was not very accurate, whereas the system 10. Chester Nez, and Judith Schiess Avila, After graduating in late September 1942 of the Code Talkers took 2 min 30 seconds and op. cit. from Camp Elliot in San Diego, Platoon 382 was crystal clear.10 didn’t have furlough and 27 of the original 11. Ibidem. Code Talkers were off to Guadalcanal with the In his biography, Chester Nez recounts the 12. Ibidem. Marine 1st division to face the ongoing war events of being a Code Talkers during battle. against the Japanese troops. As soon as they He was stationed on the ground, at the front arrived to Guadalcanal, they had to prove their line, and was paired with his friend Roy from effectiveness to their commanding officer, Tuba City. They would take turns handling Commander Hunt.7 the microphone or cranking up the radio, both The Code Talkers’ mission was still not wearing headphones to hear themselves through revealed to the other Marines. Commander Hunt the battle’s chaotic sounds. On the frontlines, remained unconvinced about the Code Talkers they had to take care not to get hit and they had and their efficacy. He mumbled to them “you to be aware. Most of the time they had to use the guys are more trouble than you’re worth.”8 code under extreme duress or exhaustion, and Indeed, at the beginning of the use of Navajo would spend hours without water, food, medical in war communications, the American troops attention, or being relieved. weren’t warned, and it was the first time that the American soldiers heard the Navajo code on Since all activities were monitored closely by their radios, set on different tonal and phonetics the Japanese, they didn’t spend more time qualities than English. The Marines thought the than needed on the radio. They had set out language heard was Japanese and that the enemy a protocol: they change constantly the radio had infiltrated their stations. It caused panic and frequency between messages, and move a the Code Talkers had to temporarily suspend lot during transition to avoid being hit by their communication.9 bombs. As the Japanese could easily trace back To decide whether to keep the Code the location where radio signals were sent, Talkers or not, Commander Hunt set up a Code Talker’s never wrote down any Navajo The Pacific Theatre The Pacific competition between the military ciphering messages, they had to make sure no trace would 11 THE NAVAJO CODE: NAVAJO THE WWII DURING WEAPON A VITAL — machine and the Code Talkers to evaluate time compromise the code. The unit signalled when and efficiency of the different methods. The they needed them by using the code words system of ciphering would encrypt the inserted Geronimo, Hiawatha, Arizona, or New Mexico.12 light situation. General R.E Crushman Jr. 13. Sally McClain, COVETED CODE op. cit., p. 52. 68 69 mentions that under his service the system of 14. Doris A. Paul, TA L K E R S the Code Talkers was used between battalions op. cit., p. 32. (people on the battlefields) to company level 15. Ibidem. Reclaiming Voices Back at Camp Elliot, Philip Johnston proposed (report to higher level organisations), using the his services to the Marines to help train the code instead of English as the communication 16. Ibidem. new Navajo recruits with John Benaly and language. It was for classified messages that 17. The Navajo Code Talkers served in Guadal- Johnny Manuelito. He had been visiting Camp Lieutenant General (Ret) A.L. Browser recalled canal, Bougainville, West- Elliot quite frequently since the formation needing the Code Talkers.15 ern New Britain, Saipan, Tinian Guam, Peleliu and of the Code Talkers. He had a hard time Nevertheless, the Code talkers became Iwo Jima. finding the necessary number of new recruits a sure and essential established system. It was required because of the high level of illiteracy recommended that a minimum of 78 Code amongst the Navajo community and had the Talkers be distributed in each Marine’s division: idea to form already enlisted Navajos in the 2 per Infantry and Artillery Battalion Marines to become Code Talkers. Realising the 4 per Infantry and Artillery Regiment shortage of Code Talkers, the Marine’s took 4 per Engineer Regiment his recommendation into consideration, and a 2 per Engineer Battalion centre was set up in South Pacific.13 8 per Pioneer Battalion 4 per Amphibian Tractor Battalion Throughout the war in the Pacific Islands, the 6 per Special Weapons Battalion Code Talkers were exclusive and extensively 6 per Tank Company used for radio communication, though the 6 per Scout Company frequency and use of the Code Talker was 8 per Signal Company different depending on their Commanding 2 per Parachute Battalion officers, the location and context. They were 4 per Parachute Regiment not needed if the American Marines were in 8 per Raider Battalions locations secure from Japanese eavesdropping. 6 per Raider Regiment During combat some were more needed in 8 per Corps Signal Battalion the rear echelons, and with their portable 8 per Corps Anti Tank Battalions equipment on the front lines.14 Some revealed 4 per Corps 115m Artillery Battalion16 themselves to be very valuable in very tense situations, such as coordinated assaults The Code Talkers were to a large extent during with allies like the Australians or the Army WWII, a war that wasn’t theirs to fight. Starting The Pacific Theatre The Pacific Forces which required fast communications with the pilot project of 29 Codes talkers; the

THE NAVAJO CODE: NAVAJO THE WWII DURING WEAPON A VITAL — for establishing planned strategies. Some army had recruited over 400 Navajo Code were used quite exclusively for very stressful Talkers by the end of the war. They served in 6 messages while others were more used in a divisions from Guadalcanal to Okinawa.17 Major Howard M. Conner argues “were it not for the 18. Ibidem. 70 71 Navajos, the Marines would never have taken Back in motherland Iwo Jima” and he wasn’t the only one. The commanding of the fleet Marines stated“T he The Japanese surrendered to the Americans Reclaiming Voices Navajo language is the simplest, fastest and after the two atomic bombs on Hiroshima most reliable means we have of transmitting and Nagasaki. The end of War World II was secret orders via radio or over telephone declared on the 2nd of September, 1945 and circuits exposed to the enemy wiretapping.”18 a peace treaty was signed the 28th of April, They became instrumental in the victory of the 1952. The Marines were sent back home from U.S over Japan. the Pacific and were greeted with celebration from their family, friends, etc. The Navajo Indeed, between the use of their cypher device Code Talkers returned home to no such “SIGABA” and the Code Talkers, the U.S fanfare. The Navajo only honoured their Holy Marine’s communications were safe from being People, and so the Code Talkers’ return was decoded. On the contrary, Japan’s “PURPLE” neither celebrated nor acknowledged. They cypher was decoded before the attack on Pearl did what was required and it wasn’t a reason Harbor and in the battle of Midway, breaking for festivities. Nevertheless, coping with post the code of “JN-25.” The cypher used for war trauma was not easy for the Code Talkers. military communication was a turning point for Additionally, their role in helping to win WWII the war with Japan that led to the elimination of was classified, and they were asked not to a majority of Japanese naval aviation. disclose anything to anyone, including their friends, family, wives, sisters etc. from the design of the code to being a Code Talker. The U.S Marines wanted to ensure the ability to use the code if needed, in case another war would explode, especially during the Wold War between the USSR and the United States. It’s important to say, that the Code Talkers were used again, in a smaller scale, during the war between Korea and Vietnam. It took decades before the Code Talkers got recognition. The code was eventually declassified in 1968 and slowly the legacy The Pacific Theatre The Pacific of the Code Talker was celebrated by the US

THE NAVAJO CODE: NAVAJO THE WWII DURING WEAPON A VITAL — Marines. On the 26th of July 2001, the Code Talkers received a medal by President George W. Bush who declared “Today, we mark a 19. “Congressional moment of shared history and shared victory. the model they had established in the late Gold Medal Ceremo- 72 73 We recall a story that all Americans can 19th century with compulsory attendance at ny,” C-Span, https:// www.c-span.org/vid- celebrate, and every American should know. It boarding schools. This time, the practices eo/?165354-1/congressio- is a story of an ancient people, called to serve of the BIA provoked an impassioned and nal-gold-medal-ceremony. Reclaiming Voices 19 in a modern war.” engaged national movement against this new 20. Amanda Dahl, The Navajo Platoon was often portrayed “colonisation” technique.23 op. cit., p. 74. 20 in the newspapers throughout the war, 21. “Native American Nations & State Alcohol with a positive perception overall showing The resistance to the Code Talkers Policies: An Analysis,” their strong and brave contribution at war. disappeared after their first mission in National Alcohol Bever- age Control Association, After the war, those old differences between Guadalcanal, and they became indispensable https://www.nabca.org/ Native American and American returned. during WWII. They were so essential to native-american-na- tions-state-alcohol-poli- The economic situation of the Navajo didn’t military operations in the South Pacific that cies-analysis. change. There was still 51% of unemployment communication schools were established in 22. Noah Jed Riseman, in the Navajo Reservations. They were still that theatre of war to teach Navajo Marines to op. cit., p. 62. not allowed to vote in Arizona until 1948, learn and use the code. The initial class of 29 23. Ibidem. until 1953 in New Mexico, and 1957 in Code Talkers grew to over 400 before the end Utah. They were also still restricted in their of the war. Even if the racial difference wasn’t consumption of alcohol. Since 1834, the apparent during the war, once back home, the reservations were subject to a ban on alcohol Code Talkers couldn’t talk about the code or and Native Americans were not allowed to their mission in the Marines until 2001. This consume or purchase alcohol21. The Navajo forced silence and their lack of recognition faced discrimination against their veterans meant that their valorous contributions were as described by Wilsie Bitsie; they were not unknown and the value of Navajo culture and allowed to go to places such as hotels and language was hidden for decades. cafes. Jimmie King also complained about this inequality in a letter to Philip Johnston.22 After experiencing war and the “American way of living,” a lot of Code Talkers changed lifestyles and renounced life on the reservations. The Bureau of Indian Affairs offered to relocate and assimilate Navajos in cities and offered to cover moving expenses, aid in finding residencies, and work Back in motherlandBack opportunities which helped lure them away

THE NAVAJO CODE: NAVAJO THE WWII DURING WEAPON A VITAL — from the reservations. By subsidizing this assimilation to a more mainstream American way of life, the BIA effectively replicated CONCLUSION . With Reclaiming Voices, I expose a long When one is being surveilled, language 76 77 process of patronisation by the U.S of the and voice generate information. The Code Navajo Nation. It is a paradoxical study Talkers however, were generating noise since in which I start by explaining the reasons their language was not understandable. Reclaiming Voices behind the oppression of the Navajo language Their communication was intruding by white colonisers and the imposition of the and interrupting the enemy’s quest for American nation and its values upon previous information, and violently disrupting the settled nations and how during WWII this act normative audible patterns and tonalities was followed by a sudden shift in which the with their code. oppressor requested the aid of the oppressed. Reclaiming Voices not only reclaims the Despite all those efforts, the Navajos Code lost Navajo language but it is also claiming Talkers remained invisible. A situation that the that language is as well a code in itself. It is American government has willingly continued a potent and powerful tool and cannot be to perpetuate until today. The importance of dismissed as it often is in our societies of an Code Talkers is still situated at the margin, all–pervasive visuality and the globalisation and it is still not included as part of the Great of imposed language, as English is today. History of the American war effort. I unravel the culturally rich force within Navajo language as a political case study and Beyond this invisibility, the dynamic of the I underline how the Code Talkers used their oppressed and the repressed, the claim of singularity to design the required concepts language as a code, the creation and use of to forge an efficient and valuable code for the a code that challenged the machines, the US Marines. This study case reveals how the case study of the Code Talkers echoes a consequences of globalisation sacrifices the contemporary situation that is still difficult specificity of language as well as the thinking to grasp in all its complexities. each language could provide. I finally analyse They highlights a situation in which language how the use of the Navajo language, defined and voice rescued. as “savage,” became indispensable for the U.S Marines mission and outstripped somehow In opposition, today, our voices betray us. the technological cryptologic devices. With the emergence of digital technologies, Those paradoxes raised issues about intelligence gathering doesn’t need an the Navajo language and identity, and expose organic body anymore and is not limited to the opportunistic use of this same language any territory. Under the assumption that we by the American military. Those paradoxes are constantly under surveillance, it is no

CONCLUSION also shed light on the cryptologic battle longer only our conversations but our voice between machine and the individuals and that is recorded, analyzed and retained how, in this case study, they would merge. and it’s a vicious cycle. The more voices are 78 Reclaiming VoicesReclaiming

CONCLUSION 79 which voicesfall andmore more silent.” “ admitted: journalistAvaIntercept Kofman recently asthe be can outcome topolitical regards ofthevoice issues in The contemporary to $5billionayear by 2024. industrywillreach near the voice biometrics that withanestimate parties, to commercial for militaryuseby theNSA sold isnow being initially developed technologies those from ourrightstoprivacy,jeopardizing theswitch Whileheavily biometric identifyingtool. without your authorization,anextended Yourtechnology becomes. voice becomes, effective themore thesurveillance recorded, we enteringaworld may in be 1

2 2. Ava Kofman, a market firm. research toTractica,1. According op.cit. SOURCES . 82 83 Bibliography Talker. Toronto: Dutton Caliber, 2018. Palmer, Robert R., et al. The Procurement and Bernstein, Alison R. American Indians and Training of Ground Combat Troops. Historical Reclaiming Voices World War II: toward a New Era in Indian Division, Dept. of the Army, 1948. Affairs. University of Oklahoma Press, 1991. Paul, Doris A. The Navajo Code Talkers. Broderick, Suzanne. Real War vs. Reel War: Dorrance Publishing Co. Inc, 1973. Veterans, Hollywood, and WWII. Rowman & Littlefield, 2015. Sapir, Edward and Harry Hoijer, The Phonology and Morphology of the Navaho Donoghue, Deidre M., et al. Resonant Bodies, Language. University of California Press, 1967. Voices, Memories. Edited by Anke Bangma, Piet Zwart Institute, 2009. Speas, Margaret. Phrase Structure in Natural Language. Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1990. Franco, Jere Bishop. Crossing the Pond: the Native American Effort in World War II. Ulbrich, David J. Preparing For Victory: University of North Texas Press, 1999. Thomas Holcomb and the Making of the Modern Marine Corps, 1936-1943. Annapolis: Gorman, Zonnie. The Navajo Code Talkers Naval Institute Press, 2011. of World War II, the first twenty-nine. The University of New Mexico Albuquerque, New Witherspoon, Gary. Language and Art in Mexico, 2014. the Navajo Universe. University of Michigan Press, 1977. L. Lanigan, Richard. Familiar frustration: The Japanese encounter with navajo (Diné)”Code Young, Robert W., and William Morgan. The Talkers” in World War II. Languages in Contact Navajo Language: a Grammar & Colloquial 2011, Philologica Wratislaviensia: Acta et Dictionary. Albuquerque: Univ. of New Studia. Vol 9. Mexico Press, 1987.

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MA Space and Communication HEAD— GENÈVE / 2020 Reclaiming Voices, Colonisation of the Navajo Language During World War II. By Jessica-Maria Nassif Under the tutorship of Alexandra Midal

MA Space and Communication HEAD— GENÈVE / 2020