Resistance, Resurrection, Liberation: Beyond the Existing Readings of Marc Chagall’s Crucifixion Paintings A thesis submitted to the Graduate School of the University of Cincinnati in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Art in Art History in the Department of the School of Art of the College of Design, Architecture, Art, and Planning (DAAP) by Jennifer Horvath March 10, 2015 B.S. University of Virginia May, 1993 Committee Chair: Kimberly Paice, Ph.D. Abstract This study deals with a small body of crucifixion scenes that were rendered by the well- known Russian and Jewish Expressionist artist Marc Chagall (1887-1985). It closely reads these works, made between 1937 and 1952 when Chagall lived in exile in France and the United States. Extensive scholarship and The Jewish Museum’s exhibition Chagall: Love, War, and Exile (2013-14), have emphasized ways that these paintings speak to the then-current tragedies and suffering of Jews associated with the Holocaust. This study builds on this established research. Yet, it offers a nuanced reading of the iconographical and compositional strategies that Chagall uses. Here, the lyrical-expressionist style and dream-like spatial qualities of his early modernist works infuses his painted crucifixions with the condition of exile. By emphasizing the circulation of the affects of love and hate through a network of signs, Chagall ties the theme of the crucifixion to a life of perpetual exile and to the sense of not belonging that goes with such a life. As explained in the study, Chagall’s crucifixion scenes relate as much to the suffering of humanity and Jews in the Holocaust as to the hoped-for liberation and subsequent failed promises of the Russian Revolution, to Chagall’s childhood in the Pale of Settlement, and to his lifelong experience of exile and desire to find a place in the world. Five of Chagall’s paintings figure prominently in this study. They include: White Crucifixion (1938), his peculiar paintings of crucifixions with embedded self-portraits including The Artist with Yellow Christ (1938), The Painter Crucified (1941-42), and Self-Portrait with Clock (1947), as well as his triptych Resistance, Resurrection, Liberation (1937-1952). The issues of identity, exile, and citizenship that Chagall explored in these paintings, as well as in numerous other works and writing, hardly belong solely in the province of history. They remain crucial dimensions of life, today. For these reasons, Chagall’s works continue to invite and elicit our attention. ii iii Acknowledgements In Fall 2013, I came across an article in an arts journal entitled “Understanding Pope Francis’s Surprising Affinity for Jewish Art,” (2013) that made comments on the new pope’s affinity for Marc Chagall’s work, White Crucifixion (1938). I was intrigued by the essay, which noted that Pope Francis identified White Crucifixion as his favorite work of art. Further, the article noted that the work was likely a response to a commission, which enticed me to learn more about Chagall’s crucifixion paintings. In my early research, I read that while Chagall did in fact create many Old Testament scenes for commissions, his crucifixion works were not commissioned, but rather a personal choice to paint. I was very interested to learn more about his crucifixion paintings, and thus began my thesis study on these works. I would like to thank my thesis committee for their support, edits, and feedback throughout my writing. I’d like to give a special thanks to my thesis advisor, Dr. Kimberly Paice for challenging me to incorporate affect theory into my analysis and for pushing me out of my comfort zone into the world of theory broadly. Further, I extend my gratitude to Dr. Lynne Ambrosini and Dr. Morgan Thomas for providing invaluable insights and much needed encouragement as I reached the final stages of my writing. I’d also like to extend my appreciation to Sarah Ligner, Curator at the Musée National Marc Chagall. Her willingness to give me special access to their storage facility was invaluable, in particular being able to view Resistance, Resurrection, Liberation, which was not currently on display when I visited. Having the opportunity to see the painting in private, off the museum wall was not only immensely helpful for my thesis research, but also a rare and extraordinary occasion for any art lover. And finally, I can’t thank my family enough for supporting me through this career change. My daughters Caroline and Genevieve have been dragged (their words, although hard to iv have sympathy for being “dragged” to Nice, France…) through museum after museum looking at paintings, and they have been subjected to countless hours of my ramblings about Marc Chagall. And to my husband Lyle, who shares my love of Chagall’s works, thank you for patiently supporting my academic studies, both financially and emotionally. v Table of Contents Introduction 1 Literature Review 2 Methodology 5 Chapter Descriptions 7 Conclusion 9 Chapter 1 – The Condition of Exile 11 Formal Analysis of White Crucifixion 12 Historical and Biographical Context 14 The Crucifixion – Christianity vs. Judaism 17 Displacement, Alienation, and Exile 19 Chapter 2 – Self-Portraiture and Identity 23 The Artist with Yellow Christ 24 The Painter Crucified 27 Self-Portrait with Clock 30 Identity 32 Chapter 3 – The Affects of Hate and Love 35 Formal Analysis of Resistance, Resurrection, Liberation 36 Scholars Interpretations – Political to Personal 38 Affective Economies – Love and Hate 40 Conclusion 45 Bibliography 47 Table 50 Illustrations 51 vi List of Tables 1. Crucifixion Paintings by Marc Chagall vii List of Illustrations 1. Marc Chagall, White Crucifixion, 1938, oil on canvas, 60 ¾ x 55 in., Art Institute of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois. 2. Marc Chagall, The Artist with Yellow Christ, 1938, gouache and charcoal with color chalk on paper, 22 3/8 x 18 ¼ in., private collection. 3. Marc Chagall, The Painter Crucified, 1941-42, gouache and pastel with watercolor on paper, 15 x 22 ¼ in., location unknown. 4. Marc Chagall, Self-Portrait with Clock, 1947, oil on canvas, 33 7/8 x 27 7/8 in., private collection. 5. Marc Chagall, Resistance, 1937-1948, oil on canvas, 66 1/8 x 40 5/8 in., Musée National Marc Chagall, Nice, France. 6. Marc Chagall, Resurrection, 1937-1948, oil on canvas, 66 ¼ x 42 5/8 in., Musée National Marc Chagall, Nice, France. 7. Marc Chagall, Liberation, 1937-1952, oil on canvas, 66 1/8 x 34 5/8 in., Musée National Marc Chagall, Nice, France. 8. Marc Chagall, Study for The Revolution, 1937, oil on canvas, 19 ¾ x 39 3/8 in., Musée National d’Art Moderne, Centre Georges Pompidou, Paris, France. viii Introduction Recognized for his paintings of flying roosters, people floating upside down, and village scenes from Russia, Marc Chagall (1887-1985) is best known for his art’s association with fantasy and symbolism and its connections with the artistic movements of Cubism and Fauvism. While many of the subjects he painted are considered whimsical and light-hearted, Chagall also made many works with a serious tone, including his Illustrations for the Bible, a collection of etchings begun in 1930. This series not only brought Chagall closer to his Jewish heritage, but also allowed him to explore Christian themes with the crucified Christ. My study involves a close reading of Chagall’s crucifixion paintings, which he made primarily in the period from 1937 to 1952 both in France and the United States. It explores how these works offer a unique understanding of expatriate identity and belonging, particularly when read through the lens of recent academic writings on the condition of exile and affect theory. Building on past scholarship that has cast Chagall’s crucifixion paintings in terms of the tragedies of the Holocaust, my study offers a nuanced reading of Chagall’s iconography and compositional strategies, and examines how these works portray the affects of hate and love and raise issues of identity, exile, and citizenship. Although Chagall described fond memories of his family and hometown of Vitebsk, Russia,1 which figure prominently in his paintings, he nonetheless expressed feelings of being an outsider in his home country.2 Russian Jews were required to live in a separate region of the country known as the Pale of Settlement, and Chagall went to a Jewish elementary school where he studied the Bible extensively. Fortunately, restrictions in Russia for Jews had lessened at the turn of the 20th century, and Chagall was able to attend a public school following his Jewish elementary education. However, despite these improvements in educational access, Jews still 1 Franz Meyer, Marc Chagall (New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc. Publishers, 1981), 41. 2 Marc Chagall, My Life (New York: De Capo Press, 1960), 100. 1 experienced a life of separation from the broader Russian population.3 I believe this isolation instilled a sense of refugee status for Chagall, which began in his home country and stayed with him as he moved from one country to the next. In 1910, he left Russia for Paris seeking further education and inspiration for his art. Chagall spent four years in Paris before returning to Russia in 1914, only to find himself barred from leaving the country because of the Great War.4 In 1923 he returned to France, but eventually, like many artists, intellectuals, and Jewish individuals, he fled to the United States during World War II (WWII) when the Germans invaded France in 1941.5 Chagall describes his experiences and feelings of exile, first in the Pale of Settlement in Russia, then upon leaving Russia and his family for France in 1910, and again when he was forced into exile in America during WWII.