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Religion, Ethnicity and Gender Under Fatimid Rule 38 0993-8_BIOR_2008/1-2_01 21-04-2008 14:39 Pagina 21 37 RELIGION, ETHNICITY AND GENDER UNDER FATIMID RULE 38 RELIGION, ETHNICITY AND GENDER UNDER FATIMID RULE. THREE RECENT PUBLICATIONS AND THEIR WIDER RESEARCH CONTEXT*) Johannes DEN HEIJER This review article aims at examining a limited number of identity-related issues as studied in three recent publications on aspects of the medieval Middle East. Two of these publi- cations (Halm; Cortese & Calderini) directly concern the Fatimid empire (909-1171 CE) and thus to a large degree dis- cuss phenomena pertaining to Egypt and more particularly to Cairo, although they pay sufficient attention to other regions, and to other periods of time as well. The third monograph (Meri) rather focuses on Syria in a period that coincides with the Fatimid period but extends its observations up till the six- teenth century CE.1) *) Review article on HALM, H., Die Kalifen von Kairo. Die Fatimiden in Ägypten 973-1074. Verlag C.H. Beck, München, 2003 (22 cm, 511). ISBN 3-406-48654-1; CORTESE, D. and S. CALDERINI, Women and the Fatimids in the world of Islam. Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh, 2006 (23,5 cm, XVII, 269). ISBN 7486 1733 7. £ 16,99; MERI, J.W., The Cult of Saints among Muslims and Jews in Medieval Syria. Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2002 (22,5 cm, XIV, 327). ISBN 0-19-925078-2. £ 55,-. 1) Parts of this review article were inspired by an undergraduate course taught at Leiden University in the academic year 2005-2006, and owes a great deal to the input and enthousiasm of the participating students: Fatima Ballah, Jelle Bruning, Karim Darwish, Daniëlle Dürst Britt, Hodda Fiala, Eelco van der Maat, Ilja Mottier-Holtz, Tom Verstraete, Joep Verwey and Amir Westhof. The author is indebted to Ronald E. Kon of Bibliotheca Orientalis for his encouragement and patience. 0993-8_BIOR_2008/1-2_01 21-04-2008 14:39 Pagina 22 39 BIBLIOTHECA ORIENTALIS LXV N° 1-2, januari-april 2008 40 By way of introduction, it should be pointed out that this The following analysis, then, will be limited to the themes “triple book review” is deliberately limited in its scope, for mentioned in the title: religious and ethnic identity, and gen- by no means does it purport to give a full account of the three der issues. These subjects pertain to both social and cultural publications in question. Particularly Heinz Halm’s compre- history, and, arguably, to the history of ideas as well. As for hensive study includes many more aspects of Fatimid history the societal aspect, it should be borne in mind, however, that than can possibly be considered here, although, as should be the outlook of the available sources prevents modern schol- remembered, his book is relatively limited in its chronologi- arship from fully grasping the social stratigraphy of the peri- cal scope, being the second volume in what is to become a ods and areas in question. Thus, we are simply far better comprehensive trilogy on the history of the Fatimids.2) informed on matters and events pertaining to members of the Some issues that can only be mentioned in passing here are: court, the administration, the upper echelons of the armies, (1) Political history: when Fatimid rule was established in in other words, of the social elite, than on the lives of work- Cairo, Egypt, for the first time since antiquity, became the ers, peasants and common soldiers. All modern authors dis- centre of an empire again, rather than a province of an empire play an implicit or explicit awareness of this methodological as in the Byzantine and Early Islamic periods, and from this handicap. In this review, the disproportional emphasis on the centre, the Fatimids came to rule considerable parts of North higher strata of society will be simply accepted as a given Africa (and Sicily) and the Middle East. The vicissitudes of feature of the available data. territorial conflicts with rival powers (the Abbasids and the The following analysis favours three criteria of “dissect- Byzantines, mainly), the struggle against breakaway local ing” a given population, while acknowledging, naturally, that rulers, and various military events receive ample and detailed other fault lines could be identified just as well. These three attention in Halm’s monograph. criteria are linked to the following types of entities: (1) con- (2) Urban history: it was the Fatimids who created the fessionally defined communities: Sunni and Isma¨ili (Shi¨i) new capital of al-Qahira (Cairo), next to the existing metrop- Muslims, Jews and Christians belonging to several denomi- olis of MiÒr (al-Fus†a†, al-¨Askar, al-Qa†aˆi¨), and this new nations; (2) ethnic groups: Berbers, Africans, Turks, Arabs capital underwent an interesting evolution from a “forbid- (particularly Bedouin tribes), as well as the native popula- den” ritual capital to a more regular medieval fortified city. tions of Egypt and Syria; and (3) women, basically belong- The first phases of this development also figure prominently ing to all possible groups included in the first two categories. in various parts of Halm’s study. Needless to say, a clear-cut distinction between all these enti- (3) Social and economic history: Fatimid Cairo was the ties is not always possible or even useful. Nevertheless, for centre of an impressive trade network and a huge entrepôt practical considerations, gender-related issues will sometimes connected to Southern Europe through Alexandria and Dami- be linked here to either confessional or ethnic identity, but etta, as well as to South Arabia and India via the Red Sea they will mostly figure in our last section, which is devoted port of ¨Ay∂ab. On this and related matters, it is mostly in to topics particularly involving women as such, mostly in the first chapters that Halm provides valuable information, Delia Cortese’s & Simonetta Calderini’s monograph. including whatever data may be obtained from the sources on daily issues that clearly affected the lives of all classes of 1. Confessionally defined entities society, including trade, price levels, monetary policy, mar- kets, industries, health care, ecology, etc. (Halm 15-18, 32- The Fatimid Empire was characterized by a high degree of 40, 72-78, 78-81, 89-92). confessional and ethnic pluralism. Isma¨ili Shi¨ism was the (4) History of art and architecture: the Fatimid period saw creed of the Court and the State, but particularly in Egypt the the constructions of such famous and impressive buildings as majority of Muslims followed the Sunnite (particularly the mosques of al-Azhar, al-Îakim, al-Aqmar, of the walls Malikite) schools of jurisprudence. Moreover, Christians still of Cairo with its gates that still stand today, and of shrines of were a large part of the population in all Fatimid territories. saints. It is also known for its pottery, illustrated manuscripts, The Jews, although a minority, stand out in terms of their and other species of fine art that can be found in many muse- remarkably well documented history. Members of all these, ums all over the world. and other, non-Isma¨ili communities, at times obtained promi- (5) Sciences: medicine, and mathematics and astrology nent positions in the administration. Fatimid policy towards flourished as well, arguably to an extent quite comparable to Sunni Islam in particular was sometimes one of confrontation earlier periods of Classical Arab culture. These cultural but mostly targeted at some form of accommodation. In many expressions are given relatively little attention, but they cer- other aspects too, interaction between the various communi- tainly are not overlooked entirely. ties was an intricate process that still necessitates a great deal Despite the obvious importance and abundance of Halm’s of research. Even though in Egypt any type of Shi¨ism all but information on these and other topics, we must refrain from vanished soon after the decline of the Fatimid caliphate, two discussing them in further detail. Similarly, the contents of centuries of Isma¨ili domination were to have a lasting impact the two other monographs will also be discussed rather selec- on religious practices, in particular with regard to the vener- tively. In order to situate these studies in a wider research ation of the family members of the prophet MuÌammad (ahl context, we will occasionally refer to other recent publica- al-bayt, “people of the house”). By contrast, in other regions, tions, but since all works under consideration include exten- such as Syria, various branches of Shi¨ism including sive bibliographies, there is no need here to refer to older Isma¨ilism continued to thrive until the present day. scholarly literature, except in a few isolated cases. The scholarly study of all these complex phenomena is now significantly enhanced by the three studies reviewed here. In this section, we will treat the various communities 2) The formative period of Fatimid history is dealt with in H. Halm, Das one by one, with due attention to processes of interaction Reich des Mahdi: der Aufstieg der Fatimiden (875-973), München 1991 = The empire of the Mahdi: the rise of the Fatimids, Leiden [etc.] 1996. between them. 0993-8_BIOR_2008/1-2_01 21-04-2008 14:39 Pagina 23 41 RELIGION, ETHNICITY AND GENDER UNDER FATIMID RULE 42 1.1. Isma¨ilis and other Shi¨ites to every aspect of public life, typically through the imple- None of the three monographs are primarily concerned mentation of the law. (…)” (Cortese & Calderini 30). In with religious doctrine as such. Halm’s sections devoted to numerous relevant studies, including Halm’s, this facet of Isma¨ili religious matters rather deal with the organization of Fatimid governance is highlighted, and mostly so in the field the propagation of the faith (da¨wa) than with the religious of Islamic law and its implementation.
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