--'N~A~Tu~R'-'-E~v~o~L--'. ""'32"'0_1"'3--'M""""A'-'-R'-'-c"""'H-'--'-1"'"'9s"'6---------(QMMENTARY---------------------ll_9 Investigating the paranormal from David F Marks Parascience has so far failed to produce a single repeatable finding and, until it does, will continue to be viewed as an incoherent collection of belief systems steeped in fantasy, illusion and error. FEW fields of inquiry capture the attention ignore such developments is, to say the were claimed to be paranormal but which of the public as much as the paranormal. least, uncharitable. can now be explained from within Newspapers, books, films and television The Committee for the Scientific orthodox science include: have all cashed in and promoted it. Yet Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal (1) Kirlian photography, the photo­ after millennia of experience and more (CSICOP) was established in 1976 with graphic recording of coronal discharges than a century of controlled investigation, the aim of increasing the quality of scien­ around living or non-living objects pro­ since the founding in 1882 of the Society tific investigations into the paranormal by duced by high-voltage, (20-100 kV), high­ of Psychical Research, the paranormal constructive criticism and the exposure of frequency (75 kHz-3 MHz) electrical 13 14 remains as controversial as ever. While invalid or fraudulent claims. Over this 10- fields • . Variations in the images of the credence in extrasensory perception (ESP) year period, an inordinate amount of corona can be explained in terms of nor­ and precognition is widespread, fraud, error and incompetence in paranor­ mal physical factors such as moisture, parapsychology has failed to produce a mal investigations has been brought to pressure or distance, all of which influence 11 single repeatable demonstration. In the light'- • But pseudo-sciences are remark­ circuit resistance. face of such a dearth of hard evidence, ably stable and tradition-bound; their (2) Fire-walking, if conducted briskly how can such widespread belief in the presence on the edges of science can be on hot materials of low thermal capacity 12 paranormal be accounted for? expected indefinitely . and poor thermal conductivity, does not 15 16 The importance of rigorous analysis of Areas of experimental psychology can produce burns • . The Leidenfrost effect the evidence for parascientific claims can­ shed light on the paranormal, especially created by an insulating layer of water or not be underestimated. The establishment the study of consciousness and cognition. sweat may also reduce energy transfer to of ESP could conceivably require a para­ Such investigation indicates that the many the surface of the body. digm shift (in Kuhn's sense) of the most anomalies of putatively paranormal (3) Dowsing is based on sensory cues, fundamental kind and our concepts of experience are an inevitable consequence expectancy effects and probability. Con­ mind-brain relationships and conscious­ of normal selective and constructive pro­ trolled trials fail to produce above-chance 8 11 19 ness would need radical alteration. Our cesses in perception, memory and results • - • whole approach to psychology as an imagery. I summarize here what seem to (4) Psychic surgery, thought photogra­ empirical science, based as it is on the be the common assumptions on which phy and metal bending all involve sleight­ time-honoured assumption that percep­ claims of the paranormal are based. of-hand and can be duplicated by skilled 8 20 22 tion can result only from sensory activity, magicians • - . The first differs from the would be brought into question. Theoretical assumptions others in respect of the associated false The conventional response of many Paranormal phenomena are negatively hopes and financial loss, but all three are scientists to the paranormal is to ignore defined. A phenomenon is defined as para­ fraudulent. 2 1 22 the evidence on a priori grounds, believing normal only if it contravenes some funda­ (5) 'Gellerized' watches • , thought to it to be of basically poor quality. This mental and well-founded assumption of be broken, are purportedly repaired by attitude is allied to the Humean stance science. Hence, to establish an effect as illusionist Uri Geller by 'psychic con­ that a lie is more probable than a miracle. paranormal, all possible ' normal' explana­ centration'. In about 50% of cases, simply Although this scepticism is certainly jus­ tions must be shown to be invalid. Any holding the watch in a clenched first and tified, it could be argued that such a paranormal claim thus also remains pro­ shaking it provides a sufficient stimulus to 23 blanket response is counterproductive. visional; a normal explanation, not pre­ free the mechanism . First, it is hardly scientific to reject a claim viously thought of, may be discovered at (6) Astrology, graphology, tea-leaf and purely because of its a priori improbabil­ some future time. tarot card readings, the I Ching and other ity. Second, a division is created between Mysteriousness per se is a necessary but forms of divination are all types of 'cold 24 aligned groups of committed 'believers' insufficient condition for adjudging an reading' or 'sleight-of-mouth' . They and 'sceptics' and the resulting adversarial event as paranormal. There will always be depend upon ambiguous, wish-fulfilling positions inhibit proper discourse and the limits to knowledge, so that new and general advice, the use of prior or possibility of an account which satisfies phenomena that initially appear presented information and cues obtained all parties. Third, it leaves the field open anomalous will be given a natural expla­ by verbal 'fishing' . A strong feeling of per­ for undisciplined exploitation, which is nation following systematically controlled sonal validation often accompanies such irresponsible; there are many examples of observations. Bona fide paranormal readings. Various forms of 'mediumship' financial loss, suffering and even death effects, on the other hand, are supposed and 'psychometry' as practised by D. Col­ resulting from fraudulent paranormal to contravene established assumptions as lins and D. Stokes are also examples of claims (for example, the Jonestown though from another order of existence cold reading. massacre, psychic surgery, the Transcen­ and not simply for lack of explanation. In some cases, field observations can be dental Meditation levitation programme, 'Contranormal' would be a more precise checked under laboratory conditions and firewalking, scientology and other pseudo­ technical term. the sensori-motor features of the original scientific cults). For scientists passively to Examples of effects which until recently performance reproduced using a delayed _12_o__ ______ _ _ _____ _ _ ___ _ CQMMENTARY ------------N_A_T_uR_E_v_o_L_. 3_2_0_1_3 _M_A_R_C_H_t_9_86 control group of non-psychic subjects; for example, Geller's watch-starting pro­ a cedure and ability to draw the contents of sealed and a ppa rently opaque envelopes were matched by that of non-psychic con­ trols23 (Fig. 1). Clearly, the tendency to judge a mysterious event as paranormal in the absence of controlled observations can be quite misleading. b The most dramatic evidence for the paranormal has been based on either fraud or methodological error. Apparent frauds that have been uncovered include Univer­ sity of London mathematician S. G. Soal's 25 27 manipulation of his recording sheets - , c University of Utrecht Professor Tanhaeff's evidence on Croiset, the Dutch 'psychic' detective28 , and the description by C. Cas­ taneda (University of California at Los Angeles) of the paranormal teachings of Don Juan29 . C. E. M . Hansel 3 has provided a valuable review of the history of trickery, Fig. I Drawings presented to Geller and to non-psychic controls. The targets were inside fraud and error in parapsychology. envelopes, and Geller and the controls were allowed to see the sealed envelopes. The first and However, outright fraud is not the only se cond co lumns show targets as they appeared in unfolded and folded states. Geller's final attempts vehicle in which the paranormal cause can at reproducing the drawings, which were folded and sealed inside envelopes, are shown in column travel, and it is a serious mistake to assume 3. Columns 4 and 5 show the best results obtained from the co ntrol subjects after only 5 and I 0 s it is a necessary part of any paranormal of close visual inspection. The drawings were presented inside the same envelopes under similar investigation. lighting conditions. Geller, who claimed to use ESP, had taken 11.5, 85 and 18 min for a, b and There are no theories to account for para­ c, respecti ve ly, but he was being observed, albeit discontinuously (see ref. 23). normal effects or their properties. There are some undesirable implications of this aspect. First, investigators are unable to they themselves believe in psi, the so­ somehow discriminates its own mental conduct properly controlled experiments called 'sheep-goat' effect32 . Hence, psi can experiences from that of all others38 . But on the properties of psi phenomena be held to be pre>ent whatever the results, even putting that issue to one side, it is because they have no idea what the rel­ unless the belief of the investigators is curious how seldom the anti-materialist evant variables are. In particular, there is itself independently controlled. assumption has been properly explained. no procedure by which psi can be deliber­ In an extreme version of the 'sheep­ D. E.