Acta Geoturistica, vol. 8 (2017), nr. 2, 32-49 DOI 10.1515/agta-2017-0004 The English (as a potential geopark): mining geoheritage and historical geotourism

THOMAS A. HOSE School of Earth Sciences, University of Bristol, Wills Building, Queens Road, Bristol, BS8 1RJ, UK

ABSTRACT The Peak District is an upland region in central Britain with a rich mining geoheritage. It was established as the UK’s first National Park in 1951. It was the region, due to its widespread loss quarries and mines sites to inappropriate remedial measures, which led to the recognition and promotion of the modern geotourism paradigm. It is the birthplace of British geotourism with the earliest recorded instances of leisure travellers purposefully choosing to visit mines and caves. Metalliferous mining in the region can be traced back to the Bronze Age. Gangue minerals, especially fluorspar and barites, later became significant primary extraction activities and underpinned a small-scale semi-precious stone industry. It is home to the World Heritage inscribed site of the Derwent Mills, significant in the development of early Industrial Revolution textile technology and manufacturing practices. The almost equally significant mining geoheritage has yet to be similarly recognised and, indeed, its survival is still threatened because most tourism and many mining geoheritage stakeholders have a limited understanding of geo-history and the geo-interpretive significance of the individuals and geosites that shaped historical geotourism and geological exploration in the Peak District; their exploits and the legacy of their publications, alongside its superbly exposed and well researched geology and associated mining geoheritage, could underpin a bid for the region’s recognition as a geopark. Hence, this introductory paper summarises the key aspects of the region’s geology and major mining geoheritage sites, together with the major works and influence of some key individuals that should be included as a very minimum in such a bid.

Key words: geo-history, geo-interpretation, geopark, geotourism, Peak District.

THE PEAK DISTRICT geopark circles. The Peak District is an upland area, generally above 300 metres, Introduction mainly in the English counties of It has been suggested since 2014 that the and Staffordshire (but also parts Peak District in central Britain could be a of Cheshire, Greater Manchester and South European Geopark Network member by Yorkshire), in central Britain. Not all of the 2017with a bid seemingly based upon area broadly recognised as the Peak District traditional lines (Benghiat, 2015) – an lies within the boundaries of the 1,437 km2 emphasis on scientific geology, economic of the Peak District National Park, benefits and community engagement. This established in 1951 as the UK’s first such. paper explores a possible alternative, geo- It has some 40,000 permanent inhabitants historical approach underpinned by mining and 16.1 million people live within an geoheritage, that better resonates with hour’s drive (or 65 km), and 80% of the currently employed industrial heritage UK’s population is within a four hour drive, management and promotion practices, too of its boundaries. The Manchester and little explored in European geological and Stoke conurbations border its western

© 2017 Thomas A. Hose. This is an open access article licensed under the Creative Commons 32 Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/). Acta Geoturistica, vol. 8 (2017), nr. 2, 32-49 margin and abuts its eastern edge centre. The overall effect is that of a dome- with the and Nottingham shaped feature, the ‘’. The conurbation to its south; they (with a apparently simple structure encouraged combined population of some 3.7 million) early geologists to assume there was a contribute to the Peak’s estimated 8.5 central block of hard ancient rocks (Pre- million annual visitors. To the north the Cambrian or granite) over which the Peak merges with the southern Pennines; to limestones had been draped the south it gives way to the Midland Plain. as relatively thin beds like on a large coral Despite its name it generally lacks sharp atoll, and that later rocks were laid down on peaks and is characterised by rounded top. However, deep boreholes and seismic limestone hills and dales (river valleys with surveys have revealed a complex system of cliffs) and gritstone escarpments (the almost east-west faults defining the edges ‘edges’); its highest point, at just 636 of two or three south-westerly dipping tilted metres, is the plateau. The blocks of basement rocks (known as tilt region’s depiction in topographic and blocks and half grabens). geological maps has been summarised by Henry and Hose (2015). Metaliferous Peak District Ore Fields mining began in pre-Roman times (Barnatt, The region is underlain (see Fig. 2) by the 1999). Its (geo) tourism began in the late southern part of the South Pennine Ore seventeenth century (Hose, 2008). Its Field (SPOF) and, as at Ecton, the separate scientific geological exploration began in Derbyshire Ore Field (DOF). The SPOF’s the late eighteenth century. These historical main lead deposits lie on the eastern side of elements, explored within this paper, are the in a belt, a few kilometres underpinned by the region’s geology and wide and about 35 kilometres long, between mineralogy and its exploitation (the mining Castleton and . The SPOF geoheritage), the latter two are the consists of hydrothermal vein and recognised basis for its potential stratiform deposits, within the Upper recognition as a European Geopark Dinantian limestones, of and (Benghiat, 2015) with information centres, sphalerite together with barites, and viewpoints, self-guided walks, cycle trails flourpsar. The veins occupy ENE-WSW, and a Peak District GeoPark Way as five of NW-SE and NE-SW vertical, fault its 16 projected outcomes especially controlled, fractures; mineralisation is due relevant to this paper. to wall rock and pore fluid interactions at a burial depth of some two kilometres. The Peak District Geology SPOF is reckoned to have originally held The region’s solid geology (see Fig. 1) is some 4 million tonnes of galena, 1 million mostly of Carboniferous age rocks. A tonnes of sphalerite, 20 million tonnes of plateau of (Visean age) limestones, the fluorspar and 20 million tonnes of barites. White Peak, is surrounded by outcrops of Quirk (1993) has provided a summary of successively newer strata. Firstly, mainly the origins of the SPOF; likewise Ford mudstones, and sandstones of the (2004) for the DOF. It is generally agreed (Namurian age) Millstone Grit, of the Dark that the ore bodies are pipe-like but Ford Peak uplands, and then, in more broken (2004) concluded that they are large masses form, by the outcrop of the (Westphlalian) of mineralized crush-breccia formed within Coal Measures of the East Pennines, and tightly folded limestones and shales. the Lancashire and Staffordshire Coalfields. Usually on the west, the rocks dip steeply to Peak District Mining Geoheritage the west or are highly folded. The dips to Metalliferous mining, for lead, zinc and the east are gentler. The rocks to the north silver ores, in the Peak District dates back and south also usually dip away from the to at least Roman times. Copper mining

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Fig. 1 Map of the Solid Geology of the Peak District

Fig. 2 Map of the Ore Fields of the Peak District

34 Acta Geoturistica, vol. 8 (2017), nr. 2, 32-49 began in the Bronze Age. Iron and Cavern in Castleton is now just a manganese have also been extracted. The but mining still takes place in the mines were of three types: shaft and nearby . gallery; bell pits; and rakes (open surface Parts of the limestone plateau of the workings that followed mineral veins often White Peak are dotted with numerous small along fault-lines). Lead mining reached its mounds (see Fig. 3) and distinctive lines of zenith in the seventeenth and eighteenth hillocks; these follow the mineral veins centuries, before declining from the mid- (large veins are ‘rakes’, small veins are nineteenth century; the last major mine ‘scrins’) mainly worked for lead in the closed in 1939; Barnatt et al. (2013) SPOF. The mounds are usually capped provides an excellent inventory of the mine-shafts with the entire original mine remaining major sites. Lead mining was structures above ground having been particularly concentrated in the area around demolished. The hillocks are the spoil Winster and Wirksworth (especially Crich); heaps from underground workings. They the most notable surviving mine is the are significant because, after several re- , worked until 1960, which is working due to changes in one of the UK’s finest examples of an technology (enabling successively lower eighteenth and nineteenth century lead grades of ore to be worked) they contain mine. Now a scheduled Ancient Monument, evidence of significant changes in mining it is preserved by the Peak District Mines practice. They also often seal in evidence of Historical Society. Copper ores were the earlier mining phases along mineral veins; main focus on the western edge of the Peak open-cuts were worked first with later spoil where at Ecton and Clayton a major mining from brought up from below burying the complex of mines and spoil heaps, first earlier workings. Although worked out for worked in the sixteenth century, was ore minerals they have abundant gangue developed in the eighteenth and nineteenth minerals, especially barites and fluorspar, centuries. Lead was also extracted because within the crushed and broken country rock it lay above the copper deposit. Its 1 km2 fragments. The gangue minerals were the site is protected as a SSSI and an Ancient main reason for twentieth century mining. Monument. Its various sites, including a A mid-1990s survey of the hillocks, prior to visitor centre, is owned and managed by the the wholesale removal of many, showed The Ecton Mine Educational Trust and the that halve had already been lost and another National Trust. quarter were in a poor state. Just under a A major flourpsar mining centre was at quarter (23%) of the surviving hillocks Masson Hill above Matlock, now a derelict have protected SSSI status, with around a part-reclaimed site. Flourspar underpins a tenth (11%) protected by temporary agri- small-scale semi-precious stone industry environment scheme agreements. Despite based on the extraction of the world famous their mining geoheritage significance they variety. The semi-precious have little or no statutory protection and can mineral’s name is supposedly derived from be destroyed by landowners (Barnatt, 2000) the French ‘Bleu et Jaune’ which aptly without any prior notification. The hillocks describes its banding. Today only a few are associated with features such as an hundred kilograms are mined annually for estimated (Willies, 1993) 25,000 mine ornamental and lapidary use. The Blue John shafts, open-cuts, engine houses, gin

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Fig. 3 Carsington Pastures Lead Mines, near Wirksworth The obvious feature in the foreground is the mine-shaft capped with concrete railway sleepers; other capped shafts and an ore dressing area can also be seen in the middle distance. circles, crushing circles and ore washing quarries. Its newest definition (Hose, 2012) ‘buddles’ (Ford & Rieuwerts 2000). as ‘The promotion to visitors of interpreted geosites and their associated artefacts whether in-situ or ex-situ, to ensure their PEAK DISTRICT GEOTOURISM AND protection and conservation through THE GEOPARK sustainable management that promotes their appreciation, enjoyment, education and The history and development of the research by current and future generations’ geotourism paradigm has been explored by (Hose, 2012, p. 11) reinforces its original Hose (2015) and need not be covered geoconservation rationale. Its initial herein. However, it is worth noting that it definition (Hose, 1995) and underpinning arose from the late-1980s recognition of the rationale were incorporated within the accelerating loss of the UK’s, especially in UNESCO Geoparks Programme Feasibility the Peak District (Hose, 2011), mines and Study (Patzak, 2000). Thus, at the outset

36 Acta Geoturistica, vol. 8 (2017), nr. 2, 32-49 geotourism and geoparks were linked travellers to look at other underground sites approaches to geoconservation involving such as mines. geo-interpretation. The development and A century after Fiennes, John Byng rationale of Europe’s geoparks has been (1743-1813) journeyed, during the summers documented by Zouros (2013) and need not of 1781 to 1794, on horseback throughout be elaborated further herein. and Wales. His recorded travels, The Peak District is a major geotourism unpublished in his lifetime and only re- area because it has: varied and well exposed discovered in the twentieth century have (economically important) geology with been in print ever since, display his training associated aesthetic and mining geoheritage as a retired Army officer and his landscapes; adjacent major urban centres antiquarian interests; whilst mainly about (such as Derby, Manchester and Sheffield) domestic and social matters they include have long resulted in good transport descriptions of the countryside, including infrastructure providing ready access for geological observations, through which he local and visiting tourists; and historical journeyed, such as ‘All the country is geo-literature, maps and sections. It was the scooped by lead mines and their levels; UK’s first wild upland region explored, betwixt Winster and Elton are the great lead from the late-seventeenth century, by mines of Portway.’ (Byng, 1966, p. 186). leisure travellers. By the seventeenth And ‘Macclesfield looks well in approach: century’s end the Peak District’s major and one knows a place to be enriching and attractions were organized and promoted by increasing when it is surrounded by brick- the ‘guidebooks’ of Thomas Hobbes (in kilns: the copper works have done this and 1678) and Charles Cotton (in 1681) as disseminate their coin far and wide.’ (Byng, seven ‘wonders’: ‘two fonts’ - wells of 1996, p. 174). Like Fiennes he believed that Tideswell and St Ann; ‘two caves’ - Poole's there was just as much of interest in Britain Hole and ; ‘one palace’ - as in France and Italy, particularly because ; ‘one mount’ - Mam England and Wales contained so much that Tor; and ‘a pit’ - Eldon Hole pothole. The was picturesque. He equally admired original ‘wonders’ are all well described by contemporary industrial technology, Ward (1827); that volume also contains including ’s (1732-1792) much interesting geological information and Josiah Wedgwood’s and would have been useful to nineteenth (1730-1795) Etruria potteries. On the century geotourists visiting the region; for Derbyshire mills he wrote ‘These cotton example, on the Cumberland Cavern near mills, seven storeys high and fill'd with noted ‘…several parts of this inhabitants, remind me of a first-rate man of cavern also have a very brilliant war and, when they are lighted up on a dark appearance; and exhibit different substances night, look most luminously beautiful.’ that will be inspected by the curious (Byng, 1966, p. 188) making him an ideal mineralogist with great interest and links person between the potential geopark satisfaction.’ (Ward, 1827, p. 59-60). One and the World of the first documented leisure visitors to Heritage Site the wonders was Celia Fiennes, probably In the 1720s Daniel Defoe (1660-1731) England’s first geotourist (Hose, 2008). She typically characterized the moorland around observed that around its ‘…Bowells Chatsworth as a ‘houling wilderness’ and are full of mines of all kinds off Black and that Peak Cavern, near Castleton, was white veined Marbles, and some have disappointing for tourists ‘…with a just mines of Copper, others tinn and Leaden curiosity...when they go to see it, they mines, in which is a great deal of silver.’ generally go away, acknowledging that they (Fiennes, 1888, p. 82). In so observing she have seen nothing suitable to their great shows how the ‘wonders’ attracted expectation, or to the fame of the place.’

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(Defoe nd, vol.1, 168). Half a century later, early travellers to the region; likewise for in 1771, Arthur Young (1741-1820), a Watson’s works although travellers visited writer on agricultural improvement, his museum-shop in some travelled through Dove Dale and recorded numbers. Walford’s The Scientific Tourist (in The Farmer’s Tour through the East of of 1818 included both an account of the England…) in complete contrast that it was counties of the Peak District and general ‘...bounded in a very romantic manner by geological information, including advice on hills, rocks and hanging woods; which are how to describe geological features. extremely various; and the hills in Today, the original ‘wonders’ are still particular of a very bold and striking major geotourism attractions along with character. They are spread on all sides in mines and industrial history sites (Harris vast sweeps, inexpressably 1971), together with geosites (see Horton & magnificent...’ (in Trench, 1990, p. 158). It Gutteridge, 2003; Rodgers, 1977; was also noted in the early nineteenth Wolverton Cope; 1999) in and around century that ‘The caverns of the Peak and Bakewell, Buxton, Castleton (see Ford, the lead mines, afford something strange 1996) and Matlock; these are mainly old and new. Altogether we can warmly mine sites of which a mere handful have commend a trip through Derbyshire, as one any remaining structures above ground. The affording great variety of hill and dale, region has been acknowledged (Hose, wood and stream, barren moors, and rich 2008) as the birthplace of geotourism, cultivation, fine parks and mansions, and particularly because of the visits of Celia beautiful hamlets, cottages, and roadside Fiennes to some of its geosites. Indeed, gardens…’ (Sydney, 1851, p. 221) and ‘The from the late-seventeenth century, travellers environs of Buxton afford ample room for to the region visited them because they rides, drives, picnics, and geological and were comparatively readily accessible from botanical explorations.’ (Sydney, 1851, p. its adjacent and then industrialising towns; 224). they would often break their leisure The first formal account of the region’s journeys to visit its textile mills (the geology appeared towards the end of the world’s first such buildings), potteries eighteenth century, John Walcott’s (?-1813) smelting works and other manufacturing An inquiry into the original state and attractions - much as today’s tourists visit formation of the Earth of 1778 which went its industrial history sites chief of which is into two further (1786 and 1792) editions. The Derwent Valley Mills World Heritage Its fossils were described in William Site. Martin’s (1767-1810) Petrificata The Derwent Valley Mills World Derbiensia; or figures and descriptions of Heritage Site (Derbyshire County Council, petrifactions collected in Derbyshire 2014) which lies south of, and abuts, the (1809). John Farey’s (1728-1798) General Park received its inscription in 2001. It View of the agriculture and minerals of delineates and promotes a cultural Derbyshire (1811) and ’s landscape where the factory system was (1760-1835) A delineation of the Strata of born in the eighteenth century. It has Derbyshire... (1811) (which are cross historic mill complexes and the sections) and A section of the strata in the watercourses that powered them, together vicinity of Matlock Bath... (1813) were with the settlements developed for the mill major descriptive works of the regions workers, the canals, railways and other geology; the latter was a groundbreaking structures; these are grouped within a approach (see Fig.4) to representing distinctive landscape setting which has subterranean geology. However, there is no changed little over two centuries. The evidence that the works of Farey and Derwent Valley also houses at Matlock Martin had a wide readership amongst the Bath the Peak District Lead Mining

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Fig. 4 White Watson’s (1813) Cross Section of the Derbyshire Dome The top section is as it appears in Watson, W. the 1813 volume “A Delineation of the Strata of Derbyshire forming the surface from Bolsover in the East to Buxton in the West designed from a Tablet, Composed of the Specimens of Each Stratum above the Line, With an Explanatory Account of the same, together with A Description of the Fossils found in these Strata; and also Of the Natureand Quality of the respective soils”. The bottom section is a modern version employing conventional litho-stratigrahic symbols.

Museum opened in 1976, where visitors can geohistory, ‘The study, evaluation and access the fluorspar Temple Mine on a application of a systematic narrative of guided tour. The Derwent Valley is also geological discoveries, events, personages home to the National Stone Centre (Thomas and institutions’ (Hose, 2012), has a & Prentice, 1994) established in 1990 published model (Hose, 2010; 2015) within six limestone quarries; it has a indicating its practical outcomes and geotrail and a visitor centre concerned with contextualising geotourism research. the extraction and uses of stone. The World Almost a century ago it was noted that Heritage Site provides a model for how ‘The curiosity shown by the tourists in the parts of a Peak District Geopark might be agricultural and industrial development of managed (see Derbyshire County Council, those parts of the country they visited 2014), especially for sustainable (geo) seems to have been in a degree general. The tourism. number of books which may be described as topography, although their compilers often call them geography, or a tour, is SUPPORTING THE GEO- fairly large, and they were reprinted in a HISTORICAL APPROACH: SOME more or less amended, expanded, and up-to- KEY PERSONS date form at frequent intervals.’ (Fussell & Goodman, 1929, p. 86). Such works, as Geo-history and its materials shown herein, can still and should be The writings and researches of consulted today when developing mining seventeenth to nineteenth century geoheritage geotourism because they individuals recorded their observations and provide useful background information, the reading of which encouraged others in often on sites with little or no present-day the past to visit the Peak District. surface expression; they can also provide This geo-historical material is an ideal information on the social conditions of the basis for geo-interpretive materials; miners. Examining a few selected

39 Acta Geoturistica, vol. 8 (2017), nr. 2, 32-49 individuals, some of whose words have that motion was the underlying universal already been quoted herein, is sufficient to force. He subsequently planned and part indicate the nature of the contributions and published an ambitious three-part project the potential of their and writings for Peak explaining Nature, Man, and citizenship mining geoheritage geo-interpretation. based around this idea of motion. Indeed, ‘The object of the, so to say, lay Significantly for geotourism, sometime tourist was to see the country: he wanted around 1627 he presented a Latin poem, De views and what he was pleased to call ' the mirabilibus Pecci. Carmen, of some 500 picturesque '. Consequently we find that verses to William Cavendish, 2nd Earl of many of these diarists and letter-writers Devonshire, describing a trip through the visited the same parts of the country, while Peak; it praises (in verse 79) its ‘Seven other parts, not less interesting to us, were Wonders’. The poem was printed around comparatively neglected. The favourite 1636, reprinted in 1666, 1675 and – with an places were almost the same then as they English translation – in 1678. It inspired are to-day with the more ubiquitous Charles Cotton’s The Wonders of the Peake motorist.’ (Fussell & Goodman, 1929, p. of 1681. However, because there is no 85). The lives and works of a few published modern edition or translation, individuals – such as those reported herein few people today has read Hobb’s volume, – with Peak District connections are worth although it is the first attempt to produce a noting, even in summary, because these, travel guidebook in England. together with their recorded observations, have much to offer the mining geoheritage Charles Cotton (1630-1687) geo-interpretation copy writer. These Charle’s Cotton’s father was friends with individuals include poets (Cotton and many contemporary writers of his day Hobbes), travellers (Fiennes) and geologists including Ben Jonson, John Donne, John (Farey, Mawe, Watson, and Whitehurst) of Selden, Sir Henry Wotton, and Izaak whom the following vignettes illustrate Walton. As a young man he travelled in their geo-interpretive potential for the France and a probably also in Italy on the proposed geopark. Grand Tour. He had no paid profession and seemingly spent his entire life on various Thomas Hobbes (1588-1769) inadequately funded literary pursuits. About Thomas Hobbes was a graduate of Oxford 1670 he composed the semi- University. In 1610 he travelled to France autobiographical poem A Voyage to Ireland and Italy on a Grand Tour. In 1613 he was in Burlesque about his captain’s employed as tutor, at Chatsworth House, to commission forcing him, with a near William Cavendish. His pupil became the shipwreck, to Ireland and regrettably having 2nd Earl in 1626. For the next two decades, to relinquish his passion for angling – he with Hobbes as the official travelling contributed an account on fly-fishing to the companion and Secretary, they travelled 5th edition of the world’s most famous together. When the 2nd Earl died Hobbes angling book, Izaak Walton’s The Complete then escorted a Nottinghamshire Angler. He was a skilled horticulturalist and landowner’s son on a 1629-1630 Grand published in 1675 The Planter's Manual, Tour. On his return to England he was being instructions for the raising, planting, employed, as a tutor to the young 3rd Earl. and cultivating all sorts of Fruit-Trees, From October 1634 to October 1636 he whether stone-fruits or pepin-fruits, with toured Europe, with the 3rd Earl, and met their natures and seasons. He published in the leading continental mathematicians. In 1681 the descriptive poem, The Wonders of Paris, he exchanged natural science views the Peak. An unauthorised collection of his with Descartes, via his secretary Marin. He poems was posthumously published in met Galileo and was inspired by the idea 1689. The Genuine Works of Charles

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Cotton (which included Scarronides, ‘They digg down their mines like a well for Lucian Burlesqued, The Wonders of the one man to be let down wth a rope and Peak, and The Planter's Manual) was pulley, and so when they find oar they keep published in 1715 and by 1771 had gone to digging under ground to follow the oar wch a further five editions. During his life and lies amongst the stone yt lookes like our right up to the Romantic poets of the fine stones. In yt mine I saw there was 3 or nineteenth century his poems were highly 4 at work and all let down thro' ye well; regarded; Ode to Winter was a favourite they digg sometymes a great way before poem of William Wordsworth who did they come to oar. There is also a sort of much to popularise Romantic travel. stuff they dig out mixt wth ye oar and all about the hills they call sparr, it looks like Celia Fiennes (1662-1741) crystal or white sugar candy, its pretty hard; Celia Fiennes was an elite traveller in the ye doctors use it in medicine for the last two decades of the seventeenth century collick...’ (Fiennes, 1888, p. 82-83). She who undertook and kept a journal of her also recorded aspects of mine construction several long distance horseback journeys in and the health of its miners who‘...wall England, between 1684 and about 1703, round the wells to ye mines to secure their partly to regain and improve her health. At mold'ring in upon them, they generally look that time the idea of travel for its own sake, very pale and yellow that work except perhaps for spiritual and physical underground, they are fforc'd to keep lights health reasons, was still somewhat novel. wth them and sometymes are forced to use She was keen on domestic tourism and her gunpowder to break ye stones, and yt is interest in the products and manufactures of sometymes hazardous to the people and the places she visited anticipated the later destroys them at ye work.’ (Fiennes, 1888, genre of 'economic tourism' that became p. 83). She worked up the notes scribbled formalised with Daniel Defoe's professional on her various journeys into a travel and survey-like A Tour through the Whole memoir in 1702 but this was never intended Island of Great Britain (1724–26). Fiennes for publication, only family reading. It was recorded that at Chesterfield she ‘…Came passed down through the family before by ye Coale mines where they were being fully transcribed for publication by a digging. They make their mines at ye descendant, The Honourable Mrs Emily Entrance Lie a Well and so till they Come Griffiths, and Robert Southey published to ye Coale then they dig all the Gorund unacknowledged extracts of it in 1812. The about where there is Coale and set pillars to first complete edition, Through England on support it, and so bring it to ye well where a Side Saddle in the Time of William and by a basket Like a hand barrow by Cords Mary, only appeared in 1888. A scholarly they pull it up – so they Let down and up edition, The Journeys of Celia Fiennes, was the miners with a chord.’ (Fiennes, 1888, p. produced by Christopher Morris in 1947 77). On Ashbourne’s copper she noted that and has since been constantly in print. structure of the Earth. He met with (1713-1788) Benjamin Franklin in 1758 and 1759 with John Whitehurst served an apprenticeship whom he discussed his theories, finally as a clockmaker with his father. He was crystallised in An Inquiry into the Original fascinated by the Peak’s natural wonders. State and Formation of the Earth of 1778; it He explored, sometimes accompanied by has a considerable section on Derbyshire’s the likes of Josiah Wedgewood and strata and is one of the earliest such , the northern part with its accounts. Although his theories on the caverns and mines and gradually developed Earth were flawed, his accounts of a keen interest in geology. He began to Derbyshire’s structure and geology are formulate theories on the origin and remarkably accurate. He was the first to

41 Acta Geoturistica, vol. 8 (2017), nr. 2, 32-49 recognise that the 'toadstone' of the lead minerals worth the cost of extraction. He miners was of volcanic origin. His remarks travelled extensively throughout Britain but and observations were the basis for further the number and location of the estates he work by later geologists such as John Farey surveyed are unknown. and White Watson. (1766-1829) John Farey (1728-1798) John Mawe (see Torrens, 1992) was born John Farey was a pupil at Robert and schooled in Derby. He worked as Pulman’s Academy in Halifax where he merchant seaman until he married, in 1794, received special instruction in mathematics the daughter of Richard Brown (1736- and philosophy (including natural science), 1813), a mineral dealer and marble worker. drawing and surveying. In 1792 he was Mawe then worked for his father-in-law. By appointed Land Steward to the 5th Duke of late 1794 he was managing the Bedford’s Woburn Estates. For ten years he shop near Covent Garden. A year later the pursued his duties, especially overseeing business was trading as 'Brown, Son and land and agricultural improvements. He Mawe, Petrifaction Warehouse'. His interest honed his skills in land surveying, the in mineralogy seemingly stemmed from his evaluation of soils and underlying rocks, seafaring days, his travels provided ample and land drainage. He heard of William opportunity to collect minerals and Smith (1769–1839) and his skills in land seashells. He travelled extensively in surveying and especially drainage in 1800. Britain collecting minerals to sell in the During Smith’s visits to drain parts of the shop and making geological observations. Woburn Estate they met and Smith outlined For some years he lived in Castleton, where his principles of stratigraphy to him in there is a memorial to him in the parish 1801. Through his Estate work Farey knew church. In 1802, he published The Sir , President of the Royal Mineralogy of Derbyshire. During 1804 he Society, and he reported enthusiastically to set off on a long voyage to South America, him in early 1802 of Smith’s geological and between 1807 and 1810 extensively insights. Farey was unjustly blamed for the travelled in the interior of . On his Estate’s mismanagement and dismissed return the mineral business flourished so whereupon, after failing as a farmer, he well that he opened 'Royal' museums in moved to London establishing himself as London, Cheltenham, Castleton and land surveyor, graduating to mineral Matlock Bath; the 'Royal' epithet related to surveyor (a term he coined) in 1808. Like patronage by the Spanish, not the British, Smith he hired out his services to royal family which had commissioned him landowners who required appraisals of their furnish them with Derbyshire minerals and estates and assessments of any possible fossils for their collections. decorative as well as informative; amongst, White Watson (1760-1835) but not, the first reasonably accurate White Watson was a Bakewell man, geological sections as recognised today to spending most of his life there, and seldom appear in England. He had a combined shop travelled more than 40 kilometres away. He and 'museum' in Bakewell from which he was a sculptor, marble-worker and mineral sold minerals to wealthy travellers, such as dealer. A pioneer of Derbyshire and Peak Josiah Wedgewood and Sir Joseph Banks, District stratigraphy, he published sections on Peak tours. He assembled cabinets of (1788 and 1811) with some assistance from minerals for collectors and was patronised John Farey and inlaid marble tablet by Georgiana (1757-1806), Duchess of ‘sections of strata’ (inlaid into slabs of Devonshire; a regular visitor to Chatsworth, ) with samples of the he arranged and catalogued her collections actual rock types so that they were and gave geology lessons to her son (later

42 Acta Geoturistica, vol. 8 (2017), nr. 2, 32-49 the 6th Duke). He learned about from many geoparks is ‘The human subterranean geology by talking to miners element [which] should always be part of and observed in the field, becoming an your topic… Natural history topics may be expert geologist and botanist, supported by fascinating in themselves but people relate a fine library – the latter suggesting he was best with other people... You can making a good living despite common incorporate people into your writing by assertions that he had precarious finances. talking about historical figures associated with your subject.’ (Heintzman, 1988, p. 2). The Peak District’s association with some GEO-INTERPRETATION AND THE early geotourism and scientific geology GEOPARK individuals lends itself to this geohistorical approach in developing a geopark proposal. Geo-interpretation, ‘The art or science of determining and then communicating the Some existing Peak District Geo- meaning or significance of a geological Interpretation phenomenon, event, or location.’ (Hose, Several Peak District geosites have been 2012), is founded upon environmental interpreted over the past 20 or so years with education approaches from the USA’s each reflecting the prevalent interpretive National Parks adopted in the UK from the style and practice of their time. One of 1960s; Aldridge (1975) provides a these, Brown End (limestone) Quarry, has summary of such UK countryside had two distinct phases of interpretation. interpretative practice. Comprehensive Both the original (Cossey et al., 1994) and guides to USA practice, such as by Ham new interpretive (Staffordshire Wildlife (1992) and Knudson et al. (1999), and Trust, 2004) panels tell a geological story numerous on-site geo-interpretation with no human interest whatsoever (Hose, schemes, whether acknowledged or not, 1997, p. 2958); likewise, the panels at the incorporate Freeman Tilden’s (1883-1980) Ecton Copper Mine (see Fig.5). Although mid-1950s suggestions. He defined innovative in its consideration of stone interpretation, with regards to the USA’s usage, the National Stone Centre’s (Thomas National Parks Service, as ‘An educational & Prentice, 1994) interpretive provision activity which aims to reveal meanings and generally lacks human focus; it has been relationships through the use of original critiqued by Hose (1994, 1999). The objects, by firsthand experience, and by Buxton Museum and Art Gallery, housed illustrative media, rather than simply to since 1928 in part of the former Peak communicate factual information.’ (Tilden, Hydropathic Hotel built in 1880, has the 1977, p. 8); he argued that interpretation permanent exhibition ‘Wonders of the must be underpinned by research about the Peak’ which explores the region’s history locations on which it is focussed (Tilden, from ‘Big Bang’ times to the present-day; it 1977, p. 5) and should evoke an emotive also has the Prof. William Boyd Dawkins response rather than merely imparting (1837-1929) recreated Victorian study and information. It has been suggested within displays on him and John Wilfred Jackson the European Geopark Network, at the 2013 (1880-1978) – both local geologists. Arouca meeting, that Tilden’s principles Overall, there is very little on-site geo- need to be reasserted (Brilha, 2011); interpretive, whilst there is comparatively further, ‘Any presentation of geological much general countryside and wildlife heritage that does not somehow relate to interpretive, provision in the Peak District; something in the personal experience of the consequently most visitors are unaware of visitor will be sterile.’ (Brilha, 2011, p. 10). the nature, longevity and significance of the A key interpretation element from USA mining geoheritage literally beneath their interpretive practice seemingly lacking feet and just occasionally in front of them.

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Fig. 5 Ecton Copper Mine Information Panel Information panel providing an explanation of how the mine-shaft was used.

Hence, there is an urgent need to develop geotourists. For outdoor on-site usage it is communicatively competent geo- suggested that small (but measuring at least interpretation for the Peak District, almost 15x15 cm) colour-printed ceramic tiles, as a pre-cursor to the geopark, in order to such as those employed in Spain’s Aliaga generate public support for such a venture. Geopark, either singly or in combination to create small plaques be employed. This is Suggested Geopark Interpretive because of their ability to reproduce photo- Provision images, durability, relatively low cost, In supporting and promoting a European graffiti resistance and limited maintenance Geopark Network candidacy for the Peak apart from cleaning; unlike metal panels District employing a geo-historical they are unlikely to be stolen and unlike approach the suggestion is that geo- fibreglass panels will not be damaged by interpretive materials should be developed portable barbeques! The small ceramic tiles for deployment along the major existing are also considerably less visually intrusive (Derwent Valley, High Peak, Monsal, than the usual A0 and larger panels Tissington) Trails, the Manifold Track and generally employed for outdoor on-site the South Pennine Bridleway with linking interpretive provision, further they lend routes where needed; geo-historical themselves to unobtrusive affixing to walls information and signage materials should and historic buildings. The tiles could, for be made available to their managing example, be affixed to either the actual organizations. Arguably the High Peak and buildings or those occupying the site (of say Tissington Trails (see Fig. 6) are the most the Mawe Royal Museum at Matlock Bank accessible, popular and fairly well routed in - see Fig.7), or at a viewpoint where the the White Peak to show good aspects of its work of someone such as White Watson mining geoheritage; the mines near (see Fig.8) can be appreciated. Further, Ashbourne early attracted the attention of there should be made available print-on- Celia Fiennes amongst the early demand pdf versions of the tiles, together

44 Acta Geoturistica, vol. 8 (2017), nr. 2, 32-49 with leaflets and information sheets, placed CONCLUSIONS on-line for off-site access; the designs on the individual tiles could also be printed on Generally geopark candidacy and later drinks mats. These essentially printed management and promotional approaches media could later be used as a basis for are founded on practitioner and economic developing smart-phone on-site usage led (supply-side) approaches, rather than applications. All the geo-interpretive media addressing the actual needs and, especially must have a common ‘brand identity’, such human, interests of geotourists (consumer- as the PEAK District GEOPARK, which side led), with a limited understanding of has some resonance with the current the relevance of the history, development National Park branding but is sufficiently and philosophy of landscape tourism. The distinct so as to avoid confusion and to individuals and their works noted in this promote the geopark’s recognition. paper could provide the basis for a number

Fig. 6 Map of the Part of the High Peak and Tissington Trails The Tissington Trail runs for 21 km, along the route of the 1899 Buxton to Ashbourne railway that was closed in the 1960s, from Ashbourne to Parsley Hay where it joins up with the High Peak Trail; this runs for 28 km from near Wirksworth to Dowlow near Buxton. The High Peak Trail follows the route of the Cromford and High Peak Railway constructed in 1825-1830 which also finally closed in the 1960s. The local rocks are well displayed in the various cuttings and tunnels along the two Trails from which various mining geoheritage sites can be seen. Both Trails are open to pedestrians, cyclists and horseback riders.

45 Acta Geoturistica, vol. 8 (2017), nr. 2, 32-49 of themed geotrails, the details of their lives audiences by exploiting the opportunities and their writings providing the essential provided by the UK’s widespread smart- human interest element in the associated phone and tablet personal computer geo-interpretive media; the latter should be ownership. The region has a long tourism, more than the usual leaflets and panels and even longer mining history, whose commonly associated with geo- literary record and in-situ remains offer interpretation (Hose, 2000), which quite much potential to support the legitimacy of frankly too often fails to inspire any interest a bid for the Peak District to become a by visitors, but should embrace the European Geopark. possibilities to reach wider and younger

Fig. 7 Possible John Mawe (1764-1829) Interpretive Plaque The images show Mawe’s Royal Museums, opened in 1800 and a rock specimen, encrusted with native gold and diamonds, he brought from Brazil. The simple bullet point text draws attention to some keys aspects of his personal and professional life. Note that this plaque is composed of our abutted tiles.

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Fig. 8 Possible White Watson Interpretive Plaque The images show one of Watson’s tablets made from real polished stones, the title page of his major book on Derbyshire geology, and silhouette of him in later life. Note that this plaque is composed of our abutted tiles.

REFERENCES Penny, R. and Shaw, R. (2013) The Lead Legacy: An Updated Inventory of Important Aldridge, D. (1975) Guide to Countryside Metal and Gangue Mining Sites in the Peak Interpretation, Part one: Principles of District. Mining History: The Bulletin of the Countryside Interpretation and Interpretive Peak District Mines Historical Society 18 (6), 1- Planning. HMSO (for Countryside Commission 112. for Scotland and Countryside Commission), Benghiat, A. (2015) Interim Prospectus for a Peak London. District GeoPark Feasibility Study, East Barnatt, J. (1999) ‘Prehistoric and Roman mining Midlands Geological Society, Nottingham. in the Peak District: present knowledge and Bray, W. (1783) Tour through some of the Midland future research’. Mining History 14 (2), 19–30. Counties, into Derbyshire and Yorkshire by Barnatt, J. (2000) Lead Rakes in the Peak District: William Bray, F. A. S. Performed in 1777 Hillock today, gone tomorrow? PDNPA paraphrased in Mavor, W. (1798–1800) The (unpublished report for English Heritage). British Tourists; or Traveller’s Pocket Barnatt, J., Huston, K., Mallon, D., Newman, R., Companion, through England, Wales, Scotland, and Ireland. Comprehending the Most

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Celebrated Tours in the British Islands, Volume 17. 2 (6 volumes). B. White, London. Hose, T.A. (1997) Geotourism - Selling the earth to Brilha, J. (2011) What is Geotourism. ProGEO Europe. In: Marinos, P.G., Koukis, G C, News 4, 9-10. Tsiammamaos, G.C. & Sournass, G.C. (eds) Byng, J. (1966) Rides Round Britain [Adamson, D. Engineering Geology and the Environment. A.A. (ed)]. The Folio Society, London. Balkema, Rotterdam. 2955-2960. Cossey, P.J., Buckman, J.O and Steward, D.I. Hose, T.A. (1999) Selling geology to the public. (1994) The geology and conservation of Brown Earth Heritage 11, 10-12. End Quarry, Waterhouses, Staffordshire. Hose, T.A. (2000) European geotourism - geological Proceedings of the Geologists’ Association 106 interpretation and geoconservation promotion for (1), 11-25. tourists. In: Barretino, D., Wimbledon, W.P. and Derbyshire County Council (2014) The Derwent Gallego, E. (eds) Geological heritage: its Valley The Valley that changed the World: conservation and management. Instituto Derwent Valley Mills World Heritage Site Tecnologico Geominero de Espana, Madrid. Management Plan 2014-2019. Derbyshire 127-146. County Council, Matlock. Hose, T.A. (2008) Towards a history of Geotourism: Fiennes, C. (1888) Through England on a Side definitions, antecedents and the future. In: Saddle: In the Time of William and Mary: being Burek, C.V. & Prosser, C.D. The History of the Diary of Celia Fiennes. Field & Tuer, Geoconservation. Geological Society of London, London. London. 37-60. Ford, T.D. (1996) Geologists’ Association Guide Hose, T.A. (2010) The significance of aesthetic No.56: The Castleton Area, Derbyshire. landscape appreciation to modern geotourism Geologists’ Association, London. provision. In: Newsome, D. & Dowling, R.K. Ford, T.D. (2004) Ecton Copper Deposits, (eds) Geotourism: the tourism of geology and Staffordshire. Mercian Geologist 16 (10), 62-64. landscapes. Goodfellow, Oxford, 13-25. Ford,T. D. and Rieuwerts, J.H. (2000) Lead Hose, T.A. (2011) The English Origins of Mining in the Peak District. Peak District Mines Geotourism (as a Vehicle for Geoconservation) Historical Society, Matlock Bath. and their Relevance to Current Studies. Acta Fussell, G.E. and Goodman, C. (1929) Travel and geographica Slovenica 51 (2), 343–360. Topography in Eighteenth Century England: A Hose, T.A. (2012) 3G's for modern geotourism. Bibliography of Sources for Economic History. Geoheritage 4 (1-2), 7-24. Library s4-X (1) 84-103. Hose, T.A. (2015) Three Centuries (1670-1970) of Ham, S.H. (1992) Environmental Interpretation: A Appreciating Physical Landscapes. In: Hose, Practical Guide for People with Big Ideas and T.A. (ed) Appreciating Physical Landscapes: Small Budgets. North American Press, Golden Three Hundred Years of Geotourism, Special Co. Publication No.417. Geological Society of Harris, H. (1971) Industrial Archaeology of the London, London. Peak District (1992 reprint). Ashbourne Knudson, D.M., Cable, T.T. and Beck, L. (1999) Editions, Ashbourne. Interpretation of Cultural and Natural Heintzman, J. (1988) Making the Right Resources. Venture Publishing, State College Connections: A Guide for Nature Writers. UW- PA. SP Foundation Press, Stevens Point. Patzak, M. (2000) UNESCO Geoparks Programme Henry, C.J. and Hose, T.A. (2015) The contribution Feasibility Study. UNESCO, Paris. of Maps in the Nineteenth Century to Quirk, D.G. (1993) Origin of the Peak District Appreciating Physical Landscape; examples Orefield. Bulletin of the Peak District Mines from Derbyshire’s Peak District. In: Hose, T.A. Historical Society, 12, 4-15. (ed) Appreciating Physical Landscapes: Three Rodgers, P.R. (1977) Derbyshire Geology. Hundred Years of Geotourism, Special Dalesman Books, Clapham. Publication No.417. Geological Society of Sidney, S. (1851) Rides on Railways leading to the London, London. Lake and Mountain Districts of Cumberland, Horton, A. and Gutteridge, P. (2003) Geologists’ North Wales, and the Dales of Derbyshire; with Association Guide No.63: The Geology of the a glance at Oxford, Birmingham, Liverpool, East Midlands. Geologists’ Association, London. Manchester and other manufacturing towns. Hose, T.A. (1994) Telling the story of stone – London, William S. Orr & Co. assessing the client base. In: O'Halloran, D., Staffordshire Wildlife Trust (2004) Discovering Green C., Harley, M., Stanley, M. and Knill, S. Brown End Quarry [leaflet]. Staffordshire (eds) Geological and Landscape Conservation. Wildlife Trust, Wolseley Bridge. Geological Society, London. 451-457. Thomas, I.A. and Prentice, J.E. (1994) A Hose, T.A. (1995) Selling the Story of Britain's consensus approach: industry and geosciences in Stone. Environmental Interpretation 10 (2), 16- the National Stone Centre, UK. In: O'Halloran,

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D., Green C., Harley, M., Stanley, M. & Knill, S. Derbyshire forming the surface from Bolsover in (eds) Geological and Landscape Conservation. the East to Buxton in the West designed from a Geological Society, London. 423-427. Tablet, Composed of the Specimens of Each Tilden, F. (1977) Interpreting Our Heritage (3rd Stratum above the Line, With an Explanatory edn.). University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Account of the same, together with A Description Hill. of the Fossils found in these Strata; and also Of Torrens, H. (1992) The Early Life and Geological the Natureand Quality of the respective soils. W. Work of John Mawe (1766-1828) and a Note on Todd, Sheffield. His Travels in Brazil. Mining History: The Watson, W. (1813) A Delineation of the Strata of Bulletin of the Peak District Mines Historical Derbyshire forming the surface from Bolsover in Society 11 (6), 267-271. the East to Buxton in the West designed from a Towner, J. (1996) An Historical Geography of Tablet, Composed of the Specimens of Each Recreation and Tourism in the Western World Stratum above the Line, With an Explanatory 1540-1940. Wiley, London. Account of the same, together with A Description Walford, T. (1818) The Scientific Tourist Through of the Fossils found in these Strata; and also Of England, Wales and Scotland by which the the Natureand Quality of the respective soils. W. traveller is directed to the principal objects of Todd, Sheffield. antiquity, art, science, and the picturesque Willies, L. (1993) Underground Metal Mines including the minerals, fossils, rare plants, and (Excluding Iron): Step 1 Report. Cranstone other subjects of natural history arranged by Consultancy (unpublished report for English counties to which is added an introduction to the Heritage). study of antiquities and the elements, and the Wolverton Cope, F. (1999) Geologists’ Association elements of statistics, geology, mineralogy, and Guide No.26: The Peak District. Geologists’ botany [in two volumes]. J. Booth, London. Association, London. Ward, R. (1827) A Guide to the Peak of Derbyshire, Zouros, N. (2013) European Geoparks: new contains a concise account of Buxton, Matlock, challenges and innovative tools towards Earth and Castleton and other remarkable places and heritage management and sustainable local objects chiefly in the northerly parts of that very development. In: Aloia, A., Calcaterra, D., interesting county. William Ward, Birmingham. Cuomo, A., De Vita, A. & Guida, D. (eds) [available as a 1977 reprint, E.J. Morten, Proceedings of the 12th European Geoparks Didsbury]. Conference, National Park of Cilento, Vallo di Watson, W. (1811) A Delineation of the Strata of Diano and Alburni Geopark. v-ix.

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