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CHARLES WILLIAM WASON COLLECTION AND THE CHINESE

THE GIFT OF CHARLES WILLIAM WASON CLASS OF 1876 1918 Cornell University Library DS 706.G65

The history of all nations :the portion

3 1924 007 025 970 Cornell University Library XI

The original of this book is in the Cornell University Library.

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the United States on the use of the text.

http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924007025970

HE HISTORY OF ALL NATIONS

by

S. G. GOODRICH

The portion relating to China and the Chinese hrnken and bound herewith

THE CHARLES W. WA50N COLLECTION

CLEVSIAND: 1919 Wl7^4 CONTENTS

Tartary . , .

A

HISTORY OF ALL NATIONS,

PROM THE EARLIEST PERIODS TO THE PRESENT TIME;

OB, UNIVERSAL HISTORY:

IN WHICH THE HISTOEY OF

EVERY NATION, ANCIENT AND MODERN,

IS SEPARATELY GIVEN.

KLTTSmATED BT 70 STTLOGBAPHIG MAPS, AND 700 EXGIIAVING&

BY S. G. GOODRICH, AUTHOR OF THE "PICTOEIAL GBOGEAPHY OF THE WOELD," "PAELEY'S CABINET LIBEAEY" "PAELEY'S TALES," &o. &o.

AUBUEN: PUBLISHED BY DERBY AND MILLER. CINCINNATI: H. "W. DEEBY & CO. ^ ,

, 1852. , - STEKEOTYPED AT THE BOSTON TYPE AND STEREOTYPE FOUNDRY. KSAPP & PECK, PErSIEBS, ATTBUKir. I

Y 1 lanBV'lKiU

"^ ,' %'« /«« 1^ I 1 —— —.

CONTENTS.

|Partl)ia.

Chap. J.05. Rise of the Parthian — The Arsaoidae Chap. 321. Introduction — Geographical Sketch 436 — Invasion of Crassus 370 Chap. 333. Preliminary Remarks on China— "The Fabu- Chap. 196> Defeat of Crassus — Parthian Conquests, 371 lous Period of Chinese History — The Three Emperors — Chap. 197. Decline and Fall of the Parthian Empire The Five Emperors, 43C Government — Military Strength, &c^ 373 Chap. 333. The Hea and Tang Dynasties, 44C Chap. 198. Hxrcania — SoaDiAit.?^BACTEiANA, &c. Chap. 334. The Dynasties of Tcheou, Tsin, Han, Heou Historical and Descriptive Sketches — Soy thia — Sarmatia Han, Tein-ou-ti, and Song — Confucius, 441 — 374 Chap. 335. The Ninth, Tenth, Eleventh, Twelfth, and Thirteenth Dynasties 444 Chap. 336. Incursions of the Tartars, and other Incidents, 445 Chap. 327. The Tartar Sway and Present Dynasty 448 Chap. 228. The Present Dynasty, continued — Recent History 449 Chap. 199. Preliminary View of Tartabt in Genebal. Chap. 229. The War continued — Peace 452 — Divisions — Trihes — Historical Topics, 376 Chap. 230. General Views Introduction Christianity Chap. 300. Independent Taetaby. — Physical Geog- — of into China 454 raphy — The Kirghis and Cossaclts — Kokan — Khiva — Chap. 331. General Views, continued Opium Trade,.... The Turcomans — Bokhara — The Uzbecks— Balkh — — 457 Chap. 333. Extent of the Empire — Divisions and Chief Koondooz 377 Cities — Government, 459 Chap. 301. Early Traditions of Independent Tartary — Chap. 333. Chinese Language 462 Scythians — Manners — Massagetse — Cyrus, &q., 380 Chap. 234. Chinese Literature, 464 Chap. 303. Chinese Tabtaky, — Divisions and Physical Chap. 235. Arts and Inventions — Great Wall — Canal,... 468 Geography — Cities — Soongaiia — Cashgar — Kalmucks — Chap. 236. Religion — Its Rites and Ceremonies Joss- Mongolia — Kalkas — Manchoos, 382 — houses, Idols, &c., 471 Chap. 303. The Alano-Gothio or Blond Races. — Chap. 237. Character of the Chinese Their Institutions, 474 The Oosun — Cashgar — Goths — Ancient Kirghis — —

. — Indo-Germans of Central Asia — Khotan, 386 Chap. 304. The Hunnic and Finnic Races 390 Chap. 305. The Tungouse Race — Y-liu — Moo-ky — KU- lapan. tans — Ju-tchin, Kin, or Altoun Khan — Chy-goei, 391

Chap. 306. The Ancient Turkish Race, or Hioongnoo, . . . 393 Chap. 338. Geographical View — Early Annals —Yoritomo Chap. 307. The Turkish Race, continued — The Thoukhiu, — Taiko — Gongin, 477 or Toorks — The Hoei he, or Ouigoors, 396 Chap. 339. Tsouna — Conspiracy — Tsounayosi assassinat-

Chap. 308. The Mongol and Tartar Race and , . . . 398 ed — Yosimoone — Intercourse with Foreigners — General Chap. 309. The Sons of Zingis — Octal, his Successor Views, 479 Baton's Conquests and Kingdom of Kipzak — Anecdotes of further Conquests in China — Yelu, the good Minister — Kayuk — Mangou — Kublai, 402 Chap. 310. Mongol Chinese Emperors — Manchoo Tartar Emperors — Grand Hunting Expedition — Kipzak Empire Chap. 340. General Description — Historical Sketch, 485

— Zagatai Empire — Mongol Persian Empire, ., 404 Chap. 311. Tamerlane — His Birth, Childhood, Education, and Early Exploits, 407 ;3lfgl)amBtan. Chap. 313. Tamerlane's Conquests, Government, Death,.. 408 Chap. 313. General Views of Tartary, 412 Chap. of 241. Origin the Afghans — The Persian and Hin- i

doo Dominion, 487 ' Chap. 343. Afghan Independence The British Invasion, 488 — j Chap. 243. Government — Inhabitants — Cities — Reli- ©he jHofltil (gmpiri^, gion, &c., of Afghanistan ., 489 [ Chap. 314. The Mogul Empire — Baber — Humaioon — Chap. 344. Agriculture, Trade, Literature, Manners, Dress, Shore — Selim — Death of Humaioon, 415 . Amusements, &c., of the Afghans 491 Chap. 315. Acbar — Byram — The Ayeen Acberry — Je- hanghire — Noor Mahl — Shah Jehan — Aurungzebe, 418 Chap. 316. Aurungzebe — Acbar II. — Aulum — The Idoocljiatan. Sikhs — Jehander — Nadir — Aulum II. — The Mahrattas Qhap. 345. Ancient Gedrosia The Modem Belooches,.. 492 — Gholam Khadur — Scindia 422 — Chap. 317. General Views — Military Affairs — Divisions — Cities — Education — The Household and Domestic Hab- its of the Grand Mogul — The Seraglio — The Painting Snita, or ^inbostan. Gallery — Public Fights of Animals — Machines — Pen- sions — Festivals — Marriages — Hunting and Hawking — Chap. 346. Geographical Description,.... Fairs — Weighing the , 425 Chap. 347. Early History of Hindostan— Extravagant Chronology of the Hindoos — Character of their Early Tra- ditions and Records...... 497 Chap. 348. Northern Origin of the Hindoos — The Brah- mins — The Maha-Rajah Dynasty — Reign of Feros-ra Sinkol — Conquest of India by Bacchus — Rama's Monkey Chap. 318. Geographical Survey — Divisions — Character Army — Conquests of Sesostris — Expedition of Scylax — — Country, &c., 428 Conquests of Darius Hystaspes, >.. 498 Chap. 219. History of Thibet— Early Thibetans— "Wars Chap. 349. Invasion of India by Alexander of Macedon — Empire — Conquest by China, ; 429 Capture of Massaga and Aomos — Defeat of Poms — Re- Chap. 230. Religion — Buddhism, Lamaism, Shamanism, treat of Alexander — Beign of Sandracottus — The King- or the Religion of Fo — Its History and Doctrines 432 dom of Magadha — Embassy of Damaichus, 500;: — —

8 CONTENTS.

Agriculture, Manufac- Chap. !i50« Beign of Yicriuna^tya — Embassy of Forus to Chap. 262. Education, Marriage'Si;

. . i • 527 Augustv^ — Strabo's Account of Musican — The Temple of tures, and Ship-Building of the Hindoos, . Taxila — Usurpations of the Brahmin — Bise of Buddhism tJHAP. 263. Commerce, Architecture, Painting, Music, &c., 629 — The Kingdom of Kinoge — Maldeo^— Expulsion of the of the Hindoos, Buddhists 502 Chap. 264. Language, Literature, &o., of the Hindoos,... 631 Chap. 251. Modem History of Hindostan ^ Mahmood of Chap. 265. Food, Dress, Travelling, Manners, Customs, Ghismi— The Gaurs— ThePatans— The Seids— Zingis and Character of the Hindoos, : ••• 532 Khan — Timour.— Baber — A6bar, 504 Chap. 253. Jehanghire — Aurungzebe — Splendor of the Mogul Empire — The Old "Woriian's War— Shah AUum Mahomed Shah — Invasion of Nadir Shah — Decline of the Mogul Empire 506 Chap. 266. Description of Geyloni — Settlement of the Chap. 253. The Pobtuqtjese ik India. — Discoveries ot Portuguese in the Island— The Dutch — The British — Vascode Gamarr^Conquests of Alboquerque-T— Foundation Description of the Cingalese — Cities, &c., of Ceylon, 538 of Goa — Conquest of Malacca — Splendor otOrmuz — De- cline of the Portuguese Empire in India 509 Chap. 254. The Dutch in India. — Heemskerk's Voyage —Settlement of the Moluccas, Java, Ceylon — Decline of Jartljcr Iniia. the Dutch Empire in India. The Sfaniakds in India. — Dispute respecting the Moluccas — The Pope's Division Chap. 267. Description of Farther India. — Bukmah. — of the new Discoveries — The Philippines — Manilla. The Early History of the Burmese — Wars with the Peguans — Danes in India. — Tranquebar — Serampore 510 Bise of Alompra — Independence of Burmah established Chap. 255. The British in India. — Description of Ben- — Death of Alompra — Beign of Shenbu - Yen, 640 gal — The English East India Company — Catastrophe of Chap. 268. Wars with the Siamese — Beign of Mendera- the Black Hole — Exploits of Clive — Grants of the Mogul, 512 gyee — Nun-Sun — War with the British — Present State Chap. 256. Administration of Warren Hastings — Tlie of Burmah, .• 641 Bohillas — Confusion of Political Affairs in India — Im- Chap. 269. Population, Military Strength, Cities, Govern-

peachment and Trial of Hastings 513 ment, Laws, &c., of Burmah, . I.. * 543 Chap. 257. Settlement of Madras — Bise of Hyder Ali — Chap. 270. Manufactures, Commerce, Agriculture, Archi-

Devastation of the Camatic — Death of Hyder —Beign and i tecture, Amnsements, Education; Language, Literature; Overthrow of Tippoo Saib — Origin and Conquests of the Food, Dress, Manners, Customs, and Classes of the Bur- Subjection British •• 645 Mahrattas — Their by the — Modification mese, : of the Charter of the East India Company — Conquest of Chap. 271. Siam. — Origin of the Siamese — Warswiththe Scinde, 515 Burmese and Peguans — Administration of Constantino Chap. 258. Origin of the Sikhs — Beformation of Hindoo- Phaloon — Establishment of the Present Dynasty— Popu- ism preached by Nanak— The Gooroos — Persecution of lation, &o., of the Kingdom,; 648 the Sikhs by the Mahometans — Gooroo Goriad — Bevolu- Chap. 272. Peou. — The Pegnan — The War of the tion in Northern India — Fluctuations in the Fortunes of Idol — Adventures of the Portuguese Pereyra^ Subjuga- the Sikhs — Establishment of the Afghan Dominions — tion of Pegu by the Burmese, 550 Supremacy of the Sikhs in the Punjaub — Tlie Sikh Con- Chap. 273. Cochin China, on Anam — ToNauiN — Cam- stitution — BeighofEunjeet Singh r- War with the British bodia—Laos, 551 — Battles of Chillianwallah and Goojerat — Annexation of Chap. 374. Malacca. — Origin of the Malays — Tradition the Punjaub to the British Dominions, 518 at Celebes — Emigration of the Malays from Sumatra Chap. 259. Description and History of Cashmere — Ne- Character of the Nation — City of Malacca, 663 paul — Subjection of the Hindoos — Character of the Brit- ish Conquests — Submissive temper of the Hindoos — Gov- ernment of British India —^Ancient Government of the Moguls — Their Military System...... '... 520 2lsiatic JUnseia: Sibma. Chap. 260. Population — Cities and Towns in India Calcutta-^ Delhi — Surat — Lahore — TJmritsir — Poonah Chap. 375. Extent — Siberia — Physical Aspect — Native — Bombay — Madras,. 522 Tribes — Bussian Divisions — People — Commerce — His- Chap. 261. Beligion of the Hindoos — Brahma — The tory, 556 Avatars — Extravagance of the Hindoo Mythology — In- Chap. 276. General View op Asia. — Origin of Lan- ferior Deities — Beligious Ceremonies ^Festivals —Jug- guage — Government — Arts, Science, Beligion — Past gernaut — Devotees — Fakirs — The Metempsychosis 524 Condition of Asia — Its future Prospects, 660 ;;

BACTEIANA. 375

Sogdiana, or Transoxiana, became a part of the Greek south-east corner of the Caspian ; south and south-east state of Bactria, when the rest of that kingdom by a curved line from the corner of this kingdom to submitted to Parthia, 143 B. C. Sogdiana being the junction of the five rivers to form the Indus, sep- occupied by the Yuetchi, from the borders of China, arating it from the Seleucide empire. and allies of it, became the nucleus of that Indo-Scythi- The annals of Bactriana are briefly these : Theod- an kingdom, which was enlarged till, in A. D. 232, otus I., who ruled also over Sogdiana, shook off the it stretched from the Caspian nearly to the Ganges. sway of Antiochus II. in 254 B. C. In 243, hia In 425, it was an important part Hi the Yeta or Getse son and successor, Theodotus II., made -a treaty of empire. In 565, it formed a part of the vast Turk- peace and alliance with the Parthian king Arsaces II. ish empire. In 632, under the Arabic name of Ma- but lost his throne to Euthydemug of Magnesia, in 221. warannahar, " between rivers," and the Chinese name Antiochus the Great attacked this prince after the Par-

Yang, it became the most western kingdoip dependent thian war was ended ; but made peace with him, on on China, a part of the empire of the Shang dynasty. the Bactrian king's reducing his military establishment In 865, we find Sogdiana a part of the immense em- by giving up his elephants. A marriage, too, between pire of the Abbasside khalifs ; then of the Samanides, in his son Demetrius and the daughter of Antiochus was

912 ; in 1000, of the Hoei hoo, or Ouigoors ; in 1125, agreed upon. Demetrius was king of a part of India, of the Kara Kitai ; in 1226, of the Mongols ; m 1368, but it is not certain if of Bactria also. Menander suc- of the Zagatai empire ; In 1404, the seat of the capital ceeded him, and extended his conquests to Serica ; but

of Tamerlane ; in 1479, the kingdom of Mawaranna- over these territories his sway was transient. har ; in 1725, divided between the khanat of Bokhara, Eucratidas succeeded in 181 ; under him, Bactria and the kingdom of Kharism ; at present divided is said to have acquired its greatest extent. He was, batween the khans of Bokhara, Khiva, and the Kirghis. however, murdered by one of his sons, probably Eucra-

Such is a specimen of the changes which the states of tidas : this person, having obtained the throne, instigated Independent Tartary have undergone. It would be Demetrius II., king of Syria, to attack, in conjunction futile and tedious to follow out the details. A notice with himself, the Parthian kingdom, under Arsaces VI. of the capital, Samarcand, is given in the history of But Arsaces resisted victoriously, and obtained the chief Tamerlane. Parthia forms the subject of another chap- part of the Bactrian territory. The nations of Middle ter. Khiva, Tashkent, the Kirghis, &c., are noticed Asia now overran the northern part, Sogdiana, as al- in the geographical introduction to Tartary. ready noticed in the account of that satrapy. Upon We need only further remark, that in the middle this the Bactrian kingdom became, as such, extinct ages, Sogdiana became famous, under the Arabic and Bactria itself, with the other countries on this name of Sogd, for its great fertility and cultivation. side the Oxus, became a part of the Parthian empire. The territory around Samarcand, the capital, in par- Of that division of Bactriana north of the Oxus, we ticular, the Arabian geographers describe as a terres- have already given the history, under the head of Sogdi- trial paradise. The rich valley of Sogd presented so ana. The part immediately south of the Oxus formed great an abundance of exquisite grapes, melons, pears, a portion successively of the Indo-Scythian, Sassa- and apples, that they were exported to Persia, and nide, Ommiade, and Abbasside empires. In A. D. even to Hindostan. 865, the west part formed part of a kingdom of Tha- Bactkiana, now forming that part of Independent herians, while the east belonged to the Abbassides. Tartary called Koondooz, was one of the richest satra- In 912, it was all included, together with Sogdiana, pies of the Persian empire ofDarius Hystaspes ; it was on under the Sassanide empire, which extended from the the great highway between Russia, Tartary, and China Caspian to the Indus, and from the Persian Gulf to on one side — India, Persia, and Western Asia on the the Jeixartes. In 1000, we find Bactriana a part of the other. At the remotest period, this centre of the com- Ghaznevide kingdom, which, in 1125, had surrendered merce of the continent is said to have been illumined a portion of it to the Kara kitai, and another to the by a mild civilization. The Orientals call its capital Seljukian empire. It was then all swallowed up in (Bactra, Zariaspe, Balkh) the " mother of cities," and the empire of Zingis, and on the dissolution of that, consider it the most ancient on earth. Near the only fell to the Persian-Mongol empire, and after some pass through the formidable Hindoo Koosh Mountains, other changes, to the empire of Tamerlane. Since which divide Central from Southern Asia, this site, or then, it has passed to the khans of Khorasan, and then one in its neighborhood, must ever be the location of a a part to the kings of Persia, and part to the Afghan great emporium of trade. kingdom. These two powers seem now to share an

In 254 B. C, Bactriana broke away from the Seleucide influence over it ; though it may be deemed independ- empire, and, under Theodotus I., became the nucleus ent, under its own khans and the Turcoman vagabonds. of the Greco-Bactrian kingdom. This state was ruled The countries whose history we have just given, be- by Greeks, with whom the wise foresight of Alexander longed to what was anciently called Scythia, and now colonized it, settling them in the cities which he built bears the name of Tartary. Scythia, indeed, included here to secure the trade of the northern and eastern all the northern portions of Asia and Europe, until the Oriental world. History has left us very little infor- name of Sarmatia was given to the European division. mation concerning this once powerful kingdom ; and The country called Serica was on the remote bor- it is only by the help of a few coins, laboriously com- ders of Scythia, and is supposed to have been some pared with some scant and scattered notices in Oriental part of China. It was the country which first produced literature, that we can form an idea of it. At its great- silk ; and its capital. Sera, seems to have been the est extent, — say in 210 B.C., — we find it bounded western capital of China — Si ngan foo, or near it. The on the south-east by the most easterly of the five rivers silk trade with Serica was very active at an early date. that form the Indus ; on the east by Mount Imaus, Having given these general notices of what belongs separating it from Khotan ; north by the Jaxartes and to the ancient history of Tartary, we proceed to the

Aral ; west by Parthia, then a small kingdom on the general history of that country. —

376 GEOGRAPHICAL DIVISIONS OF TARTARY.

People of Western Tartary — Kirghl: People of Eastern Tartaiy — Mongols and Kalmucks. CHAPTER CXCIX. character which they have ever borne. Most of them, indeed, Preliminary View of Tabtart in General — as the earliest historical notices describe them, still wander, during winter, over these plains, which Divisions — Tribes — Historical Topics. are then watered by streams and springs. In summer, to the ancients under the Tartaky,* known name of they are obliged to retire into the valleys of the moun- original seat the the Scythia, and the of , Turks, tains, where they can enjoy a pure, fresh atmosphere, the Mongols, and many other tribes, includes about a and where the grass is not dried up by the burning the vast region Persia, third of Asia, embracing between winds of the steppes, as the illimitable plains are ctilled. Thibet, China, and Corea, on the south, and Siberia on If a horde, or tribe, oversteps its usual limits, and the north. Most of this region is very elevated, and advances straight on, then happens a veritable migra- possesses, therefore, a clear, cold climate, severe in the tion : the neighbor tribe, if itself nomadic, either joins eastern parts, while in the northern and extreme the migratory one, and swells the tide of invasion, or, south-west is found one of the finest climates on the if settled, repels force by force, or succumbs. This face of the earth. No portion of this wide and varied latter is the ordinary event ; for as the nomadic inva- expanse of country seems to have the exuberant rank- der carries all his property and household with him, and ness of fertility which much of our western lands may every adult male is a warrior — it almost invariably con- boast ; though the extreme east, upon a still virgin soil, quers its more highly civilized opponent, who can sel- exhibits a wild luxuriance of shrub and forest, well dom bring every man into the field, and is always dis- worthy of a denser civilized population. and more tracted with fears for property and family. These few soil, in fact, varies from rich river bottoms and The and simple facts, which have so often changed the power plains — which shoot up grass taller than a man, where and position of the Tartar tribes, are, indeed, an epit- there is moisture — tothe broad fields of ice and snow, ome of the history of this large portion of Asia for or the numerous ridges of lofty mountains, and the thousands of years. shifting sands and bare rocks of extensive deserts, Though Tartary, at the present day, is usually divided which have never been, and will never be, shaded with into two distinct portions Independent Tartary — and a single green leaf. Chinese Tartary — yet, as the whole territory has for Next to the long and lofty mountain ranges which ages borne one general title and character, and as history bound it on the north and south, and divide it into eastand frequently blends its various tribes in one common course west in unequal portions, or intersect longitudinally its of events, we propose to embrace the whole in one larger eastern mass, Tartary is characterized by broad view, so far as may be practicable, giving, however, ahd high table lands. These stretch an ocean of ver- — to each of the prominent races a distinct notice. dure — generally from east to west, and have given to the Restless nomads, as the Tartaric nations mostly are, majority of the inhabitants that pastoral and wandering following, with their flocks and herds, the course of, rivers, seeking new pasture * Independent Tartaky is oecupied by a great number grounds when the old no of Tartar tribes, forming seve^l independent states. The longer yield sufficient feed — and thus living in a per- usual divisions are as foUows : Turcomania, or the country petual state of migration ; yet, as this migration ordi- of the Turcomans, in the south-west ; Turkistan proper, in narily keeps within certain limits, we are enabled to the east ; Vsbekistan, in the south. Branches of these tribes give the present political divisions are, however, scattered about in different parts of the country. of the country with The chief states are the khanats of Great Bucharia, Khiva, some degree of distinctness. are Kissar, and Kokan ; the-«maUer states Balkh, &c. On the extreme east is Manchooria — entirely un- Chinese Taetaky is divided into ilanchooria, in the east j known to the ancients — whose earliest inhabitants! Mongolia, near the middle ; Soongaria, Little Bucharia, and seem to have been such rude tribes as the present Little Thibet, in the west ; Thibet being at the south-west. This vast region lies nearly in the latitude of oui Middle Tungouse of Siberia. These, early mingled with an-' States and New England. other Siberian tribe, the Mongols, and became the ! ;

INDEPENDENT TARTAKT. 377

Manchoos, who went forth as conquerors, and gave its ancient Turks, the most renowned of the Tartar tribes, present dynasty to the Chinese empire. and most widely spread. These having become merged Next west is Mongolia, equally unknown to the in the vast Mongol empire, that colossal power, with its ancients, and also deriving its name from another con- divisions on the death of Zingis, and its sequel, the tribe, at a still earlier period, founded empire quering who, of Tamerlane, form our next topics ; and the the Mongol empire — the widest ever known. history of Tartary will be concluded with some general Western Mongolia is sometime^called Kalmookia, views, as usual.

from its ruling tribe, the Eleuts,OT Kalmucks, from Siberia, who held it in the last century. This country was vaguely known to the ancients, and classical writ- CHAPTER CO. ers represent it as the end of the earth. Here they Independent Tartary — Physical Geography placed their Scythia beyond Imam, of which they The Kirghis and named but one tribe, the Issidons, with their capital — Cossacks — Kokan — Khiva — The, Turcomans — — near Lake Lop ; and Jbeyond it was their Serica, or Bokhara Western China. The Usbecks — Balkh — Koondooz. In the northern part of Kalmookia, was Soongaria, The country bounded on the south by the Paropa- also named from a Siberian Tartar tribe, who became misan range of North Persia, on the west by the powerful there. Caspian and Volga, or Ural, on the north by the frozen In the fifteenth century, Kalmookia was shared regions of Siberia, and on the east by Thibet and between the Ouirat horde on the north, the kingdoms Mongolia, is a region of the greatest possible variety of Cashgar and Khamil, or Hami, in the middle, and of surface, soil, and climate. It is variously called Khotan on the south, with capitals of the same names. Touran, Independent Tartary, Turkestan, Western The three last, taken together, have also borne the indef- Tartary — and embraces an extent of somewhat less inite names of Tangoot, Turkestan, and Littk Bucharia. than five hundred thousand square miles, with a popu- A little earlier, in Tamerlane's time, all these formed lation of seven millions. the empire of the Ouigoors of Bishbalik, with the capital Mountains capped with eternal snows are here of that name, also called Ooroomtsi. Previously, the contrasted with plains of burning sand, or broad, level country was held by the descendants of Zingis, in steppes, without visible boundary, covered with coarse

whose empire it was merged, in the twelfth century. bent; here are frozen wastes and rough alpine valleys

part the . side Kalmookia now forms a of Chinese empire, by the of charmingly undulating champaigns ; under the names Peloo in the north, and Nanloo in vales, lovely as paradise, and salt plains, given over to

the south. perpetual desolation 5 rocky aridity and exuberant

West of the Beloor Mountains, the Imaus of the fertility ; romantic lakes bordered by perennial ver- ancients, we find on our maps. Independent Tartary, dure, and broad salt seas environed by vast marshy

so called because its tribes are subject neither to China flats ; wide and copious rivers ; regions watered by

nor Russia. This was the Scythia this side the Imaus, numerous and perennial streams ; and the thirsty beds of classical writers, who had still another Scythia, of rivulets, whose scanty thread of water is soon dis- called Scythia Sarmatica, which was the extension into sipated in hopeless deserts. Central Europe of the Asiatic plains, forming the level There is little forest, but the soil on the margin of mass of European Russia. It was called Scythia, be- the streams is fertile. Here, grain and the vine re- cause its .people were of similar origin and habits with mind one of the best portions of our Middle States their Asiatic brethren of the same name. there, rice, cotton, and even the sugar-cane carry the The present political divisions of this part of Tar- fancy towards the " sunny south." This, then, is the tary, to wit, the Kirghis country on the north, Khiva, appropriate nursery of mankind, and these infinitely Bokhara, and Kokan in the middle, Turcomania, Balkh, varied repositories of great Nature have cradled na- and Koondooz on the south, will be more particularly tions not a few ; indeed, some, with much probabil- described hereafter, as also their former occupants. ity, place in these regions the primeval abode of our Some of the kingdoms, however, occupying the south race, whence it descended west, south, east, and portion of this interesting region, to wit, Sogdiana, north, to people the world Hyrcania, Bactriana, and Parthia, as forming the con- The north half of Independent Tartary is occupied necting link between ancient and modern, classic and by the Kirghis steppes on the east and west, supported Oriental history, have already been treated in chapters by mountains — and between them a desert of sand. immediately previous to this. These details seem in- The shore of the Caspian is mostly a long and gloomy tricate from the nature of the subject ; but, as the his- chain of arid downs and rocks. North of Bokhara is , tory of this region is one of great interest and impor- a desert of sand, as also between Khiva and Persia. tance, we deem it essential to introduce them. Some rivers are lost in sands in the Kirghis country, The history of Tartary, then, will embrace the which is not well known. The Jaxartes (Sir, or Sihon,) following topics, viz., Scythia and its modern occu- rises in the lofty Mustag range, and flows in a north- pants, the Kirghis, or Asiatic Cossacks, with a sketch westerly course of five or six hundred miles, by Ko- of the other modern states of Independent Tartary, kan, Kojend, Tashkend, and Otrar, into the north-east such as Kokan, Bokhara, Badakshan, Balkh, Koon- corner of Lake Aral, or the Sea of Eagles — a square dooz, Khiva, and Turcomania. These states are most body of water, saltish, and abounding in sturgeon and conveniently treated of in connection with this our geo- other fish, and also in seals. Into its south-western cor- graphical view, with which, also, we shall connect no- ner flows the Oxus, Amoo, or Jihon, whicfc rises in a tices of the Usbecks, Kalmucks, and Manchoos. Next high valley of the Beloor Mountains, and, in a course we treat of the Alan-Goths, or Indo-Germanic tribes, of nine hundred miles or more, somewhat parallel Badakshan, Termed, Khiva, who gave us our ancestry in part ; then of the ancient with the Jaxartes, flows by far from Balkh. Koondooz Tungouse, early conquerors of China ; then of the or Ourgounge, and not 48 ;

378 KIRGHIS—KOK AN—KHIVA.

old and Fyzabad are near it, on mountain branches ; Sam- personal qualities. The heads of clans and men arcand and Bokhara are upon a branch coming in on constitute-the national assembly. the north. At Termed it issues from the mountains The Kirghis were converted to Mahometanism from by a defile one hundred feet wide, the sublime horrors Shamanism about the beginning of the seventeenth of which cause it to be named the " Lion's Throat."' century. They occupy the place of the Kipzaks, A low range of mountains divides Tartary from the who were also subdued by Tamerlane. In 1742, a steppe of Ischim and the provinces of Omsk and horde of the Kipzaks, (called Kara Kalpaks and Kara Tobolsk. 'On the east. Lake Balkash and the Taba- Kipzaks,) of fifteen thousand families, were almost gatai range, connecting the Altai and the Beloor, to- annihilated by the Kirghis, for seeking the protection, gether with the lofty Beloor and Mustag, — connecting of the " White Czar," or Russia. Some Kara Kalpaks

the Thianchan, or Celestial, and the Himmaleh Moun- are still upon the Jaxartes ; they continue the agricul- tains, — separate Independent from Chmese Tartary. tural and pastoral life, and have a fixed place for their These ranges are very little known. winter cabins, but their summer ones are movable. The Kirghis Cossacks, who inhabit the country They use cattle for the saddlg and draught, practise called by their name, are, as is elsewhere intimated, several trades, and sell knives, muskets, sabres, cook- derived from tribes who dwelt on the Upper Yenisei, ing pots, and gunpowder. and afterwards mingled with the ancient Turks, whose The khanat of Kokan is under a mild, beneficent, language they adopted. They are a fine race, with and peaceful government, and its territory, lying along Tartar but not Mongol features, flat noses, small eyes — the middle course of the Jaxartes, is as well cultivated yet not oblique — good complexion, high cheek bones, as that of Bokhara. Here is found Tashkent, an and a cheerful look. Some of them display the stout ancient city, a favorite with Tamerlane, and still con-

forms of the Turks ; others the tall proportions of taining one hundred thousand people and three hun- their Haka ancestry. dred and twenty mosques. Here is but three months'

Frugal and peaceful, they enjoy a long and healthy winter ; and peaches, vines, wheat, cotton, and silk

old age : intermittent fevers, colds, and asthma are reward the industry of its people. Kokan, in a fruit- their chief diseases. Happy in their freedom, they ful and well-watered plain, is a modern town, which,

live on mutton and milk ; without being bloodthirsty from a small village, has risen to be the capital, or quarrelsome, they are arrant plunderers, pillaging, numbering fifty thousand people and three hundred with great address, all the neighboring countries. mosques. Kogend was a favorite residence of Tamer- Hence Russia is obliged to defend her frontier by a lane, and has now twenty-five thousand people. Its chain of strong forts, and even to distribute presents situation is delightful, and its inhabitants are deemed and pensions among the chiefs, and allow them to the most learned and polite of the Tartars. On take a toll of ten or twelve rubles for each the north-east side of the river, near this spot, Alex- coming in the caravans to Orenburg. They delight ander founded Alexandria, at the extreme north- in carrying off" the Kalmuck women, who are said to ern limit of his empire, to control the Massagetse and retain the charms of longer than their own. Scythians, and form an emporium for the trade of They are very friendly to each other, and are served Tartary. Margilan and Ush are two fine cities

by slaves they have kidnapped. They wear wide the latter has reclaimed a part of the Kirghis, on .

drawers, pointed boots, and conical caps ; the men whose frontier it is placed, and they are peaceably

shave their heads, the women dress theirs with heron's settled around it. Kokan is the ancient Fergana, of necks, so placed as to look like horns. Lances which Baber, the founder of the empire of the Grand and matchlocks, discharged with white powder, are Moguls of India, was the hereditary prince. The

their arms ; they are fond of games, exercises, and Usbeck Aralians, on the plains about Lake Aral, have horse-racing, being valorous and ferocious horsemen. a town, or rather winter encampment, fourteen miles At funerals, horse-races are held, and the heir dis- in circumference, defended by an earthen rampart, tributes slaves, camels, horses, magnificent harness, twelve Russian ells in height. There are other similar

and other prizes among the victors. towns. I Strict Mahometans, they are allowed several wives, Khiva, lately taken possession of by Russia, was but each has her separate tent. Their tents are of found to hold, in common with Bokhara, some two hun-^ felt, larger and neater than those of the Kalmucks, and dred thousand Persians and fifteen thousand Russians. often accommodating twenty persons. Hitherto plun- Its people are addicted to gluttony and kidnapping; der has given them foreign luxuries, but they are begin- man-stealing is their chief source of wealth. The terri- ning to purchase them in exchange for furs, hides, and tory, fifty miles broad and extending two hundred miles felt. Many of the tribes of the Great Horde, which along the Oxus, not far from Lake Aral, is watered ranges to the east and south, on the frontiers of Cash- chiefly by canals, and insulated from the civilized world gar and Kokan, have abandoned their roving habits, by surrounding deserts. Of its three hundred thousand

and settled down to agriculture and the town life. families, but one third are settled ; the rest are nomadic Among the high valleys, some fifty thousand are still and predatory, usually roaming, under the name of very wild. Those about Lake Aral, and thence to Turcomans, through their wide deserts, in a state of the Caspian, are entirely pastoral. wild independence, under hereditary chiefs — but ever This race makes a fine mounted soldiery, and, as ready to join any standard, either of their own sovereign such, has traversed Europe in the armies of the czar. or of revolted Persian chiefs, which promises adven- The Parisians once saw, with chagrin, these rough ture and booty. They now make petty»marauding troopers encamped in the gardens of the Tuileries, expeditions into Persia, especially Khorasan, in which and flaunting their horse-tails beneath the shades of they carry oflT every portable thing of value, taking the Champs Elysees. Russia appoints a nominal khan the inhabitants themselves to perpetual bondage in the for the lesser horde, on the banks of the Ural, Caspian, heart of their deserts.

and Aral ; but his power depends on his wealth and Here was the seat of the Usbeck khans of Kharism, ;

n THE TURCOMANS — THE XISBECKS. 379

in the early part of the last century : previously it and previous to the Christian era, the kingdoms of formed a part of the kingdom of Mawarannahar, which Hyrcania and Parthia, as has been stated in a former included Bokhara, and was itself a fragment of Tam- chapter. erlane's empire. When conquered by Zingis, it was Bokhara seems at present the most powerful of the seat of the empire of Kharism, whose fate, under these independent khanats. Its history is detailed the chivalrlc but unfortunate Jelaleddin and his father, elsewhere. It need only be added here, that its king, is elsewhere detailed. Its capital weis at Ourgounge, a by dividing and mixmg the various tribes, and keeping little north of Khiva. This dynasty was founded by a the great men from all employments likely to strengthen Turkish slave in 1097, and destroyed by Zingis in their hereditary influence, and also by an affectation 1231. It was previously a between the of superior sanctity, has gained such an ascendency Oxus and Caspian, with the Gaznevide empire on the over the Tartars as causes him to be courted by Rus- south, both of them fragments of the Samanide em- sia, England, and Persia. He is also an Usbeck, the pire, from the Jaxartes to South Persia, which flour- predominant race in these regions, a sketch of whose ished in A. D. 912, and»long after. In 710, the faith history and government may here be appropriately

of Mahomet was preached in the mosque of Kharism, given : their personal appearance and habits are else- and this was the first country of Tartary converted where described. to Islam. The khan, whose capital, Khiva, the Rus- The Usbecks first crossed the Jaxartes about the be- sians lately entered in triumph, is now in alliance, ginning of the sixteenth century, and pouring down on offensive and defensive, with the czar, and ready to the possessions of Tamerlane's descendants, soon forward his vast views in Asia, drove them from Bokhara, Kharism, (Kowaresm, Cho- The city of Khiva, surrounded with a ditch, clay rasmia,) and Fergana. They are of the great Turkish wall, and rampart, has three gates, a castle, thirty race, as elsewhere noticed. Their division into tribes

mosques, a college, and ten thousand people. The has no relation to the government ; and there are no neighborhood is filled with orchards, vineyards, and separate jurisdictions or assemblies, even in the wan-

populous villages. The citizens have more natural dering hordes : the country is divided into districts and genius than other Tartars, are fond of poetry and sub-districts, under officers appointed by the sovereign,

music ; and it is said that " there seems to be a mu- who collect the revenue and dispense justice. The sical cadence in the very cries of the infants." The heads of villages are appointed by the king, at the Khivans cultivate their grounds carefully, raise silk- recommendation of the wealthy. In the army every worms, and make coarse stuffs of cotton and of silk, thmg depends on his appointments. In Bokhara, the and mixtures of the two. They are woven by the men are said to be arranged in messes of ten each, women in the houses. Their caravans carry to Oren- who have a tent, a boiler, and a camel among them. burg wheat, raw cotton, silk and cotton stuffs, robes In Bokhara and Fergana, at least, there is no trace of embroidered with gold, lamb-skins, &c. In return, a popular government, and scarcely any of aristocracy. ihey get European manufactures from the Russians, The Usbecks, having, doubtless, few native institu- and horses, cattle, and sheep from the Turcomans. tions, adopted, on their conversion, the Mahometan Khiva is, besides, a great slave market. Its annual for- law in all its details, both in public and private. The eign trade amounts to several hundred thousand dollars. revenue is collected exactly as prescribed in the Koran, The. Turcomans inhabit all the eastern coast of the and one tenth is applied to alms. Justice is adminis-

Caspian, and are divided into two parties — the Man- tered by the same rule ; and the use of wine and gishlak — near a fine harbor on the north — of three tobacco is as strictly forbidden, and almost as severely

thousand families ; and the Astrabad, on the south, of punished, as fraud and robbery. The king of Bok- twelve thousand families. They are more swarthy, hara's title is Commander of the Faithful. Part of

smaller in size, but more square in the limbs than other every day he teaches religion ; most of the night ho

Tartars ; live in tents and caves, and are rude shep- spends in prayers and vigils. He reads prayers in his herds and plunderers. Their hordes are under Kir- mosque, and fimeral service for the poor. ghis chiefs. They wear a coarse camels-hair cloth, Bokhara city has colleges fitted to hold sixty to and raise a little' grain and rice, with melons and six hundred pupils each, with professors paid by the cucumbers. They live in felt tents, and dress in a king or by private donations. It is, indeed, said to mixed Tartar and Persian costume. Their chiefs have have eighty colleges, built of stone, with forty to three little aulliority. These ferocious and wild people have hundred pupils each, and a lecturer, who, as well as insinuated themselves into every part of Persia, Syria, the students, is paid by funds. It has one hundred and Asia Minor, where they may be seen in small and fifty thousand people. For commerce its accom- parties, like the gypsies in Europe, picking up a pre- modations are numerous ; it abounds in caravanserais, carious livelihood between the cities, and pasturing the where merchants of all nations meet with encourage- vacant spots of soil, which abound in the Turkish and ment. Though the prince and the, people are strictly Persian empires. Their incursions have nearly de- orthodox Mussulmans, they fully tdferate all reli- populated North Persia, and rendered vide regions, gions ; they, however, put apostates to Christianity to once productive and populous, a desolate waste. It is death. elsewhere remarked, that the Turkish dynasty origi- The towns-people, or Tajiks, meaning tributaries, race. nated with Turcoman soldiers of fortune ; and this rude elsewhere noticed, seem to be a higher They race, under Oussun Hassan, founded an empire, which lead a frugal life, living on rice, wheat, millet, and was called the Bayandporian, or that " of the Turco- above all, fruits, such as melons, grapes, and apples, mans of the White Sheep,", and which^ at the end using much sesamum oil ; tea flavored with anise, and of the fifteenth century, stretched from the Caspian grape juice, are the favorite drinks ; and they intoxi- to the Euphrates, and from Asia Minor to Beloochistan. cate themselves with opium. Their clothes are mostly

of silk and furs ; the long robes of the women exhibit Here were the Euthalites, or White Huns, (A. D. 425 ;) and farther south the Thaherian kingdom, in 865 wide and varied plaitings ; their hair is braided with :

380 INDEPENDENT TARTAEY—TRADITI ONS . pearls. As the seat of empire of Tamerlane, to whose deserts. Sometimes the astonishing number of thirty capital of Samarcand came ambassadors of all na- thousand persons is found in a caravan. Metals, tions, this famed region is elsewhere described. Bok- arms, cutlery, cloths, &c., are imported, against ex- hara now contains one to two and a half millions ports of silk, cotton, hides, rubies, and turquoises. of people, a large proportion of them farmers or towns- Balkh and its territory have been frequently an ap- people. The most of these, as over all Independent pendage of the Afghan kingdom, or Cabul. The city Tartary, Cashgar, and Cabul, are Tajiks, or Tadshiks. is described with Bactriana, whose capital it was, in a

The military force equals twenty thousand horse, four previous chapter ; where also the various events of this thousand infantry, and fifty thousand militia. The territory are detailed. Here, after the fall of the Greek king's troops make forays, or chepaos, over the vast kingdom, was the rendezvous of the Roman trade with plains of Khorasan, often riding several hundred miles China, before the caravans entered upon the dreaded without intermission, so as to arrive by night near the wastes of Tartary. This trade was monopolized by the town to be attacked. Watching the moment when the Parthians. They got the raw silk from China, and then gates are opened, early in the morning, to let the people manufactured it, dyed it, ami exported it to the Ro- forth to their field labors, they rush in, fire the place, mans, who at last sent an embassy by sea, A. D. kill all who resist, and carry the rest into slavery. 165, to secure this article. The Chinese had the

' The prince connives at this, because the Persians greatest respect for the equity and greatness of the are heretics. His own territory is well governed, Romans, whose empire they therefore called " Great peaceful, and flourishing. Cultivation is only limited China." The khan of Koondooz, who is said to com- by want of water. Much trade is carried on with mand twenty thousand horse, has lately made himself

j India, Persia, and especially Russia. From Astralcan formidable by his active and vigorous policy, whicli come two annual caravans, by way of Orenburg, of has rendered him master of several mountain districts four thousand or five thousand camels each ; and these he has even taken and sacked Balkh. often encounter dreadful hardships in crossing the

Ancient Scythians.

CHAPTER CCI. sweet and fragrant herbs, amid verdant and grassy pastures, and drinlc ambrosial dew — divine potation Early Traditions of Independent Tartary — all resplendent alike in coeval youth, a placid serenity Scythians — Manners and Customs — Mas- forever smiles on their brows, and lightens in their eyes — the consequence of a just temperament of mind sagetcE, — Cyrus — Tomyris. and disposition, both in the parents and in the -sons,

Next to the scanty and indistinct notices in the first disposing them to do what is just, and to speak what is chapters of the Bible, supposed to refer to the south- wise. Neither diseases nor wasting old age infest this

eastern part of Independent Tartary, are recorded the holy people ; but without labor, without war, they con- somewhat similar traditions of the Zendavesta, the tinue to live happily, and.to escape the vengeance of the Bible of the early Persians, which here places its cruel Nemesis," — that is, destiny. Thus sang Orpheus, Eeriene Veedjoo, or paradise of beatitude — the earliest the earliest, and Pindar, the most sublime, of the classical abode of their nation — the people of the Good Deity, poets. It seems to be the fact, that in these wide and and of the golden age. Then come, perhaps equally varied regions, men have always been found in every ancient, the Hindoo accounts, m their Bible, of Mount stage of progress, from the godlike sage to the grovel- Meru, the blest abode of the gods, placed in this ling cannibal — every variety of condition, from the storied region. Lastly, this is by some deemed to be gentleman of leisure, surrounded by all the luxuries, the locality of the classical traditions as to the Hyper- elegances, and appliances of art, learning, and science, " borei, people of an early golden age, who feed on to the vagabond savage, burrowing in the snow in —;

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF THE SCYTHIANS. 381 winter, and in summer contending with the beasts of by which two or more persons bound themselves., the wild for his bloody and uncooked meal. under the severest penalties, to be faithful to each The classical writers called Independent Tartary other till death. Pouring some wine into an earthen

Scythia this side the Imaus. The Scythians are vessel, and mingling their own blood with it, the par- described by them as resembling other restless, no- ties dipped the points of their weapons into the mix- madic people, with some peculiarities. Their laws ture, and uttered dreadful imprecations against the party were not numerous, as their justice, temperance, sim- that should prove unfaithful. Taking each a draught plicity of life, and contempt of rich§6, precluded the of the liquor, they desired the bystanders, also, to necessity of public rewards or punishments. They ptedge them, and witness the solemn engagement. conveyed their families about in covered wagons, As we have stated, the habits of the Scythians drawn by oxen or horses, and large enough for rendered them very prone to invasions; and these their housekeeping. Flocks were their chief wealth. invasions, from the multitudes which moved together Gold, silver, diamonds, and other luxuries were de- carrying along in their vortex tribe after tribe, with spised. Some tribes were so fierce as even to feast on which they came in contact — were sometimes very ex- vanquished enemies. Others, when a father, mother, tensive. Generally, however, they were like a devastat- or near relative was attacked by any disorder which ing storm, transient in their nature and effects. Not so, would render his life miserable, feasted on the body however, the first extensive ; one upon record — that and the sick person deemed this a more honorable which desolated Egypt about two thousand years before burial than to be devoured by worms. Wander- the Christian era. These Scythians, called Hykshos, ing over a wide extent of country, but not tilling it, or shepherd kings, then held that kingdom under their they claimed no property of land ; they held in abhor- tyrannous sway for two hundred and sixty years. They rence and scorn the confinement of a fixed habitation — destroyed nearly every vestige of the early and high roaming perpetually with their families and herds from civilization of the country, overturned the temples till pasture to pasture. Not to steal from each other was scarce one stone was left upon another, and massacred almost their only law. Their ingenuity was chiefly the priests, the men of science, and the literati. Every employed in fabricq.ting arms, and sheltering them^ individual whose education or position made him a selves from the cold with the furs of animals. While mark for their brutal instinct of destruction, was mur- this condition of society offered little temptation to an dered or driven off into the wilds of Nubia and the invader, it rendered a vagabond people very prone to upper Nile. the invasion of other nations. The first definite historical notices we have of West- This frugal and robust people were extremely pro- ern Tartary are from Herodotus, who derived them lific —' another cause of their migrations. War was from the Greek merchants, and from his own Oriental singularly their delight, and mercy and humanity were travels. For most of the details of the ancient history alien to their warfare. The funerals of their monarchs of this region, we are indebted to Greek authors. The are thus described : The dead body was deposited in intercourse of China with Western Tartary did not a large square, upon a bed encompassed with spears, begin till a later period — about 126 B. C, from which and covered with timber. A canopy was then spread time Chinese writers are chiefly relied upon for the over the monument, and the favorite concubines, head history of the numerous changes which have happened cook, groom, waiter, and messenger, with some horses, in this portion of Asia. were strangled, and deposited beneath it, for the ser- In 624 B. C, the ferocious Scythians, under their vice of their deceased sovereign. Some golden cups, king Madyes, broke the power of the victorious Medes and other necessary utensils, were also placed in the va- as we have stated in the history of Media, and overran cant spaces, and the earth was thrown upon the whole a great part of what might then be called the civil- so as to form a high mound, or artificial mountain. ized world. They extended their ravages into Asia At the expiration of the year, fifty young Scythians Minor and Palestine, to the very borders of Egypt of quality, with an equal number of horses, were but were bought off from despoiling that wealthy and strangled, their bowels taken out, and their bodies flourishing kingdom by Psammatichus, who gave them stuffed with straw ; the bodies of the men were fas- an immense treasure, on condition they would return. tened upon their horses by an iron stake, and the During a calamitous period of twenty-eight years, those horses were set upon semicircular boards, and placed regions of Syria, Asia Minor, &c., exhibited a melan- at a convenient distance from each other, round the choly spectacle. The open country was every where monument. exposed to pillage, and strongly fortified cities could

They sacrificed every hundredth prisoner to Mars ; alone resist the attacks of the invaders. They' held the stripped off his skin, boiled the flesh, threw part of greater part of Asia in subjection for the period above it before the altar, and distributed the rest among the named. At the end of this time, Cyaxares resolved to worshippers. Dreaded by all around them, they took attempt their destruction by stratagem. He accord-- great pains to keep up a warlike temper. Thus they ingly invited the greatest part of them to a general feast, drank the blood of the first captive taken, and present- which was given in every family, when each host intox- ed the heads of the slain to their king. They were in icated his guest, and a massacre ensued, which deliv- the habit of flaying the vanquished, covering their ered the kingdom from a long and cruel bondage. quivers, &c., and decking their bodies with- the dressed What became of those who survived the massacre is and tanned skins, or hanging them at their horses not recorded. It is supposed that many of them sub- bridles, where they served both as napkins and trophies : mitted to Cyaxares ; that others enlisted in t^ie service the skulls often became drinking cups. To cross a of Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, and that the river, they sewed corks into a water-tight skin, laid upon greater division returned into Scythia. this float their saddle and weapons, and getting upon it, On their arrival, they found that their wives had seized the tail of the horse, which drew them safe over. taken their slaves for husbands ; that a numerous One of their customs was the covenant of friendship, offspring was the fruit of this commerce ; arid that it :

382 CYRUS — TOMYRIS — CHINESE TARTARY.

was necessary to fight before they could regain their engaged in battle with Cyrus, whom she totally defeated. ancient territories. Some skirmishes ensued, and The Persian monarch himself was slain. The 's

victory seemed to hover over the rebels, till, at length, treatment of his body is related in the history of Persia. one of the Scythian lords observed that it was incom- In the time of Darius Hystaspes, when the Persian patible with their dignity to fight with slaves as equals, empire was at its greatest extent, its northern bound- and therefore urged his companions to fall upon ary was the Jaxartes, the south shore of Aral Lake, them with whips. This advice was accepted, and and a line du3 west from its southernmost point to

attended with complete success ; for the slavish reb- the Caspian Sea. Along or near this boundary was els were struck with such a panic, says the ancient a line of cities to defend the empire from the in- story, that they threw down their arms and fled. cursions of the fierce and restless Scythians, of whom After this victory, the Scythians enjoyed a long and the Massagetse hordes, or Alans, were all along uninterrupted peace. this northern border. Between this line and the Previous to 500 B. C, many of these tribes were Paropamisus mountain were three satrapies of the Per- driven west of the Volga, into Southern Russia, by sian empire, in 500 B. C. viz.: on the east, Sogdiana

the Massagetse, or Alans, who, at an early period, were and Bactriana ; on the west, Hyrcania, forming with

found just north of the Paropamisan range. These Parthia one satrapy ; north of the latter satrapy wan- Massagetse had weapons of brass, instead of iron, and dered, in the sandy wastes of Kliievan, (Khiva,) a their armor was ornamented with gold. When a man mixed multitude of nomadic tribes, who served in the became aged, his relatives sacrificed him to their god, Persian armies, and paid tribute according to circum-

together with a number of animals ; then, boiling the stances. Hyrcania, at the south-east corner of the flesh of all together, they served it round, and each (Caspian, was a rough, mountainous country, imprac- partook of the repast. A Massagete congratulated ticable for horses, and abounding in wild beasts himself on this living tomb — the honor of being thus though more fertile, it was no better cultivated than

devoted to his god, and feasted on by his friends ! Parthia, which was a rude and confined district. In- They worshipped the sun alone, and besides men, sac- deed, Parthia was one of the poorest satrapies of the

rificed horses to it. Having no agriculture, they lived empire : hence the Persian monarchs, with their on fish, milk, and flesh. We have already identified innumerable suite, were obliged to traverse it rapidly, them with the Alans. This region is now occupied by for it would not feed them. As its rough horsemen the Kirghis hordes, described in the previous chapter. came forth from this rugged to rule Western that It was in a battle with the Massagetse, the Asia, we have devoted to Parthia a separate article ; great Cyrus, king of Persia, was slain. He made and as Bactriana was soon swallowed up in Parthia, its two expeditions against them — one on the east history, with that of Sogdiana, is appended to the same side of the Caspian and Aral, where he built Cy- article. ropolis, on the Jaxartes, and another on the west of the Caspian, in which he lost his life. He had sent ambassadors to Tomyris, the queen of the Massagetse, CHAPTER ecu. in marriage but the Scythian queen, asking her hand ; Chinese Tartart. — Divisions and Physical well aware that the king was more anxious for the Geography — Cities — Soongaria — Cash- crown of the Massagetse than the possession of her gar — Kalmucks — Mongolia — Kalkas — own person, interdicted his entrance into her territories. Cyrus, therefore, marched openly against the Massa- Manchoos. getse, and began to construct a bridge over the Arax- This immense expanse of territory is divided, in es. While he was thus employed, Tomyris sent an nearly the whole of its length, by the Thianchan, or ambassador, recommending him to desist from his Celestial Mountains, said to be very lofty — some

enterprise ; but adding, that if he still persisted in his of them twenty thousand feet high. The region

design, the Scythian forces would retire a three days' north of these is destitute of towns ; that on the south march, from the river, and thus allow him an op- is occupied chiefly by the favored country of Cashgar portunity of crossing without the aid of a bridge. on the west, and the great Desert of Cobi extending When once on the opposite side of the river, he could over two thirds of the rest. A few towns are found then try his strength with her subjects. Or, if he on the north, between the desert and the mountains, did not like this plan, he might withdraw his own army on the great route of Chinese trade to the west. a similar distance from the river, and the Massagetse Chinese Tartary, as an appendage to the Chinese em- would then cross over into the Persian territories, and pire, in this extended sense, is divided by the Chinese contend with him there. government into nineteen provinces, of which five belong

Cyrus, accordingly, advanced one day's march into to Thibet ; four to Soongaria ; four to Little Bucharia,

their territory, and then, leaving his camp full of pro- or Nanloo ; three to Mongolia, and three to Manchooria. visions and wine, and his worst troops in charge of it, SooNGAKiA, or Peloo. This region, called by the he returned with his best to the banks of the river. Chinese, Thianclian Peloo, or " Province north of What he had foreseen took place. The Massagetse the Celestial Mountains," is divided into four gov-

came with the third part of their entire force, under ernments ; that of Hi in the middle, Kour-karavossoo the queen's son, attacked the Persian camp, cut to and Tarbagatai on the east, and the Booroot countiy^ pieces the troops stationed there, and then banqueted filled with Kirghis tribes, on the west. Soongaria is on the abundant stores which they found in the camp, apparently a very elevated basin, having lofty moun- and drank to excess of the wine. Cyrus, returning tains on its south, and an alpine region, embosoming on a sudden, surprised them, slew many, and took Lake Saizan, on the north-east, in one of the most many more prisoners, among whom was the queen's son, rigorous climates of the old continent. On the west who, on becoming sober, killed himself from mortifi- is a range little known, supposed to interpose between cation. Tomyris, soon after, assembling all her forces. it and the Kirghis steppe. Some say, however, that ; —

NANLOO — TURFAN — CASHGAE — YARKAND. 383

.he mountain plains are unobstructed by any transverse a relic, probably, of early barbarism, when slaves, ridge of great elevation. horses, and even wives, were actually killed and Some half dozen large alpine lakes occupy smaller buried, to pass with the deceased into the next world, basins, and are fed by considerable rivers. Of these to serve him there. lakes, the Balkash is the farthest west, and is said to Turfan is a large and _ strong city, capital of a con- be a walk of fifteen days in circumference. In these siderable country, governed by a branch of the royal secluded valleys, as in mountain cradles, were nursed family of Cashgar. Tangqot, on the north-western several tribes who have gone fortli*to extensive con- frontier of China, was a powerful empire of uncertain quests, and whose historical legends point to the storied extent, but probably included the north-west of China, shores of the Hi River and Balkash Lake, as may be the Sifan country on its western frontier, and much of seen in our chapters upon the several races of Tartary. Thibet and Cashgar. Koko nor, or the Blue Lake, The Songars, a tribe of Kalmucks, attracted by ex- its modern name, — is famous in Chinese history ; and uberant pasture, fixed their seat in the Hi, and here one of their departments, at the present day, is styled pastured their immense droves of horses, and fat-tailed the Mongols of Koko nor ; the other, lying south-west, sheep, with some horned cattle and camels. At the and also separating the south-eastern frontier of Nanloo base of Mount Ulugh also spreads an ocean of ver- from China, is that of the Mongols of Khor, dure, which arrested the admiring gaze of the con- Cashgar occupies the wide plain forming the west quering Tamerlane, from the mountain's summit. part of Nanloo. In beauty and fertility, it is the gar- Amid the sublime solitudes of the Mustag, connected den of Tartary, rivalling the finest tracts of Southern with the Imaus or Belor range, the glaciers give forth Europe. Watered by numerous streams, its carefully streams which form the Jaxartes, or fall into the moun- cultivated fields yield large crops of grain, and its tain lake Temoortoo, south of Balkash. fruits are peculiarly excellent. Four of its streams, Little Btichakia, Nanloo, or the South Province, uniting from all points of the compass, form the Tarim, includes countries which have borne several names which runs directly east, into Lake Lop. as, Cashgar, Turkestan, &c. The Kuen lun Mountains Khotan was an independent kingdom of importance. separate it from Thibet, and on the east it has the The vine and silkworm flourish here, and it has marble province of Kansoo — belonging to China Proper — and jasper so beautifully variegated with leaves and which is of very irregular shape, one extremity flowers, as to be much sought for in China, so that it stretching between Soongaria and Nanloo, so far as to forms a profitable article of export and exchange. include Ooroomtsi, the other dovetailing into the north- Previous to the Christian era. Buddhism was planted west corner of China Proper. The south-east part of at Khotan, and the story of its infancy is so like a

Nanloo is mostly occupied by a part of the great sandy primitive myth, that some suppbse it originated here. desert of Cobi. This and Mahometanism are equally tolerated under In the north-eastern part are Khamil, Pidjan, Tur- Chinese sway. Aksou, the capital of an extensive fan, Jooldooz, Karacbar, Kourourgle, Koutche, and district, subject to Cashgar, is the seat of an active Aksou — towns none of which are much off the route commerce, and several caravan routes, in various from the west to China, across which the beacon fires, directions, pass through it. lighted at proper distances, telegraph despatches be- Yarkand is perhaps the most interesting town of all tween the extreme western posts of the Chinese gov- Asia. It speedily revived, after its destruction by a ernment and the capital, Pekin. Ooroomtsi was grandson of Tamerlane, and now has fifty thousand peo- formerly the seat of empire under the name of Bich- ple. Its situation, indeed, seems to insure its continu- halik, which name it gave to the state. Hami, a ance as the centre of the inland trade of Asia — a grand small canton surrounded by deserts, also once gave its medium of communication between the east and the name to a kingdom. Its climate is very warm in west, the north and the south, of that great continent. summer ; its soil produces scarcely any thing but It is accordingly a place of immense resort, and filled melons and grapes — the former particularly excellent, with numerous caravanserais for the reception of so that they are preserved during winter, and served strangers. A handsome street runs the whole length up at the table of the . The coun- of the city, entirely filled with shops and warehouses, try also contains agate and diamond quarries. which are kept by the Chinese, who sit on benches in The people, strong and large, are Mahometans, well front. There are also many colleges. The country clothed and fed. Marco Polo describes them as merry around is unrivalled, particularly for its finely watered and good-natured savages, idolatrous, rich in products, gardens and the excellence of its fruits. Cashgar is a and much employed in singing and dancing. A strange handsome and ancient city, the seat of government, custom exists among them, regarded as a precept of apd has considerable trade. religion, to give up to a traveller, who desires a lodging, The language of this fine country is chiefly Turkish, dress house, wife, and family ; in fact, installing the stranger but the origin of its people is unknown. The in all the privileges of the head of the household, the of the men is bound by a girdle, and goes no lower is similar, host quitting the Jiouse, and going through the city in than the calf of the leg ; that of the women quest of aught that can amuse or gratify his guest. who also wear long earrings and pendants, like the divided into Nor does he reoccupy the house till the stranger is women of Thibet ; their hair is equally gone. This reminds us of similar Babylonish cus- long tresses, and adorned with ribbons ; and they dye toms — all, perhaps, adopted to entice a concourse of their nails with henna juice. Both sexes wear long, strangers, and thus encourage trade. drawers, and boots of Eussia leather ; the head dress Some peculiar customs prevail in this region, such is like the Turkish. The houses are mostly of stone, as embalming the dead with spices, till the astrologer and decorated with furniture of Chinese manufacture. determines a lucky hour for the burial. Painted Tea is the general beverage of the country, but it is images of men, women, cattle, money, &c., are taken with milk, butter, and salt, in the manner of the lodged in the tomb, to be useful in the other world — other nations of Central Asia. The women are pur- ;

384 CHINESE CONQUEST — THE KALMUCKS.

chased ; hence handsome girls are a source of wealth very much attached to it, and would defend its author- to their parents. ity cheerfully with life and fortune. These countries being Mahometan, magistrates of The ruling nation is the Kalmuck, and we may here that faith administer justice and carry on all the internal notice the history and condition of that Mongol peo- affairs of the province ; but Chinese military officers col- ple who now extend themselves over both Peloo and lect its revenue and provide for its defence. Strangers Nanloo, which have hence been called Kalmookia, or seem not so rigidly excluded here as at other parts of included in Mongolia, by some geographers. Its sur- the frontier. The boundary line, however, is guarded face is equal to all , , and Italy, and it has by a chain of military posts, at which every package the same latitude with them and with our California and brought is carefully examined, and permits are then Oregon. It is estimated to have two hundred thousand given to proceed to Cashgar and Yarkand, where light Kalmuck families. The Kalmucks are generally of a duties are required. middling height, more of them being, however, under The Chinese, as we have stated, first had connection than over the ordinaiy stature. Left to nature from in- with these distant countries about the year 126 B. C. fancy, their bodies are universally well made, and their Then, in consequence of the resolution of the emperor limbs free. In the Kalmuck countenance the angle of Woo ti to weaken the power and punish the outrages of the eye is directed obliquely downward to the nose, the &e Hiooflg noo, (or Turks, against whom the wall had eyebrows are black and thin, the interior ends of the been built m 214,) a Chinese general was sent to the arches which they form are low, the nose is flat and Yue tchi, in Transoxiana, who had been driven there broad at the point, the cheek bones prominent, the by the Turks, from the frontiers of China, in 165 B. C. head and face very round, the ears large and promi- The general was taken by the Turks, and kept prisoner nent. Their teeth preserve their beauty and whiteness for ten years, but found means to escape to the Yue tchi, to an advanced age. Their skin, naturally white, and remained with them more than a year. On his assumes a brownish yellow from exposure to the sun return, he was again taken prisoner, but finally got in summer, and cabin smoke in winter. Many of the back to China after thirteen years' absence. women have a handsome figure and white complexion, The result of his representations was a Chinese con- the effect of which is increased by their fine black quest of Cashgar, in 108 B. C, and a confederation hair. The acuteness of the senses of smell, hearing, of the western tribes against the overbearing Turks. and sight, surpasses what we should conceive possible. They were thus kept in check on the west while the They perceive, by the smell, the smoke of a camp, hear Chinese gradually broke their power in the east, till on the neighing of a horse, and distinguish a minute object a division of their nation, in A. D. 46, one portion sub- in their immense plains, at an astonishing distance. mitted to China. Though afterwards weakened by civil The Kalmucks have three orders of society — the no- wars, political relations were maintained with the west, bility, whom they call " white bones," the common and the emperors of the Goei dynasty, of North China, people, slaves, called " black bones," and the clergy, received embassies from time to time from this re- freemen, descending from both. The noble ladies are gion. called "white flesh," and the women of the lower The Chinese expedition and its consequences made orders " black flesh." Their genealogies, of which their nation known to the west, and a silk trade they are tenacious, are reckoned by the " bones," or commenced. That able general. Pan tchao, after male line, not the " flesh," or female. The subjects of nearly thirty years of fighting and negotiating, sub- each chief form an ooloos, which is divided into imaks dued all the country south of the Celestial Mountains, of two hundred and fifty to three hundred families pushed the Chinese conquests to the Caspian, and in each, commanded by a nobleman. All the men must A. D. 102, had sent to China, as hostages or state appear on horseback when summoned for military ser- prisoners, the presumptive heirs of fifty crowns that vice by the chief, who sends back thos^ unfit for war.

he had conquered. He even meditated the conquest Lances, sabres, bows, firearms are their weapons ; and of the Eoman empire, but was discouraged by repre- they wear a coat of mail, formed of rings, of that kind sentations from the Persians of the dangers and difl[i- called chain-armor, such as was used in Europe in the oulties of the enterprise. fifteenth century. Their religion is the lamaic, an This Chinese supremacy was maintained in the account of which will be found in the description of west till the beginning of the third century, after Thibet. Of all nations they are most under the do- which it was confined to tributary embassies. It was minion of their priests, who are not ashamed to descend

partially lost in the fifth century, when the empire of to conjuring and jugglery, to increase their power ; in the Getae included Cashgar. It afterwards returned to fact, no affair can be undertaken without them. They China, passed under the Thibetan empire in the seventh levy a handsome tribute, live in luxury, and though century, and under that of the Ouigoors in the ninth enjoined celibacy, have a right to a singular license in the twelfth century it was shared between the em- in the house of a hostess whenever they travel, which pire of the Kara kitai, the kings of Khotan, and other is not seldom. sovereignties, till, in the thirteenth, all were swallowed The Kalmucks are fond of society, hospitable, and

up in the empire of Zingis ; after which, Nanloo, or dress like the Poles ; the common people are clothed in

most of it, fell, successively, to the Zagatai, Bichbalik, sheep-skins and felt. In summer, the girls go with the and Ouigoor empires ; then, at the end of the fifteenth neck bare down to the girdle ; the men shave their jcentury, it was divided into the kingdoms of Cashgar, heads, except a single tuft ; the women let the hair Khotan, Hamil, &c. hang loose till the age of twelve, when they collect it surrounding married, At the beginning of the eighteenth century, Nanloo in braids the head ; when they formed the southern half of the Kalmuck Eleut empire, let it hang over the shoulders in two divisions. Their though, since 1779, it has acknowledged subjection to dwellings are a circular frame of hurdles, covered with felt, proof, rain. the Chinese again, who now hold it ; and such is the a top of against snow and Hunting, wisdom of their government, that the inhabitants are tending flocks, and building tents, are deemed, besides ; ;

THE KALMUCKS. 385

war, the only occupations worthy of a free son of the Mongols, next to the Hottentots, the dirtiest and ugliest fall to the desert. Domestic labors women, who also of our race : it is bounded north-west and north by the pitch and strike the tents, and saddle and bring out the Russian provinces of Tomsk, Yeniseisk, and Irkutsk , horses. As to agricultural labors, the ruggedness of south-west by Peloo and Kansoo; south by Kansoo, too general aridity of the soil, the climate, and the Eleut, and Karagol ; east by Saghalien oula, the north- thwart the wise efforts of the Chinese to change the ern government of Manchooria. Much of this north- Kalmuck nomad — who loves his rude and roving life — ern region is covered with rank and luxuriant pastures into the quiet and taxable farmer* Their drink is the nomads, split into petty tribes, acknowledge sub-

mare's milk, which, though its alkaline taste is disa- jection to China, who, however, it is said, can neither greeable to Europeans, they prefer to cow's milk. exact tribute, nor maintain garrisons here, nor prevent Indeed, after standing a while in clean vessels, it ac- these tribes from warring with each other. It requires quires an acid, vinous, and very agreeable taste. By little more of any of these three provinces than absti- allowing it to ferment a little further, it is made into a nence from aggressive incursions upon Chinese territory. slightly spirituous liquor, called araka by the Kalmucks, If a war threatens to be serious and extensive, how- and koumis in Tartar, and prevalent tiiroughout Tar- ever, China levies a large force, and compejs the bellig- tary. erents to come to terms. She also pays a small salary Their language is sonorous, harmonious, and poet- to the chiefs, who receive investiture from the emperor,

ical. Their affecting romances and epic poems par- and occasionally a wife of the royal family ; but are take of the sombre magnificence of parts of their expected to make their visits regularly, with presents, at country. The rocks, torrents, and meteors of Ossianic the imperial court, that they may be duly watched. poetry figure here with legends and miracles, as wild The general character, religion, and habits of the and absurd as were ever coined in the brain of a Hindoo. Kalkas are similar to those of the Kalmucks, already Their bards recite from memory, surrounded by atten- described. Like the other Mongols, they are rough,

tive and enraptured audiences. They have a Mongolic roaming, warlike ; but in domestic intercourse, frank, and an Indian alphabet, the latter used in their magical cheerful, and hospitable. Their main pride is in incantations. the management of their horses, in which they are They call themselves "Four Brothers," meaning wonderfully dexterous. They prefer their own swift, their four allied nations of Sifans, on the west frontier hardy, and serviceable nags to the larger and heavier

of China, having fifty thousand families ; Songars, Turkish horses — high and raw-boned. They train

near Lake Balkash, with thirty thousand ; the Torgots, them to stop in their fleetest career, and to face, who, after living on the steppe of Astrakan, in some without flinching, the fiercest beasts of the forest. seventy thousand families, returned in 1770 to their These remarks, indeed, will apply to all the nomadic

original country, on the east of Lake Saisan ; and Mongols. lastly, the Derbites. In addition to these nomad The Mongols proper have flat noses, small, oblique tribes, the towns of Kalmookia are inhabited by Bu- eyes, thick lips, short chins, scanty beards, large ears, chanans, Chinese, stationary Kalmucks, and a mixed and black hair, which sets off their reddish-brown or people, descended from the ancient denizens of these yellow complexions. More civilized than the Kal- regions. In the end of the seventeenth century, they mucks, from their long residence in China, they are had made themselves completely the ruling people, and more tractable, hospitable, and addicted to pleasure. masters of all Central Tartary, including, as we have The women are industrious, cheerful, and more pro- seen, both Cashgar and Khotan. Being attacked, how- lific than the Russians. Their religious books arc ever, by the Mongols, their rivals, confederated with written in the language of Tangoot, or Thibet, and the whole force of the Chinese empire, they were every imak — two hundred and fifty or three hundred unable to sustain the unequal contest, which ended in families — has a schoolmaster. The priests enjoy great the subjection of all to China. The Mongols, though consideration. Polygamy is allowed, but uncommon.

sharing this subjection, were preeminent ; the Kal- They marry very young, emd the women bring to their mucks, not liking to endure this double servitude, re- husbands a portion in cattle or sheep. They light moved into Asiatic Russia. The beneficence of the their fires in the middle of their tents; and in the Chinese sway, however, has enticed them back, so deserts cow-dung is used as fuel. The tents of the that more than a million now occupy their original nobility are hung with silk stuffs in the inside, and the seats. floors covered with Persian carpets. The tents of the About the Lake Koko nor, the cradle of the Chinese common people are made of a kmd of felt. Tin, nation, three thousand years before the Christian era, silver, and porcelain vessels are used in the houses of and along the sources of her two great rivers,, are the great. In some places, small temples are erected, found Mongol tribes of the Eleut and Sifan hordes, round which are built modern houses.

! already alluded to, as included in the province of Koko There are no cities in this wide region. Karako-

nor ; south-west of these is the province of Khor rum, the seat of the Mongol empire, was built of earth

katchi, also containing Mongols. Of these obscure and wood ; its very site is disputed. The camp of i mountain regions little is known, and we pass to a Oorga, twd hundred and twenty miles from Kiachta, j

survey of Mongolia, across the province of Kansou, has become a town ; its temples, the houses of the , already described as belonging to China Proper, and priests, and the house of the Chinese viceroy, are tlio north-west into heart of Tar- only Maimatchiii, stretching far to the the wooden edifices; the rest are tents. | tary, some miles beyond the Celestial Mountains. opposite Kiachta, is the seat of trade with Russia, and \ Mongolia. The southern half of the Mongolia of our at certain stated seasons presents quite a busy scene,

maps is occupied by Kansou, a province of China Prop- and a very interesting one ; for here are gathered the

er ; east;of it is the government of the Eleut Kalmucks representatives of Russia, Siberia, Chma, Thibet, and east of that, the country of the Karagol, or Shara Mon- all Tartary, to exchange tea, porcelain, silk, cotton,

gols. North x)f these is the country of the Kalkas rhubarb, tobacco, and fancy articles, for furs, skins, ! 49 ; "

386 MONGOLIA—MANCHOORI A.

coarse cloths, cattle, and glass. Each town is sur- especially in the nicely expressive inflections of its rounded by its separate fortification, in the midst of verbs ; in which last respect it rivals the Turkish, and a high plain, with lofty granite peaks, rising on every surpasses the classical languages. side around it. Forts built on the pinnacles of Very different fVom the immense and naked plains of opposite mountains mark the boundaries of the two Tartary, the surface of Manchooria consists of rugged mighty empires. Maimatchin is crowded with Chinese and broken mountain ranges, covered with thick forests, merchants, who entertain the Russians very hospitably and separated by fertile valleys, whose recesses are filled but on the tolling of a bell at sunset, every Russian with wild beasts. It presents, therefore, a picture of what must hastily quit the Chinese soil. Europe was in primitive times. Ginseng, the universal The countries of Mongolia nearest ttie Chinese wall, medicine, grows on the mountain sides. Its shores are have a climate like that of Germany ; and their chiefs covered with magnificent forests, whose inhabitants present themselves at the court of China as its humblest are few and secluded, mostly independent fishermen, vassals. At Gehol are seen aspens, elms, hazels, and though, farther inland, wheat is raised in favored spots, walnut trees, and on the mountains, stunted oaks and and oats are extensively cultivated. The very few pines. This place is the summer residence of the towns are inhabited by Chinese chiefly, who are emperor of China, and contains, in the midst of a col- defended by Tartar garrisons. The Amoor abounds lection of huts, a spacious palace, extensive and mag- with the finest fish, especially the sturgeon, in match- nificent gardens, and some pagodas or temples. less perfection. Could it become a Russian river, it The middle of the country, like much of that of would be the avenue of trade to Siberia and Mongolia,

Kalmookia, is extensively occupied by deserts. There and, as it became populous and civilized, would be a are meadows along the banks of its rivers, however, valuable commercial neighbor to our Oregon and where the small Mongolian horses wander in large California brethren. The natives are of a mild and droves, and the wild jiggetai comes to take his rapid amiable disposition. To the north of the Amoor, they meal in the pasture. Russian travellers, who have here are chiefly Siberian hunters, who take vast numbers crossed the Desert of Cobi, — said to be two thousand of fur-bearing animals, especially sables. The people miles in length and four hundred brj?ad, — occupied a of Saghalien Island — if it is one — more resemble the month in traversing it, and describe it as covered with Japanese, with whom is their chief intercourse. They short, thin grass, which, however, supports vast herds are mild, peaceable, and generous. of cattle, owing, perhaps, to the saline quality of the The history of the early races of Manchooria is soil. There are numerous brackish springs and lakes, given in a subsequent chapter, containing the descrip- the water of which is so little desirable, that a single tion and history of the Tungouse, apparently the pure spring tasted like champagne. For some twenty aborigines of this country. The Manchoos, who ap- miles beyond the wall, a shifting and sinking sand, cov- pear to be a mixed race, are more robust in figure, ered with beautiful and valuable pebbles, formed itself but have less expressive countenances than the Chi- into waves some twenty feet high, like the similar nese. Before the twelfth century, they subjugated sands of the African and Arabian deserts. the Kitans, to whom they had previously been vassals, When the pastures begin to fail, all the Mongol and who inhabited Ching king; in 1115, they invaded tribes strike their tents ; and this takes place ten to the north of China, founding the Kin, or " Golden fifteen times a year. In summer, their progress is dynasty. Dispossessed by the Mongols, they returned northward, in winter southward. The flocks, men, to their wild mountains, whence they issued afresh in women, and children, form a regular procession, fol- 1640, under the name of Manchoos, to conquer Mon- lowed by the young women singing cheering songs. golia and all China, — which still yields them an The amiisements of these wandering and happy tribes obedience, mingled with hatred, it is said, and inter- are horse-races, in which even the young women ex- rupted by partial rebellions. They may now be cel, archery, wrestling, pantomime, and songs of love deemed the most advanced in civilization of the three adventures, performed by girls to the accompaniment great nations of Central Asia, in consequence of con- of violin and flute. nection with China, especially since a late emperor Manchookia remains now to be surveyed. This the ordered the best Chinese books to be translated into Chinese divide into three governments'— that of Sagha- the Manchoo^, This, the most perfect and learned of lien oula comprehends its northern two thirds, and the the Tartar idioms, is said to resemble the Indo-Ger- large island of Saghalien, and has a capital of the same manic family of tongues, and may be the one destined name, in latitude 50°, upon the Amoor, which is navi- by divine Providence to introduce the best of our gable for steamboats fifteen hundred miles. On its south European ideas to the hundreds of millions of China — is Kara gol, a Mongol country, and the government of a glorious enterprise, which might be deemed hopeless Kirin, with a capital of the same name, Kirin oula, in through the clumsy, unplastic, and objective Chinese aDout latitude 44°. The other government, or province, language. is Ching king, which has a capital of the same name, formerly called Moukden, the summer residence of former emperors. This fine province, which has usu- ally followed the fortunes of China Proper, which CHAPTER CCIIL it resembles in careful culture, is bounded on the The Alano-Gothic or Blond Races. — The north-east by Kirin, on the north-west by Karagol, on Oosun — Cashgar — Goths — Ancient Kir- the south-west by Petchelee, its gulf, and the Yellow ghis — Alans — Indo- Germans of Central south-east by Corea, from which Sea, and on the the Asia — Khotan. Yaloo River separates it. The Manchoos, or Mandshurs, are a rather rude At the Christian era, the population of all the coun- people, tall and robust, with a peculiar language, of tries situated north of the Caucasus, the Caspian Sea, excessive smoothness and unrivalled copiousness, the Oxus, and the Paropamisus Mountains, were com- :;

THE BLOND RACES. 387

posed almost entirely of tribes called Indo-Germans, one hundred and twent^ thousand families, six hundred Alan-Goths, or the Blond Baces, who spoke lan- and thirty thousand mdividuals, and one hundred and guages most of whose roots are still found in the eighty-eight thousand eight hundred soldiers. They Sanscrit, Persian, the Teutonic, Slavic, and other the seem to have attained a degree of civilization ; their idioms belonging to the same stock. Already, at two great generals were called Daroo. a very remote period, these people had crossed In this country formerly lived the Sai, of the same the Don, and extended themselves to the north- race. It is a beautiful plain, covered with excellent ern banks of the . Tl*y formed several pasture for cattle, the chief^ wealth of these nomads. it is nations which no longer possible properly to dis- The climate was cold, and rains frequent ; their moun- tinguish, one from another. Tribes of this same race tains were covered witli firs and larches. Their man- were anciently spread as far as the confines of China, ners and customs were similar to those of the Hioong

and north to the Altai Mountains ; they were dispersed noo ; they raised many horses, of which a rich man among the Turkish and Thibetan hordes. The Par- among them would have four or five thousand. It was thians, Bactrians, Sogdians, Kharasmians, Getie, Mas- a hard, wicked people, faithless and inclined to pillage. sagetBB, Alans, Aorses, Roxolans, Jazyges, and a great This character gave it a great ascendency over its many others, all belonged to this grand stock. neighbors. Chinese history speaks of their princes Some feeble historical indications, a comparison of down to the year 2 B. C. In the fouith century A. D., languages, ancient traditions concealed in the Hindoo the Sian pi drove them from their country towards the mythology, and even some physiological data as to the west and north-west, a part moved into the region of tribes of East Asia, give rise to the presumption that tlie upper Jaxartes and Transoxiana, and a part into the centre of this part of the world was occupied, at a the south part of the Kirghis steppe, near the Irtish. very remote epoch, by the ancestors of all the Indo- In 619, they became subject to the Turks, with whom Germanic people. An event whose causes we know they seem to have blended. not, dispersed this race toward the south, toward the Cashgar was also inhabited by a blue-eyed and fair- west, and even toward the east and the north. haired nation. It produced grains, rice, red sugar One of these nations, speaking Sanscrit, descended cane peculiar to Central Asia, cotton, sUk, iron, copper, the Himmaleh, spread over the plains of Hindostan, and orpiment. After being tributary to the Hioong whence it chased the Malay and Negro races, or noo, it was subjected to China nearly a hundred years blended with them, and finished its conquests with B. C. About A. D. 120, the Yue tchi deposed its king Ceylon. Another portion, going west, seems to have his subjects embraced Buddhism. The king wore followed the Jihon and the Sir, spread itself thence to on his cap a golden lion, which was changed every the south-west, in Persia, and on the north-west toward year. When it submitted to the ancient Turks, the Volga and Don, whence it entered Europe. These Cashgar counted twelve great and some dozens of small migrations appear to have been several times repeated, cities. In the seventh century, it sent tribute to China

and at epochs quite distant one from another ; at least, in 677, was invaded by the Thibetans, and remained this is the best way of explaining the diversity apparent under them till near the middle of the tentli century, among the nations and languages called Indo-German. when it became again tributary to China. Their eastern migration is evident from the exist- The Houte, or Khoute, perhaps a detached tribe of ence of a blond, or fair-haired people, with blue eyes, Goths, was to the north-east of Sogdiana, and west of — the Oosun — which, in the third century before the the Oosun country. The people were nomadic, had Christian era, dwelt on the confines of China. It may excellent horses, and counted two thousand soldiers. be presumed also, from the great number of Indo- The country abounded in the zibeline martens. They Germanic roots which are met with in the Turkish and were conquered by the Hioong noo, in 177 B. C. In Mongol idioms, and still more in the Tungouse and the first half of the third century A. D., the Chinese

Manchoo ; which latter is like German. There exist had some political dealings with them. even now, also, among the Manchoos, near tlie Soon- Another blond or red nation with blue eyes was the gari and the Oosoori tribes, a great number of indi- Ting ling, — " ancients," " elders," — north of the Oo- viduals with blond hair and blue eyes. sun and Sogdiana, and touching tlie west shore of Lake As to the northern migration of this same race, we Baikal. Three centuries before the Christian era, they find a people of similar traits dwelling, even down to a were reduced by the Hioong noo ; with whom, in 65 very recent epoch, upon the upper Irtish, Obi, and B. C, they began a three years' war. In the latter half Yenisei rivers. These tribes became blended, at a of the second century B. C, a part of the Ting ling, later date, with a Turkish nation, forming the Kirghis, living on the borders of the Obi and Irtish, were con- among whom blue or green eyes and red hair are not quered by the Sian pi, but did not long submit. Since uncommon. A. D. 507, when the Jooi jooi took back from them The Oosun are first noticed in the third century their own country, the Ting ling are often named in B. C, as commingled with the Yue tchi, on the north- Chinese history. In the couree of centuries, they be- western confines of China Proper. They differed came insensibly merged in the Kirghis. entirely from their neighbor's in personal appearance, The Kian kuen, — called, later, Hakas, and finally and Chinese writers describe them as having blue eyes, Ki li ki szu, the Chinese way of pronouncing the word, a red beard, and much resembling the species of large — or Kirghis, were a tall race, with red hair, white face, ape, " from which they descend." When the Yue tchi and the pupil of the eye green. They were found on were driven from this region, (Kan tcheoo. Sou tcheoo, the upper course of tiie Yenisei, and east of it, till it and Cha tcheoo,) by the Hioong noo, in 165 B. C, the meets the Angara. As before remarked, their tribes Oosun followed them to their new residence in Soon- were mingled with those of the Ting ling. Black hair garia, pushed them westward, and took their country. was considered among them as of ill omen ; and black Their chief lived in the town of Redvale, on Red or eyes indicated the descendants of Li ling, a-Chmese Salt Lake, south of Lake Balkash. They counted general, from whom their kmgs origmated, who, m 97 388 THE ALANS.

B. C, having joined the Hioong noo, was by them getEB, with whom Cyrus, king of Persia, fought, and made king of the Kian kuen. They numbered some were found in his day, 530 B. C, round two thirds hundreds of thousands, out of whom twenty-four thou- of Lake Aral, to the Caspian. Their country was sand chosen troops could be drawn. two hundred and fifty to three hundred miles north-west Few males, but many females, were born among of Sogdiana, near a " great marsh, without banks," them. The nation was proud and haughty ; the men as.the Chinese describe it, probably the Caspian Sea, were very courageous : they tattooed figures upon which once united with Lake Aral, as surmised in the their hands ; and the women marked their necks after geographical notices in a previous page. They num- marriage : both sexes wore earrings. Men and bered a hundred thousand archers, and resembled, in women lived undistinguished together, and hence arose manners, customs, and dress, the people of Sogdiana. much libertinism. Their country was full of marshes In the first and second century of our era, the Yan in summer, and covered with snow in winter. The thsai were named A-lan-na : they were then subject to cold continued for a long time, so .that the great rivers the Sogdians, and lived in towns. Their climate was froze to one half their depth.* hot, and not variable : many and lofty pines were As the Chinese say that the Hakas, or ancient Kirghis, found in their country, and the white grass. had the same language as the Turks, and also that they In the first half of the third century, the Chinese intermarried with the Turks, it happened, doubtless, call them A Ian, and they then bordered on the Ro- as in many other cases, that this Indo-Germanic nation man empire upon their west ; that is, they had already lost its mother tongue, and adopted the Turkish or extended to the Eastern Caucasus. Their country was Extern Ouigoor. Like all the Turkish race, like rich in domestic animals and martens. The people the Mongols, Manchoos, Japanese, and Thibetans, the were nomadic, lived near a salt and marshy sea, and Hakas had a cycle of twelve years, and each year had thrown off the yoke of the Sogdians. From 435 bore the name of an animal ; thus — rat, ox, tiger, to 480, they were called Sout, and had frequent rela- hare, dragon, serpent, horse, sheep, ape, hen, dog, tions with the emperors of Northern China. They swine.t had excellent horses, cattle, sheep, and, with other The Hakas country was of great extent. In A. D. kinds of fruits, a great quantity of raisins, with which

648, having learned that the Hoei he had submitted they made a delicious wine : they harvested crops of a to China, they also sent ambassadors with tribute, and cereal plant, called ta ho — perhaps the djogan widely the chief himself went and was well received in China. spread in Central Asia — which grew one Chinese The emperor rated his as a jurisdiction of the first fathom high. The country was divided into several order, created him commandant of the guards on the petty , and counted more than four hun- left, and placed him under a Chinese generalissimo, dred walled towns. Anciently, say the Chinese histo- giving him the office of provincial governor. Thus rians, the Hioong noo killed their king and took the die Chinese ranged under their sway most of the country. Formerly the Sout merchants carried on a principalities of Middle Asia. In 709, the emperor large commerce with Liang, a Chinese kingdom in received presents from the Hakas, remarking that they the west of Chensi, but having committed violent acts, were his relations, alluding to Li ling, before men- they were treated as banditti, and arrested, but re- tioned. In 759, they were entirely defeated by the deemed in 452—465. After 565, the Chinese do not Hoei hoc, and cut off from China. They then received mention them. the name Hakas — yellow or red face — from their con- A Greek writer, in the last years of Augustus, the querors. In 846, they mastered the Hoei hoo empire, Roman emperor, first of the western writers, men- but not long after the Khotan drove them back into tions the Alains. He calls them powerful, and counts political nullity, and they are not spoken of again in the number of their horses. They then lived on the history till, under the name of Kirghis, they submitted Sea of Azof and Black Sea, between the Don and the to Zingis Khan. Dnieper, in the ancient country of the Roxolans and The Alans are called Yan thsai by the Chinese, Jazyges, whom they pushed more to the west. There when they first became acquainted with them, at the was an eastern branch, which remained east of the, time they sent a political expedition into the west, Volga and north of the Caspian, much more power- about 120 B. C. They are the same as the Massa- ful than the others, and enriched by a large com-

* East of tlie Hakas were three Turkish hordes, who had of felt, and larger than those of his people. His subjects paid many excellent horses, and Kved in birch bark huts. They him taxes in furs of the; marten and gray squirrel. Six ranks had sleds, which they pushed with great swiftness on the ice of officers administered his government. They had letters by means of a crooked stick, one shove with which would resembling the Runic, indicating intercourse between Central send them a hundred paces. They pillaged by night, and Asia and Northern Europe ; and sent, in the ninth century, often kidnapped and enslaved the Hakas. for Chinese books and calendars. These facts, and their t Of the Hakas we are told, that they lived on horse flesh luxury, show more civilization than we should expect. and mare's milk, the king alone eating food made of flour and The Hakas offered sacrifices to the genii who preside over rice. Their musical instruments were the transverse flute, rivers and prairies. In funerals they went thrice round the drum, Chinese organ, straight flute, cymbals, and little bells. corpse, howling, and then burnt it : the bones were kept for They amused themselves with combats of animals, and rope- a year, and then buried ; and friends went from time to time, dancinc. Their rich people were very fond of garments adorned to weep for the dead, upon their graves. Nuptial presents in horses and the hundreds with marten skins. The lower class were clothed in skins, consisted sheep j sometimes by thousands. severe, and went bareheaded ; the king wore a cap of marten fur in and Their laws were extremely and death winter, in summer a pointed one of gold filagree ; his subjects was the ordinary punishment. If a robber's father was living, wore caps of white felt, and a sabre, with a hone to sharpen the head of his executed son was hung round his neck for winter, covered huts bark. Their til- it, at their belts ; the women clothed themselves in cloth, life. In they their with serge, brocade, and other silk tissues, bought of Arab mer- lage furnished millet, wheat, and barley : they ground their chants, who came to Koutsk, east by north of Cashgar, and meal and flour with a hand null, or a pestle and mortar ; and to Ooroomtsi, in latitude 444°, on the east-north-east. made cakes and spirits. Horses were their chief wealth, and Their chief had his camp in the Blue or Little Altai Moun- they had them very large and strong : they had also numer- tains, and it was surrounded with palisades. His tents were ous camels, sheep, &t-tailed sheep, and cattle. ; :

OHIGIN OF THE SELJUKIAN TURKS. 389 merce.* In fact, they stretched, in time, from the Don nothing could resist the impetuosity with which the to the Jaxartes. Huns took possession of half Europe. Since this In the second century, the Alans, living in the vast epoch, history knows no other Alans than those who, countries between the Don and the Dnieper, attacked settled in the Caucasus, have ceased to play a con- the Eomans in the neighborhood of the Danube, prob- spicuous part in the aifairs of nations. ably through the plains of Moldavia, for the other In Central Asia, — the ancient Scythia beyond the roads were shut and well guarded. In the third cen- Imaus — the desert has now enlarged its bounds at tury, the Goths began to sprea(fthemselves in the the expense of countries where were anciently popu-

Alan country : being of the same stock, they allied lous cities and a happy people ; where once were themselves with the Alans, and accompanied them on plains smiling with a rich harvest, nothing now is seen their warlike expeditions. After the fall of the Gothic but the hunter chasing the wild camel over the sands empire, a part of the Alans made common cause with of the wilderness. The first inhabitants of Central the , and followed them, in their western mi- Asia known to history were of the Indo-Germanic grations, as far as into Spain and Africa, where, after a stock. The earliest notice of this blond race, in these while, the two people could not be distinguished. regions, is at Khotan. In this secluded country, the Meanwhile the great mass of the Alans retired to the Sanscrit, or a cognate language, was spoken previous east of the Don, where it was increased by the union to the Christian era : so that here appears to have with it of several nations, whose names disappear in been a Hindoo colony. The Buddhist religion even the sequel. Thus reenforced, the Alaijs had their fly- then flourished here, and probably spread hence among ing encampments in the country between the Caspian the nomads of Asia. Sea and the Sea of Azof, and as far as the Bosphorus, The environs of Khotan were covered with convents, and, like their ancestors, the Massagetse, commenced where the Buddhists of the East went to search the sacred invading the northern provinces of the Persian empire. books and traditions of their creed, long before this The first mention of the Asiatic Alans is under Ves- religion penetrated into Thibet. It was principally by entered Cashmere that the inhabitants of Khotan kept up their pasian ; they then came from Hyrcania, and imitated the letters, Media, by the Caspian gates. Under Tiberius, they are intercoui-se with India ; they had this country. This imitation had known as inhabitants of Eastern Caucasus : thence laws, and literature of they ceased not to make their forays into Persia, whose polished them at a very early date, and had modified monarch asked Vespasian's help against them. their manners and language, which differed from that Under Hadrian they devastated the Eoman prov- of their neighbors. They honored Buddha to such inces, and the prefect of Cappadocia wrote a memoir a degree, and were so attached to his law, that they on the tactics to be observed against the Alans. Al- had more than a hundred convents, in which lived

: tc bania is named from them, and the Albanians are the more than five thousand monks all were devoted their law their mysteries. same people, and their name is the same ; to Albania the study of and alone can be applied what the Chinese say of their The first relations that the Chinese had with Khotan, grains, wines, the fertility of their country, and its were at the end of the second century B. C. The resided in the western city numerous walled towns. The Ossetes of Caucasus, king of the country then ; A. D. 948, are the same people, and the Arab writers this numbered twenty-three hundred houses, and nine- call the Caucasian pass of Dairann, " the Alan gate." teen thousand three hundred people, and but twenty- The Alans were the first nation exposed to the fury four hundred select troops. There was a prime min- of the Hunnic invasion, towards the end of the fourth ister, a general of the right wing, and one of the left, their cavalry, a of the western, century : they were defeated, but soon joined two captains of commandant invaders with good will, and the two nations turned and one of the eastern city. Khotan has always been their arms against the Goths, who succumbed. Then celebrated for the great quantity of Oriental jade which

" In the latter half of the fourth century, the historian, they go, they regard the wagon as the house in which they Ammianus Marcellinua, tells ua that the Sauromatos d-welt be- were born, their birthplace. On a march, they cause their to precede the wagons but they tween the Danube and Don, beyond which axe the Alaina — a larger animals and sheep ; name gradually adopted from their conquerors by many of the pay the most particular attention to their horses, for they conquered tribes. Among them are the Neures, inhabiting the prefer these before every thing. With them the country is verdant, and sprinkled with groves and fruit trees middle of the land, and crowded by the ice of the north ; next always ; the Vidimes and warlike Gelons, savages — clothing them- so that they have no need to carry forage and provisions great selves and caparisoning their horses with skins flayed &ora this is caused by the humidity of the soil, and the and of rivers which water it. their enemies ; then the Agathyrses, who paint the body number soldiers. hair blue, with smaller or larger spots, according to their class AU are under military discipline, and are good next the Melanchlenes and Anthropophagi, who live on hu- Almost all are handsome and taU. They have hair rather

; though terrible, sweetness. Being man flesh, and hence all their neighbors keep at a distance. blond their eyes, have the Huns, On the other side, eastwardly, are the Alains, who spread lightly armed, they march rapidly. They are like among numerous Asiatic nations, even to the Ganges. In but less rude and better clothed. They enact their robberies as as on the confines of Armenia and fact, these nomadic nations overran a vast space. In the on the Black Sea, well course of time, all these people have received the name of Media. charm for the Alans, Alains, or Alans, beause they are similar in manners, ferocity, The perils of war have as great a He who dies and mode of warfare. as repose for men of a tranquU character. m dies by age or accident is Describing them further, he says, they have neither battle is deemed happy ; he who battle is their most houses nor the use of the plough. They live on flesh and despised and insulted. A man slain in keep as trophies the many kinds of food made of milk. They are continually glorious object of veneration. They their skins harness for seated on wagons covered with mats made of bark. When scalps of their enemies, and make of neither temples nor holy places, but they arrive where there is grass, they halt, and arrange their their horses. They have like wild fix a naked sword in the groxmd, and worship it. They wagons in a circle ; they then take their repast rods. Anciently they knew beasts. They roll about these wagons like movable cities, for predict the future by willow They no servitude : ail were deemed of noble blood. they contain all their possessions ; it is in these that both men elect for judges those who have made themselves famous and women dwell ; their children are born, nursed, and bred up in them, for they are their perpetual abode ; and wherever in war. 390 THE HUNS AND FINNS. its rivers roll down. This stone still makes the chief eclipse his predecessor in the description of the dreaded object of the commerce of this country, for it is very and hated race. much sought after, being highly valued by the Chinese Their mode of life was like that of most savages. and the neighboring people. They ate nothing cooked, and were acquainted with In A. D. 73, when Pantchao was named by China no kind of seasoning. They lived on raw roots, or as generalissimo and commandant of the western the flesh of animals a little deadened by being placed confederated countries, the king of Khotan submitted between the saddle and the back of the horse. They himself. There were at that time eighty-three thousand never handled the plough : the prisoners they took in inhabitants in the capital, and thirty thousand soldiers. war cultivated their lands, and took care of their flocks Some time before this, the prince of Yarkand, becoming Before their arrival in Europe, they had never inhab- powerful, had subjugated Khotan ; but the immediate ited either houses or cabins : every walled enclosure predecessor of the prince of Khotan, who became a vas- appeared to them a sepulchre ; they did not think sal of China, revolted, and this latter himself destroyed themselves safe under a roof. the power of the prince of Yarkand, and gave back to Accustomed from infancy to suffer cold, hunger, and his country its ancient splendor. Thirteen states to the thirst, they frequently changed their abode, or rather north-west, as far as Cashgar, recognized his authority. had none, but wandered in the mountains and the About the same time, the king of the environs of Lake forests, followed by their numerous herds, and trans- Lop began to be powerful. Ever since, these two porting with them all their family in wagons drawn states have been the keys of the southern route which by oxen. Shut up in these, their women occupied conducts from the Beloor Mountains to China. themselves in spinning or sewing garments for their Since this time, also, the princes of Khotan and the husbands, and in nursing their infants. other states of Central Asia have always obeyed the They dressed themselves in marten skins, which Chinese, the Turkish nations, the Thibetans, or what- they permitted to decay upon their bodies, without ever ever people was dominant in those vast regions be- taking them off. They wore a cap, buckskin gaiters, tween the Himmaleh and Altai Mountains. Buddhism and a shoe so shapeless and clumsy that it hindered was the prevailing religion, till the Hoei hoo Turks them from walking, and was unfit for fighting on foot. conquered the country, and introduced Islamism. It They scarcely ever quitted their horses, which were appears, nevertheless, that the worship of Buddha, small and hideous, but agile and indefatigable. They preserved itself for a long time after, and did not cease passed days and nights upon these animals, sometimes entirely, except under the successor of Zingis Khan in mounted astride, sometimes sideways : they dismount-

Turkestan. ed neither to eat nor drink ; and, when overtaken by sleep, dropping upon the neck of the animal, they slept there profoundly. The national council was held on horseback. They CHAPTER CCIV. threw themselves upon the enemy, uttering frightful

cries ; if they found too much resistance, they dis- The Hunnic and Finnic Races. persed immediately, and returned with the quickness The history of the Huns and Finns does not properly of thought, piercing through and overthrowing every belong to the annals of Tartary, except as they were thing on their passage. Their arrows were armed pushed westward by Tartar tribes, who occupied their with pointed bones, • as hard and as murderous as place. We shall therefore dismiss them with but a steel ; they shot them, with as much adroitness as slight notice here, referring the reader to the history force, at full speed, and even in flying. For hand to of Hungary for farther details. hand fighting, they held in one hand a cimeter, and in Next west of the Mongols, or Tartars, a Siberian the other a net, in which they endeavored to entangle tribe, dwelling about Lake Baikal, as already noticed, the enemy. One of their families had the exclusive came the Samoiede races. These were driven north, privilege of first striking the foe. Their women or occupied, with the Ting ling, as ancestors of the feared neither wounds nor death ; and often, after a Klrghis, the upper course of the Yenisei. West of defeat, women might be found among the dead and these Samoiedes and ancient Kirghis, were the Orien- wounded. The barbarism of these people was so tal Finns, or Huns. They occupied the steppe of deeply rooted, that, for nearly a hundred years after Ischim, the Irtish and its tributaries, the southern por- their arrival in Europe, they had no idea of the art of tion of the Ural Mountains, and the Ural River, com- writing, and sent only verbal propositions to the princes ing down to the Caspian. This was in the sixth cen- with whom they treated. tury B. C. Immediately to the south were the Massa- But, the Hioong noo being dispossessed on the east, getae, or Alans. — as is related more fully in a subsequent chapter — a This strange race, the Huns, is described with all portion of them crowded upon the Huns, and, in the the exaggerated coloring of fear and disgust by those second century, took their place,* forcing the Huns who were contemporary with its first irruptions into over the Ural, into Europe, and upon the Alans — who at, as the however, after crowding them to the north, along the Europe ; and it is the less to be wondered barbarians they had hitherto seen were of the Indo- * This fact, indistinctly known, has probably ^induced Germanic race, resembling the Europeans. many, misled by a fancied resemblance in the name's Hioong flat noses, big heads, The Huns had small eyes, and noo and Huns, to suppose that the Hioong noo are the terrible a yellow or very brown complexion. The mothers had people, who, under the name of Huns, devastated Europe. are of different meaning, and there was little the habit of flattening their childrens' noses as soon as But the names resemblance in the features or habits of the two races ; the they were bom, and gashing their cheeks. These Hioong noo being Turks, as is shown in the history of the of ugliness were exag- natural and artificial elements Turkish race, given in a subsequent chapter. Possibly some gerated by European writers into the most hideous of them might have mingled with the Huns, and this would oictures of deformity — each author endeavoring to partially reconcile the two views. ;

THE TUNGOUSE—YrLIU — MOO-KY. 391

Upper Volga, mingled with them. The united nations hoo wood, and arrow-heads of hard stone. For a spread the Hunnic, or Avar, empire, in the early part thousand years this intercourse was uninterrupted : of the fifth century of our era, as far as the Danuhe then their name, had changed to Y-liu, under which on the west, and Lake Aral on the east. The Finns name they sent to the emperors of Northern China, are now found toward Finland. Part of the Lower about A. D. 263, a tribute consisting of arrows, stone Volge^, and a line drawn south by west from its west- arrow-heads, bows, cuirasses, and marten skins. The ernmost bend, separated the Avar empire from that country is very cold, and so mountainous that one of the Thoukhiu, or ancient Turks,^ A. D. 565. cannot ride there either on horseback or in carriages. In 679, the Khazar empire, of Finnic or Hunnish They sowed the five sorts of grain, raised cattle and origin, beginning with an obscure tribe just north of horses, and made their garments of hempen cloth. Caucasus, in the latter half of the second century, The red yu stones and zibeline marten skins were spread itself west to the Bog, north to the Finns, and found among them. east to Lake Aral, where it was coterminous with the These Y-liu had neither princes nor chiefs : their Chinese and Arabian empires. In 745, it was bounded villages, situated in forests and on mountains, were on the east by the Volga ; and, in 1000 A. D., nearly governed by elders. They lived in subterranean all of this was occupied by the grand of Russia. caverns ; those of the rich were deeper than others.

Mingled with other tribes, the Huns originated the They fed many swine, and ate them for food ; the modern Hungarians, to whose country they gave name. skin served them for clothing. In winter, they greased We perceive, then, that the countries about the Ural themselves with the fat of animals, the better to endure are the gate by which the nomads of Middle Asia the cold ; in summer, they went naked, except a piece have made their irruptions into Europe. Their enter- of cloth round the middle. Their smell was offensive, prises were more or less considerable or fortunate. for they never washed, and lived in the greatest filth.

Oftentimes, tribes came from the east, stopped on the They had no writing ; their word was their bond. road for one or more centuries, and did not quit, for They used baskets for seats. They trampled on their generations, the lands, which afforded them fat pastur- meat with their feet before eating it ; if it was frozen, age and abundance of animals of chase. Thus these they sat upon it to thaw it. Neither salt nor iron were

Asiatic wanderers, settling awhile in the fertile plains found in. their country ; for salt they used leached- of the Ural, blended themselves with the Finnish tribes ashes. They all dressed the hair in tresses : he who they found there, who probably extended as far south as wished to contract marriage adorned the head of the the Black Sea. These mixtures produced new languages female who pleased him with birds' feathers, and paid and new nations, which, remained in the country they the dowry. Young people, strong and robust, were had adopted, or, pushed by other people coming from alone esteemed among this people, who despised the the east, advanced towards Europe. Here we have, aged. in a few words, the history of the great migration of The dead were interred in the fields on the day of nations, which began to be felt, for the first time, by their death ; they were placed in a little bier made of the civilized states of Europe in the passage of the boards : a hog was killed and placed on the grave, as Huns, in A. D. 376. These latter, passing the Sea of food for the deceased. They were of a- wicked and Azof and the Don, fell upon the nations of Indo-Ger- cruel character, and had no compassion on their fellow- manic origin, who occupied the country situated to men. At the death of a father or mother, the children the north of the Black Sea as far as the Danube. did not weep, regarding tears as a sign of cowardly These fugitives, thrown one upon another, spread weakness. Thieves were killed, whether the value themselves over the provinces of the Roman empire, of the article stolen were more or less. changed its face, and from the chaos thus induced Their weapons were the bow and arrow, and their has gradually sprung, in all its still developing propor- armor, cuirasses made of skins and covered with tions, the fair structure of European civilization. bones. They were good archers, and used very strong bows, four feet long. Their arrows, twenty inches long, were armed with poisoned heads, made of a very hard green stone. These rendered them CHAPTER CCV. formidable to their neighbors. But they never made 1100B.C.toA,D.1234. conquests, and remained in peaceable possession of their own country. Tungouse Race — Y-liu — Moo-ky — The Mote to the west dwelt, A. D. 500, another Ju-tchin, or Khitans — Kin, Altoun Khan — Tungouse tribe, the Moo-ky, on the Soongari River. Chy-goei. Each village had its chief, but they were not united in The Tungouse, or, as the Chinese call them, Toong- one nation. They were brave and warlike, and the hoo, that is, " eastern barbarians," although they most powerful among the " eastern barbarians." have so long led a wandering life, without forming Their dialect differed from that of their neighbors, either great states or powerful empires, have never whom they constantly harassed, and inspired with passed, on the west, the chain of the Khinggan Moun- extreme fear. They lived on mountains, and along tains, under the meridian of 120°. From these moun- streams. Their country was poor and damp : they tains their original seat extended to the Sea of Japan, surrounded their dwellings with little mounds of and occupied the country now called Manchooria, beaten earth, and lived in subterranean excavations, watered by the Amoor River and its branches. to which they descended by a ladder. They had Eleven hundred years before the Christian era, the neither cattle nor sheep, but they raised horses ; they southern part of this country was known to the Chi- cultivated wheat, some other grains, and pulse. The nese, and called by its present name, Su-chin, or, as water of their country was saltish, and the salt showed the Mongols and Manchoos pronounce it, Dzurtchit. itself in efflorescence, even on the bark of the trees Its inhabitants brought to China arrows made of the they had also salt lakes. 392 THE KHI-TAN, JU-TCHIN, AND CHT-GOEI TEIBES ,

This people had many swine ; they made spirit of two centuries, and their kingdom was overthrown by gram, and loved to intoxicate themselves with it At their rebellious subjects, the Ju-tchin. marriage, the bride had cloth garments, and the bride- The manners and customs of the Ju-tchin resem- groom a dress of swine-skin, and a tiger's or leop- bled those of their ancestors of the same name, tho ard s tail tied, to his head. The Moo-ky were excel- Su-chin. They were brave and expert archers. lent archers, and great hunters ; they compounded the Knowing how to counterfeit the cry of the deer, they poison for their arrows in the seventh or eighth month; collected them thus into one place, to kill them more It was so active that its vapor, during preparation, easily ; they fed on their flesh, and made an intoxi- would kill. When their relatives died in spring, they cating beverage of hind's milk. They had many beasts buried them on heights, and built a little house over of chase in their territory, which was on the east of the the grave, to preserve it from rain and jnoisture ; as to Soongari River — wild boars, wild oxen, asses, and those who died in autumn or winter, they used the excellent horses. They rode oxen and mules. During corpses to allure martens, and thus caught many. rain, they wrapped themselves in raw hides. Their In the commencement of the seventh century, the little houses were covered with birch bark. Chinese emperor united the seven hordes of this The Ju-tchin were governed by different chiefs ; one people and at ; the end of the same century we find of them, a native of Corea, became rich and power- them founding a powerful kingdom, which compre- ful ; his successors contributed to polish their subjects hended ^part of Corea, and was civilized, having the and to unite them in one nation. One of them, find- use of letters, and a regular form of government. ing himself at the head of all their hordes, revolted This kingdom ended in 925, when it fell under the against the Khi-tan, or Liao, to whom he was subject, power of the Khi-tan, another Tungouse tribe. These beat them in several battles, took from them a large latter had been driven from their own country by the extent of country, and in 1115 was proclaimed em- Chinese, but returned, and frequently invaded China, peror. He gave the name of Kin — that is. Golden — but were sometimes tributary to it. In 553, they in- to his dynasty. The Chinese employed them to destroy vaded it, and a hundred thousand of them were made the Liao, whom they overcame ; and being thus intro- prisoners, and as many cattle taken from them. After duced into the country, they were loath to quit it, and, this, they became subject to the Turks, except ten in fact, took possession of the whole north of China, as thousand families, who retired into Corea. far as the Hoang-ho, driving the emperor to the south. Passing through similar and various fortunes, now The Chinese have frequently, by their imprudence, thus revolting from the Chinese, now subject to the Turks, invited in strangers, and given themselves mas- the Khi-tan were civilized by their rulers, who estab- ters. The Ju-tchin thus became masters of the east- lished magistrates, and introduced notched sticks for ern part of Asia, from the Amoor, Tula, and Ork- writing ; they also gradually learned how to fatten hon to the Hoang-ho, — holding, also, the province cattle, thus enriching themselves, and acquired the art of Honan, south of the last named river, and several of forging iron and casting metals. They extended cities beside. It was not till 1119 that they had writ- their frontiers, built cities, and fortified them with ram- ten characters, at which time they adopted those of parts and palisades. They devoted themselves also to the Khi-tan ; what these were is not known. This the culture of silk and hemp, and to weaving. Kin dynasty, called Altoun Khan, by Arabic writers,

The Khi-tan attained an extensive empire ; and a lasted till A. D. 1234, when it was destroyed by legend is told of the founder of it, which resembles Zingis Khan. those frequently told, in Asiatic story, of great men, The last branch of the Tungouse race, known to and reminding us also of the Roman tale about Ser- the Chinese, from whom alone we have these accounts, vius TuUius. The founder of the famous Khi-tan is that which they named Chy-goei. It consisted of dynasty of Liao was A-pao-khi. His mother, the several hordes, who had no common bond, and no sun fell into her bosom princes. A feeble and poor people, it had been sub- king's wife, dreamed that a ; and when A-pao-khi was born, the house appeared ject to the Turks, and was of the same origin as the surrounded with a ^ivine light, and was perfumed with Khi-tan ; the most southerly lived at some distance an exquisite odor. At his birth, he was of the size of north of them, and in the neighborhood of the banks an infant three years old, and was able to creep. His of the Non. Their country was scantily fertile, very mother, wondering at these prodigies, secreted him, moist, and clothed with grass and forests, which chase. It and' brought him up very carefully. At the end of harbored beasts of the was desolated by year clouds of gnats. The inhabitants lived in subterranean three months, he stood alone ; at the age of one. he could talk, and predicted the future. He pretended excavations. Dressed like the Khi-tan, the Chy-goei, like them, to be surrounded with supernatural beings, who served shaved the head. Like the Turks, they had felt tents, him as guards. They crossed rivers on' rafts skin Being created viceroy, with power to make war and on wagons. and boats. They tackled oxen to their carts, and made peace, after subjecting the neighboring hordes, he themselves cabins covered with coarse mats. Instead made incursions into China, and succeeded (A. D. 907) dignity. of felt, they put a bundle of grass under the saddle to his benefactor, who willed him the imperial their horses : cords served them for bridles. They With astonishing rapidity, he extended his conquests of east, Cashgar on the west, slept on hog-skins. Little bits of wood, arranged in a to the sea-shore on the certain order, reminded them of things they wished and Lake Baikal on the north — while, on the south, included under his to remember. Their climate was very cold. They had the north-east part of China was no sheep, and but few horses ; but swine and cattle sway, as well as a great part of Corea. He held proud of his conquests, took were common. They intoxicated themselves with a his court at Pe-kin, arid, August Emperor. His kind of spirit which they knew how to make. Mar- the name of Hmang-ti, that is, they, in a man- riages were contracted by the bride paying a dowry successors became so powerful, that China. They reigned to the family of the bridegroom. Widows could not cer disposed of the throne of :

THE TURKISH RACE. 39S

marfy again. Mourning was worn three months for solitudes, perished wreWfcedly. The warrior who the rich. Having no iron in their country, they ob- could carry off the body of his comrade slain by his tained it of the Coreans. side in battle, became his heir, and obtained possession The southern Chy-g6ei numbered twenty-five hordes. of all his property. These people were very desirous Ten days north of them, the northern Chy-goei formed of prisoners, and made the most of the captives they

nine hordes : they lived eastwardly from Lake Baikal, in could take, who, in fact, composed their dhief wealth an excessively cold country, where much snow falls, they employted them m guarding their studs of horses and were obliged tO use sledges. In \^ter, they retired and herds of cattle. They were rude and gross,

to the caves of the mountains : theylived by fishing, showing no respect to parents or superiore. Many of and made their garments of the skins of fish. Zibelines their traits, in fact, remind us of a similar if not a Cognate nation, and other kinds of martens abounded among them ; described by the prophet Habakkuk, in they wore caps of badger and fox skins. From the 600 B.C. nine hordes hamed above, descended the Tungouse They fed on the flesh of their cattle, v^hose skins

tribes that at present inhabit Eastern Siberia ; they are served them for dresses and banners ; the young peo- subject to Russia. ple ate the best morsels, and the old were obliged to

content themselves with what was left them ; for, like air barbarians, the ancient Turks valued none but CHAPTER CCVI. vigorous men, and despised those whose forces were

3200 B. C. to A, S. 460. diminished by age. After the death of the father, the

sons often espoused the wives he left ; and in case of Hie Ancient Turkish Race, or Hioong noo. a brother's death, the survivors married his wives. The Turkish race was called Hioong noo in ancient The name of an individual did not pass to his descend-

times, and differs from the Mongols, Kalmucks, and ants : thus the use of family names was unknown other Tartars, in having a whiter complexion, European among them. The domestic animals, next to captives features, a taller stature, and a more commanding air. their chief riches, were cattle, sheep, horses, camels, We propose to treat here of the earlier history of this asses, several different species of mules, and also wild

renowned people, and its transactions in Tartary : the horses and asses.*

history of that more modern branch of it which settled Northern China has been, from the earliest antiquity,

in , has already been given. exposed to the incursions of people of this race ; and Of all the nations of the interior of Asia, the Turk- these raids or forays were frequent in proportion to the ish is the most numerous. Next to the Indo-Germanic feebleness of the emperors. Previous to 1200 B. C, race — treated of in a previous chapter — it is the widest their power was not very formidable, as they were not spread of the old world. At the present day, its united under one chief, and it was balanced by the dwellings are scattered from the Adriatic Sea, in Eu- Tungouse on the east, and the Yue tchi on the west. rope, to the mouth of the Lena, on the Arctic Ocean. But at about that period, a prince of the imperial family It appears that, after the Deluge, its ancestors de- of China, having retired among them, founded an em-

scended from the snowy mountains of Tangnou and pire ; which, however, did not become powerful till the Great Altai, whence they soon dispersed themselves 200 B. C. At about this time, they overcame the to the north-east and south-west, settling chiefly to (he Sian-pi and Oo-hooan, noticed hereafter, extended north of the Chan-si and Chen-si provinces of China, their power far to the west, and ravaged tlie northern near Mount In-chan. provmces of China. The Chinese, in 214, had united These barbarians lived chiefly on the produce of various walls of petty kingdoms into the K'esent con- their herds, and led a wandering life, following the tinuous great wall, to repel these barbarians. In 200 courses of the rivers, in quest of pasturage. Some B. C, the founder of the Han dynasty marched against

tribes, addicted to agriculture, had more fixed set- them with a numerous army ; but, being surrounded, he tlements, and lands whose limits were established. was obliged to employ a stratagem, and sent a beauti-

They were ignorant of the art of writing ; their word ful girl to the chief of the Hioong noo, as they were was a sure guaranty of their contracts. From the then called, who persuaded him to make peace. After most tender age, their children were exercised for devastating Chan-si, they went back to their own land, hunting and war. They were made to ride on sheep, laden with immense booty, and the Chinese emperor and taught to shoot at birds and mice with little arrows. returned to his capital. As they grew talter, they hunted foxes and hares, Notwithstanding the treaty, however, the Hioong whose flesh they ate. At a later age, when able to * The general name for the nomads of South Mongolia, manage stronger bows, they received a cuirass and a among the Chinese, was Ti, which means great wild staff, their chief business. is saddle-horse : war then became and supposed to allude to the use of the reindeer ; others Their arms were the bow, arrows, the sword, and say it means dog race. Another name, used hy the Chinese successful, as edrly as 2200 B. C, to designate the Turks, is Chan- the lance. When these people advanced ; joung, " barbarian mountaineers ; " it was afterwards extend- if fortune did not favor them, they sounded a retreat, ed to certain Thibetan teibes. Under the first Chinese not regarding flight as having any thing shameful in it. dynasty, the Turks were called Hiuniyu; under the third, about 1000 B. C, it was Hian-yu; fciaUy, under the On this account, they were but the more formidable ; Thsin and Han dynasties, they Hioong-noo; ordinarily tiiey returned briskly to the charge, were called this for " means detestable , slaves," and seems to be an intentional attacking with new vigor and spirit. The agility of corruption of the primitiTe name, to express the usual horror their horses was of great advantage in this mode of of settled agriculturists to wandering nomads — a dislike well combat, and regular troops found it very difficult to earned, since such restless, plundering borderers have always been, and are, early resist them. Often the innunierable swarms of thejr their greatest bane. As as the patriarch Joseph's time, we fiiid nomadic shepherds were " an abomina- horsemen, pursued too closely, dispersed themselves in tion" to" the weU-ordered and industrious communities of the driven ; their the deserts, Jike the dust by the wind and Egyptians. This Chinese name has nothing to do with the enemies, enticed and led forward into these frightful Huns, as has been shown. 60 394 THE HIOONG NOO. noo, naturally restless and greedy of pillage, returned condition of the vast territories of tlie Hioong noo, and the next year, and violated the Chinese territory. The that of the countries whence they drew their principal emperor dissembled ; the hostile chief, Me-the, became forces, and especially their wealth and arms, resolved daily more powerful ; the Chinese minister, who knew to take these possessions from them. The success of his wickedness and bad faith, despaired of gaining him their first expedition, 101 B. C, against the Ta-ooan by reason or binding him by treaties. One of his kingdom, was not brilliant; but in the second, they counsellors, therefore, advised him to induce Me-the besieged the capital, caused its king to be given up, to take a daughter of the emperor to wife, suggesting cut off his head, and put another king in his place. that if he had by her a son whp should inherit his These victories contributed very, much to confirm the throne, his mother would inspire him with sentiments other kmgs in their obedience, and obliged those who favorable to the Chinese, and the nation might become had not hitherto submitted to declare themselves vas- civilized. It was hoped also that the ties of relation- sals of China. The emperor even gave his daughter in ship would bind him to the emperor. Kao-hooang-ti, marriage to the king of the Oo-sun, a nation noticed in the emperor, adopted this sagacious advice, and his a previous chapter, to draw closer the bonds of alliance. daughter was the first Chinese who was thus, He now established in the centre of Asia, near the for political reasons, married to a foreign potentate. present Khamil, or Hami, in about 44° of latitude and In after times, the precedent has often been followed, 94° of longitude, the seat of a military government. and it is the present mode of curbing the Tartar sub- The generalissimo, who resided here, had under his jects of China. But as the infantas of China found surveillance thirty-six kingdoms, whose monarchs had themselves very unhappily situated in barbarous coun- received investiture at the hands of the Chinese em- tries, far from fashionable life and the amusements of peror, with the seal which marked the fact and the a court, among rude nomads who obeyed the sceptre dignity. This federal system, established to the detri- of their husbands, girls of the palace were often substi- ment of the Hioong noo, had all the success anticipated

tuted instead of the real daughters of the emperor. from it ; it contributed in a powerful degree to over-

The alliance thus concluded between the two sover- throw their dominion : nevertheless the bravery of eigns, Kao-hooang-ti and Me-the, had, in fact, very this people sustained the nation yet a long time, and it

happy effects for China ; the incursions of the Turks was often fortunate in its wars with the Chinese, though became Isss frequent, and the peace of the frontiers it knew not how to avail itself of its successes. was rarely disturbed. To protect the northern prov- We have dwelt the longer on the above particulars inces from the insults of these barbarians, the Chinese because they give us the simple elements of Chinese had established in them military colonies, which were and Tartar history — the key to much of Asiatic story, strong enough to resist the first shock. and many centuries of changes. The reader will not After the emperor's death, the invasions re-com- fail to be reminded by some of the circumstances of menced, and the peace of the frontiers was often the intercourse between the civilized Pharaohs and the his- broken, till, in 141 B. C, the emperor Hiao-woo-ti, nomad patriarchs, at the other extreme of Asia — a with the design of avenging repeated insults, and de- tory familiar to our childhood ; of Mehemet Ali and stroying the power of the enemy, or at least so weak- the Arabs, in our own times. To avoid monotony, our be ening it as to render it harmless to China, combated subsequent narrative of the Hioong noo must more them so vigorously, that he drove them six hundred briefly sketched. further, implored miles or more from his northern boundary ; and In the year 72 B. C, the king of the Oo-sun in order to form a connection with the tribes west of the help of the emperor against a tribe of the Hioong the Hioong noo, their natural enemies, he took posses- noo, who had seized a part of his estates. An army of sion of the region to the west of Chen-si. He divided sixty thousand men was sent to his relief. Com- the district into four parts, and built cities in it as well manded by five generals, it entered the hostile territory as in his northern conquests, garrisoned them with a at five different points at once. On their side, the formidable army, and established Chinese colonies, Oo-sun attacked the enemy, who were every where designed to civilize the barbarous inhabitants in their beaten and overthrown. Their chief, however, mak- effort, vicinity.* ing one more armed a body of ten thousand To accomplish his purposes the sooner, he sent one cavalry, with which he entered the territory of the Oo-sun but, when he wished to return, there fell so of his counsellors into the west, to contract an alliance ; body of snow, that almost all his his with the Yue tchi, a people hereafter noticed — and other great a men and perished with cold and starvation. the same nations disposed to sustain a war against the common herds At a people enemy. Although this embassy, which took place 126 time, the Tingling, north of the Oo-sun, in con- Southern Siberia, profiting by the weakness of the B. C, did not attain all the ends proposed, it yet noo, attacked them from the north, while the tributed a great deal to render the interior of Asia Hioong Oo-sun became their assailants on the west, the Oo- more familiar to the Chinese, and made way for the on the east, and the Chinese on the south. establishment of the power which they exercised, at a hooan The Thibet, Hioong noo lost, on this occasion, multitudes of their later date, in the countries situated north of people, and vast numbers of their cattie and other and beyond the Jaxartes, or Sihon. The Chinese, thus becoming acquainted with the animals. This terrible disaster was followed by a great mor- tality, which obliged the people to disperse themselves,; • proceedings strongly remind us of the similar These perished of Grecian conqueror, multitudes who escaped these two scourges policy, a century and a half sooner, the cruel famine. woes considerably en- Alexander, in establishing miUtary colonies, with commercial by a So many Persia, Bactria, «sc., cities, throughout Northern and Eastern feebled the empire of the Hioong noo. The neigh- his own empire against the to effect the same purposes for boring kingdoms seized the moment to throw off their Western Asia. Egyptian conquerors had gimilar rovers of yoke. They themselves thought only of peace, the in Asia and Africa and done the same, long befbre, both ; more necessary as there were several disputants for Bussia is doing it now. ;

CONQUESTS OF THE CHINESE. 395

the succession , to the throne. Five competitors ap- which thws became divided into two kingdoms, one

peared at once ; the regult was a very bloody civil southern, the other northern. war, which reduced this wretched people to the ex- The southern kingdom, remained on good terms treme of misery. with China, and was charged to repress the incursions These national calamities finally forced one of of the other kingdom, and of the Sian pi. The north- their chiefs, Hoo han sie, to submit himself to the ern kingdom, although endangered by the discontent Chinese. He sat out on his march, in 52 B. C, to of many of its tribes, continued to annoy China, which meet the emperor, then at one of 1^ palaces, near saw no other means to defend itself, than to undertake Tchang ngan, or Si ngan foo. Guards and an officer the famous expedition to the west in A. D. 72, re- were sent forward to meet and escort the Turkish counted elsewhere, in the history of Thibet. This monarch. He was received with distinguished honors, struck a terrible blow at the power of the northern

and considerable presents were made him ; he obtained Hioong noo, whose king found himself obliged to permission to settle himself, with his subjects, on the solicit the friendship of the emperor, and obtained, in north of the province of Chen-si. The emperor A. I). 84, permission for his subjects to come to traffic caused him to be conducted back to his dominions, and with the western frontiers of the empire. This aroused gave him auxiliary troops to subdue the rebels who the jealousy of their bitter enemies, the southern disturbed his states. Presently the other chieftains Hioong noo, who fell upon them by surprise, and car- followed his example, and declared themselves vassals ried off almost all their cattle and animals. The Oo of China. All were well received, and the imperial hooan and Sian pi, the people of Central Asia, and the court was secretly delighted with the discord that Ting ling, attacked them on all sides, obliging them to reigned among its natural enemies. Nevertheless, the retire farther and farther to the north-west. Their chief who had first submitted found means to rid him- king was killed in a bloody battle with the Sian pi, who

self of all his competitors ; and, after reestablishing pushed the enemy so vigorously, that fifty-eight hordes- peace among his subjects, he revisited China, to pay of them threw themselves on the protection of China, his court to the emperor, who gave him a Chinese imploring to become its vassals. princess in marriage. His successors long kept up a The Chinese dominion having been established in good undferstanding with China, and hostages answered Little Bijcharia, on the west, in A. D. 89, a Chinese for their fidelity. general defeated the Hioong noo in that quarter, In A. D. 9, Wang mang having usurped the impe- obliging eighty-one of their hordes to declare them- rial throne, the Hioong noo, and severaf other kingdoms selves vapsals of China. The following year, he took of Central Asia, — ancient allies of China, — threw the city of Khamil, and obliged the king of the oflT their allegiance, declaring their independence, or Ouigoors to give him his son as a hostage. After this, joining the Hioong noo. Wang mang, with the de- the Hioong noo no longer dared to appear in arms sign to deliver his provinces from the incursions of the they demanded peace, and sent an ambassador to ren- latter, had collected immense magazines of warlike der homage to the emperor, who sent an officer to the stores. He then took the field with an army of three frontier to receive him. Scarcely was he departed, hundred thousand men, and, in A. D. 11, penetrated, when an envoy of the southern Hioong noo arrived at by ten different routes, into the very centre of the court, to demand help against the northern. Eegard- enemy's country, and advanced as far as the Ting less of good faith, the emperor granted their request ling. All the empire of the Hioong noo was subdued, and, joining his troops with the southern Hioong noo, and Wang mang divided it among the fifteen sons and the allied army gained a complete victory over the grandsons of Hoo han sie, of whom one became head northern foe. On learning of this defeat, the em- of the nation. peror, resolving to follow it up by their complete de- The Hioong noo, however, not long after, com- struction, levied a formidable army, which, advancing menced and continued their annoyances, and, united to the sources of the Irtish, entirely dispersed the with the Sian pi and Oo hooan, regained their ancient nation, their king being killed in the rout, A. D. 90, power. In A. D. 46, the empire was anew divided 91, 92. The remnants of the nation, reuniting, into factions. For several years, their country had marched for Sogdiana, but were obliged to stop on the been desolated by great numbers of insects, which north of Khueithsu, or Koutche, where they settled for

devoured the pasturage and the crops ; a great drought some time, under the name of Yue pan. Later, they finished the destruction of what these creatures left. went to the north-west, and, under the same name, The famine which ensued was but a prelude to all the inhabited both sides of the mountains which bound the misfortunes about to befall this people. The Hioong steppe of Ischim on the south. In 448, they sent an noo, heretofore so haughty, fearing the Chinese would embassy to the Goei, to invite them to attack the attack them, now begged for peace. The Sian pi and Jouan Jouan on the east, while they themselves at- Oo hooan, their ancient subjects, fell upon them, and tacked them on the west. After this, the Yue pan drove them farther north, making them abandon to are lost to history, becoming mingled, probably, with their conquerors all they possessed to the south of the other Turkish people. DeSert of Cobi. One of two competitors for the throne "Some other feeble fragments of the Hioong noo secretly sent to China a map or description of the remained. The Sian pi established themselves in their Hioong noo country, asking to be acknowledged a country by force, and subjected more than a hundred vassal. . His opponent, getting wind of it, resolved to thousand of them ; these, to obtain better terms, amal- entirely assassinate him ; but the other assembled the eight gamated with their conquerors, who date their hordfes which he governed, declared himself chief, and greatness from this time. The southern Hioong noo took the old name of Hoo han sie, which his succes- remained quiet for some time ; but, in A. D. 109, sors retained, as the Roman emperors, successors of when a frightful famine desolated China, their king Cfflsar, did his. He reigned on the borders of China, deemed it a fitting opportunity to master at least a part and over the southern division of the Hioong noo, of it. But the Chinese rallied, and beat him completely, 396 THE THOUKHITT. so that he was obliged to come and ask pardon, and took care of him, ntirsed him, and shared her prey renew his allegiance. Profiting by a similar disaster, with him. PerSfecuted by their enemies, they were in A. D. 155, thejr attempted to unite with a "thibetan carried by a supernatural being to the east of the lake, tribe, on the west frodtler, to throw Off the yoke. The and took refuge in a cave of a mountain, to the north- Chinese general of the border managed to prevent West of the Ouigoor country. Having traversed the this, cut off all communications, joined the Thibetan cavern, they came out upon a fertile plain, more than troops to his own, and subjugated the Hioong noo. sixty miles in circumference, and there the wolf became After this, they were sometimes subject, and sometimes the mother of ten boys. These, on growing up, car- at War with China. Finally, the founder of the Goei ried off women, and took, each of them, a distinct dynasty, in 216, held their kst king prisoner in family name. Assena, (wolf,) being endowed with a China, abolished hip title, and set another ruler over greater capacity than the rest, became chief of the his people. A part were dispersed on the northern little tribe, which increased rapidly. To preserve the frontiers, and had blended themselves with the natives. meniory of their origin, he placed heads of wolv.es at They were divided into six cantons, each cortimanded the top of his standards. This legend much resembles by a chief of their nation. In the sequel, twenty that told of the origin of the Mongols, and of the family thousand families, who remained in their old country, of Zingis Khan. Perhaps Zingis was descended from came to submit themselves to China ; they livted peace- Turkish princes, who ruled the Mongols ; oi; tlie ably during the reign of the Goei dynasty, whose story of Zingis may be borrowed from this fabulous emperors had become very powerful, and governed tradition of the origin of the Turkish princes. *ith firmness. The tribe of Assena, having considerably increased, The northern part of China, and chiefly the cantons left the plain, vi'hich had become too narrow to contain Chan si and Petehyli, enclosed by the double wall, had it, and dispersed itself in the valleys of the Altai,. ot Been loiig inhabited by Hioong noo families, mingled " gold " Mountains. The princes established their res-

with Chinese. Bad policy had placed them there ; for idence at the foot of a mountain, which had the form it fa,cilitated their acquisition of a part of the territory of a helmet. This piece of armor was called, in their

of the empire. In fact, these Hioong noo, now be- language, thoukhiu, and it is froin this that the nation come numerous and exactly acquainted with the aiffairs borrowed the name it has ever since borne, that is, of China, profited by its divisions in the fourth century, Turk, pronounced Toork — the name this famous nation and established here their kingdom of Han, or the bears in the west, corrupted by Chinese pronuiipiation first Tchao, which lasted from 308 to 329. Its princes into Thoukhiu.

had their court in Chan si ; they were very powerful, The Thoukhiu Turks were subject to the Jepu gave a fatal blow to the imperial dynasty of Tsin, jan; they excelled in forging weapons and armor. pillaged Lo Yang, and took the emperor prisoner. Toward the end of the dynasty of the Goei, their

0ne of their generals, rebelling successfully, formed chief called himself Thoumen ; hp combated the a petty state. Several generals submitted them- Kao tche Turks, and utterly defeated them. Puffed selves to him, and recognized him as their sover- up by this success, he sent an embassy to China. In eign. He destroyed the dynasty of his masters, and 546, he had the effrontery to demand in marriage a founded the second dynasty, Tchao, which subsisted daughter of the khan of the Jeou jan. This prince,

till 351. Another of this race aggrandized himself who regarded the Thoukhiu as his slaves, was surprised among the Sian pi, and even took the Chinese capital, iJiat the chief 6f a people whose sole employ Was Tdhang ngan, and here declared himself emperor working at forges, should dare to ask of him a princess last in 418 ; but his power was short lived. The state of his blood. He drove the envoys of Thommen, possessed by a prince of the Hioong noo was Calkd with disgrace, from his presence. Thoumen, still more Northern Liang, and rose through the subjection of th6 angry than the khan, caused his o&cers to "be killed, Ouigoor, in 439. This was put down by the Jeou jan broke off all trade with him, and tnmed to the emperor in 460. The nation, dispersed, thenceforth, through- of the Goei, who gave him a Chinese princess. He out all Asia, lost its name, and was in part confounded then declared war on the Jeou jan, and defeated them

with other people of different origin. in several battles : their khan killed himself in despaii;,! Thoutaen took, in 552, the title of kakhan, and caused himself to be called U khan. Thus was formed the empire of the Thoukhiu Turks, one of the most ex- tensive of those that have existed in Central Asia. These CHAPTER CCVII. people made frequent incursions into China and Persia,

E. C. 460 to A. I). 1857. and sent ambassadors to the Constantinopoli'tan empe- rors. Thoumen's successor crushed the Jeou jan, and Turkish Race, continued — The Thou- The transttiitted the empire to a brother, Bizabool, — writ- Toorks — The Uoei he, or Ouigoors. khiu, or ten Bisabules by the Greeks, and Ti theoo poo K by the Some relics of the Hioong nOo, chased from the Chinese. He was brave, cruel, and warlikej and dis- kingdom of Northern Liang, had retired to the north, persed the relics of the Jeou jan. He subjugated all and dwelt probably on Lake Balkash. They were the country from the Sfea of Japan to the Caspian,, there destroyed by a neighboring nation, which, ac- and from China and Thibet, on the south, to beyond cording to the fabulous tradition preserved by the Lake Baikal, on the north. He established a stable, Chinese, exterminated them, without distinction of and vy^ell-organized government, and thus gave con- age or sex. There remained but one mdividual, a sistence to his empire. boy ten years old, whofee life the enemy spared through Under the reign of this prince, Disabules, the Turks compassion, contenting themselves with cutting off his had fegular intercourse and diplomatic relations with hands and his feet. The child di^gged himself to a Constantinople, as has been stated. The object of their, great swamp, where he lay concealed. A she wolf first embassy, in 632, was to request the emperors to THE OU I GOOES. 397

refuse lapds tfl iixet, ^3fW% who ha.cl fled into Europe have extended their apostolje labors, at a veiy early urkjsh sceptxe. same year, period, ftom undeir the "f This a over Central Asia. prince of the Sogdiflps, also subject to the Turks, was Pn^ spbordinate tribe of the Oiiigoofs, tlie Gouz, djp'swed by tkepi to send .an embassy to Nushirvjan, settled sputh of the Celestial ftfountains, some pf them kwg of Persia,, tp oh*^in of hii^i permission to sell a^ ea^ly as in the second century B- C., a^d renpunced silk tQ, th? Mede^ The embassy foiled in it^ object, the noniadic life. They lived about ^hamil and as d^^ £|.lso another sent by Disabules himself, to request Turfan, and in 640 were subjugated by the Chinese. an alliance. This lattei; embassy wcto joll poisoned Turfan, their capital, was callpd Sitckeeu, or City hy tjie tersia^s; and thus originated the ill feeling W«st, by their conquerors, whp placed here a military which hs^s ever since existed between the Turks and chief and civil tribunals. It passed next under the '^yar PsfsiaflSr In th? which now broke out between sway of thp Ouigoor empire, after which it became thp Persians and Turks, the fornier sent to China to independent, but only to fall into the hands of the aslf the Chipese to make a diversion in their favor by Khitan, whose empire yielded tp Zingis, in 1209. attacking the Turks on the extreme east, In the tenth century, there were in this Ouigoor Upon this, the Turkish sovereign sought to strengthen capital, situated in the very heart of Central Asia, himself by alliance with the Greek emperors, and sent some fifty Buddhist temples, most of them built by the Sogdian prince to Constantinople. He traversed Chinese emperors. In them were preserved the Bud- steep mountains covered with snow, plains, forests, dhist scriptures and several Chinese works. Public ajld swamps, crossed the Caucasus, and at last reached libraries also existed, in which, among other writipgs, the capital. Here he was received witli distinguished were to be found the edicts of the emperors. Here honors, and, in 569, the emperor, Justin II., sent a were also temples of the religion of Manes, priests of return embassy, which found. Disabules encamped in Persia, followers of Zoroaster and other sectaries, each a valley of the Golden ]\fountj Altai. The rponarch observing his own ritual of worship. The language dwelt in a tent pkeed on wheels, after the national was Ouigoor, and they had annals, which the learned f^hion. Justin's messenger now accompanied the Arabs were in the habit of consultmg. Thus their Tydlfish king in his march against Persia, and on the, civilization was made up of minglpd elements — Chi- way had his audience of leave, and received a present nese, Indian, and Occidental. of a Kirghis slave. The other and principal branch of the Ouigoor The brother of Disabules succeeded him in 572, and nation led a nomadic life, pasturing with its numerous became still more powerful d).an he. The Chinese herds the countiy to the north of the Celestial Moun- dynasties of Northern China exhausted their treasuries tains, and between the green banks of the Irtish and in presents, to prevent him frona rnaking incursions into Orkhon. This branch was called in the third century their territories. He introduced Buddhism among his Kao tche, that is, " high wagons," probably because the people, brmging its priests and books from China, and whbels of its tent-carts were higher than those of other building several temples and convents. Turkish tribes. They claimed a legendary origin

Under his successor, the Turkish empire was divided similar to that of the Turks — from a wolf : hence they

into four parts ; but Ohapolio, whose residence was on imitated, it was said, in their drawling utterance, the the Toula, h^d &e preeminence among the khans. bowlings of those disagreeable animals. The wife of this prince was a Chinese princess, of a The Kao tche were a barbarous and cruel people ^

dynasty which had just been dethroned in China. they thought of nothing but pillage ; in their wars with

Chapolio, at the earnest solicitations of his wife, at- their neighbors, they observed no military rule ; flight

tempted to avenge her relatives upon the reigning had no dishonor with them ; they were ignorant of the Chinese dynasty, the Soul. But, on invading the king- laws of hospitality, and in sitting down, crouched on dom, he was defeated, and put to flight. His army their haunches like animals, placing their hands on suffered for provisions, and the plague carried off a their knees. They knew not the use of wheat nor of great number of his men. Meanwhile the Chinese spirits. When they took a wife, they paid her dowry

fomented ; dissensions in his empire, and detached two in cattle or horses, seeking to distinguish themselves powerful khans from his allegiance, who declared by the number given- The day on which the husband themselves vassals of Phina. In 586, Chapolio was received his future spouse into his house, the men and obliged to follow their example. women assembled, regaling themselves with clotted

Under Chapolio's successors, the Chinese, still profit- mare's milk, and roast meat ; the master of the house ing by the interna^ troubles among th^ Turjcs, attacked invited the poor and the passers-by to sit down at the the khan, defeated him, and carried him prisoner to door, and all drank till the end of the day. China, in 639, The Ouigoor tribe ^profited by the The Kao tche never washed themselves. They re- weakness of their sovereigns to found a new empire, joiced in lightning and thunder, and when the lightning and, in 744, had completely destroyed the authority of struck, they uttered frightful cries, shot their arrows the eastern Turks. China exercised great power over t&ward the sky, quitted their camp, and transported it the western Turks, who, however, after several vicis- elsewhere. The following year, when their horses were situdes fell also under the power of the Ouigoors, in well fattened, they returned to the place in great num- the latter half of the eighth century. bers, and made a ditch in which they burnt a ram : As the Ouigoor tribe was (the last of the ancient the sorcerers then executed their conjuring tricks. Tuddsh tlribes that rose to empire, a brief notice of its For the rest, their manners and customs resembled fortunes will close this part of our subject. Origi- those of the Pther Turkish tribes. nating on She IwaaiBrs of the Dridion, the Ouigoors Little by little they multij>lied, and extended to the they incursions spread west to th© sources of the Irtish. That which south : becoming qu^e powerful, made has made them most famous is their ailphabet, which upon the Jeon jan and Goei. An etnperor of the lat- they derived fiwa .the Syriac, prababVy through ihfe ter apnroached their dwellings, defeated them again NeStoman jOhristians of Syria, who would seem to and again, plundered all their hordes, took more than ; "

398 THE MONGOL RACE. fifty thousand prisoners, and drove off a million them in Chen si, and sent the prisoners to the emperor. head of cattle and two hundred thousand wagons. But the power of the Thibetans still increased, while Afterwards, having vanquished the Jeou jan, he sent that of the Hoei hoo continually diminished. troops against several hands of Kao tche, who were In 840, the Hakas, ancestors of the Kirghis of our encamped on the east, and forced a large number of day, had become powerful. Their chief camp was their families to recognize his authority. He made north of where Turfan stands, and of the Celestial them remove to the south of the great desert, and Mountains. At this time, their prince, at the head of placed them on the frontiers of China, where they one hundred thousand cavalry, atta6ked the Hoei hoo, became agriculturists. At the beginning of the killed their chief, and dispersed the nation, a good seventh century, the Kao tche adopted the name of part of whom came to the frontiers of Chen si, and Goei he, which was that of one of their chief hordes. put themselves under the protection of the emperor. In 606, the Turks subjugated them, despoiled them In 848, the Hakas entirely dispersed the nation. But, of all their wealth, and as a security against their in 1001, we find a king of the Hoei hoo sending resentment, assembled their principal chiefs, and put an embassy to China, arid that his kingdom contained to death a great number of them. The Goei he more than a hundred petty principalities. It was revolted, defeated the Turks, and on the destruction of bounded east by the upper branches of the Hoang-ho, the latter power, became the preponderant nation of and west by the Celestial Mountains. Central Asia. In 629, they sent an embassy to the The ever-increasing power of the Khi tan forced emperor of China, and soon after declared themselves the Hoei hoo to retire insensibly to the west, and tliey vassals of the Thang dynasty of that empire. In the thus lost the position they had occupied on the frontiers seventh century, the most westerly of the Goei he of China. They, however, maintained themselves at reached the frontiers of the Roman empire, while the Cha tcheou, — in about latitude 39°, longitude 94°, — most easterly pastured the luxuriant banks of the and therQabouts, till, in 1257, they submitted to the Amoor river, which runs into the Pacific Ocean. Mongols. These call them Ouigoor, their true name, Intercourse with China, its presents, and the plun- which, as we have seen, has been corrupted by the der drawn thence, corrupted the primitive simplicity Chinese into Oui-ke, or Goei he, Hoei he, and Hoei hoo. of the Goei he, or Hoei he, as they were now called. One of their princes, abandoning the ancient manners, built magnificent palaces, and clothed his wives with superb dresses. This displeased his people, and occa- sioned his death. An usurper mounted the throne, and demanded the daughter of the emperor in marriage, which the latter was inclined to refuse, but finally gave him, on the representation of his prime minister, that the Chinese cavalry needed to be mounted anew, and horses were to be procured only of the Hoei he. He further advised his emperor to make alliance also with the king of Yunnan, with the Arabian khalif, and with the kings of Hindostan, who might all aid him in destroying the colossal power of the Thibetans. Asia, we ought to remark, was divided, at this period, A. D. 787, into six great empires: on the

east that of China, governed by the Thang dynasty ; on the south, the kingdom of Yunnan, which, inde- pendently of that Chinese province, comprehended

also a great part of Farther India ; then the kingdom of Maghada, the most powerful of those of Interior

Hindostan ; on the west, the empire of the khalifs in the middle of Asia, that of the Thibetans, still en- the Hoei he, or Oui- larging ; and on the north, that of Zingis Khan. goors, which extended to the Caspian, and recognized the supremacy of China. As the Thibetans and CHAPTER CCYIII. were continually at war, it was the interest of Arabs A D, 1000 to 1226. the Chinese to be on good terms with the khalifs, so The Mongol or Tartar Race and Empires. as better to repel the Thibetans, who were continually invading the empire. Nearly all the nations of the middle and north of The kakhan of the Hoei he received a Chinese prin- Asia, and some, indeed, of North America, have what his- cess for his wife, and treated her with all imaginable the geographer calls Mongolian features ; but the respect. He protnised troops against the Thibetans, torian is obliged to confine the name of Mongol race and had leave to call the name of his nation Hoei hoo. to those communities derived from the same stock as His death, and that of his son and successor, delayed that of the Mongols of our day. These are the Kal- Mongols, the promised troops ; but his grandson, on ascend- kasand Sharra — that is, Black and Yellow — ing the throne next, sent an army to the -help of a the Kalmucks, and a nation in Siberia, the Booriats. Chinese fortress, besieged by the Thibetans, but The Mongols are often called Tartars, and, indeed, the could not raise the siege. Then all that the Chi- name of Tartars is often applied to the inhabitants of

nese had possessed in Central Asia, except the Hoei- any part of Tartary. : hoo country, fell under the power of the Thi- • Eveii as far down as A. D. 1000, we find Mongofe betans. In 791, the kakhan of the Hoei hoo defeated still dwelling about Lake Baikal, northerly, from the EAELY HISTORY OP ZINGIS KHAN. 399

Angara on the west, to the Baourian Mountains on the exploit gained him fame, respect, and influence, he east, about two thirds of the circuit of the lake. Three was afterwards obliged to seek assistance from the small communities of them are also found farther great khan of the empire, who was under obligations south, at that period, one of them within the Chinese to his father. The khan, in gratitude to his father, wall. and esteem for Zingis, then called Temugin, reinstated The Mongols were originally a tribe of the nation him in his paternal dominions, and gave him his of Tatars proper,* or, as it has been Corrupted, Tar- daughter in marriage. tars. They spread themselves south and east of Lake Tefmugin had been educated with the greatest atten- Baikal, and between the rivers forming the Upper tion, and the care of his childhood was confided to a Amoor. Even in Zingis Khan's time, they numbered very able minister. He was well versed in all the but about four hundred thousand tents. After his exerpises which belong to a Tartar education. He time, many nations, who had previously despised it, could shoot his arrow or strike his lance with unerring adopted the name he had made illustrious. The most aim, either when advancing or retreating, — in full ancient mention of this name is by the Chinese histo- career or at rest. He could endure hunger, thirst, rians, and in the tenth century of our era. The name fatigue, cold, and pain. He managed his fierce and Mongol, in the language of Mongolia, means " brave heavy war-horse, or his light and impetuous courser, and proud." with such consummate skill, by word, or look, or A portion of the Mongol Tartars retired into the touch, that man and beast seemed but one animal, mountains of Inchan, where the Hoang-ho bends swayed by one common will. farthest north, and into Tangoot. It retained the Having gained some military successes for his name of Tartar, spread itself, and was soon known to father-in-law, his high favor at the court excited jeal- the Chinese. A Chinese general took refuge among ousies both in his family and in the empire. He bad

this people in 880 ; three years after this, he- reentered further rendered himself unpopular by inducing the China, at the head of an army composed of Tartar khan to assume more authority than the subject princes troops, and defeated the rebel who had driven him could willingly accede to. The princes therefore rose

from his country. He afterward settled himself and against the khan, and defeated him in battle ; but his his Tartars in the north of the province of Chan si, son-in-law replaced him on the throne, by winning for where they lived on the produce of their animals, him a brilliant victory. This victory was tarnished,

which were chiefly horses. Their compatriots out- however, by cruelty ; for Temugin scalded seventy of side the wall kept on good terms with several his enemies to death, by flinging them alive into seventy Chinese dynasties for a long time, sending embassies caldrons of boiling water. and tribute. After having been successively subject Envy and revenge did not cease their machinations, to the latter Tang dynasty, and to the Khitkn, they but at last means were found to render his father-in-law became vassals of the Kin empire. This empire in- jealous of so famous a son. Temugin, after exhaust- cluded Northern China', and the country toward the ing every conciliatory method, thought himself obliged Selinga and Amoor, in the twelfth and early part of the to build up a party of his own, in self-defence. Re- thirteenth centuries. course was at last had to arms, the khan was slain, and Thirteen of the Mongol hordes, — thirty or forty Temugin, after some further struggles with his ene- thousand families, — subjected to this empire, obeyed mies, one by one, succeeded to the empire.

the father of Zingis Khan ; but, on his death, two He was now forty years old, and, wishing to secure thirds of them refused to obey the son, then thirteen himself in his extensive dominions, by legitimating his years old. He fought them, and reduced them to authority, he convoked all the princes of his empire at their allegiance. This was the first exploit of Zingis, Karakorum, his capital — in latitude 47° — to do him destined, one day, so rapidly to conquer five or six homage. They all met here on the appointed day, millions of square miles of territory. But, though this clothed in white. Advancing into the midst, with the diadem upon his brow, Temugin seated himself upon his throne, and received the congratulations and good * This name, Tartar, like the name Mongol, has been un- wishes of the khans and princes. They then confirmed warrantably extended, and confounded with that of Turks. his descendants in the The reason is, that, when the son of Zingis conquered the him and sovereignty of the declaring . north-west of Asia and the north-east of Europe, it was filled Mongol empire, themselves and their de- with Turkish tribes ; their conquerors were Tartars, that is, scendants divested of all rights. Mongols. But the armies these conquerors brought from the After some further victories, he renewed the cere- interior of Asia no longer existed ; even the Mongol khans monial in a still more simple and signal manner. appointed over the khanata of Kazan, Astrakan, and the Cri- mea, no longer used the Tartar language, and were surround- Standing on a plain mound of turf, near the banks of ed by Turkish soldiers. Yet these kianats, after they sub- the Selinga, he harangued the assembled princes with an mitted to Russia, were called Tatar, and their language too. eloquence natural to him, and then sat down on a piece But ask a so-called Tartar of Kazan, or Astrakan, of the pres- of black felt which was spread upon the earth. This ent day, if he is a Tartar, and he will tell you no ; he will felt was revered for call the idiom he speaks Turk, and not Tartar; Remember- a long time afterwards as a sacred ing that his ancestors were once subjugated by the Mongols, national relic. An appointed orator then addressed or Tartars, regards the latter name as an insult, as much " he him in these words : However great your power, as if you should caU him a robber or a pirate. from God you hold it : He will prosper you if you The first mention of Tartars in C!hinese history is in A. D. govern justly : if abuse your authority, you will 880, and their name is pronounced Ta ta, or Ta dshi. These you were a tribe of the Mohos, mentioned in a previous chapter, but have become black as this felt, a wretch and an out- was dispersed by the Khitans, in 824, 'and became mingled cast." Seven khans then respectfully assisted him to with that people. Possibly, the northern Mohos Tungouse rise, conducted him to his throve, and proclaimed him were ancestors of the Mongols, wMle the southern were lord of the Mongol empire. ancestors of different Tungouse tribes, which, later, formed the Ju tchin, from whom are derived the Manchoos of the A relative, a saint and prophet, naked, like the present day. marabouts of the present .day,' approached. " I ;

400 ZINGIS KHAN. come," said he, "with God's order that you hence- overgrown with hair. On causing his head to be forth take the name of Zingis Khan," that is " greatest shaved, the document appeared, and Zingis sent for khan of khans. " * The Mongols ratified this name with answer that he would quarrel with the sultan on the extravagant joy, and considering it as a divine title to first opportunity. He added also the rernark, with the conquest of the world, looked on opposing nations full experience of its truth, that " between two great as enemies of God. Thus early was the intoxicating contiguous empires, a cause -of quarrel will not long cup of power drugged with fanaticism! be wanting." Nothing now was impossible to Zingis. By a Nor was it : the sultan's subjects plundered some rapid succession of victories, he found himself, in the Tartar merchants, and the empires made great prep- year 1226, master of a broad belt of the world reach- arations for war. Zingis collected seven hundred ing from Corea to Hungary .t We have space for but thousand men, and, ordering recruits to be raised a few of the most interesting incidents of his con- throughout the empire and sent after him, advanced quests. The sovereign of North China, the Kin empire, upon the enemy. During this march, he disciplined had demanded of him the same tribute as had been and regulated his army in the most efficient manner, " paid by the princes whom Zingis had dethroned. Irri- and gave the following despotic general orders : If tated by the demand, he poured his well-disciplined a soldier fly without having fought, whatever the dan- armies across the wall, undeterred by fortifications, ger or resistance, he shall die ; if from a company though ignorant of the arts of siege, routed the of ten, any one or more shall separate, he or they

Chinese, desolated the country, and amassed immense shall die without mercy ; if any of the company see spoils. Cities and royal residences fell into his hands, their comrades engaged, and do not try to succor or often unexpectedly. Dissensions arose among the Chi- rescue them, they shall die." nese nobles, who deserted or betrayed their emperor, The sultan of Kharasm was master of Great Bucha- and he was slain. Thus, in the space of five years, this ria, Kharasm, Persia, Persian Irak, and much of India. most warlike and powerful of the nations was subdued, On his side he marched an army of half a million ; but as far as the middle mountains. | (A. D. 1214.) should these be destroyed, he .could not recruit them On the west, Zingis had determined to make the again, for Armenia and Georgia, his tributaries, took territories of the mighty sultan of Kharasm his this occasion to relieve themselves of tribute, Egypt boundary. The conqueror made a treaty to that and Syria were desolated by the crusaders, and efiect with this sovereign, though the sultan was the khalif who held Arabian Irak, Chaldea, and the rather ungracious. But the sultan's enemy, the kha- three Arabias, was his personal enemy: finally, the lif of Bagdad, desirous of engaging Zingis against Seljuks of Asia Minor and the Greek emperors were him, sent a messenger to the Mongol khan, upon at war with each other, and could give him no assist- whose shaven crown was tattooed his message, now ance. This great contest has been already alluded to.

* " Brethren," said he, " I have seen a vision. The great loads of gold and silver. Tlie great dukes of Russia, the God of heaven, on his flaming throne, surrounded by the sultans of Iconium, the kings of Georgia and Armenia, the Spirits on high, sat in judgment on the nations of the earth. emirs of Persia, and various other potentates of Europe and Sentence was pronounced, and he gave the dominion of the Asia, were obliged to take the long journey to the royal vil- world to our chief Temudsin, whom he appointed Zingis lage of Karakotum, in person, or by their ambassadors, in or- Khan, or Universal Sovereign." The Mongols then held up der to retain their thrones, or even their lives ! of this conquest: their hands, and swore to follow Temudsin, the Zingis Khan, J Gibbon gives the following account in all his enterprises. (A. D. 1206.) — Muller. Zingis pro- " His ancestors had been the tributaries of the Chinese em- mulgated at this time his famous civil and military code of perors, and Temugin himself had been disgraced by a title regulations for his empire, under the sanction of monotheism, of honor and servitude. The court of Pekin was astonished and in perfect toleration of all religions. He also, subse- by an embassy from its former vassal, who, in the tome of the quently, caused the best Arabic, Persian, Chinese, and Thi- king of nations, exacted the tribute and obedience which he betan books to be translated into Mongol, which must have had paid. A haughty answer disguised their secret appre- had a powerful tendency to elevate his people above their hensions; and their fears were soon justified by the march ancestral barbarism. of innumerable squadrons, who pierced on all sides the feeble relics of the em- rampart of the great wall. Ninety cities were starved or t The Pacific Ocean, Corea, and the Kin ^ pire, which he had crowded across the Hoang-ho (in its old stormed by the Mongols. Ten only escaped. And Zingis, channel) into the north-cast corner of China, limited his em- from a knowledge of the filial piety of the Chinese, covered his pire on the east. On the south, it had the Chinese empire vanguard with their captive parents — an unworthy, and by His of the Song, from which it was separated by the Peling degrees a fruitless abuse of the virtue erf his enemies. supported by the revolt of a hundred thousand Mountains ; the Kuen lun Mountains, separating it from invasion was guarded the frontier. Yet he listened to a Thibet ; the west branch of the Indus to 32° ; Beloochistan Khitans, who three thousand horses, five the little kingdoms of Pars, about Shiraz, and Irak Araby, treaty, and a princess of China, along the Eijphrates and Tigris; the Caucasus, Black Sea, hundred youths, and as many virgins, and a tribute of gold and Danube to the Preuth. and silk, were the price of his retreat. " On the west, his empire was bounded by the small districts In his second expedition, he compelled the Chinese em- to a more southern of the attabegs of Irak, of Armenia, Georgia, and Caucasus, peror to retire beyond the Yellow River, some and the Carpathian Mountains, separating it from lihe king- and eastern residence. The siege of Pekin (a capital north, by a line from the Carpa- furlongs south-east of the present) was long and laborious dom of Hungary | on the thian Mountains drawn to include the junction of the Kama The inhabitants were reduced by famine to decimate and de- fellowJcitizems. their ammunition Was spe334 and Volga, leaving beyond it the grand of Kiew and vourtheir When Wladimir,—thence, the deeply waving northern line of his they discharged ingots of gold and silver &om their engiaesf Mongols introduced to the centre of the eapitali empire crossed the Ural, excluding the steppe of Isohijn, then but the a mine oonflagration of the palace burned above thirty days." trended just north of Lake BaikiO, excluding most of Sibe- and the it After the Mongols had subdued the northern provinces, & ria, to meet the Pacific in latitude 86°, where had the Chy was seriously, in calm, deliberate council, proposed to exter- gSei (all but the southerti division) to the ttorth. This was minate all the inhabitants of that populous cotmfxy, that the a wider reahn than Assyrian, Egyptian, Greek, or Roman vacant land might be con*erted to the pasture of cattle. conqueror ever knew 1 was the purbUiid barbarism of these stupid devastators. On the banks of the Orkhon, Onon, and Selinga, the loyal Such simplicity and The design was given up upon the suggestion, by a patriotis or "golden horde" exhibited the contrast of frugal mandarin, that the country, left as it was, wduld yield a far greatheSii. Roasted sheep and mare's milk were flieir revenue to the conquerors in rioe, silk,' and taxes. banquet; yet in one day were distributed five.huaarea wagon larger ;;

DEATH OP ZINQIS. 401

The destructive conqueror rushed on all parts of miles in extent, scarce furnished room for the tents

Kharasm at once. Ono hundred and sixty thousand and equipages of his countless hosts. • His own quar- Kharasmia^s were skin in the first battle. Like a de- ters occupied six miles in circuit. A white tent, capa- vouring conflagration, the invaders swept from city to ble of containing two thousand persons, was spread city, leaving behind them only heaps of cinders. A over his throne, on which lay the black hit of felt used body of Chinese engineers, skilled in mechanics, and at his coronation. But now, instead of the primitive perhaps acquainted with the use of gunp^vder, assisted simplicity of the vagabond Tartar, a]} the luxury c£ the destroyer. Samarcand,Balkh,3

till he had enjoined his son, Jelaleddin, to avenge him. robber of robbers. ' Tossed by every wave of fortune, this dauntless and The mighty khan, who was fond of public speaking, persevering man did all that man could do to perform now pronounced an oration, commending his code of

ihe injunctions of a dying father ; but hemmed in by laws : to these he attributed all his success and con- the loss of city after city, he was at last driven to an quests, which he minutely enumerated. The ambas- island of the Indus. sadors from the several countries subjected to his domin- Here he burned his ships, except one for his family. ion, were then admitted to an audience, and dismissed His soldiers died around him, defending themselves well satisfied. The whole ceremonial was concluded like tigers at bay. The Kharasmians now took refuge with a grand festival, which lasted many days. At in the rocks where the Tartar cavalry could not pen- the daily banquets were served up every thing most etrate; but being reduced to only seven hundred men, exquisite — in fruits, game, liquors, and edibles — to the sultan disbanded them. The unfortunate Jela- be had in any part of his boundless dominion. leddin, having embraced his family, and torn himself Such festivals were followed by new triumphs, and away from them,now took off his cuirass, stripped him- prosperity seemed always to attend the conqueror's self of all his arms but his sword, quiver, and bow, enterprises. He died A. D. 1226, at the age of sev- mounted a fresh horse, and plunged into the river. In enty, having reigned twenty-two years, and preserved the midst of the stream, he turned round and emptied to the last his complete ascendency over the surround- his quiver in defiance against Zingis, who stood on ing nations and his own. His magnificent funeral was the bank. The ship in which the family of the de- unsullied with the human sacrifices which desecrated throned monarch had embarked, split as it left the the obsequies of his ancestors. His simple sepulchre, shore, and they fell into the conqueror's hands, who beneath a tree whose shade he had loved, became an afterwards murdered them. object of veneration to his people, who were wont

The fugitive prince passed the night in a tree, from fondly to embellish it. ,fear of wild beasts. On the next day, he met some This famous man was characterized by qualities of his soldiers. He now collected all the fugitives he fittiotg him for a conqueror— a genius capable of con- could muster, and, being joined by an officer of his ceiving gTicat and arduous designs, and prudence equal

household, with a boat laden with arms, provisions, to their execution ; a native and persuasive eloquence money, and clothing, he established himself in India. a degree of patience enabling him to endure and over-

But, unable to endure exile, he returned to his country, come fatigue ; an admirable temperance ; a superior

and after many misfortunes, died in obscurity, shortly understanding ; and a penetrating mind, that instantly after his conqueror. A Turkman horde of his army seized the measure proper to be adopted. His military engaged in the service of the sultans of Iconium, and talents are conspicuous in his successfully introducing

from it sprung Othman, founder of the Turkish em- a strict discipline and severe police among the Tartars, pire. Five centuries, it has been remarked, have not until then indocile to the curb of restraint. been sufficient to repair the ravages of the four years Every thing was regulated, whether service, recom- of this Kharasmian war. pense, or punishment. Wine was no excuse, neither Zingis, in his camp on the Indus, at last yielded to were birth and power a palliation, for error. The re- the desire of his soldiers for repose, and the enjoy- ligion he professed was deism, but his subjects were ment of the wealth they had gathered with so much individually permitted to embrace that which they toil and blood. Keturning slowly, encumbered with pneferred, provided they believed in one only God spoil, he cast an eye of regret around him, and inti- and no one was suffered to be persecuted for his faith. mated his intention of rebuilding the cities he had Some of his children and the princes of the blood, swept away. As he passed the Jaxartes, there came were Christians, some Jews, and some Mahometans, to meet him two of his generals, whom he had sent without his expressing any disapprobation.

round the southern shore of the Caspian, with thirty His eode of laws was simple : death was inflicted thousand men. They had fought their way through for adultery, murder, perjury, the theft of a horse or j the passes of the Caucasus, traversed the .marshy re- ox, or the making of a Mongol his servant by another gions near the Volga, crossed that and the desert, and Mongol. No Tartar must give a slave meat or drink, jcome back by the north of Lake Aral —^an lUnexamjded without his master's leaare. Every one must serve the feat, in aBcient or modern times. public according to his ability. All servile labor was As soon as the princes and generals were returned prohibited to the victorious nation, and abandoned to

.from their several expeditions, Ziis^s assembled them slaves and strangers ; every labor was servile except thst of arms. The service and discipline of the troops — ;

402 SONS OP ZINGIS— OCTAL

were the institutions of a veteran commander.* They hundred thousand Mongols and Tartars were inscribed

were armed with bows, cimeters, and iron maces, and on the military roll ; of these the great khan selected divided by hundreds, thousands, and tens of thousands. a third, which he intrusted to the command of his After the example of their chief, all the chieftains nephew Batou, the son of Tuli, who reigned over his who served under Zingis were sanguinary and inex- father's conquests to the north of the Caspian. After

orable ; not fewer than two — some say six or seven -~ a festival of forty days, Batou set forward on this ^tiillions of men fell beneath their murdering sword, great expedition ; and such were the speed and ardor without reckoning the number that affliction and the of his innilmerable squadrons, that, in less than six horrors of slavery, consigned to a premature grave. years, they had measured a line of ninety degrees of It has been estimated that there were, probably, fifty longitude — a fourth part of the circumference of the thousand cities and towns demolished ! globe. The great rivers of Asia and Europe — the Volga and Kama, the— Don and Borysthenes, the Vistula and the Danube ^ they either swam with their horses, or CHAPTER CCIX. passed on the ice, or traversed in leathern boats, which were also used to convey across their wagons and A. 0. 1236 to 1294. artillery. By the first victories df Batou, the remains The Sons of Zingis — Octai, his Successor — of national freedom were eradicated in the immense Baton's Conquests and Kingdom of Kipzak plains of Turkestan and Kipzak. In his rapid prog- ress, he overran the kingdoms of Astrakan and Cazan — Anecdotes of further Conquests in. China and the troops which he detached towards Mount — Yelu, the good Minister — Kayuk — Caucasus explored the most secret recesses of Georgia Mangou — Kublai. and Circassia.

Zmeis left a numerous offspring ; and during his The civil discord of the great dukes, or princes, of lifetime, four of his sons, illustrious by birth and merit, Russia betrayed their country to the Tartars, who had held the principal offices undertheir father. Of these spread from Livonia to the Black Sea. Both Mos- four, Toushi was his great huntsman, Zagatai his judge, cow and Kiev, the modern and ancient capitals, w^re

Octai his minister, and Tuli his general ; and their reduced to ashes. After the permanent conquest of names and deeds are often conspicuous in the story of Russia, tliey made a deadly though transient inroad his conquests. Firmly united for their own and the into the heart of Poland, and as far as the borders of public interest, the three brothers and their families Germany. The cities of Lublin and Cracow Were were content with dependent sceptres ; and Octai, by obliterated : they approached the shores of the Baltic, general consent, was proclaimed great khan, or em- and, in the battle of Lignitz, defeated, the dukes of peror of the Mongols and Tartars. Tuli held the Silesia, the Polish palatines, and the great master of empire as regent, according to his father's direction, the Teutonic order of knights. After this battle, nine while his brother was absent on an expedition ; and two sacks were filled with the right ears of the slain, that years elapsed before Octai was confirmed by a cou- the number of victims might be counted, in barbarous roultai, or general diet. triumph. The invading army of half a million turned

His father had selected his ministers and generals to Hungary ; the Carpathian Hills were pierced, and with so much judgment, that the son found any change the whole country north of the Danube, " lost in a to be unnecessary. The new emperor placed his day, was depopulated in a summer." The ruins of chief confidence in Yelu, who also had enjoyed the cities and churches were overspread with the bones implicit confidence of the deceased sovereign. He of the natives, who thus " expiated the sins of their was a man of integrity, learned in the laws, of con- Asiatic ancestors." Wretched fugitives, allured from summate prudence, and wholly devoted to the good the woods under a promise of peace and pardon, were of the empire. Octai placed his brother Tuli, whom coolly slaughtered as soon as they had performed the he tenderly loved, at the head of his armies, and never labors of the harvest and vintage. had reason to repent his choice. Passing the Danube on the ice, the Mongols besieged Northern China had been already subdued, as we Grau. They planted thirty engines against it, and have stated,+ and Octai now resolved to carry his filled the trenches with sacks of earth and corpses. arms to the remotest west. A comprehensive writer On its capture, after a promiscuous massacre, three thus describes his awful swoop upon Europe : fifteen hundred noble matrons were slain before the conquer-

* Zingis could neither read nor write, and most of liis Tar- less, urged his wife to save herself. " I have shared with

tars and Mongols were as illiterate. Neither he nor his you the honors of life ; I will share your tomb," she rcpliedj captains have written any memorial of their exploits, and the and took poison, giving it to her children : her husband then traditions of these wore not coUeoted and transcribed till killed himself. sixty-eight years after the death of Zingis. Yet such was Prince Hoshang came forward from his hiding-place, after the destructive energy of their daring, that the Mongols were a defeat, and requested to die, as he could serve no new " I will have fidelity posterity will be mingled in the destinies of all nations,' and, as has been master. my known ; well observed, the brevity of their domestic annals may be just to my memory." The brutal Tartar, however, abandoned supplied by the Chinese, Persians, Armenians, Syrians, Ara- him to his soldiery, who first tortured and then massacrfld bians, Greeks, Russians, Poles, Hungarians, and Latins, and him. Some among them, of a more generous nature, poured each nation will deserve credit in the relation of their own camel's milk on the earth, entreating him, should he ever disasters and defeats. revive, to return and live with the Mongols. Chinese used bombs other explosive artillery. t Several anecdotes of Chinese magnanimity are related, The and which took place during the subjugation of the remaining This fire penetrated the soldiers' breastplates, and conBumM ths distauee- of two thousand feet. dislodge possessions of the Kin, or North China dynasty, by Octai — aU, within, To governor the sappers beneath the walls, the besieged let these bombs an enterprise left unfinished by his father. Chin in, held out as it down into their holes, and scattered destruction among of a town of importance, which had bravely — Chinese also -a^A haU*—» -^ "— i" <^= o""" was on the point of being stormed, and defence was now hope- them: the KATUK—MANGOO. 403

ing general. Europe feared that her cities, arts, and to inspire the princes with a love for the people, and institutions would be extinguished. The pope sent to the people with an abhorrence of carnage and rapine. the invaders monks to convert them, but was an- At the sacking of Pekin and the palaces, he took only swered, to his astonishment, that the sons of God and some maps, books, paintings, and a few parcels of of Zingis had a divine right to subdue and extirpate rhubarb, the last of which he employed in curing the the nations, -— and he was invited to submission, with soldier^ of a malignant epidemic fever. threats. Frederic II,, the emperor o|| Germany, en- Yelu was the first teacher of the Mongols, and, by

deavored to confederate Germany, Frartce, and Eng- his advice to Zingis, thqir first legislator : he arranged land against the common enemy. The fame and a calendar for their use, and instituted salutary regu- valor of the Franks awed the Tartars: Neustadt, in lations respecting the finances, commerce, duties, the Austria, was intrepidly defended by fifty knights and public granaries, and the subordination of officers,

twenty cross-bows ; but, on the appearance of a Ger- civil and military. The natural ferocity of the Mon- rnan army, the siege was raised. gols, their ignorance, and defective early education,

After wasting Servia, Bosnia, and Bulgaria, Baton opposed his designs ; but his energy overcame all slowly retreated from the Danube to the Volga, to enjoy obstacles. his victories at Serai — in about latitude 4'8° — a city The reign of Kayuk continued eight years, but was which started from the desert, as it were, at his com- marked by little except his conquest of Corea and mand. This was the origin of the Kipzak empire, some countries on- the Caspian — by his being some- un4er the descendants of Zingis, and whose capital what priest-ridden, and by his excessive prodigality. was Serai. A brother of Baton, in 1242, led a horde The people complained of having to furnish horses to the of fifteen thousand families into Siberia, and his de- nobles, who were ever riding post. They were also scendants reigned at Tobolsk more than three hundred vexed at the sums paid by the court for jewels and pre-

' years. cious stones, while the soldiers were scarcely paid at At Octai's death, his wife, setting aside her grand- all, or their dues were left long in arrears. son, whom the late emperor designed should succeed At his death, his mother and wife attempted to put

him, contrived to keep the regency. In two years she Octai's former choice upon the throne ; but the diet procured the nomination, by the couroultai, of her own elected Mengho, or Mangoo, a grandson of Zingis, but son, Kayuk. Her conduct displeased the good min- not of the reigning branch. His firmness and celerity, ister Yelu, and she found means gradually to deprive and the well-appointed army he kept at Karakorum,

him of power. It is said he died of grieif". Leaving quelled any tendency to disturbance. This prince the pictures of violence, devastation, and carnage, it adopted the lamaic religion, and became somewhat is pleasant to dwell a moment upon the character of of a devotee. He portioned off the well-deserving this sage. He seems to have been a perpetual good of the royal family with fiefs in China, among which genius to his court, ever ready to surest or forward the largest and best was given to KuMai, his brother, aught that might tend to elevate the views of the bar- who succeeded' him. These Tartar lords had Chinese barian, or soften the heart of the conqueror — in short, ministers, or stewards, who essentially modified and to civilize or humanize the rough natures with which softened the barbarism of their government. he was associated. Yelu was extremely learned in Yansheu, the minister of Kublai, was one of the Chinese science, and wrote many volumes on history, best of these useful officers, and suggested many wise agriculture, profitable astronomy, government, and commerce ; and measures for repairing the devastations he had also a taste for collecting antiquities and curi- of war in his fief; so that Tartars and Chinese became osities. well pleased with each other. It was this sagacious He was, in fact, eminently endowed with all the prime minister who, on Mangoo's jealousy of his qualities of a great minister.— an inflexible steadiness, brother, followed by injustice, advised Kublai to go extraordinary presence of mind, a perfect knowledge at oiice, throw himself on his brother's neck, and dis- of the countries under his master's authority, discern- abuse him of his suspicions. The sequel evinced ment in the choice of persons he emplpyed, and cer- the common sense of the Chinese — a possession for tain resources, on emergency, both of money and pro- which that nation has ever been famous. Mangoo's visions. He expended large sums to draw artificers, tenderness revived : he repeatedly embraced his officers, engineers, and learned men, from all parts to brother, while tears flowed down his cheeks ; and the the Mongol dominions. He was constantly laboring result was, that he increased his authority by still more important trusts. space of sixteen days, the number of slain amoiuited to a Mangoo fell in the, siege of a city of the Song,

' fliillion. (A. D. 1259,) and left his brother Kublai the grawi After the loss of Pekin, the emperor had fixed his residence khanat, and the legacy of a war with South China, at Kai fong, a city many leagues in circumference, and con- which Zingis Khan, almost with his dying breath, had taining fourteen hundred thousand families of inhabitants urged upon his successors. Kublai was obliged and fugitives. He escaped thence with but seven horsem,en, But and made his last stand in a third capital. Here the besieged first to put down another brotheF^ 'Who aspired to the endured the most dreadful extremes of famine, — eating horses, crown. Having defeated his army and put him to boiled leather 'of' their saddles, boots and drums, and finally flight, Kublai' assembled around himself wise and able the old men, the infirm, prisoners, and wounded ;. pounding counsellors, who assisted to render his name.ilnstrious hnjnan and animal bones with dried herbs, to make a horrid posterity. pottage. Iji view of these sufferings, and the hopeless con- to dition of his country, the emperor, prb'testihg innocence and The chief exploit of Kublai Khan's life was the accusing fortune, aseeilded a funeral pile, stabbed himself, conquest of the rest of China. In this he used the and was consumed. Thus ended the Kin dynasty of North services of European and Mahometan engineers. The China, A-i D. 1234. The Song dynasty of Southern China engines of antiquity, as the balista and catapult, for Endured for forty-five years longer, till it fell under;the Mon- gol, KuBlai, who, uniting all China, founded the Yuen dy- flinging stones and darts, the battering-ram, &c., were nasty, A. D. 1279. employed, together with Greek fire, gunpowder, can- ;

401 MONGOL CHINESE EMPERORS. non and bombs. The troops, drawn along canajs, After a rapid review of the annals pf the Mongol invested Hantcheoo, or Quinsay, on the coast, in lati- Chinese empire, and ef the Mancheps, we will glance tude 30J° — the most delicious climate of China. The at the Mongol kingdoms of Eussia, Transoxiana, and emperor, a mere youth, surrendered, and, touching his Persia. Then, after a more particular account of Ti- head nine times to the earth, in token of homage, went mour, or Tamerlane, his empire and its fraginents, wp into exile m Tartary. The last champion of the Song shall detail the imperial splendors of the Moguls in attempted escape by sea, but being surrounded by the India, the longest surviving relic, with the exception of enemy's fleet, exclaimed, " It is more glorious to die a Turkey, of the immense empires of the Tartaa: princes. prince than live a slave," and leaped mto the waves Kublai left his throne to Timoiir, the youngest of with his infant emperor m his arms. A hundred his brpther's three sons, A. D. 1294. His clemency thousand Chinese followed his example, and Kublai and love for his subjects endeared Timour to the Chi- reigned over all China, founding the Yuen dynasty, as nese, who extol him as a model of perfection. He before remarked. not unfrequently visited the necessitous and rjiiserable

He now desired to conquer Japan ; but having lost in person, and often sent his agents and aljnoners into one hundred thousand men by shipwreck and other the provinces to search out objects of charity. Never disasters, he abandoned the fruitless task. Pegu, Ton- prince displayed greater judgment in the choice of his km, Corea, Cochin China, Bengal and Thibet, were ministers and generals, and none ever showed a more reduced to different degrees of tribute and obedience by marked contempt for flattery and luxuiyj He died his arms. He explored the Indian Ocean with a fleet childless, without naming a successor. of a thousand ships, for sixty-eight days, visiting and The Mongols and Chinese desired that Hayshan, subduing parts of Borneo and Java, but finding nothing Timour's brother, should take the tluone. Another worth retaining in these distant islands. Under Kublai, brother claimed it against a faction, as if for himself, letters, commerce, peace, and justice were restored ; arid then resigned the sceptre to Hayshan, surprising the great canal of five hundred miles was opened his brother with the grateful assurance that he had from Nankin to his capital, Pekin — where he dis- only acted in his interest. Hayshan was fond of the played all the magnificence of Asia. writings of Confucius, and had theip translated into the ia. a spotless administration of thirty years, Yelu, Mongol language. He was, however, licentious and the Chinese mandarin, minister and friend of Zingis intemperate, though equitable, generous, and warlike. and his sons, had continually labored, as already noted, Hayshan died after reigning three years. to mitigate or suspend the horrors of war ; to save the His noble-minded brother, Ayyulipalipata, succeed- monuments, and to re-kindle the flame of science ; tp ed him ; but the virtues of the new emperor were restrain the military commander by the restoration of rather of the passive than the active cast. Drought, civil magistrates ; and to instil the love of peace, indus- famine, inundations, earthquakes, and malignant disor- try, and justice into the minds of the Mongols. He ders afflicted the empire during his reign, to which struggled with the barbarism of the first conquerors were added eclipses, which became, from the anxiety but his salutary lessons produced a rich harvest in the and terror of the people, real afflictions. He revived second generation. the literary examinations for office, and associated Kublai, having been educated in the manners of Tartar mandarins with Chinese. He attempted to China, inspired the loyalty of his subjects by restoring resign his throne to his son, but the latter would not the forms of her venerable constitution, — for it was allow it. easier to adopt than invent, — and the victors, as has The next emperor, Shofepala, (A. D. 1320,) gov- often happened, gradually submitted to the customs, erned with consummate wisdom, though but nineteen laws, fashions, manners, and even prejudices of the years old. He reformed the luxury, debauchery, and vanquished. Such were the numbers, servitude, steady avarice of the court, but at the end of four years was sense, and impregnability of character of the Chinese, assassinated by the friends of a wretch he had justly that their conquerors seem again and again to have punished. The next emperor was indolent, but pun- been, as it were, absorbed and dissolved in the im- ished the assassins who had elevated him. He was mense homogeneous mass of her teeming millions. exhorted to banish from the palace the crowds of eunuchs, astrologers, physicians, women, and other idlers, whose maintenance cost exorbitant sums. Plots, murders, and cabals succeeded his death, in 1322, and CHAPTER CCX. continued through several short and worthless reigns. An , being allowed to choose, set up Touhan, A. D. 1294 to 1716. grandson of Hayshan, who combined in himself the Mongol Chinese Emperors — Manchoo Tartar flagrant disqualifications of luxury, indolence, dissi- Emperors — Grand Hunting Expedition — pation, timidity, and cruelty — a load of vices fitted Kipzak Empire — Zagatai EiW§ire — to weigh down any dynasty. But, as if these were not Mongol Persian Empire. enough to ruin the dyneisty of Yuen, this its last empe- ror had also an artful minister, whp persuaded hira Aftkr the death of Kublai, the Tihans of Kipzak ji-pA that every official duty was too great a burden for his Russia, the khans of loLgaXai or Transoxiana, aijd the august majesty. To

MANCHOO TAttAE EM^fiEORS-fiUNTINQ. 405

ure of the harvest, were groaning under the ^'eight of native Tartary, which he did with seventy thousand

taxes, a man named Chu appeared in the south, ah men, and diverted himself with hunting ; thus giving ex-servant of a monastery of bohzes, turned robber. origin to the custom of huntmg on a scale unknown

By restraining his bandit companions froni pillage and before, and which Still continues to be practised in massacre, by applying himself to the study of the Chi- those countries.* He was a great encourager of learn- nese laws, by his successes, and, above all, by having ing and Christianity, in favor of which latter he pub- on his tongue the phrase, *' It is the Chinese who Should lished a decree, in 1692. Europeans were at his court, govern the Tartars, not the Tartars th* Chinese," he and attended him m his yearly hunt. But in 1716, in aroused the nation. Placing himself at the head of consequence of mandarin slanders, say the Jegtlits —^but the movement, he found himself able^ to grasp the others think from their political intrigues — Kanghi sceptre and ascend the throne, — thus finishing the revived some obsolete laws against the Christians, and Yueft and founding the Ming dynasty, in A. D. 1364. the Jesuits could not keep their footing in China. " My dear companions," said he, amid the universal But these details belong to the history of Chma, which joy, to his confederates, " we must establish good will be found in another place. laws, and never lose sight of virtue." The Kipzak Empire, which the Volga divided in He based his government on the best precedfents of the middle, now claims a passing notice, as one of

antiquity ; admitted none to office without the ancient the huge fragments of the colossal empire of Zingis;

rigorous literary examinations ; sought out genius in It included Bussia in Europe, taking tribute of the war, navigation, arts, sciences, or mathematics, and republic of Novgorod. It was bounded south by the rewarded it like a prince. In his palace at Nanking, Danube, Caucasus, and the Zagatai empire, and had he lavished no sums on costly furniture, and curious the republic of Novgorod, and the kingdom of Sibir, foreign trifles, and inflexibly banished indecent statues upon the Irtish, on the north. It extended but a little and paintings. He won the hearts of mechanics, way into Tartary. At first a subordinate government peasants, and laborers, by his affable interest in their of one of the grandsons of Zingis, it soon became inde- concerns, often indemnified their losses and assisted pendent, as before noticed. Some seventeen, or twen- their enterprises. Chu was indeed a superior genius ty-one warlike princes are enumerated as its sover- valor, piety, military science, greatness of soul, equity eigns. At the end of the thirteenth century, it was in the distribution of favors and employments, are the

virtues and accompli'shments ascribed to him ; and * These hunts serve to exercise the troops in winter, and China, spreading to her ancient boundary, saw herself are of great antiquity among the Tartars. They were prac- tised by Zingis, and are still by the Chinese emperors. The once more disinthralled, and the Mongol chased back emperor commands the huntsmen to trace out a vast circle, of into his native wilds of Tartary. perhaps thirty miles in circumference. The officers then

Thither Touhan fled, and it is said "the serenity of station their troops, enclosing it around ; the soldiers begin his retreat was not disturbed by the regrets of his for- their march to the sound of martial music, and continue gradually to advance towards the centre, keeping the ring mer subjects." ,Two years after, he died, having unbroken, and thus driving before them the wild animals reigned thirty-five years in China and two in Tartary. within the circle ; but they are forbidden to kill or wound His son and successors sustained many wars with the any of them, however ferocious they may be. They encamp Ming dynasty, who still thought them too near neigh- every night, when all the manceuVres are punctually executed. bors. While the Tartars were stimulated to aggression The march lasts many weeks ; the space lessens ; and the creatures, iinding themselves closely pressed, flee to the moun- by the prospect of recovering the beautiful and wealthy tains and forests, whence they are soon dislodged by the country they had so ignobly lost. Their territory, at hunters opening their dens and kennels with spades and mat- first extending to the wall, was gradually narrowed to tocks, and even searching them out with ferrets. the space between the Inchan Mountains and Lake As the narrowed ring brings the bewildered animals togeth- er, — the strong, growing furious, devour the weak, and the Baikal, till we find it swallowed up at length in the air is rent with horrid bowlings, yells, and screams of ferocity Manchoo empire. or agony. The Soldiers are scarce able to drive the beasts The Manchoos seem to have originated by the com- forward by incessant shouts. At length, when they are pent mingling, ages ago, of the Mongols and Tungouse, in into so small a space that they can all be seen, the drums, music set up clangor. what became Manehooria, a country north of China, cymbals, and other a deafening This, joined to the fierce cries of the hunters and soldiers, so terri- and somewhat similar to it in shape and size. A Chi- fies and astonishes the beasts, that they lose all their ferocity nese general, having rebelled, about A. D. 1640, sub- lions and tigers, bears, wolves, and wild boars crouch subdued, dued all the country except one province, where and endeavor to skulk one behind the other. accompanied remained a prince faithful to the Ming dynasty. This The great khan,' by his sons and chief offi- cers, first enters the circle, holding his drawn sabre, and bow prince, occupying one of the extreme north-eastern and arrows, and begins the terrJ^c slatighter by striking the provinces, invited the Manchoo Tartars, his neighborsj most savage of the animals. Many of these, at their last to his assistance, and their king joined him with eighty extremity, on being wounded, resume their ferofcity, and thousand men. The rebel general fled, after burning struggle hard for theic lives. The sovereign now retires to an eminence, where a throne has been raised, whence he views the palace, and plundering Pekin of immense treasures. the fight, frorti which lio one shrinks, however great the peril. immediately. youthful son The Tartar king died His When the princes and nobles have sufficiently displayed their was declared emperor, under the name of Shun-cM, prowess, the youths continue the carnage. and commenced the Manchoo dynasty, in A. D. 1644. " 'What yet remain The- frontier prince, who had engaged this formidable Alive, with vain assault, contend to break Th' impenetrable line. Others, whom fear expressed himself,' " that he had ally, soon foUnd, as he Unnerves, with self-preserving wiles, beneath ; * let in lions to drive out dogs " and after a fruitless in- The bodies of the slain for sh5ter creep. * *— When, lo ! the bright sultanas of the court ! surrection, being deserted by his confederates, he died Suppliant they bend, and humbly sue to save of chagrin. His son, after vainly endeavoring to make The vanquished host. ** * head against the Manchoos, committed suicide. At beauty's high behest, the khan commands, •Opening to rigl^t and left, the well-trained troops next emperor, found China , In 1682, Kanghi, 1he Leave a large void : —impetuous forth the foe so fully subdued that he determined to visit his Fly frantic, on the wings of fear upborne." lli a

406 MONGOL PERSIAN EMPIRE. converted from Deism to Mahometanism, The last cus, and part of Syria. He threatened to march on relic of this empire was the khanat of the Crimea, or Constantinople with four hundred thousand, men, but

Grim Tartary. was. turned aside by .the siege of BagdaiJ. ; In 1290, A son of Zingis, named Zagatai, founded the the empire extended from Sind to Ionia — from Syria Zagatai Empire, or Transpxiana. He had received and the Persian Gulf to the Oxus. the government of a territory, which, in 1290, included Bagdad, when taken by Hoolagoo, was the richest Independent Tartary north of the Oxus, Balkh, the five city in the world. The Tartar, having plundered streams of the Indus, Cashgar, and Khotan. A por- every part of Persia and Babylon, hovered round this tion of these took the name of Usbeck, from fondness to devoted city, like a hunter around his prey. The their khan of that name. One of these Usbeck khans weak khalif, Mostasem, was betrayed by his own invaded Persia, jind carried off four hundred camel- vizier, 'iyho encouraged him in a preposterous confi- loads of gold and jewels, besides other valuables, all dence, grateful to his avarice and indplence, till — which he gave to his soldiers. In 1368, the Indus hastily collected army having been lost in an inundation lost was to the empire on the south ; and there was caused by the enemy — the city was t^ljeij. by assault. a correspondent gain on. the north. Twenty-five The khalif presented himself to the Tartars, with the princes, descended from Zingis by Zagatai, his eldest vases containing diamonds and jewelry of inestima- son, have reigned over Transoxiana. Their empire ble value, amassed by his ancestors for a. long period continued a hundred and seventy years, till 1402, of years. Hoolagoo immediatelyi, distributed th,em when it terminated, through dissensions among rela- among the principal officers of his army. tions whose ambition was active in expelling each Mostasem, the most ostentatious and inaccessible, of other from the throne. The last sovereign was only k.halifs, and most chary of his august presence, was a nominal prince, who commanded some battalions of in the habit of appearing veiled — deeming the sight of troops in the army of Tamerlane. his countenance too great a boon to his people. On The conversion of one of the dependent khans of such occasions the abject multitude so throngpd the this empire, Tagalak, to Mahometanism, is amusing, streets that the windows and balconies were hired,, at

and is thus told : While hunting one day, he met a an exorbitant price, to see him pass. Through those Mahometan trader, whom he treated most brutally. same streets which witnessed his insane pride, exposed The good Mussulman's patience affected the prince, to the view of that same populace, did the cruel who promised to embrace a religion capable of inspir- Tartar drag the fallen khalif, confined in a leather the khalifs ing such virtue — a resolution soon forgotten. The sack, till he expired. Thus fell the last of ; efforts of the Mussulman to remind him of his prom- and Bagdad was given up to pillage for seven days. ise were futile, and^ being about to die, he left the. Ahmed, who came to the throne in A. D. 1282, was completion of the deed in charge to his son. chosen by the grandees, but lost their esteem by The latter had no better success, and his endeavors embracing Islamism^ He was killed, and his nephew the to enter the palace being always frustrated, he hit usurped the sovereignty. Aljaptu, (1303,) of all upon an expedient. Ascending a neighboring accliv- princes of the race of Zingis, was the most distin- religion, which he ity, he there repeated his morning prayers, and so gnished for his love of justice and dominions. He built audibly as to wake Tagalak, who sent for the devotee, caused to flourish thro.ughout his his capital. His son Abusaid's to know his reasons foi^ this strange conduct. The Sultania, and made it intrigues and court prince's promise was now recalled to him, and conver- reign (1813) was disturbed by love Hassan, had married sion was but the affair of a moment. The courtiers cabals. A certain nobleman, the enamored king demanded of the khan followed his example, except one, who the beautiful Khatun ; obliged any individual to divorce promised to become a convert on one condition. her, for Mongol law sultan wished to espouse her. Kha- " Here," said he, " is a Mongol of extraordinary his wife if the consent in wrestling, tun's father, the general-in-chief, would . not strength ; if the Mahometan throws him repudiation, and removed her and her husband I will embrace his religion." Being as well gifted to her much beloved in Khorasan, the with sinews as with lungs, the missionary threw the from court. Being able to raise a formidable army, with Mongol upon the floor, at the first onset. The efficacy general was he resisted the king — but unsuccessfully. He of this instruction instantly converted both the Tartar which refuge with one who had formerly been his pupil, and his champion. took dazzling bribes of The Mongol Persian Empire commenced with Hoo- but who, not able to withstand the sent him his tutor's head. But what was the lagoo. He was brother of Kublai, and was sent Abusaid, receive his the traitor's surprise, when, on coming to thither by their comtjion brother, Mangoo, he found that Hassan had surrendered his great khan, in 1251. Hoolagoo cleared North Persia reward, an unlim- by wife to the king, and that she had acquired of the Ismaelians,* alluded to in a previous chapter, ascendency over her new spouse. Instead of exterminating those pests of mankind, in 1255. He ited reward, he was well pleased to return home with his subjected Iconium, took Bagdad, capturing the khalif,

Mosul, Daraas- life. . , and possessed himself of Aleppo, , The king becoming jealous of Khatun, she poisoned death gave occasion inhabited mountains him, in A. D. 1337. Abusaid's * ConuQOnly called Assassins ; they to Khorasan their of disturbances — already but too com- south-east of the' Caspian, from Rhages ; for the ripening of a sheik, or old man o± the plots and conspiracies lives were devoted to the behests mon — and the breaking forth of and wide to assassinate whom in the mountain, who sent them far side. The nobles fortified themselves Alamont. on every would. His chief abode was the Castle of plundered and took he different provinces they ruled, or of Mouht Depiavend, and in the devo- Secure in the fastnesses these petty sover- chiefs were long the terror ot arms against each other. But all tion of fanatic followers, these up families, col- of Tamerlane, whioji Europe and Asia. An offset of forty thousand eignties were absorbed in that tenets and habits, were onized on Mount Lebanon, of similar we proceed to sketch in the next chapter. the History of the Assas- destroyed by the Mamelukes. See sins, p. 240. TAMERLANE— HIS EARLY LIFE. 407

CHAPTER CCXI. enemies the idea that his ti%ops were numerous, and A. D. 1336 to 1368. he availed himself of the terror thus excited, and made -a bold This fertility of Tamerlane — His Birth, Childhood, Educa- and victorious charge. expedients won confidence, and with his other quali- tion, and Early Exploits. ties gained him the strong personal affection of his " The father of Tamerlane, or, as he is called by followers. Timour," says a Persian author,* " his countrymen, was To secure his inheritance, he was pbliged to make prince Tragai, his the wise and virtuous Emir and alliance with Hussein, a neighbor chief. Both encoun- beautiful the mother the chaste and Tekine Khatun, tered extreme perils in the perpetual wars which lawful wife of the emir." He was born near his harassed the empire through the feuds and ambition father's capital, Kech, (Tashkent,) called by his of the several chiefs. Timour bravely exposed him- " biographer, a delicious city," in A. D. 1336, under self in every engagement, but knew as well how to Zagatai. the reign of the Sultan Cazan, king of command as how to fight. He experienced every " of Prince Timour's birth- had been predicted to one vai:iety of fortune, — a conqueror, defeated, a pris- his ancestors, in a dream, wherein eight stars seemed oner, released, wounded, fleeing almost alone through to shoot out of the sleeper, and the eighth cast so deserts,* reappearing with a few vagabond troops, the four quar- great a splendor, that it enlightened augmenting his forces, received in the great cities, or to that ters of the world ; which was interpreted mean shut out with indignities, now on friendly terms, now a prince of his race should be born in the eighth at bitter feud with Hussein, his ally. In one of these generation, who should fill the world with the splendor contests he was wounded severely in the hand, and in of his virtues and conquests. Timour's horoscope, another in the foot, which gave him the sobriquet of which was drawn at the moment of his nativity, pre- Timur Lenk, that is, Timour the Lame, corrupted into dicted to him the crown and empire, with all manner Tamerlane. At length, he grew to be more powerful of prosperity, and a numerous issue." than his colleague, whose jealousy, avarice, and bad " This prince," adds the same writer,* "from his qualities estranged the affection both of his troops childhood showed himself likely to accomplish the and generals, while Timour's valor, aflability and equi- as attained predictions of his horoscope ; for as soon he ty captivated every heart. to the age of reason, something might be seen, in all Hussein, becoming jealous, attempted in every way his actions, which showed an air of sovereignty. He to put Timour in the wrong, and adopted such unjustifi- would talk of nothing but thrones and crowns; his Ejble measures, that Timour felt obliged to declare favorite diversions represented the military art, in war against hiin. Being taken prisoner in Balkh, and which he disposed of the youth who attended him as led to Timour, the recollection of their ancient friend- a prince disposes of his subjects, raising to the highest ship melted his rival to tears, and he could only say, deserving, giv- dignities those who appeared most and " I renounce my right to his life." At despotic courts ing to others the bare title of soldiers : he made fig- there are always those ready to execute the wishes to represent the armies of the enemy, ures of canes without waiting for the words of a king ; some of and then attacked them with his troops, among whom these followed Flussein out and killed him. Tamer- he observed a military discipline." lane was at last confirmed, by the khan of Zagatai, When he was more advanced in age, and capable in his hereditary principality of Kech, and intrusted of applying himself to the sterner exercises of the with a battalion of ten thousand horse. Not long " which body, far from choosing those pleasures most after, by an election to the office of khan, he found young persons fall into, as dancing and the like, himself at the head of ^n empire which he after- which rather eflfeminate than ennoble the mind, he ward augmented by victories that placed him among gave himself up to the science of arms." His chief the most renowned of conquerors. exer- diversions were riding, racing, fencing, and such Like all semi-barbarians and great conquerors, Tam- cises. He was likewise often at the chase — the only erlane presented the loftiest virtues in close proximity to took after his continual fatigues. recreation he the most horrible vices ; sublime justice side by side " exercises " Timour passed that part In these noble with atrocious oppression ; winning and simple-hearted his life which preceded his great and wonderful of benevolence with cruelty worthy of a fiend ; the ten- actions, that is, from his tenth year till his twenty- derest natural affection with the most revolting and " fifth, thereabouts ; for at that age, ambition having or unfeeling disregard of all domestic and social ties ; a despise dan- got possession of his heart, he began to deep sense of humility, dependence, and piety, in the a gers, to gain victories, and acquire the name of same heart with the most self-sufiicient arrogance to- great conqueror and intrepid hero." ward his fellow-creatures, —'trampling on every thing principality Being driven from his inheritance, the they held dear, and causing, by his flagitious ambition, distinguished of Kech, while yet a youth, Tamerlane the violent deaths, with more or less of misery, of mil- .encounters " himself by his intrepidity in several petty lions of the human race. Such " scourges of God as an adventurer, following his fortunes from place * It is told of him, that once, after three times suffering most to place. He did his country good service by expel- disastrous defeats, fleeing for bare life, and abandoned by all, the Getes,who invad- ling from it a powerful army of he had taken refuge, almost broken-hearted, in a ruined ed it from the north. With a mere handful of valiant building. Sunk in despondency, he was brooding over his men, aided by the stratagem of numerous camp fires desperate fortunes, when his eye rested on an ant who was laboring to carry a grain to her magazine, up the opposite on the mountains, he defeated their vast army in a des- wall. Ninety-nine times had she essayed the labor in vain, another occasion, he struck a panic perate onset. On but at the hundredth persevering effort, she accomplished into his foes, and took a fortified city with a small her endeavor. The indomitable patience and perseverance troop, whom he had ordered to tie long branches to the of so trifling an insect for a paltry grain, shamed the discour- empires at stake. He rose from sides of their horses. The dust thus raised gave his agement of him who had the ground, braced to new energy, a new man, hazarded the victorious. • Sherefeddin AH, of Yezd, and a contemporary. fortune of another battle, and was - ;

408 TAM£ItLAITB. have not orderly, proportionate, and harmonious char- enemies the remark, prophetic of the future, " Timour mission is acters — and their to reduce to chaos, not to is a wonderful man : fortune and the divine favor are evolve order ; to destroy, overturn, and unsettle, that wiA him." Reduced to ten, his little band lost three of fumre the foimdations progress may be laid broader, more by desertion : he wandered in the desert, was deeper, and better. The «lements being more diverse, plunged sixty-two days in a dungeon, swam the Oxus, and embracing a greater multitude of particulars, may and led the life of an outlaw ; but adversity taught him thus contribute to a wider harmony and a higher valuable lessons. order of things. Returning to his native country, certain partisans The philanthropic mind needs some such consolmg eagerly sought him, to join him in the desert. He pre- views to enable it to wade, with less disgust, through sented himself as a guide to three chiefs, and he thus the seas of blood and misery with which these fierce describes their recognition : " When their eyes fell upon countless and nomads of Asia have repeatedly flooded me, they were overwhelmed with joy ; and they alighted the earth. Tamerlane entertained, and actually ex- from their horses ; and they came and kneeled ; and pressed, tlie idea, that it was " neither consistent nor they kissed my stirrup. I also came down from my proper that the earth should be shared between two mon- horse, and took each of them in my arms. And I put archs." His first object, therefore, was universal do- my turban on the head of the first chief; and ray minion. To live in the memory and esteem of future girdle, rich in jewels and wrought with gold, I bound ages was his second wish ; and this seems to have on the loins of the second ; and the third I clothed been associated in his half-enlightened mind, with the in my own coat. And they wept, and I wept also purpose of propagating what he conceived to be the and the hour of prayer was arrived, and we prayed. true religion. And we mounted our horses, and came to my dwell- Among the early exploits of Tamerlane, it is related ing; and I collected my people and made a feast." that once, after waiting in vaui for confederates who The touching simplicity and natural pathos of this failed to join him, he fled from the hills of Samarcand narration is only equalled in Scripture. The scene into the desert, with only sLxty horsemen. He was reminds one of Esau, Jacob, and Abraham, or of overtaken and attacked by a thousand Getes, whom he David and Jonathan, in its patriarchal and primitive repulsed with incredible slaughter, and forced from his tone.

Bsjazet and Tameilane.

oflTering of siUcs, horses, and jewels, composed, after CHAPTER CCXII. the Tartar custom, each of nine pieces ; there were A. S. 1369 to A. S. 1405. but eight slaves in the present. " I myself am the

ninth," said the servile prince ; and re- Tamirlane^s Conquests — His Government Tamerlane warded the orientalism with a smile. and Death. The valiant prince of Fars, in a battle under the Tameklane placed twenty-seven crowns upon his walls of Shiraz, broke the main body of the emperor's head successively, and made thirty-five campaigns. horse, thirty thousand strong, with three or four thou- On the death of his khan, he was elected, as before sand soldiers. Tamerlane remained near the standard remarked, to the empire, by the couroultai or diet. with but fourteen or fifteen guards, where he received

He soon united to the patrimony of Zagatai, previously on his helmet two weighty strokes of a cimeter ; but described, the dependent countries of Kharasm and he was not beaten down. His Mongols rallied, and after Kandahar, and then turned to Persia. Since Abusaid's a severe struggle were victorious. The head ofthe brave death, that unhappy land had been without a lawful sov- prince of Fars was thrown at Tamerlane's feet, who — ereign ; indeed, for forty years, peace and justice had afterwards took care to extirpate the prince's familf been banished from its borders. Its petty tyrants were every male of so formidable a race ! Advancing to the conquered in detail. One of them brought his peace- Persian Gulf, the conqueror compelled Ormuz, the bland CONQUESTS OP TAMERLANE. 409 queen of commerce, to pay annually six hundred thou- employed fire, a ditch of iron spikes, and a rampart of sand dinars of gold. The plains anf* valleys of Tigris bucklers, to allay the uneasiness of the troops ; but the and Euphrates were subdued, and the rest of the country Mongols soon learned to smile at their own fears, and as far north as Caucasus, and west to Lebanon and the as soon as these unwieldy animals were routed, the men Othmans. disappeared from the field. Delhi was given to pillage

On the side of Tartary, Tamerlane passed the Jax- and massacre ; Tamerlane advanced one hundred artes, adding a broad strip of territory, north of it, to his miles to the north-east, and passed the Ganges; his domains, by conquering a large part oflKipzak. On return route was along the northern hills. the side of Cashgar, he subdued that kingdom, marching Among the incidents of this wanton inroad, in which seven times into the heart of the country, and once millions perished, it is related that a city of the Ghe- nearly fifteen hundred miles to the north-east of Samar- bers, or fire-worshippers, was bargaining for its ran- cand. On this side lay the Ouigoor kingdom, which, som ; but during the delay, a breach in the walls was with that of Thibet, south of it, separated his empire effected, through which the ruthless troops entered. from the Ming empire of China, and the remnant of The dispersed Ghebers themselves set fire to their that of the Mongols to the north of China. houses, threw their wives, their children, and all their The contest with the Kipzak empire is interesting. wealth into the flames, and perished to the last man, Tamerlane had protected its fugitive prince, and re- bravely defending themselves on the smoking ruins. stored him to his throne; but the prince, after ten Such was the fanatical butchery practised upon these years, forgot these benefits, and marched against the ancient sectaries, the Ghebers, that it seemed a hunt, " usurper of the rights of the house of Zingis," as he rather than a war. Those who fled to the mountains called his benefactor. On the west of the Caspian, he and caverns, where they thought themselves inacces- entered Persia through the gates of Derbend, with sible, were dismayed to see wooden trunks suspended ninety thousEind horse. On the east of that sea and to iron chains at the entrance of their retreats, pouring the Aral, gathering together the innumerable forces of forth fierce soldiers, who pursued them into the dark- Kipzak, Bulgaria, Circassia, and Russia, he passed the ness of their caves with relentless carnage. Jaxartes, burned the palaces of Tamerlane, and com- Previous to the battle at Delhi, Tamerlane was pelled him, amid the snows of winter, to contend for told that his camp was filled with prisoners, chiefly Samarcand and his life. After a mild expostulation, Ghebers and idolaters, — the garrisons of the cities he continues a historian, and a glorious victory, Tamer- had taken, — who, during the engagement, might " lane resolved on revenge ; and by the east and the west escape to the enemy. Let them be put to death," of the Caspian and the Volga, he twice invaded Kipzak said this devout butcher of his race ; and in less than with such a mighty army, that thirteen miles were meas- an hour, upwards of one hundred thousand wretched ured from his right to his left wing. In a march of five victims were massacred. It is scarcely possible to months, they rarely beheld the footsteps of man ; and conceive of the prodigious booty amassed by this unin- their daily subsistence was often trusted to the fortune terrupted plunder and devastation of the richest country of the chase. in the world. Every soldier was loaded with diamonds

At length, the armies met : the standard-bearer of and jewels, and dragged in his train a multitude of Kipzak treacherously reversed the imperial standard, slaves, of which the meanest in the ranks claimed some thus discouraging his troops, and Tamerlane was victo- scores. rious. Thus, in the words of the conqueror, did the Insurrections in Persia called Tamerlane away from Kipzak prince give the tribe of the son of Zingis " to the further prosecution of this ghazi, or " holy war," the winds of desolation." After burning several cap- as he termed it, his antagonists being chiefly non-Ma- itals, taking prisoner a duke of Russia, terrifying Mos- hometans. After quelling the disturbances in Pei-sia, cow and Novgorod, and reducing Azof to ashes, the he marched to other religious massacres in Georgia. Mongols returned loaded with an immense spoil of Here his conscience did not oblige him to make nice precious furs, linens, and ingots of gold and silver. distinctions, as all were Christians, and therefore proper (A. D. 1383.) victims. His soldiery scoured the rocks and caverns In 1398, Tamerlane proposed to invade India. His of Georgia, in chase of the Christians, as they had Boldiers murmured against the dangers and hardships already hunted down the Ghebers, and with the same of such a campaign ; and talked with fear of the success. Tired with murderous brutality, the devasta- " rivers, mountains, deserts, soldiers in armor, ele- tors at last accepted tribute, instead of exterminating phants, destroyers of men." But the frown of their their opponents. The whole territory of Georgia would emperor was more terrible than all these, and he knew have bowed to the yoke, had not a quarrel, rather of the real weakness and anarchy of Hindostan. The pique than interest, made Tamerlane turn his ban- invading army had ninety-two squadrons of horse, and ners against BajaMt, emperor of the Turks. moved in three divisions. In crossing the Hindoo He first, however, entered Syria, and, with the Mountains, at their terrible pass, multitudes of men and slaughter of hundreds of thousands of human beings, horses perished in the snow. At five several places, destr9yed Damascus, and made himself master of the emperor was let down a precipice on a portable Bagdad. These transactions we have elsewhere al- scaffold, by ropes one hundred and fifty cubits long. luded to. The soldiers were commanded to bring each

Crossing the Indus at Attok, he advanced by a cir- of them a head : towers of human heads were then cuitous route to Delhi, a great city, which had flour- constructed here, as had been the barbarian's custom ished for three centuries under Mahometan kings. elsewhere. At one time, he precipitated four thousand The weak sultan was inveigled from his strong castle soldiers, together with their horses, into the moat of a and city, and came out into the plain with ten thousand city he had taken, who were all buried alive. In an cuirassiers, forty thousand foot guards, and one hundred expedition agamst the Getes, he once took two thou- and twenty elephants, whose tusks were armed with sand prisoners, and had them piled upon one another sharp and pointed daggers. Against these, Tamerlane alive, with bricks and mortar between, to construct 410 CRUELTIES —TAME BLANK'S MAGNIFICENCE.

towers. This horrible species of cruelty w£is not in- Both these victorious barbarians were but too much frequent with him. alike in arrogance and ruthless ambition. Ispahan, in which were reckoned a million of inhab- The forces of Bajazet consisted of four hundred itants, having rebelled, he issued a mandate, ordering thousand horse and foot, among whom were forty the massacre of all the population, except those who thousand Janizaries, a large body of national cavalry, had saved the lives of some of his soldiers. To insure twenty thousand cuirassiers of Europe, clad in black the execution of this sanguinary edict, each company and impenetrable armor ; the troops of , and a was obliged to furnish a stated number of heads. The colony of Tartars driven from Kipzak by Tamerlane, troops bought them of each other to complete their The army was posted in the plain near Siwas. Tamer-

contingent. So many were slaughtered, that at last, lane moved from the Araxes through Armenia : his bold- sold heads were for a trifling sum. ness was secured by the wisest precautions ; his speed

According to the register of the divan, seventy was guided by order and discipline ; and the woods, thousand heads were thus procured, and were the mountains, and the rivers were diligently explored employed with stones and mortar, as building by the flying squadrons, who marked his road, and materials for towers in various parts of the city. preceded his standard. He avoided Siwas, and, At the taking of Aleppo, the tale of heads for marching to the heart of the , invested

building towers was required ; the streets streamed Angora. Bajazet hastened to meet him, and the im- with blood, and reechoed to the shrieks of violated patient rivals joined battle in the plains around the maidens, and the cries of mothers and children. All city. but one family, and a colony of artificers sent to The result of this mighty contest we have already Samarcand, were massacred at the taking of Da- stated, in another place. Tamerlane triumphed, and

mascus, through shameless perfidy ; ten millions of for this signal victory he was indebted to himself, to gold were exacted, and the city reduced to ashes. On the genius of the moment, and the discipline of thirty the ruins of Bagdad a pyramid of ninety thousand years. He had improved the tactics, without violating heads was erected. the manners of his nation, whose force still consisted Yet Tamerlane was not all savage. An historian in the missile weapons and rapid evolutions of a remarks of him, that he took great delight in seeing numerous cavalry. From a single troop to a great

his army recreating themselves in games and festivals, army, the mode of attack was the same : a foremost for whole days together, after victory. He then would line first advanced to the charge, and was supported, reward his generals with vests of honor and jewels, in a just order, by the squadrons of the great vanguard. warmly interest himself in their happiness, be pres- The general's eye watched over the field, and at his ent at their weddings, and in any prosperity attendant command, the front and rear of the right and left on himself, receive their felicitations with marks of sen- wings successively moved forward in their several

sibility. On his sister's congratulating him at the birth divisions, and in a direct or oblique line ; the enemy of a grandson, he gave a splendid feast at his capital, was pressed by eighteen or twenty attacks, and each tents attack victory. If they all Samarcand. The .occupied a space of six miles ; afforded a chance of his pavilion, placed beneath a canopy supported by forty proved fruitless or unsuccessful, the occasion was columns, was as spacious as a palace. When all was worthy of the emperor himself, who gave the signal prepared, the emperor advanced, with the crown of advancing to the standard and main body, which he encircling his brow, and the sceptre in his hand, and led in person. But in the battle of Angora, the main seated himself, on a throne raised in the middle of his body itself was supported, on the flanks and in the tent, and ornamented with precious stones. rear, by the bravest squadrons of the reserve, com- A great number of the most beautiful females of manded by the sons and grandsons of Tamerlane. Asia, shaded with veils of gold brocade studded with " In that day, Bajazet displayed the qualities of a jewels, filled the two sides of the throne. The musi- soldier and a chief; but his genius sunk under a ; cians occupied two rows : nine stewards holding golden stronger ascendant " and from various motives the maces, preceded the courses, and were followed by cup- greater part of his troops failed him at the decisive bearers, holding decanters containing red wine, white moment. In his right wing the cuirassiers of Europe wine, wine of Shiraz, Mazanderan, and Kozroan, and charged, with faithful hearts and irresistible arms;

brandy as clear as rock water. The multitude of but these men of iron were soon broken by an artful !l lovely women, whose braided hair reached the ground, flight and headlong pursuit, and the Janizaries alone, gave additional lustre to the assembly. -The festival without cavalry or missile weapons, were encompassed ended with shows and dances. as by a circle of Mongol hunters. Their valor was During the diversion of the Mongol arms — after the at length oppressed by heat, thirst, and the weight of

destruction of Bajazet's city of Siwas — toward Syria numbers ; and the unfortunate Bajazet, afflicted with and Arabia, the Turkish emperor, who had been the gout in his hands and feet, was transported from besieging Constantinople, had two years to collect his the field on the fleetest of his horses. He was pur- forces for the final encounter. In Tamerlane's first sued and taken, as we have elsewhere related in the expedition, he andBajazet had addressed to each other a history of the Turks.

great deal of imperial billingsgate and bravado, in which The kingdom of Anatolia submitted ; the usual the Mongol calls the Ottoman" nothing but a Turkman," scenes of rapine and destruction were enacted on all " and himself, a Turk ; bids him be wise in time, re- sides. The spoil of the palace and city of Brusa was

flect, repent, and avert the thunder of our vengeance. immense ; the royal treasure was carried into Europe

Thou ant," he exclaims, "why wilt thou seek to by Bajazet's son : the inhabitants had fled. The

provoke elephants .' They will trample thee under buildings, mostly of wood, were burnt. Smyrna, their feet." Bajazet replies still more indecorously, obstinately defended by the knights of Rhodes, was and makes domestic allusions, which are considered taken by storm, by Tamerlane himself. All that the most degrading insult and unpardonable offence. breathed were put to the sword, and the heads of the ;

DEATH OF TAMERLANE. 411

Christian heroes were launched from the engines on vellous pageant, with the materials of its peculiar board two great ships in the harbor. Turks and Chris- art.* tians combined to hold the Straits of the Dardanelles and After the marriage contracts had been ratified by cadis, the Bosphorus against the passage of Tamerlane ; but from the bridegrooms and their brides retired to

the Irtysh and Volga to the Persian Gulf, and from their nuptial chambers : nine times, according to the

the Ganges to Damascus and the Archipelago, Asia Asiatic fashion, they were dressed and undressed ; and was in his power. at each change of apparel, pearls and rubies were Some assert that Ba.jazet was put into^n iron cage, showered on their heads,t and abandoned, with mag- and thus carried round in triumph, wherever his con- nificent indifference, to their attendants. A general

queror marched. This opinion has been already alluded indulgence was proclaimed ; every law was relaxed, to. Others profess to record the high respect, kind every pleasure was allowed. The proclamation of treatment, and soothing words of Tamerlane to him, the emperor went forth — " This is the season of feasts, with a promise to reinstate him in yet ampler domin- of pleasure, and of rejoicing. No one is allowed to dispute or reprimand. ions — a purpose frustrated, it is said, by Bajazet's un- Let not the rich exult over the timely death. The conqueror seems at first, in the poor, nor the powerful over the weak. Let no one noble senti- ask his neighbor. Why hast thou ?" . complacency of victory, to have uttered acted thus The

promises ; but the festival continued two months ; the people free ments and made magnanimous were ;

unreasonable arrogance of Bajazet appears to have the sovereign was idle ; and after devoting fifty years alienated him — united, as we have elsewhere related, to the attainment of empire,- the only happy period of with the complaints of the princes whom he had his life was, probably, these two months, in which he oppressed, and whom Tamerlane restored- to their suspended the exercise of his power. lawful sovereignties. The captive's attempt to escape But he was soon awakened to the cares of govern- by mining under the tent, might, in their constant ment and war. The standard was unfurled for the

march, have seemed to require even an iron cage, or a invasion of China ; the emirs made their report of two wagon, for security. hundred thousand troops in arms, the select and vet- Solyman, son of Bajazet, — at this time king of Ro- eran soldiers of Persia and Turkestan. Their bag- mania, in Europe, — and the Greek emperor, both paid gage and provisions were transported by five hundred tribute, took investiture from, and swore allegiance to great wagons, and an immense train of horses and cam- Tamerlane. The sultan of Egypt submitted, and els. The troops were prepared for a long absence, coin was struck and prayers were said for the con- for it was a six months' journey of a caravan from

queror, at Csuro. This indefatigable man now medi- Samarcand to Pekin ; and it is said that an army of tated, in his camp at Smyrna, the conquest of China, one million two hundred thousand men was gathered

at the other end of Asia ! By filling that empire with for the mighty enterprise. mosques, and drenching it with heathen blood, the Neither age nor the severity of winter could retard

fanatical hero hoped to atone for the Moslem blood he the impatience of Tamerlane ; he mounted on horse- ^ had shed, and smooth his path to heavenly bliss. back, passed the Jaxartes on the ice, marching three While he was still in Asia Minor, he sent forward hundred miles from his capital, and pitched his last pioneers beyond the Jaxartes, to subdue the pagan camp in the vicinity of Otrar, " where he was ex- Kalmucks and Mongols, found cities and magazines in pected by the angel of death." Fatigue and the the desert, and prepare his road through Central indiscreet use of iced water, accelerated the progress Asia. of a fever, with which he was seized, and the con- After the war with Bajazet, Tamerlane returned queror of Asia expired, in the seventieth year of his once more to his capital, Samarcand. Here he dis- age — thirty-five years after he had ascended the played, in a short repose, his magnificence and power throne of Zagatai, A. D. 1405. His designs were

. listened to the complaints of the people ; distributed a lost, his armies were disbanded, China was saved.

just measure of rewards and punishments ; employed As to his personal habits, Tamerlane was fond of

!», his riches in building palaces and temples ; and gave chess, and invented a new game. He was also fond

audience to the ambassadors of Egypt, Arabia, India, of reading, especially ' history. His custom was to Tartary, Russia, and Spain, A. D. 1404, 1405. The converse for a while, every evening, with men of liter- emperor now occupied himself with the marriage of ature and information, whose company he prized.

six of his grandsons ; and this being esteemed an act He saw to all details, and left; nothing to others that he of religion, as well as of paternal tenderness, the could attend to himself. His memory was so reten- pomp of the ancient khalifs was revived in their nup- tive, that his minute questionings, as to different tials. On this occasion, the nobility and people of Asia crowded to its centre — the city of Samarcand. * Shops were erected, furhislied with whatever was The nuptials were celebrated in the gardens of Car- most rare ; and amphitheMres, covered with brocades and Persian carpets, were filled with dancers and musicians. ighul, decorated with inumerable tents and pavilions, Every trader appeared with the attributes of his profession, the which displayed the luxury of a great city, and and in suitable <^guise. Butchers were dressed in the skins furriers as leop- spoils of a victorious camp. Whole forests were cut of beasts ; and under a farcical accoutrement — ards, lions, tigers, foxes, &o., aiming to excel in his pecu- down to supply fuel for the kitchens ; the plain was each liar way. The upholsterers appeared as painted calicoes ; the spread with pyramids of meat, and vases of every cotton-workers as a minaret extremely lofty, which might have liquor, to which thousands of guests were courteously as litters the been taken for a building of bricks ; saddlers ; invited ; the orders of the state and the nations of the ftuit-sellers as portable gardens, abounding with pistachio earth, including the ambassadors of Europe, were nuts, almonds, pomegranates. There was not any animal, even the not imitated by machinery. marshalled at the royal banquet. The public joy was not elephant, which was t This sprinkling of jewels over the person was an act testified by illuminations and masquerades ; the trades of respect usual on the return of a prince, to give him wel- of Samarcand passed in review ; and every trade was come. It was also practised as an act of.homage, on visiting emulous to execute some quaint device, some mar- a superior, and at the coronation of sovereigns. ; ;

412 PERSON OF TAMERLANE— THE TARTAR RACE. circumstances and persons, — on revisiting the great this line, all are nomads ; there is little or no culture, varie'y of places that he passed through, — astonished and but two towns appear. After a few general re- his those who knew the vastness of aifairs. He omitted marks upon these two modes of Tartar life, the settled no opportunity of doing honor to the tomb of a saint, and the pastoral, noticing some peculiarities of each, or a relic, either from policy to secure to himself the we shall glance at the government, religion, and com- veneration of the masses, or — which is quite as prob- merce of Tartary. A tabular view of the migrations, able — from a strong native tinge of superstition in his empires, and position of the various tribes who have own mind. figured on this broad theatre will then be presented In person, Tamerlane was corpulent and robust, of and our history of Tartary will be. concluded with an advantageous height, and well made. He had a high some general reflections on the past and future of that forehead, large head, and an engaging air ; a ruddy, important, though neglected, portion of our globe. " fair complexion, a long beard, broad shoulders, thick The settled Tartars are found chiefly south of the fingers," and long legs. He was lame, both in his right Jaxartes and of the Celestial Mountains, beside those hand and foot, from wounds. His eyes, though not south of the great wall, who, having become Chinese, are brilliant, were full of fire. His voice was loud and sufficiently described elsewhere. We have seen that piercing. " Never a prince," says his biographer, towns and settled agriculturists have characterizted- " carried a more majestic and terrible air in his wrath, these regions from the earliest ages. Submerged for nor yet a more sweet and agreeable one when he was a time, by each successive wave of barbarism, pleased to bestow his favors." these communities have raised their heads again after Even in old age, he retained a sound mind, a strong the flood has passed. But so many have been these body, a great share of firmness, and an unshaken conquests, that the inhabitants have become a min- constancy. The judicial formula he adopted was, gled race, who, as a conquered people, have been " : By virtue of the laws of Zingis Khan " for him he named, in general, tajiks,thB.t is " tributaries,"— a name had the greatest veneration. He loved the truth with- which has become equivalent to burgesses or citizens. out disguise, even though it were to his disadvantage. As a race, all these nations have some common char- " The motto of his seal was, I am simple and sin- acteristics, and there seems to have been as the basis cere." " His equality of soul was undisturbed either of all the communities a peculiar and almost aboriginal in prosperity or misfortune." But it requires a larger people. compass than this succinct history, to do justice to this This peculiar people — sometimes called Bukhara, extraordinary man, painted in such contrasted colors and who, unlike the rest of the Tartars, are not divided by friendly or hostile hands, and whose career in- into tribes — are characterized as of good stature, and volved the violent death, it is believed, of ten or twelve rather fair for the climate. The generality have large,

millions of his fellow-beings. Of one thing, it is sparkling, black eyes ; an aquiline nose ; a well-

asserted, he might boast — that, at his accession to the formed countenance ; very fine, black hair ; a bushy

throne, Asia was the prey of anarchy and rapine beard ; in fine, they are quite exempt from the de- while, under his prosperous , a child, fearless formity of the Tartars, amongst whom they live. The and unhurt, might carry a purse of gold from the women, for the most part, are tall, and have beautiful east to the west. features and complexions. The difference between

Whatever were the blessings of Tamerlane's ad- the dress of the two sexes is inconsiderable : they

ministration, they ceased with his life. Among his both wear long robes ; but those of the females are

thirty-six sons and seventeen daughters and their chil- always the most ornamented. Their religion is the dren, not one was found equal to the task of governing Mahometan. They chiefly subsist by commerce and the empire. His son Charoc alone upheld its glory for trade. They never embarrass themselves either with

a time ; but on his death, scenes of darkness and blood war or politics, but leave those points to the Usbecks were renewed, such as from time immemorial have in- and Kalmucks, contenting themselves with paying their

volved the destinies of Tartary. Before the end of a taxes ; on which account the Tartars despise them, century, Transoxiana and Persia (Touran and Iran) and treat them as a simple, pusillanimous people.

were ravaged by the Usbecks from the north, and the Their origin is unknown : they report themselves to Turcomans of the Black and White Sheep. Tamer- have emigrated from a very distant country. Hence lane's race would have been extinct, if a hero — his they might be thought to be the descendants of captives descendant in the fifth degree — had not fled before the transplanted to these regions by primeval conquerors, Usbeck arms to the conquest of Hindostan. The beyond the reach of tradition. The superior intelli- successors of this individual, " the Grand Moguls," gence of the race is indicated by the fact that their ruled from Cashmere to Cape Comorin, and from Per- cities, from time immemorial, have been the resorts of sia to Farther India. Their annals form the subject Turks and Tartars for instruction, and the foci of of succeeding chapters. Asiatic learning. The eastern Tajiks, or Bukhars, are no less interest- ing. Something has been said of their manners and

dress ; and of their cities of Cashgar, Yarkand, Kho- tan, &c. The roving conquerors, become peaceful CHAPTER CCXIII. governors and magistrates of these towns, learned that other arts were of value and General Views of Tartary. besides those of war, turned their energies into new channels. Thus have On a retrospective view of Tartary and the Tartars, the Bukhar, the Chinese, the Hindoo, the Arab, the a broad distinction strikes the mind at once. South of Syrian and the Greek, elevated and civilized the

a line drawn from the Yellow Sea, along the Chinese Turk, Scythian, or Tartar, of whatever name ; while wall, and extended to the Caspian, we find the nomadic the latter have inoculated the antiquated and worn-out

stiff- mingled with the agricultural and city life ; north of or effeminate framework of southern society — ;

THE TARTAR RACE. 413 ened by age or corrupted by luxury — witli the free- rosy countenances, and the richness of their dresses. born pulses of the wilderness. Their robes were of beautiful blue satin, their caps of The true Tartar countenance — Mongol, Kalka, sable, and their silken zones were interwoven with Eleut, or Kalmuck — has a national character distin- silver, and adorned with large cornelians, with which guishing it from every other. A middle stature, but even their saddles were decorated.

; flat visage olive thickset and robust a long head ; ; an The chief and only city of a vast extent of country or copper colored complexion ; animated black eyes, is Ourga, which has already been described. Like the and too far asdiider well- extremely sunk, by much ; a ancient capital, Karakorum, it is a village of tents,

; teeth, ivory formed mouth small of an whiteness ; a with a few wooden buildings. In literature, the Tar- crushed nose, almost on a level with the rest of the face, tar has little or nothing but songs, and the theo- flat showing only two immensely wide nostrils ; large logical books of Thibet. As to government, the best ears ; black hair, coarse as a horse's mane, which is idea of the political constitution of the Mongols, Kal- kept close shaved, except one lock on the top of the mucks, and Kirghis is given to the reader, when he is head that is suffered to grow ;— these features, softened told that it resembles that of the kingdoms of Europe in the female, constitute what is considered a hand- in the . some Tartar couple. Like most barbarous tribes, the Tartars had — and The pastoral life is the one most characteristic of some of the ruder hordes have still — a religion, Tartary. Of the purely nomadic tribes, the Turco- which, like the Fetishism of Africa, worships remarka- mans and Kirghis, on the west, have been sufficiently ble objects in nature, such as kindle affection or excite noticed, (pp. 378, 379,) as also the Usbecks — the latter fear. Sometimes horrible rites form part of the wor- chiefly settled as rulers over the southern countries of ship. The priests, who are conjurers and jugglers, Independent Tartary. Some few Usbecks, we believe, are called Shamans, and pretend to magic. The Tar- must still be classed among the nomads. Whether tar religion, called Shamanism, is said to be a modifica- stationary or roving, the Usbecks are esteemed the tion of Buddhism. Lamaism is, however, the chief

most civilized of the Mahometan races of Tartary, religion of the Mongols : this is described in our history

though still addicted to their ancestral practices of rob- of Thibet. The faith of Independent Tartary is bery and slave trading. chiefly Mahometanism, and its professors are quite For the true picture of nomadic life, however, we bigoted. must pass into Mongolia, where it is seen in all its un- In most parts of Tartary, plundering fprays have sophisticated freedom. The Kalmucks, who, in the been exchanged for the peaceful march of caravans. time of their empire, ruled in the cities of Peloo and Russia and China are putting the restless nomads to . Nanloo, as they still do under the Chinese, have their best use, by making them carriers of merchandise. alrea^ been sufficiently noticed, at pp. 384, 385. The caravan trade of Tartary is very active. Its great They seem to have been undergoing, for some ages, routes are fi'ora Orenburg, through Bokhara, to Persia the civilizing process, through the influence of the and India ; from Bokhara, through Yarkand, to Chi- conquered nations, and intercourse with the two great na ; from Goulja to the north and west ; and also south, empires of Russia and China. Their two chief cities through Aksou to Khotan, and thence to Thibet and are Ooroomtsi and Goulja ; the latter is the Chinese cap- India. In short, caravan routes cross Tartary in every ital of the whole of this western countrj'', called New direction. Chinese custom-houses, provided with rev- Frontier, by Kien-long, emperor of China, after he enue officers, collect the duties on the Chinese frontier. had conquered it in 1758. Beside the moneys of Russia and China, Tartary has Among the Kalka and Shara Mongols, travellers a currency of its own. This consists of brick-shaped

show us pleasing pastoral scenes, which rival the de- ,, bundles of tea, made by mixing the sweepings of scriptions of the poets. The tents of the patriarchs are the tea factories of China with a glutinous substance seen upon the broad plain, or the sunny slope, which pressing them into shape, and drying them in ovens is enlivened by herds of camels, horses, oxen, sheep, Pounded to powder, and mingled in boiling water with and goats. The camp of the chief, intersected like the salt, flour, and milk, it is a universal beverage of Tar- different quarters of a town, and formed of tents, over- tary. Hence its use as currency. spread with a strong, close kind of cloth, variegated To conclude our history of the Tartars, it only re- with the most lively tints, presents a very agreeable mains to give a rapid sketch of the conquests lately spectacle. The women are sometimes lodged in small made and still held by the Chinese. In 1410, Young- wooden houses, which, in a few minutes, may be lo, emperor of China, marched, at the head of five taken to pieces and packed hi a cart, whenever they hundred thousand men, against Oloutai, who had wish to decamp. The Tartar of the desert has many assassinated the khan of the Mongols, taken his place, pleasing traits of manners. The mode of salutation and defeated a Chinese general commanding one hun- among the wild horsemen of the steppes is singular dred thousand horsemen. These Mongols were the and striking. As he approaches, he alights, bends his same nation that had lately been expelled from the left knee, sets his right arm akimbo, and touching the government of China. This prince, Oloutai, gave name elbow with the left hand, exclaims. Amour, that is, to the Eleuts, and, on becoming khan, took the " peace," " tranquillity." The appearance of a chief of name of Bouniachiri. The Chinese emperor defeated two thousand families, travelling from the banks of the his enemies, and drove them far west ; but, attempting Selinga, is a fine picture, as described by a traveller. to cross the desert in pursuit of a division of them, he He was surrounded by the Mongols of his chieftaincy — lost many troops, and was unable to find the foe. armed with bows and arrows — and was accompanied In 1449, Esen, a Mongol, defeated five hundred by his mother, wife, and younger brother, his sisters, thousand Chinese, led by the emperor, whose min- and a pumerous suite, all mounted on fine horses. isters and generals all perished in tbe battle. In- This troop was distinguished by its splendid appearance vasions, with various success, make up the Mongol the women, ia particular, were remarkable for their annals of this period. The several tribes successively . , 1y '

414 TAETARS—ETHNICAL VIEW OP TARTARY. submitted to Veu-ti, emperor of the Manchoos, about After Eastern Turkestan had been conquered by the year 1634. In 1677, Galdan, prince of the Eleuts, Kien-long, in 1757, the Soongarians were extermi- pillaged and laid waste the north-west countries, nated ; no less than a million being put to death Khanghai, emperor of China, under pretence of recon- during the war. Their province was now called JZi, ciling the tribes, interfered in their disputes, and in and, being inhabited partly by agriculturists, removed 1691, the Kalkas submitted, and every tribe paid the from China and Eastern Turkestan, it serves as can- tribute of the nine whites, as they called it, namely, tonments for the Manchoo soldiers. These, united eight white horses and a white camel, which has been to the Solons and Mongols, under the command of a paid ever since. This commences a new epoch for general-in-chief, form the Chinese army of observation the Mongols, who gave in their adherence to the em- against Russia and the Kirghis hordes. pire, one tribe after another, and were located with In order to give the reader, at a glance, a key to the fixed boundaries by the court of Pekin. The Mongols foregoing history of Tartary, we have prepared the are thus divided into one hundred and forty-one ban-, following table of its various tribes, empires, and ners, which are now supposed to number two million nations, at several different epochs. souls.

Historical and Ethnographical Tatle of Tartary,

People. 1000. A. D. 635. . D. A. D. AneUnilj/. Praient Namea. A. D. 1368 D. 1290. iMft'l A. D. 112S. A. ^£- |

Klr^hU, > I'Polowlzes '°.^.fff°'Schi„™r';r,i£l;"i, 'Huna,Alansi Klr^his DsbeckB., ..Kipzak empire Kipzah empire.' . < and Kara- tribes, and and Masta* Couackt { m 865.$Clihiese r kiiai Iloei-lioo .gei*. V. emplrej ^Zasfttid I Mong'oli, •White 5 King , 'Teta em- pire, and Vuetcbi, Kbanati (Kinjfdom of •\ {Empires or Indo* Bukhari, "S of Bok- Miiwarftnnahr I Kara-kltni Empire ol Scythians; GREAT BC* Usbecka, I hara,n«rft, J ..Zagattd empire orlraiiaox-r and Hoei-hoo Baclrian 1 }^ CHARIA and ^ ( Badak. Unaodl^T* J Ghizne empire; ^BadakBhan Zagata! empire n Ghizne and Par- Uolor thian enb>

Chinese empire of Kirshii, '^ fTliB OuStaf CKnm-tdlal "l KirgbiB ' the I'hang 'Joiian- SOONGARIA Kamiucki, I . .] tribes, empire V and other dynasty i Jouftu and or PELOO Chinese, and 1 Kingdom irlboa . [ ol)BCurQ Mixed iribes J V.of C^hg>ir OiilvQor tribes. Eleut Bishbalitci(c [i Zaeatai ^irej •••.. ' Nations at LITTLE BU- Empire. empire, Kam-klbd. . , Ancient Peraiai anu Eleut tritiea Kdm. ofKaidon * ti mea in CHARU, or tributary __ Kirghis tribes or Bukhara, Kin^oms ytof 5^ alliance or EatUrn Tur- Tamerlane Turks, of ashlar, J tributary keaUtn, or C Kalmucks, of . (Kingdom* to Cliina. Chinese T^r- Khoun, Chinese, of KnotHn Various ' keatan, or ( Oui^or

i, tribes ,

fKalkas, /"Northern Tuen Oouan- 5 Mongol \ Mongol * l Sharas, \ empire ; Exp. Jouan. tribes tribes i ^.Kalmucki X \ from China ^ Mongolingoi ChineseCh: or Manchoo r Yuen, TEmpire ol rKhitnn < Kin, or Al- < Liao em* empira. (Tunniuses, Empire of Kuh- {, toun Khan V. P>'e fTungouses, Northern \ Chy Goel*^ Tungoua MANCHOORIA < Miiuchoo Yuen, and Muk- i land } Aquatic \ tribes Tar* J by tribes J tars

We have thus given the history of Tartary with some future, we may anticipate the time when, through minuteness of detail, because this wide region has been Russian power, European civilization shall be extend- at all times the great nursery of nations — the armory ed to Eastern and Northern Tartary, and, through the of divine Providence, whence were drawn the weap- channels of trade, pervade all the countries lying be- ons for the destruction of corrupt, worn-out, or imbe- tween the empire of the czar and the vast Oriental cile nations — the great store house of materials for possessions of the English. Our own frontier, too, has the reconstruction of new empires, nations, or commu- been removed two thousand miles nearer to Asia, and nities, who should carry forward the progress of the the power of steam has shortened the distance one human race to higher and still higher standards of half to Siberia, Tartary, Japan, and China. With the character, activity, and usefulness. Here originated coming age, then, what a glorious field for American the destroyers of the African, Assyrian, Indian, Grecian, enterprise may we not anticipate will be opened upon Roman, and Chinese civilizations, and the regenerators the western shores of the Pacific, to our brethren of of China, Hindostan, Persia, and Europe. Here we that part of our empire which lies on the eastern

perceive, at one view, nations in all stages of progress, shores of that boundless sea ! Placed as we are, the from the savage to the Christian. It is particularly central nation between the two populous and wealthy interesting to behold here the prototypes of the In- extremes of the old world, the relations of our coun- dians of the United States, whose manners bear so try, we may readily perceive, are attaining a breadth of the ancient and grandeur intellect . strong a resemblance to those pres- and capable of tasking the mightiest * ent ruder tribes of Tartary. Looking forward into the and the widest philanthropy. THE GRAND MOGULS—BABEK. 416

€^t ffinpl fm^iirt

CHAPTER CCXiy. Baber was the son of the sovereign of two kingdoms in A. B. 1413 to 15SS. Western Tartary, called Fergana and Indija. This sovereign was great-great-grandson of Tamerlane. The Empire Baber Humaioon Mogul — — — He called Baber to the throne at the age of twelve, Shere — Selim — Death flumaioon. of and the history of this prince's youth is extremely ro- Dttring the fifteenth century, a brilliant offset from mantic. At his father's death, which happened soon

the widely-scattered fragments of the Tartar empires after, Baber's uncles besieged the capital, to take it transplanted itself upon the genial soil of Hindostan, from him ; but a pestilence broke up their army. Hav- occupying very nearly the whole peninsula. Here it ing subdued several rebellious governors, the boy king long attracted the admiring gaze of the Western took Samarcand ; but as he would not allow his army world for its grandeur, magnificence, and power ; at a to pillage it, half of them deserted him and went over time, too, when all eyes were turned to India and the to his brother, who usurped the throne, while Samar- " gorgeous East," by the maritime discoveries and cand itself revolted. Only forty horsemen remained nautical enterprises of and Spain. with Baber. He was now fourteen. With unconquer- This empire, the best consolidated, best regulated, able buoyancy he set himself to making friends, and and most politically perfect of all those the Tartars in two years was again a king. ever founded, was called the Empire of the Grand His retaking of Samarcand, at the age of sixteen, Moguls, because its rulers were descended from a is a singular instance of audacity and good fortune. Mongol, or Mogul,* ancestry, and appointed Moguls From desertion and other causes, he found, on ap- to office. In .a similar manner, the Turks now have proaching the city, that he had but two hundred and power over Syria, Egypt, and Asia Minor, as the forty men. Yet he boldly entered the place at dusk, ruling caste. The empire was, in fact, so isolated — and went to the house of a friendly chief; but, finding in position, date, and character — from the empires little encouragement, he fled from the city amidst the already described, that it forms a history by itself, of uproar the news of his arrival had caused. Encour- which we shall treat in the following chapters. aged by a dream, he came back at midnight, with a Tamerlane's influence in India did not immediately few followers, and sent them to scale a low part of the disappear after his conquest of it ; but the kingdom he wall, by the aid of a hook rope. They did so unper- founded there soon became thoroughly disorganized. ceived, and, passing round, opened the gates, after Chizu, in 1413, held the throne in Tamerlane's name, killing the guard. but really exercised the sovereign power himself. He The party now ran through the streets, shouting, " " brought the kingdom into a degree of order and dig- Baber I Baber ! His friends, little dreaming that nity. But, after him, it gradually declined, under five his force was so small, flocked to his standard ; and, or six kings, till the time of Ibrahim II. During his though there were thousands of soldiers in the city, reign Speared one of the most extraordinary men the under the orders of an able and enterprising Usbeck history of India exhibits — Baler, who contested the governor, Baber became master of Samarcmid a throne with him. second time. Here he was besieged for four months,

and sent to his kinsman for help in vain : at last, he • As Moguh was, and has continued to be, the name by fled from the city at midnight, with a hundred follow-' which the rulers of. India were first called in Europe, we use it hereafter instead of Mongols. ers, throneless and homeless. ::

416 BABEK — HIS FOKTUNES — HIS DEATH.

When twenty years old, finding himself at the court remain in India, but giving leave to return, to whoever of a certain prince, he said to him, " I have long preferred " safety to glory, ignoble ease to the manly been the football of fortune, and like a piece on a toils and dangere of war." He added, that after these chess-board, moved from place to place, vagrajit as had left his ranks, he should then have about him only the moon irf the sky, restless as a stone on the beach. tliose " whose valor would reflect honor on themselves,

Give me now your friendly advice ; my own resolves and glory on their king and country." The chiefs, have been unsuccessful." He was advised to push ashataed, smote their breasts, and swore never to for- his fortune in Cabul, then in a state of anarchy. Baber sake him. Many of the influential natives, too," who sat out immediately, and in two years was firmly had hitlierto kept aloof, or opposed him, thinking he seated on the throne of that kingdom, where he made would b]at pillage the country and quit it, like Tamer- himself much beloved by his unwearied care and ex- lane, — now joined him. tensive benevolence to his people on the occasion of a After some reverses, however, his chiefs in council destructive earthquake. still advised a partial retreat. Baber fixed his eyes But it was not long before he was shut out ,of his discontentedly on the ground, then sternly asked, capital by a revolt, and deserted by most of his army. " What would the world say of a king, who, from fear

He, however, boldly advanced, with five hundred men, of death, abandoned such a kingdom .' The voice of against the usurper, who was at the head of twelve gloiy," continued he, " is loud in my ear, and forbids thousand'troops, and challenged him to single combat. me to disgrace my name by giving up what my arms This was declined. He then challenged five of his chiefs, have with so much .difficulty acquired. But as Death one by one, and slew them. The soldiers of the enemy is at last unavoidable, let us rather meet him with then declared they would not fight against such a hero, honor, face to face, than shrink back to gain a few but joined him, and carried the usurper back in chains to years of a miserable and ignominious existence ; for the capital, where he was forgiven. Baber took Samar- what can we inherit, but fame, beyond the limits of the cand again, and Bokhara, but did not keep them long. grave .' " The whole assembly, as if inspired with one " With the example of Tamerlane and the wealth of soul, cried out at once, " War ! war ! Hindostan before his eyes, the distracted state of that The force of his opponents, led by a claimant to the country invited Baber, now in his thirty-sixth year, to throne, amounted to more than one hundred thousand its invasion ; and he had acquired the only quality the number of his own army was small. The battle his youth lacked — generalship. Ibrahim II., empe- that followed, was well contested. The Indians' left ror of India, was able and energetic, but unpopular brigade drove back the right brigade of the Moguls, with his people for his cruelty, and hated by his nobles but were thernselves driven back by the next brigade. for his arrogance. In several paitial invasions, and The Indians then surrounded the Moguls, who, forming victories, (1514 to 1523,) Baber showed himself into a solid circle, resisted, without yielding an inch, magnanimous, even to traitorous foes ; but in one in- till the enemy were weary. Baber, seeing the decisive stance, conforming to the sanguinary custom of the moment had come, now placed himself at the head of Tartars, he was guilty of putting his prisoners to death. the central brigade, and rushing " like a lion from the At last, fifty miles from Delhi, Ibrahim met him with forest," as the native historian expresses it, drove all one hundred thousand horsemen and one thouseuid before him, and, in spite of a most obstinate and elephants. thirteen resistance, the whole Baber had only thousand horse ; bloody put Indian army to flight. but he marshalled them so well, that the unwieldy Baber died in 1530, at the age of forty-nine. His mass of the enemy was put to flight, with great slaugh- brilliant character forcibly reminds us of the knights ter, and Baber found himself emperor of Hindostan. paladins of chivalry. Judged by the standard of that The allegiance of the princes was easily assured to age, we see much about him that is admirable and the victor ; indeed, there was no public spirit left. Ac- pleasing. He was brave to imprudence, and merciful cording to an Oriental author, it was then " no shame to a fault, and thus endangered, not unfrequently, his to fly, no infamy to betray, no breach of honor to mur- own safety. " He so often pardoned ingratitude and der, and no scandal to change parties." As to the treason, that he seemed to make a principle of return- mass of the people themselves, a change of governors ing good for evil."- was generally but a change of oppressors, and there Though stained with a massacre, in one instance, was a chance that a new tyrant might be of a better yet this was the common practice with Mahometan disposition than the old one ; so that they generally conquerors, and he does not appear to have been blood- looked forward to a conquest of their country with thirsty or cruel, like them. Those who were about him about as much hope as fear : indeed, the idea of patri- were ever eager for plunder, but he often retarded his otism is said not to exist in the Hindoo mind. own success by checking their ruthless appetites yet ; Baber distributed the immense riches of the treasury he ever shared with them freely what wealth he had. of Delhi wholly among his nobles and troops, his sub- Once, when a certain fort was taken, the soldiers en- jects in Cabul, and his other territories, and in charities, tered at the gate, and began an indiscriminate pillage "reserving not a single dinar to himself" But his he rode amongst them, and restrained them by his difficulties were not ended. The native princes com- voice, and by actual force ; thus saving the honor of bined together, and assembled a large army : one of the commandant's family and his noble library. his own Afghan chiefs deserted to them, with the forces Though nurtured and living amid scenes of violence, under his command. Provisions were scarce in Ba- he still had time and taste to cultivate his mind, and ber's army ; the heat of the climate was daily killing heart to honor literature in others. During a sickness the men ; and, more than all, his chiefs begged him of eight months, not long before his death, he whiled to return to Cabul. away the tedium of confinement by composing a Acting somewhat as the English king Henry V. did poem in honor of one of the saints. He was master in France, under similar circumstances, Baber issued also of the art of music, and wrote annals of his ware, a proclamation, announcing his own determination to in a style of great elegance and spirit. ; ;

HCMAIOON— SHEEE- -gELIM. 417 *_

The following anecdote is told of his sense of justice, throne, Humaiooft was returning to his capital. On and it also shows his policy in encouraging commerce. his way he was met by Shere, with a numerous army, When he was prince of Fergana, in West Tartary, who cunningly detained him with negotiations, till the a rich caravan of Chitta and China, which was cross- armies had been allowed to mingle together, and then, ing the mountams, was buried in the snow. He had basely attacking the unprepared emperor, gained a all the goods well taken care of, and sent messengers complete victory, and eompelled him to fly. His to China for the owners. On the arrivaLof the owners, brothers now gathered round the emperor, who might or their representatives, at the end oi two years, he have retained his throne but for the desertion of one entertained them hospitably, and gave them all their of them, Camiran, which occasioned a second defeat goods, not even accepting a present, or payment of from Shere. He now fled, without a throne or home.

expenses. Hindal, another brother, deserted him ; frequent plots In person, Baber was a little above the middle height, were laid to betray him and deliver him up to Shere, reduced to well made, and vigorous. His habits were luxurious ; and he was great straits. During this time, though once, on the occasion of his last great battle, his son, the famous Acbar, was bom. Camiran took he vowed never more to drink wine, should he gain this son from him, and drove Humaioon to Khorasan the victory. He improved the public roads, built rest- thence he went to the Persian court, where he was ing-places for travellers, had the country meetsured in received in the" noblest manner. order to tax it equitably, and planted extensive gferdens. Shere was now sovereign of India. He tooTc the Humaioon, the son of Baber, succeeded to a preca- title of shah, and busied himself in improving his rious sovereignty. He was of quiet tastes, an astrono- dominions — but his character is stained with treachery. mer and astrologer, preferring to be an observer rather He reduced the power of the governors, and regulated than an actor. He fitted up seven reception halls, the finances and the military. He built caravanserais

dedicated to as many different celestial bodies : he at eveTy stage from the Indus to Bengal, and dug a received his military officers in the hall of Mars, his well at every two miles. He reared magnificent judicial in that of Mercury, whilst ambassadors, mosques, planted rows of trees along the high roads, poets, and travellers were accommodated in the hall and established horse posts for the quicker conveyance of the Moon. Rather than quarrel with his brother, of intelligence. He devoted one fourth part of his Camiran, he gave him up the Punjaub, the country on time to administering justice, a fourth to the care of

! the five rivers which form the Indus. But his most his army, a fourth to worship, and a fourth to rest and formidable enemy was an Afghan regent called Shere, recreation. Such was the public security, that, says I " the lion," who received this name from his having the native historian, " travellers and merchants, throw- j killed an enormous tiger in presence of his king. ing down their goods, composed themselves to sleep, I

; Shere entertained the idea of driving the Moguls from without fear, upon the highway." Shere was killed India by uniting the Patans, or Afghans, with the by accident, in 1545, after a reign of five years.

j natives. Dining one day with Humaioon, his plate Selim, his son, succeeded to the throne, and reigned

was unprovided with a knife ; whereupon he drew out quietly, after subduing with difficulty the usual rebel- his dagger and carved his meat. Humaioon observed, lion. He appears to have been, on the whole, an able " That Afghan is not to be disconcerted with trifles and moderate prince. He displayed a taste for mag- he is likely to be a great man." Shere, thinking he nificence in building, and erected an intermediate cara- had been betrayed, withdrew, and opposed the empe- vanserai between those his father built. He died in ror in arms. 1553. The kingdom was now again plunged into dis- Humaioon was unable to drive him from his fortress, order, and Humaioon was entreated by some parties to being occupied with the king of Guzerat, who had com- resume his authority. Humaioon, having excited the menced hostilities. To complete his perplexities, a sympathy of the sister of the Persian shah, and some conspiracy was formed to place another of Tamerlane's of his nobles, was allowed a troop of ten thousand family on the throne. His vigor and skill soon over- horse to recover Cabul from his brothers. His chief came the king of Guzerat, and he displayed, in several obstacle to success was Camiran, whom no treaty cduld instances, all his father's nobleness o'f character and bind, and no kindness or generosity improve. brilliant courage. At one time, he would not attack the On one occasion, this wretch exposed Acbar, his own king at advantage, because the latter was engaged in nephew, Humaioon's son, upon the wall, to deter the

holy warfare — that is, besieging infidels. A romantic father from an assault ; but being told that if harm exploit, in taking the king's treasure fort, is related of happened to Acbar every soul in Cabul should die, he Humaioon, which would have made the chivalrous heart gave up the miserable design. Camiran soon after fell of his father leap for joy. The emperor, having dis- into his brother's power, who, in spite of all the mis- covered that the fortress was supplied with daily pro- chief endured from him, received him with kindness vision through a wood, which covered a part of it, and respect, only to be repaid, however, at the first visited the place in disguise. He then came to the opportunity, with perfidy of the blackest kind. Hin- wood atmidnight, with three hundred men, all provided dal supported Humaioon nobly, and died in his service.

with iron spikes : these they fixed in the wall, and At length, Camiran having fallen again into Hu- ascended by them. Before sunrise, the whole were maioon's power, all the Mogul chiefs demanded his

within the walls ; and on their displaying a signal to death for his repeated crimes : this demand was denied the army outside, a general Eissault was commenced. them by the king, and a revolt had nearly resulted Meanwhile, Humaioon and his three hundred fought from the refusal. Humaioon at length agreed, reluc- their way, step by step, to one of the gates, which they tantly, that, to prevent further mischief, Camiran should opened, and thus immediately gained the fort. be blinded by means of antimony. A few days after, Recalled to Agra by the treason of his brothers, the king went to see his blinded brother. Camiran rose whom he had in vain warned against disunion, which to meet him, exclaiming, " The glory of the king will would inevitably deprive the Tamerlane family of the not be diminished by visiting the unfortunate." Hur '

418 DEATH OP HUMAIOON—ACCESSION OF ACBAR.

maioon burst into tears, and wept bitterly, although The circumstances were these : one evening, he walked Camiran endeavored to console him by aclmowledging out upon the terrace of the library, and sat down there the justice of his punishment. Requesting leave to for some time, to enjoy the fresh air. When he began proceed to Mecca, to expiate his crimes, this restless to descend the steps of the stair from the terrace, the man there spent his last days. crier of the mOsque, according to custom, proclaimed When Humaioon was invited back to India, having the time of prayers. The emperor, conformably to no army fit for the undertsdcing, he fell into a profoimd the practice of those of his religion, stood still, and melancholy. But his chiefs, making out some favor- repeated the creed, — he then sat down till the able omens to act on his mind through his superstition, proclamation was ended. When he was going to rise, he consented to cross the Indus with a small force, and he supported himself upon a staff, which unfortunately took Lahore. His vizier defeated one army sent to slipped upon the marble step, and the king fell head- oppose him ; his son Acbar overcame another, of long from the top to the bottom of the stairs. About eighty thousand horse, many elephants, and a large sunset, on the fourth day after, " his soul took her train of artillery. The Moguls were so animated by flight to paradise," says the Persian historian, who the behavior of the young hero, says the Oriental his- gives us the above narration. He afterwards sums up torian, that they seemed even to forget that they were the character of Humaioon, in one phrase — " Had he mortal men. been a worse man, he would have been a greater The victorious Humaioon reentered Delhi, as em- monarch." peror, in 1554, but died, the next year, from a fall.

Tlie Kmpeior, Acbar,

CHAPTER CCXV. gallant alacrity of the young king, unanimously cried out that their lives A. D.1S59 tolSSS. and fortunes were at his disposal. Acbar — Byram — The Ayeen Acherry — Je- The armies met near Delhi, and the Moguls received hanghire — Noor Mahl — Shah Jehan — the troops of elephants so resolutely and skilfully — Aiirungzebe. galling them with arrows, lances, and javelins — that Acbar, the Louis XIV. of the Mogul empire, was they became unmanageable, and did as much harm to only in his fourteenth year when he succeeded his friends as foes. Himu, on a huge elephant, pushed' father, who had appointed his vizier, Byram, regent. four thousand horse into the very heart of the Mogul Several highly popular measures favorably introduced army. Being wounded in the eye, he pulled out the the new reign ; such as prohibiting the usual exaction arrow, and with it the eye, and, though thus horribly' of presents from the farmers, allowing all goods to wounded, continued the battle. Through the treacher- pass toll free, and the abolition of the practice of press- ous cowardice of his driver, who, to save himself, ing laborers to the wars. pointed out his master, Himu was taken prisoner, and Himu, vizier of one who' held power during Humai- conducted to Acbar's presence. Byram told the king oon's absence, on hearing of his death, marched to it would be a good action to kill " that infidel " with his' Delhi, and through the imprudence and cowardice of own hand. Acbar drew his sword, but, bursting into

its governor, captured it. Acbar, seeing such a portion tears, only laid it on Himu's shoulder. The minister; of empire rent from him, called Byram, addressed sternly reproving this untimely clemency, — a weak-, him by the name of father, and placed the entire ness or generosity which had been the ruin of the management of aifairs in his hands. As Himu's force emperor's family, — beheaded the prisoner at a blow. was five times greater than Acbar's, the council of This imperious disposition of the prime minister, and war of the latter advised a retreat to Cabul. This his severity, soon created dissensiotas between Byram Byram opposed, and was so heartily seconded by and his emperor, and resulted in the banishment of the boy, Acbar, that the chiefs, delighted with the the faithftil vizier, who then turned all his thoughts to ;;

PBOSPEBOirS REIGN OP ACBAB. 419

rebellion. But he now exhibited the most pitiable direction of the emperor, by his distinguished literary weakness and irresolution; for he had swerved from vizier and friend, Abul Fazil, is detailed the comprehen- duty. He was soon defeated by Aobar's generals, and sive and excellent system of administration which he sent a slave to represent his wretched condition to the put in practice. These " Institutes " show him to have emperor, and implore mercy. It was now that the been, preeminently, a statesman. Besides a great greatness of soul of Acbar manifested itself. He amount of financial and statistical matter, and saga- received him with marked kindnes^ and distinction. cious observations upon men, politics, and govern- This met the nobler part of his repentant vizier's ment, the " Mirror " furnishes the regulations of the dif-

nature : he burst into tears, and threw himself at the ferent departments, and the domestic economy of the foot of the throne. empire, — from the collecting of the revenues and the Acbar, stretching his hand to him, commanded him care of the army, down to the stipends of the ladies to rise, and replacing him at the head of the princes, of the harem, the daily food of the king's camels, " thus addressed him : If the lord Byram loves a mili- and the mode of serving up his dinner. tary life, he shall have the government of Calpi and With respect to Acbar's personal habits — he spent Chinderi, in which he may exercise his martial genius the greatest part of the night in business, and in lis- if he chooses rather to remain at court, our favor shall tening to the discourses of philosophers and historians, not be wanting to the great benefactor of our family whom he delighted to collect around him. About but should devotion engage the soul of Byram to per- three hours before day, musicians were introduced, form a pilgrimage to Mecca, he shall be escorted in a who performed vocal and instrumental music. After manner suitable to his dignity." Byram chose the last that an hour was spent by his majesty in silent prayer. offer, but on his way to the holy city, was basely as- Just before daybreak, people of all ranks were in sassinated by the son of an Afghan chief whom he had attendance, waiting the emperor's appearance. Be- slain in battle. Thus died a brave warrior and enlight- side the opportunities of audience regularly afforded ened statesman, whose inhumanity, partially the re- to all, the emperor occasionally appeared at a window, sult of natural severity of disposition, was doubtless when petitions might be offered to him without any confirmed to a principle by repeated experience of intervention whatever. He abolished the immemorial the unfortunate effects of the clemency of the sover- custom^ of prostration. He took but one meal daily, eigns he served. and that so simple, that for months he did not taste In pursuance of his purpose to recover the ancient animal food. He slept but little, and that chiefly in limits of the empire, Acbar conquered the Deccan. the forenoon and evening. He was also repeatedly engaged in wars with rebels. His principles of government were, to gain and

Two things are noticeable in his military character secure the hearts of all ; to prevent not only all injus- religion — — rapidity and decision of attack, before the ene- tice, but all delay ofjustice ; to be tolerant in

my could collect or concentrate his strength ; also and it is said he never even laughed at or ridiculed

personal courage and audacity, even to imprudence. any sect ; and to be sparing of the lives of offenders.

For instance, the governor of Guzerat was besieged ; The whole country was divided into provinces, the the speedy march of a large army was impracticable, governors of which were changed every three years. on account of the season. Acbar hurried to the be- Taxes must be demanded in an " affable " manner,

• leaguered city, with but three thousand horse and and the collector is to consider himself " the immedi- three hundred camels, travelling eighty miles per day. ate friend of the husbandman," and to lend him money Crossing the river, so as to put jetreat out of the when he needs it, to be repaid at a favorable time. question, he was attacked by an array of seven thou- His remarks on the administration of justice are pecu- sand horse. His little band, feelifig that their empe- liarly admirable, for their clear, searching, and im- ror was sharing their danger^ and had risked his life partial character. and empire on their valor, fought with superhuman Acbar removed a great number of vexatious and bravery, and repulsed the enemy. In the eagerness injurious taxes, substituting one broad, equitable levy of pursuit, Acbar was left with but two hundred horse- upon the land of the country, which he procured to men, on a rising ground. A large body of fresh sol- be carefully measured, and the tax fixed. He re- diers of the enemy suddenly marched upon the little mitted the navigation duties, and reduced those on party. It wels one of those moments when men win manufactories. The coin was enhanced in value by or lose all by their conduct. improving its fineness. Literature and the arts were Acbar charged at once upon the enemy, who re- never betjer encouraged, and the education of the treated in the greatest haste, thinking that the whole people was made more universal, and its quality incal- of the emperor's troops must, of course, be coming culably improved. He was not only the first man of up on the other side of the hill to support the attack. the empire in station, but in accomplishments, intel- Other instances are noted, when he would risk his life lect, and virtue. He possessed that rare and fortunate in the thickest of the fight, like a common trooper. combination of qualities for rule, remarks an author, His good fortune and valor, which brought him tri- by which he was enabled not only to project, or to umphantly out of every danger, added to the une- appreciate when others had projected, some of the qualled vigor and skill of his government during a loftiest principles of government, but to carry them long reign of fifty-one years, impressed his subjects himself into practice by his practical skill, and by an with an idea that his powers of -mind and body were unwearied and personally laborious attention to the supernatui-al. details. Acbar's reign indeed has, not inappropriately, been Jehanghire, that is, " lord of the world," was the called the Golden Age of India. He was one of the title chosen by Selim, the son of Acbar. This prince best and wisest sovereigns that ever adorned or digni- ascended the throne at his father's death, in A. D. 1606. fied a throne. In a work — the Ayeen Acberry, the The assumption of so arrogant a title betrays the "Mirror of Acbar," — written under the immediate weakness of the man — a character sufficiently dis- —;

420 JEHANGHIBB—CHAJA AIASS AND HIS DAUGHTER. played in the sequel. The nobles attempted to place were introduced in their veils. The ambitibn of Mher-ul-

Jehanghire's son on the throne ; but the resiilt was the Nissa aspired to a conquest of the prince. She sang execution of many of them, and the confinement of he was in raptures ; she danced — he could hardly be the king's son. One of the first acts of the king in- restrained in his place. Her stature, her shape, her volved his whole life in remorse. The romantic story gait, had raised his ideas of her beauty to the highest is thus told : — pitch. When his eyes seemed to devour her, she, as A poor Tartar, named Chaja Aiass, whose imagi- by accident, dropped her veil, and shone upon him at nation had been kindled by the reports of Indian mag- once with all her charms. The confusion, which she nificence, left his native country, in the hope of better- could well feign on the occasion, heightened the ing his fortunes in that land of promise. His whole beauty of her face. Her timid eye fell, by stealth, property consisted of a sorry horse, and a very small upon the prince, and kindled his soul into love. He sum of money, which had proceeded from the sale was silent for the remaining part of the evening ; she of his other effects. Placing his wife upon the horse, endeavored to confirm, by her wit, the conquest which he walked by her side. Their scanty pittance of the charms of her person had made. money was soon exhausted ; they had even subsisted Selim, bewildered with his passion, knew not what for some days upon charity — when they arrived on the course to pursue. Mher-ul-Nissa had been betrothed skirts of the great solitudes which separate Tartary by her father to Shere Afkun, a Turcomanian noble- from the Mogul dominions. No house was there to man of great renown. Selim applied to his father, cover them from the inclemency of the weather, no Acbar, who sternly refused to commit a piece of hand to relieve their wants : to return, was certain injustice, though in favor of the heir' to the throne. misery ; to proceed, apparent destruction. They had The prince retired abashed, and Mher-ul-Nissa became fasted three days. the wife of Shere Afkun.

In this distressing situation, the wife of Chaja Aiass But Acbar died ; Jehanghire was raised to the gave birth to a daughter. They tarried for some throne, and, giving way to the dictates of his passion, hours, in the vain hope that travellers might pass that the husband of the woman whom he coveted was interposed way ; but they were disappointed : human feet seldom murdered by his order.* No obstacle now ; tread these deserts. The sun declined apace ; they but, apparently smitten with remorse at the baseness feared the approach of night ; the place was the of his crime, the emperor refused even to see the haunt of wild beasts ; and should they escape these, object of it, and she lived for four years neglected in they must die of hunger. In this extremity, Aiass, his harem. Here she was so scantily provided for, having placed his wife on the horse, found himself so that she was compelled to exert the accomplishments much exhausted that he could scarcely move. To she possessed in needlework and painting, for a liveli- carry the child was impossible ; the mother could not hood, and her productions became objects of general even maintain herself upon the horse. A long contest desire and admiration. began between humanity and necessity ; the latter The emperor's curiosity was at length aroused; prevailed, and they agreed to expose the child on the highway. The infant, covered with leaves, was * Before resolving to murder Shere outright, the emperor disgraceful methods of accomplishing his placed under a tree, and the disconsolate parents had taken several purpose, aU of which failed. At one time, he ordered the proceeded in tears. As long as the tree, at the foot haunt of an enormous tiger to be explored, and appointed a of which the child was lying, remained in sight, they day for hunting. Shere was invited to the hunt. He was persevered in their resolution ; but when that disap- quite unsuspicious of the sinister designs of the king, espe- peared, the heart of the mother failed her, and she cially as Jehanghire had received him with favor at court, and conferred upon him new honors. Having, according to refused to proceed without her babe. The father re- the Tartar custom, surrounded the place which the monster turned, and beheld, with horror, an enormous black frequented, for many mUfes, the hunters began to move snake coiled above and around the infant. His cry of towards the centre from all sides. The tiger was roused anguish alarmed the reptile, which slowly uncoiled itself, his roaring was heard, and the emperor hastened to the scene and glided away, leaving the destined victim unhurt. of action. The nobles being assembled, Jehanghire eaUed aloud, This almost miraculous preservation instilled fresh "Who among you will advance singly and attack this

: ? hope and energy into the hearts of the parents they tiger " They looked on one another in silence ; then aU struggled on, and at last were relieved by some other eyes turned upon Shere Afkun. He seemed not to under- omrahs started from travellers. They reached the court of the Grand Mo- stand their meaning. At length, three the circle, and, sacrificing fear to shame, fell at the emperor's gul, and Aiass was admitted into the service of an feet, and begged permission to try their strength, singly, omrah, or prince. Hero he soon attracted attention against the formidable animal. by his abilities, and was at last noticed by the em- The pride of Shere Afkun arose. He had imagined that peror, Acbar, who gradually raised him to high favor none durst attempt a deed so dangerous. He hoped that, after the refusal of the nobles, the honor of the enterprise and distinction. The daughter, who had been bom would devolve on him. Afraid of losing his former renown, received the name Mher-ul-Nissa, or in the desert, of he offered to attack the tiger unarmed. The monarch made a " right to the sun of women." She had some the show of dissuading him from the rash enterprise ; but, secretly appellation, for in beauty she excelled all the ladies delighted, yielded, at last, with a well-feigned reluctance.

Astonishment was painted in every face ; every tongue was of the East. She was educated with the utmost care ; silent. After a long and obstinate struggle with the tiger, in music, dancing, poetry, and painting, she had no equal with the intrepid warrior prevailed ; and, though mangled disposition volatile among her sex. Her was ; her wit wounds himself, the monster was at last laid dead at his lively and satirical ; her spirit lofty and uncontrolled. feet. Thus the emperor was foUed in his base attempt, and Selim, the prince royal, afterwards called Jehan- the feme of Shere increased. After several other covert attempts on his life, the king at ghire, paid a visit one day to her father. When the last sent assassins, who, attacking Shere on the highway, over, when all except the public entertainment was succeeded in despatching him with many bullets and arrows, principal guests were withdrawn, and wine was though not till after he had killed six omrahs and several of brought on the table, the ladies, according to custom. their soldiers. !

NOOB, MAHL — EQUITABLE GOVERNMENT OP SHAH JEHAN. 421

he visited her, and trom that moment Noor Mahl — admitted to his presence, stood before him in silence. that is, " light of the harem," for such was the name Jehanghire burst into tears. " Will you not spare this she assumed — exercised the most unbounded sway- woman, Mohabet ? " he said, at length. " See how over his mind. Chaja Aiass was raised to the- distin- she weeps." " It is not for the emperor qf the Mo- guished position of vizier, and his two sons, brothers guls to ask in vain," was the reply, and Noor Mahl

of the sultana, Noor Mahl, were made omrahs ; and was instantly set at liberty. what is equally extraordinary and gratifying, they all The loyal Mohabet now restored to the emperor all filled with honor the posts they occupied. The affairs authority, and dismissed his guards. But the sultana of the empire were never better Conducted than under was base enough to demand his death, and, on the

Chaja Aiass : his administration is still looked upon as refusal of her request, sought to assassinate him. one of the few luminous spots in the dark history of Warned of her intentions by the emperor, Mohabet Indian domestic government. fled, and was proclaimed a traitor, and a price set on Several European embassies, having commercial his head. Of a lofty and fearless character, he now objects, arrived at the court duringJehanghire's reign. decided on a most extraordinary step. Disguising him- But, although these were received with great favor, the self, he went to the camp of Asiph Jan, the brother of vacillating disposition of the sovereign — now granting his mortal enemy, and succeeded in obtainmg an inter- their requests, and now withholding them again, or view. changing the condition of his grants, at the wish of his Appreciating his mercy to his sister, and his present nobles — caused tliem all to eventuate in disappointment. generous confidence, Asiph received him in his arms., After the death of her father, who had held her and took him to a secret apartment. " Purvez, the elder haughty and imperious disposition under some control, of the princes, is virtuous and my friend," said Moha- " Noor Mahl plotted to place on the throne the emperor's bet ; but we must not exchange one feeble sovereign youngest son, who had married her daughter by her for another. I have fought Shah Jehan, and know his

first husband, the omrah. Her brother, Asipli Jan, merit : though his ambition acknowledges no restraint

was vizier ; with qualities scarce inferior to his father. of nature or justice, his vigor will prevent intestine Shah Jehan, the emperor's third son, and eventually disorder, and give power to the laws." Asiph con-

his successor, was Noor Mahl's, most determined oppo- curred cordially in these views ; but their schemes nent. This man had murdered his brother Chusero, were rendered unnecessary by the death of Purvez and and, to escape the emperor's resentment, took up arms Jehanghire, which occurred shortly after, A. D. 1628.

against his father ; but he was unsuccessful, principally A measure of unequalled atrocity secured Shah through the abilities of MoJidbet, a noble-minded, Jehan from competitors to the throne. This was the heroic spirit, general to the emperor. The empress murder, by him, of every other male descendant of the hated this general, of course, and endeavored to ruin house of Baber, except his own four sons, Dara, Sujah, him with the emperor, who seems himself to have Aurungzebe, and Morad. Asiph was made vizier, and properly appreciated his character and services. Mohibet commander-in-chief. Lodi, a descendant of Through Noor Mahl's influence, Mohabet was now the Patan emperors, and who had formerly fought

summoned to court ; but he took the precaution to against Shah Jehan, was now his chief enemy, but bring as an escort five thousand devoted rajpoots. He surrendered himself on condition of receiving a prov- was ignominiously refused an audience till certain al- ince. Being sent for to court, shortly after, he was .eged peculations were accounted for. His son-in-law, received wifli such studied insult, that he shed tears sent to the emperor to protest Mohabet's devotedness and fainted away — strange effect on so brave a man to his sovereign, and to explain matters, was sent back He again rebelled unsuccessfully, and perished in de- stripped and cruelly bastinadoed. Seeing that decisive spair, having attacked, with but thirty followers, a con- measures were called for, Mohabet planned a bold siderable body of the enemy, in order to procure " an

scheme. The imperial army had to cross the Jhylum : honorable death." The emperor exhibited the most when the greater part had passed to the other side, indecent joy at his decease — a compliment to his for- Mohabet galloped with two thousand horse to the midable abilities and courage. Some troubles occurred bridge, destroyed it, left a body of his determined at this time in the Deccan, but were soon quieted. friends to prevent the return of the troops across the During Shah Jehan's reign, his numerous subjects river, and, appearing in the emperor's tent with a enjoyed tranquillity and happiness such as had rarely countenance pale but determined, secured the person been enjoyed in that part of the globe. His governors af Jehanghire. were closely watched, and brought to strict account, Every attempt, on the part of the army under Asiph and his reign is celebrated for the strict execution of Jan, to recross the river to the assistance of the sover- the laws. The collection of the revenue, with which ' eign, was resisted, and with great slaughter, by Mohd- the comfort of the subject is so much connected, was bet's few but resolute troops; Noor Mahl herself, even better managed than in Acbar's time. To Shah the author of all the mischief, who had already Jehan India is indebted for some of its noblest archi- crossed the river, was half frenzied at the success of tectural structures. He built, for his own residence, the general's manoeuvre: she rushed into the water, Jehanpoor, a city near Delhi, and erected a palace, emptied with her own hand three quivers of arrows, said to be one of the finest in the world. The mauso- had three successive drivers killed on the back of her leum of his favorite jqueen, Noor Jehan, is one hun- elephant, and thus inflamed to a high pitch the courage dred and ninety yards square, on an elevated terrace, in of the soldiers. the midst of a beautiful garden. It is built of white But Mohabet crossed the river, and drove all before marble, inlaid with precious stones. him. He ultimately obtained possession of Noor Mahl's The illness of Shah Jehan encouraged his sons to person, who was accused by him of high treason and strike for the empire. The most dangerous among other crimes, and an order obtained for her execution. them was Aurungzebe, a m^ of craft, courage, and She begged to see Jehanghire once more, and, on being energy. He professed to be deeply religious, and 422 REIGN OF AURUNGZEBE.

restore the purity of anxious to the Moslem worship, to wear no more ; wear them with dignity, and, by which, to conciliate the Hindoos, had become wisely- your own renown, make some amends to your family tolerant. He cajoled his brother Morad, inducing him for their misfortunes." When this was repeated to to place money and forces at his disposal. He suc- the enlJ)eror, he burst into tears. ceeded also in attaching to his fortunes the immensely wealthy emir of the prince of Golconda. Dora, the eldest son of Shah Jehan, being called to administer the government for his father, whose illness incapaci- tated him for its functions, commenced his administra- tion by forbidding his brothers to approach the palace, on pain of death. The brothers broke out into open rebel- lion ; the hostile armies met, and a stoutly contested battle ensued. During the engagement, one of Dara's captains deserted his sovereign, and went over to Aurungzebe with thirty thousand men, thus securing the victory to that prmce. Aurungzebe now got possession of his father's per- son, and kept him in captivity the rest of his life. The father had previously endeavored to inveigle his son into the harem of the citadel of Agra, where he had stationed some powerful Tartar women, ready to fall upon and crush him. Morad, too, found himself a hopeless and helpless captive. Sujah was driven from the country, and basely killed by the king of Arakan, with whom he had taken refuge. Dara, after enduring Aurungzebe. every hardship, was treacherously betrayed to Aurung- zebe, who had him paraded about the streets of Delhi Another event gave occasion for the display of the on a miserable, fil&y-looking elephant, habited in a ready sagacity of Aurungzebe. A wealthy old dirty cloth. At this lamentable sight, piercing shrieks, woman, by her liberalities, had collected around her and cries of distress, as if some great calamity had a vast crowd of religious mendicants, — fakirs, — who, befallen themselves, were heard from men, women, having been successful in several enterprises beyond and children, on every hand. This popular commisera- their expectations, were easily persuaded by their tion sealed the fate of the wretched Dara, who was female chief that she had charmed their lives against murdered by his brother. Morad, not long after, shared death by powerful enchantments. Some twenty the same fate. thousand of the fakirs, having been collected, and These family dissensions, arising from the want of thus fortified by fanaticism, entertained the wild a fixed rule of succession, indicate a declining empire. scheme of usurping the throne. Shah Jehan, by murdering his relatives, struck the Instead of despising this enemy, Aurungzebe, a reli- first blow at Mogul sovereignty. Aurungzebe, by gious knave himself, pretended to get up, by his in- similar atrocity, shook it to its very centre. The prin- cantations, a counter charm of greater potency, which ciple became established, that on the death of an em- he wrote with his own hands upon little slips of paper, peror, " there was no place of safety but the throne, and had his soldiers fasten them on the tops of spears, the steps to which must be the dead bodies of unsuc- borne before the several divisions of the army. The cessful competitors ; '' and these victims were generally mystic power was confided in by the soldiers, who the nearest relatives of the aspirant to sovereignty. fought the enemy with heroism, and the fakirs were cut to pieces. This story is more fully given in our history of Hindostan. Aurungzebe died in 1707, at the age of ninety-four, CHAPTER CCXVI. after reigning forty-eight years, over about eighty mil- A. S. 1659 to 1803. lions of people. His revenue is said to have equalled four or five hundred millions of dollars. The poisoned Aurungzebe — Acbar II. — Aulum — The chalice of filial ingratitude and rebellion he had made his Sikhs — Jehander — Nadir — Aulum II. father drink of, was proffered to his own lips by his son, Mahrattas — The — Gholam Khadur — Acbar XL, who caused him much and deserved an- Sdndia. guish. His personal habits were regular, pure, and Atjrtjngzebe's character seems to have undergone simple. " Of his domestic administration it is impos- a remarkable change for the better, when he found sible to speak too highly : it was liberal, enlightened, himself undisputed master of the empire. He treated and just." Under his rule, the Mogul empire is said his father with all attention and respect, consistent with to have reached its highest grandeur and dignity; his captivity. Wishing to adorn the throne with some though, at his death, the symptoms of inherent weak' of Shah Jehan's jewels, the emperor sent to ask them ness became but too apparent. of his father, who told him that hammers were ready Aurungzebe's latter hours were imbittered by re- to pound the jewels into dust, if there were any more morse : may we not hope they were elevated by repent- importunity for them. " Let him keep his jewels," ance .' A passage in one of his letters to his son, writ- replied the emperor ; " nay, let him command those ten in the prospect of death, is exceedingly impressive. of Aurungzebe." This remark being repeated to " Old age has arrived," he says, " weakness subdues Shah Jehan, he sent a ^mber of the gems he had me, and strength has forsaken all my limbs. I came refused, saying, " Take these, which I am destined a stranger into this world, and a stranger! depart. I ; ;;

MAHOMED—DELHI SACKED BY NADIR SHAH. 423 • ; --, know nothing of myself, what I am, or for what I am who had helped to elevate h^, and died. Two destined. The instant which passed in power hath other emperors reigned, one five, the other three, left only sorrow behind it. I have not been sufficiently months. Mahomed then cam*} to the throne. He and protector of the empire. My valu- was weak and devoted to luxury : instead, therefore, able time has been passed vainly. I had a patron in of opposing a bold front to^the Mahrattas, now my own dwelling, [conscience,] but his glorious light rapidly rising to a considerable pswer, he bought peace was not seen by my dim vision." with these marauders, by paying them a fourth of his

In the third year of this reign, a dreadful famine resources ; and with a weakfess still more fatal, desolated India, producing most appalling scenes of finding it troublesome to collects this fourth, he gave suffering. The emperor immediately remitted the the ruthless Mahrattas leave to collect it in their own rents of the land and other taxes. He bought corn rough fashion; thus abandonirfg his people to the

it spoiler. ':>{ where it was most plentiful, and sold at reduced . The disorganized state the country, under prices where it was the least so. The means for doing its weak and worthless rulers, h^d before opened India this were furnished from his own treasury, which had to Tamerlane's plundering inroad, preparing the way grown rich under his economical and able manage- for Mogul power. So Nadir Shah's similar invasion ment, and which he opened for the benefit of the peo- opened the way for British rule in India. ple without limit. An historian of the Grand Moguls This Nadir Shah, who has been noticed in another well remarks, that it is a most extraordinary, but at the place, was, according to some, a common laborer same time consoling and gratifying fact, that men like according to others, he was the son of a shepherd in Shere, Shah Jehan, and Aurungzebe, all of them Khoreisan, and by selling his father's sheep, obtained stained with execrable crimes, committed in the pur- money and hired a band of robbers. He now took suit of power, should, when their objects were attained, service under the son of the sophi of Persia, who be so justly famous for the vigor, skill, and impartial- desired to recover his throne from an Afghan usurper, ity of their administrations. whom Nadir overthrew. He then put out his employ- The remaining history of the Mogul empire is but er's eyes, and caused himself to be proclaimed king the melancholy record of one miserable struggle after of Persia, in 1736. He marched upon the Afghans another for the imperial sway, among the descendants and afterwards into Hindostan, where he gained pos- of its noble founders, while the empire itself was con- session of Delhi, through the treachery of Mahomed's tinually becoming less and less worth the contest. officers, who were rewarded by the following speech of After the usual quarrel of the sons of the emperor, at Nadir, exhibiting a singular medley of the monarch, his death, for the throne. Shah Aulum — his two the ruffian, and the fanatic. " Are not you both most brothers being severally defeated and slain — suc- tingrateful villains to your king and country, who, ceeded his father, Aurungzebe. He had to contend after possessing such wealth and dignities, call me with a new power, the Sikhs, whose descendants, from my own dominion to ruin them and yourselves } after a space of more than one hundred and thirty But I will scourge you with all my wrath, which is the years, are now (1849) struggling vigorously for in- vengeance of God." dependence against the British power in India.* A Persian seized a pigeon-seller's basket, who cried Shah Aulum reigned but five years, and died in out that Nadir had ordered a general pillage. The A. D. 1712, leaving behind him the reputation of an streets of Delhi were soon filled with an excited pop- accomplished, liberal, and humane prince. ulace ; the Persian was set upon ; a report spread that

Of the four sons of Shah Aulum, the eldest gained Nadir was dead ; before nightfall, two thousand Per- the throne for a few months, through a distinguished sians had been slain. Nadir was shot at himself. This general of his grandfather, and called himself Jehan- incident unchained the tiger, and the consequence was, der Shah. His chief adviser was a concubine, one a general massacre, in which, before two o'clock, one of the impure class of public dancers, and he was hundred thousand of the Delhi people were killed — frequently seen near Delhi, walking with such aban- men, women, and children upon the same bloody heaps. doned females. His nephew, Feroksere, seized the During this dreadful scene, the king of Persia sat in throne, after defeating and killing his uncle. He the mosque. None but his slaves dared to come slaughtered, without compunction, every person in his near him, for his countenance was dark and terrible. power from whom he could apprehend any possible At length, the unfortunate emperor, Mahomed, attended danger. He was dethroned, after six years, by one by a number of his chief omrahs, ventured to approach him with downcast eyes. The omrahs who preceded * The origin of the Sikha is thus stated : In Baber's time, Mahomed bowed down their foreheads to the ground. Nanek, the beautiful son of a merchant, having attracted the Nadir attention of a dervis, was taken home by him and educated in asked them, sternly, what they wanted. They Islamism. The youth selected for himself, from time to ^ime, cried out with one voice, " Spare the city." Mahomed in the course of his studies, such doctrines, expressions,! and said not a word, but the tears flowed fast from his eyes. sentiments as suited him, and the result was a book, written The tyrant, for once touched with pity, sheathed his in a very elegant style, called Korrint. This, by degrees, sword, and said, " For the sake of the prince Mahomedj became the text-book of a sect, which, under a military organization, rose to empire, imder the name of Sikhs I forgive." In a few minutes, so instantaneous was the but they seem latterly to have given up their religious pre- efTect of his orders, every thing was calm in the city. tensions. Rejecting, as he did, much of the absurdities of But the pillaging was now to begin ; and its amount the two great religions of India, Mahometanism and Hin- is variously estimated at from one hundred and fifty dooism, and preserving some of the good of both, Nanek had to three of dollars; many followers. After his death, nine chiefs successively hundred and fifly millions During governed the body of the Sikhs, who lived very peaceably its continuance, the gates were shut, and the populace and inoffensively. But in Aurungzebe's leign, one of the reduced to famine. Tucki, an actor, was playing be- chiefs -was and another banished. The Sikhs put to death, fore Nadir, and so delighted him that the shah prom- now carried rapine and slaughter among the Moguls, but ised he should ask. Falling on were checked by Shah Allium, though not destroyed. him whatever reward " Their histoij' is given in a subsequent chapter. his knees, the noble Tucki cried out, king, com- ;

424 ATJLUM n. —GHOLAM KHADTJR. mand the gates to fc^ opened, that the poor may not Gholam to assemble the army, pay their arrears, and perish." The requesf was granted, and the blessings inform them of his purpose to lead them in person. of his fellow-creaturej-were the priceless reward of Great, therefore, was Gholam's astonishment, when, the actor's benevoler"!!? the next day, he intercepted a letter from the king to Nadir quitted Delji, having taken the provinces Scindia, the hostile chief, desiring him to make all Persia " " between and^indostan from Mahomed, and haste and destroy Gholam ; for," said the letter, he given him some good advice. The emperor died in urges me to act against my wishes, and oppose you." 1747, after reigning thirty years. Ahmed, his eldest On this discovery, Gholam marched out with his troops,

son, succeeded ; and dliring his reign he lost, to the rising crossed the Jumna, and encamped on the other side, Afghan power, the north-western provinces, Moultan and opposite the fort of Delhi, the residence of the king. Lahore. The Mahriltas and Rohillas, too, were very He then sent the king the intercepted letter, asking troublesome. At laS';, a rebel seized Delhi, and put him if such conduct did not merit the loss of his out Ahmed's eyes, set^pig up another emperor, Aulum- throne. After a few days' siege, Gholam carried the geer II. The Sikhs now rose into importance ; and fort : entering the palace in arms, he flew to the king's the Afghans marched to the very gates of Delhi, chamber, insulted the old man in the most barbarous which were opened to them, and the city was again at manner, knocked him down, and kneeling on his breast, the mercy of an enemy. The emperor had sunk so dug out one of his eyes with his knife, ordering a ser-

low, that he begged the Afghan chief, Abdallah, not to vant of the king to thrust out the other I leave him to the mercy of his own vizier, the rebel He then gave up the palace to pillage, and, going to who had put out Ahmed's eyes. Aulumgeer fell into the zenana, where the king's women resided, insulted the the wretch's hands, however, and was assassinated, in ladies, and tore their jewels from their noses, ears, and A. D. 1759. limbs. As he had lived with the king, he was well The Mahrattas now attempted, by one bold stroke, acquainted with the different places where bis treasures

to seize the empire ; but Abdallah, the Afghan, being were hid ; he dug up the floor of the king's own bed- again on Indian territory, met their army of one hun- room, and found there two chests containing in specie dred and forty thousand horse, commanded by their one hundred and twenty thousand gold mohurs, — near- best generals, and after a contest of almost unexampled ly a million of dollars, — which he took, and vast severity, at Paniput, (A. D. 1760,) obtained the victo- sums besides. To get at the hidden jewels of the ry — only a few of the army and three of the generals women, he practised a nefarious trick, of the meanest escaping. Abdallah gave the sovereignty to Aulum II., kind. He ordered that the king's ladies and daughters who was never really master of his dominions, and should come and pay their respects to him, promising experienced a great variety of the most cruel disasters. to free those who could best please him by their dress The next half century offers to the historian of India and appearance. The innocent, unthinking women a perplexed chronicle of violent revolutions, occa- brought out their jewels, and adorned themselves in sioned by the various chiefs who successively 'rose to their richest attire, to please this savage. Gholam more or less power, and their contests with Great ordered them to be conveyed into a hall, where he had

Britain. The story, however, of the last revolution provided ordinary dresses for them : these dresses he that occurred to the Moguls of India, previous to their made them put on, by the assistance of eunuchs, and, becoming pensioners of Great Britain, is both inter- taking possession of their rich dresses and jewels, sent esting and instructive — interesting as a picture of the women home to lament their own credulous vanity, Orientalism, instructive as an example of the insta- and curse his treachery. He did not stop here, but bility of human grandeur, and the precarious state of insulted the princes by making them dance and sing. despotic governments. The author of this revolution The most beautiful of the king's daughters, Mobaruok was Gholam Khadur, disinherited by his father, ul Moolk, was brought to the tyrant, but she stabbed and driven from his presence, for vice and crime. herself, rather than submit her person to him. Shah Aulum II., or Allum, the king of Delhi, and last Scindia, the Mahratta chief, soon after this, came to of the Moguls, took him under his protection, treated the king's assistance, ostensibly, but his real purpose him as his own son, and conferred on him the second was to make the remnant of the Mogul empire his title in the kingdom — emir of emirs. prey. Gholam fled, and took refuge in the fort of He lived with the king, and raised a body of about Agra, a large city, one hundred and fifty miles south eight thousand troops of his own countrymen, the of Delhi. Here Scindia's troops besieged him, and Moguls, which he commanded. Gholam Khadur he, perceiving that he must be taken if he tarried, took was of a passionate temper, haughty, cruel, ungrate- advantage of a dark night, stuffed his saddle with a ful, and debauched. In the latter part of the year large stock of precious stones, and with a few fol- 1788, the king had formed suspicions that- some of lowers fled toward Persia. Unluckily for him, the the neighboring rajahs would attempt the conquest of wretch fell from his horse on the second night of his his territories. This was confirmed by the approach flight : by this means a party of horsemen, which had of a large army toward his capital, commanded by been sent in pursuit, came up with him, and took him a chief named Ismael, and assisted by the warlike prisoner. He was brought to Scindia, who, after ex- Mahratta sovereign, Scindia. posing him some time in irons, and some time in a cage, Gholam reassured his king, who was discouraged at ordered his ears, his nose, his hands, and his feet to off, his in which state he the array of his formidable enemies ; he urged him be cut and eyes taken out, to march out, give his troops a supply of monejj, and was allowed to expire ! he would lay his head on the enemy's being repulsed. Scindia seized on the kingdom he came to protect On the king's reply that he had no money, Gholam and all that was left to Shah Allum, the nominal em- offered to advance enough. " Only head the army," peror, was the city of Delhi, with a small district " is it, where, deprived even of sight, he remained said he : the presence of the monarch half the around battle." The king seemed to consent, and requested an empty shadow of royalty. In the early part of ;;

EXTENT OF THE MOGUL EMPIEE — ITS MILITARY ESTABLISHMENT. 426

the present century, (A. D. 1803,) the British neition king's sons. There were sixty-six of these bodies of took under their immediate sovereignty Agra and Delhi, five thousand. The captains of one hundred were of pensioning off the king of Delhi, the last representa- eleven ranks, and paid accordingly, from five hundred tive of a mighty race. Thus terminated the empire to seven hundred rupees, or about two hundred and fifty

of the Grand Moguls in India ; though the name to three hundred aad fifty dollars per month. Every King of Delhi is still given to. the lineal descendant commander had, also, half as many infantry as cav-

of the Grand Mogul — a pensioner of the British alry : of the infantry one fourth were bundookchean, government — who resides at Delhi. • that is, " matchlock-men," the rest archers, except a few who were carpenters, blacksmiths, water-carriers, and pioneers. The trooper supplied his own horse on

entering the service ; afterward, in case of accident,

CHAPTER CCXVII. the government supplied it, and took half its value General Views — Military Affairs — Divisions out of the pay by quarterly stoppages. This may — Cities — Education^— The Household and suffice as a specimen of these curious and minute regulations recorded in the " Mirror of Acbar," already Domestic Habits of the Grand Moguls mentioned. The whole army was divided into twelve The Seraglio — The Painting Gallery — divisions : each division did a year's duty in rotation. Public Fights Animals Machines — of — A body of twelve thousand hundookcheau, was Pensions — Festivals — Marriages — Hunt- always employed about the royal person. A thou- ing and Hawking — Fairs — Weighing the sand porters guarded the palace, who were paid King. from two dollars and three quarters to seven dollars The Mogul empire, in 1725, included all of India and a half per month. Another thousand gaarded from Afghanistan, or Candahar, Beloochistan, and its environs. Several thousand bearers, some of Sindh, to Assam and Arakan, and from Badakshan, whom could carry enormous weights, did service at the Siapouch, Thibet, and Nepaul, to the ocean, except palace. Another thousand men were employed as the Malabar coast, and the triangular territory south spies, couriers, and errand men, and also in nice and of the Gavery. From Cabul, the chief town in the difficult undertakings. Besides all these, were the extreme north-west, to Pondicherry, in the south-east, gladiators, performers of feats, wrestlers, and the slaves. " the distance is nearly eighteen hundred miles, or as far As Acbar did not approve of giving these as from Bangor, in Maine, to the capital of Texas. Its unfortunate men the opprobrious name of slaves," ^' width from north-east to south-west varied from seven they were called dependants." They were of five kinds — infidels taken in battle, and bought and sold as hundred to fourteen hundred miles ; in all about one million square miles, with from eighty to ninety mil- common slaves ; those who of themselves submitted lions of inhabitants. Aurungzebe's treasury was sup- to bondage; children bom of slaves; thieves,. become posed to equal four or five hundred millions of dollars. the slaves of the owners of the goods they had stolen The regular annual revenue of Acbar, from twelve and fifthly, persons sold for the price of blood — that fifteenths of the empire, was about ninety millions is, for homicide. of Sicca rupees, or forty-five to fifty millions of The daily pay of these was from one and a dollars. quarter cents to fifty cents. They were formed into The military establishment was under fixed and divisions, Eind committed to the care of skilful persons, regular pay, and the nicest discipline and regulations. to be instructed in various arts and occupations. " His adds " Mirror," " out his It was a maxim of Acbar, which he carried into every majesty," the of hu- department of his concerns, that " true greatness gives manity and discernment, promotes these and other attention to the minuHce of business, as well as to cap- inferior classes of people, according to their merits it is to ital affairs." In this, and some other things. Napoleon so that not uncommon see a foot soldier raised seems to have imitated him. The militia, or Zemin- to the dignity of an omrah of the empire." dary troops, numbered, says the " Mirror of Acbar," It is said that the emperor had a body-guard of •four millions four hundred thousand. Arab women, who were extremely well disciplined, and Some of the cavalry had their horses marked, and never quitted the seraglio : amongst them were estab- a description taken in writing of the persons of the lished all the different degrees of rank which obtained men, and these troopers took rank of the others. among the men. Besides the army at Delhi, there Their pay was from seven to eleven dollars a month. was always a very considerable one at Agra, the other Every thing that regarded the horses, their feeding, capital. Exclusive of these, the smallest village had six classification, menage, &c., was minutely regulated. two horse and foot soldiers, who acted as the police, spies The Moguls had a body of fifty thousand of these or of government, and sent an account of what- horsemen, near the seat of government. The ele- ever was transacted. Every town had a garrison. phants, of which there were seventeen or eighteen In a word, each of the rajahs, who were so many petty hundred, were divided also into seven kinds, and the chiefs, or feudatories of the empire, always, in later times, troops to details of their feeding, care, the pay of their keepers, supported a numerous body of ready &c., were regulated with the utmost exactness. The march.* One of them kept on foot, in the early part yearly allowance to each elephant was from three and a half dollars to more than sixteen and a half * The military force was thus distributed : Bengal, 23,000 dollars. cavalry and 800,000 infantry j Bahar, 11,000 and 4S01O00';

The officers were commanders of ten, and so up to AUahabad, 11,000 and 238,000 ; Oude, 7,j600 and 168,000 Agra, 60,000 and 677,000 ; Malwah, 281,000 and 68,000 ten thousand ; their commands increasing by hundreds Guzerat, 67,000 and 9,000 ; Ajmeer, 86,000 and 347,000 ; La- 'from four hundred to five thousand, below that by fifties hore, 64,000 and 426,000 ; Moultan, 14,000 and 166,000 and twenty-fives, and below ninety, by tens. Many of Cashmere, 6,000 and 93,000. These are not all the the commanders of above five thousand men were the troops, — Ayeen Adbeny. : ;;

426 PUBLIC SCHOOLS—BRANCHES TAUGHT.

of the last century, an army of fifty thousand cavalry with the different accents, or marks of pronunciation • and two hundred thousand infantry. The emperor and his majesty has ordered that as soon as they have maintained five hundred elephants : his arsenals con- a perfect knowledge of the alphabet, which is gener- tained an immense quantity of ammunition. ally acquired in two days, they shall be exercised in Acbar's empire was divided into fifteen soobahs, or combinations of two letters ; and after they have learnt viceroyalties, with its each sooiahdar, or viceroy, viz. those for a week, there is given to them a short line Allahabad, Agra, Oude, Ajmeer, Ahmedabad, Bahar, of prose or verse, containing a religious or moral senti- Bengal, Delhi, Cabul, Lahore, Moultan, Malwa, Be- ment, wherein those combinations continually occur. rar, Khandees, and Ahmednagur. The first twelve They must strive to read this themselves, with a little of these were subdivided into one hundred and five occasional assistance from the teacher. sircars, or provinces, and two thousand seven hundred " For some days the master proceeds with teaching and thirty-seven kusbahs, townships, or counties. a new hemistich or distich ; and in a very short time the boys learn to read with fluency. The teacher

gives the young scholar four exercises daily, viz. : the alphabet, the combinations, a new hemistich or distich, and a repetition of what he had read before. By this method, what used to take up years is now accomplished in a few months, to the astonishment of every one. "The sciences are taught in the following order: morality, arithmetic, accounts, agriculture, geometry, longimetry, astronomy, geomancy, economics, the art of government, physic, logic, natural philosophy, ab- stract mathematics, divinity, and history. Every individual is educated according to his circumstances or particular views of life. From these regulations, the schools, adds Abul Fazil, have obtained a new form, and the colleges are become the lights and ornaments of the empire." A great number of religions prevailed in the empire of the Grand Moguls, the chief of which were the Bemaina of an Observatoiy at Delhi. Brahminic and Buddhist, described in the history of

It is said there are more than a score of cities, in Hindostan and Thibet ; the Mahometan, described

Hindostan, which bear, in their decay, the evidence under Arabia ; and the Parsee, or Gheber, described that they were once royal capitals. Delhi, one of under the history of Persia. Supernatural powers the capitals of the Grand Moguls, was formed of were claimed for the emperor Acbar, who was in real- the old city with its walls, the new city at a short dis- ity a man of profound intelligence, and liberal in his tance, and the space between, enclosed by two walls. religious views, as may be seen in our history of Hin- Here, in Tamerlane's time, was the splendid " Palace dostan. of the thousand columns," built by a famous Indian The most compendious method of conveying an idea king. But the present Delhi is at another place, and of the complicated domestic machinery of the vast was founded by Acbar, whose structures are noticed establishment of the Mogul court, is to enumerate the in our history of Hindostan. It once extended twenty heads under which the " Mirror of Acbar " records miles, and a French writer, in the last century, estima- the various regulations he adopted. Here minute ted its inhabitants at one million seven hundred thou- directions are found written for the household, royal sand. The imperial palace is of red granite, of treasuries, jewel office, mint, coins, seraglio, equipages tasteful architecture, one thousand yards long by six for journeys, encampments of the army, illuminations, hundred broad, and cost more than five millions of ensigns of royalty, royal seals, water coolers, kitchen, dollars. The stables will hold ten thousand horses. lent days, prices of provisions, printing, perfume office, are relics There besides many of ancient grandeur. flowers, wardrobe, shawls ; prices of manufactures

Agra was made the seat of the empire by Acbar, library and calligraphic rooms, painting gallery ; ar- and a most magnificent city. He here built his pal- mory, weapons and armor — of which some eighty ace, a " fort of red stone, the like of which no traveller different kinds are enumerated — artillery, firearms and has ever beheld." " It contains above five hundred their manufacture ; elephant stables and their attend- stone buildings, of surprising construction, in the Ben- ance, one hundred and one elephants for his majesty's :

gal, Guzerat, and other styles ; and the artificers have riding, horse stables, horse bazaars, camel stables, ox ;]

decorated them with beautiful paintings. At the east- stables, mules ; manner in which his majesty spends ern gate are carved, in stone, two elephants, with their his time, times of admission to the royal presence,

riders, of exquisite workmanship." This fortified pal- forms of salutation ; spiritual guidance, including mir- ace is still to be seen, extending in a crescent shape acles — such as breathing on persons, to cure them, along the river side. On the opposite bank were the and into cups of water, to endow them with virtue, &o. Sat- four gardens — a monument of Humaioon's magnifi- religious discipline ; musters, that of elephants on

cence. At Agra also is the mosque of Acbar, said to urday, when they were most minutely examined ; that on be more splendid than that of Solyman at Constantino- of horses, on Sunday ; of camels, mules, and oxen, the ple ; also the mosque of Aurungzebe, with its hundred Monday; of soldiers, on Tuesday ; the meeting of

columns ; besides other monuments of former council, public administration of jus- greatness. on Wednesday ; " The following were Acbar's regulations for teach- tice, on Thursday ; relaxation in the harem, on Friday; ing in the public schools. The boys are first taught to damage to animals, regulations for the public fights of read the letters of the Persian alphabet separately, animals, regulations for buildings. ;

SEEAGLIO — FESTIVALS, FAIRS, GAMES. 427

Among other things are also the regulations of festi- moon, in the front of the palace. The deer were the royal person, holidays, vals, alms, weighing mar- regularly trained, and wild ones constantly added to riages, hunting, hawking,- games, tribute and taxes, the herds. division of lands, revenues, collections, settlements The emperor was the inventor of several useful also instructions to the viceroy, to the commissioners machines ; of one for polishing muskets ; of a cart for pronouncing sentence, to the judges, the chief of containing a corn-mill, which was worked by the motion police, the collectors of revenues, the registrars the and of carriage ; of a carriage with several apart- the treasurers. The scope of this HiSbry affords room ments and a hot bath, all drawn by a single elephant, for a particular notice of but a few of these matters. extremely useful and refreshing on a journey ; also The seraglio was an enclosure of such immense several hydraulic machines, some of which were so extent as to contain a separate room for every one of adjusted that a single ox would at once draw water out the women, whose number exceeded five thousand. of two wells, and at the same time turn a millstone. They were divided into companies, and a proper Pensions were given, in money and land, for subsist- employment assigned to each individual. each to the Over ence, learned and their scholars ; to those who of these companies a appointed as woman was duenna, had retired from the world ; to the needy who were and one was selected for the command of the whole, that not able to help themselves ; also to the descendants the affairs of the harem might be conducted with the of great families fallen into decay, who, from false same regularity and good government as the other shame, did not follow any occupation for support. departments of the state. The ancient festivals were rejected, or continued, Every lady received a salary equal to her merit — as the king directed. After establishing a festival, from one thousand six hundred and ten to one thousand he endeavored to make it of the greatest possible use, and twenty-eight rupees per month. At the grand gate embracing every occasion of distributing largesses. was an ofRcer to take account of the receipts and With this view, he adopted the ancient Persian festivals expenditures of the harem, in money and goods. of Giamschid and others, which were used as the means When any lady wanted any thing, she applied to of bestowing donations. There was the new year fes- the treasurer of the harem ; and he, regulating the tival, on the first of March, for nineteen days, during requisition according to the stipend of the lady, sent a which immense sums of money and valuable articles memorandum to the officer at the gate, who transmitted were distributed ; the kettle-drum was beat every it to the treasurer of the king's palace, who paid the three hours, accompanied by musical instruments. money. For three successive nights there were illuminations and The inside of the harem was guarded by women, fireworks. There was also a festival for each month. and about the gate of the royal apartments were The merchants' wives held fairs on the ninth day placed the most confidential. Immediately on the out- after the festivals, and here the women of quality pur- side of the gate, watched the eunuchs of the harem, chased. The monarch attended these fairs in disguise. and at a proper distance were stationed the rajpoots, Afterwards, there were fairs for the men. These the beyond whom were the porters of the gates, and, on the king attended, and any one might then have free " outside of the enclosure, the omrahs ; the " detached access to him, and the wronged receive justice. and other troops mounted guard according to their There was a curious custom of weighing the king rank. If the beguins, or wives of the omrahs, or other twice a year — once on his birthday, against various women of fashion, wished to pay their compliments, articles, twelve times ; and these were then given they notified it outside, and their request was sent in, away. The princes were also weighed on their birth- in writing, to the officers of the palace, after which days, and the things in the opposite balance distrib- they were permitted to enter the harem : some had uted. Birds were let fly on these occasions, and leave to make a visit of a month. animals were given away, the number cdtresponding The monarch collected, in a kin(i of painting gal- to the years of the prince. lery, a number of artists, who might vie with each In marriages, the emperor made the consent of the other in thei« productions. Every week the superin- bride and bridegroom equally necessary with that of tendents brought to his majesty the performance of their parents. He disapproved of the marriage of par- each artist ; and, in proportion to their merits, they ties of different sects in religion, or of ill-assorted were honored with premiums, and their salaries dispositions; he held it sinful that mere children increased. A list of eighteen eminent artists is given should marry, — as is sometimes the custom in the " in the Mirror." Much attention was paid to the illu- East, — because it would make discord ; that persons mination of manuscripts — which was brought to a high of near affinity should intermarry, and that excessive degree of perfection — and also to the edges and bind- marriage gifts or settlements should be made. He also ing. By command of the emperor, portraits were disapproved of polygamy. The customs in the celebra- made of all the principal officers of the court, which, tion of marriage varied in different parts of the empire. being bound up together, formed a thick volume, The Hindoos had several games of ball, at which " wherein the past are kept in lively remembrance, the emperor was very expert, especially in those and the present are insured immortality." which were played on horseback. Other games, and Public spectacles were encouraged " as a means of among them cards, are enumerated, as in use. bringing together people of all ranks, who, by partak- In the hunting expeditions, the "detached" soldiery ing in the general diversion, may become acquainted, surrounded the spot that contained the game ; at the and enter into friendship and good fellowship with distance of eight or ten miles from this was the sta- each other." In the public fights of animals, deer tion of the kour, or king's suite, and beyond that were were pitted against each other; they were classified, the omrah, or commander-in-chief, and others of registered, and their qualities betted on- Buffaloes, rank ; the whole being enclosed by the guards. In bulls, rams, goats, and cocks were also pitted. The the enclosure that contained the game some principal fights came off at night, on the fourteenth day of the omrahs and servants moved about gently in quest of 428 THIBET — GEOGEAPHICAL DESCEIPTION.

sport, and when they discovered any, pointed it out to cealment, and caught it. Sometimes he was put in his majesty. Sometimes the lion was caught in a trap a covert, or behind a screen, and the deer frightened baited with a kid, for which he entered it, and toward him, when he sprang out, and seized it. the door was made to shut upon him. Sometimes Dogs were also used, and deer taught to hunt deer, by straw was made sticky with some glutinous Substance, putting a slip-noose on the horns of a lame animal, by and a sheep fastened near, in coming to get which the which the wild one was entangled. lion's claws became entangled, and he was rendered Sometimes four hundred people hunted together; harmless, and taken. Sometimes a man was mounted oxen were taught to act as stalking-horses, and on a large buffalo, and caused him to toss the lion moved so as to conceal the hunters, till the deer were till he was killed. come up with. In hunting the wild buffalo, the tame

Several instances are enumerated of Acbar's killing female was used as a decoy ; sometimes the buffaloes lions, in hunting, with his own hand. The mode were driven from the water into snares, on the bank. of hunting elephants was very curious. Leopards Six kinds of hawks were used in hunting. The fal- were taken in a pitfall, with a spring-door. They coners were generally from Cashmere.

were tamed and trained to hunt. Acbar had one which Upon the whole, it may be remarked, in closing used to follow him about, without collar or chain, like this notice of the empire of the Grand Moguls, that a dog. A thousand hunting leopards accompanied the Hindostan seems never to have been happier than emperor to the chase, each with its attendant. Some under the vigorous but well-meaning, orderly, and were carried to the field on horses or mules, others on generally benign, administrations of Acbar and Au- carriages or in palanquins. Sometimes they showed rungzebe. the leopard the game, and he crept along from his con-

Cjiikt.

CHAPTER CCXVIII. The Chinese government divides Thibet into five provinces, viz., Kam, on the east, which contains the Geographical Survey — Divisions — Charac- sources of the Irawaddy and Cambodjia, and lies south ter — Country, Sfc. of the Koko-nor Mongols ; Ouei, containing Lassa, The secluded country of Thibet is the Switzerland the residence of the grand lama, and the spiritual of Asia — on a scale commensurate with the compara- capital of Tartary, bounded south by the Sanpoo, or

tive size of Asia and Europe. Her Alps are the Burrampooter ; Thsang, having Nepaul and part of mighty Himmaleh on the south, the Belur and Mus- Assam on the south, and the Khor Katchi Mongols

tag on the north-west, and the Kuenlun on the north. on the north ; Ngari, with the commercial emporium

The passes of the Himmaleh are guarded by the of Ladak for its capital, and the Punjaub, west ; and Chinese and the obstacles of nature. It is difficult to Balti, a triangular province, with Cashmere and Ca- breathe the rarefied air of these terrific heights. No bul, south-west, Nanloo north-east, and Ngari south- army could penetrate into the country, without expo- east. sure to destruction, even before meeting an enemy. Thibet has many lakes, some of considerable size, The only beast of burden in these regions is the sheep, to several of which Hindoo pilgrims resort, as to the which clanfbers where no other animal than the goat holiest spots of earth. Lake Palti is a kind of ditch, can find a footing. The adventurous traveller must five miles broad, surrounding an island two miles in

stop, every few steps, to take breath ; blood often starts diameter. The largest lake, Terkiri, is seventy by

from his mouth, eyes, and nose, and the pain some- twenty-five miles ; it is in the north-e|st corner of times amounts to agony. Ouei. Some sixteen kinds of quadrupeds are found " On reaching the highest point," says a traveller wild, among which are the musk-deer, three kinds of over one of these passes, " the country looked like jerboas, two species of fox, the hare, yak, ox, and the Lanarkshire, in , and, had there been heather argali sheep. The beautiful fur, beneath the long instead of stone and brown grass, it would have hair of the Thibet goat, the smallest and most beauti- resembled a Highland moor. The view, more ex- ful of the goat species, furnishes the material for the tensive than beautiful, was cloudless. Right in front famous Cashmere shawls. The tail of the yak, a stretched a dreary plain, shrubless, treeless, and house- flowing mass of glossy, waving hair, is a considerable less, terminated, along its whole northern side, at about article of trade, of very ancient use as a brush for twenty miles off, by a low range of rounded brown dispersing insects, and is often represented as a royal hills, utterly without tree or jutting rock, but very much emblem on Persian and Egyptian monuments. Gold broken into ravines and perpendicular faces. Trav- is found nearly pure, in the form of dust, and some- ellers were passing over the plain, to and from the times in pieces of large size. Copper, lead, cinnabar,

pass, with loaded sheep ; but no cattle were visible at and borax, are also part of the resources of this prim- pasture." Such is the scene presented in looking over itive country, which, notwithstanding serious obstacles, this mountain wall from the Niti pass, leading to Boo- carries on considerable commerce with Hindostan, tan, and inaccessible, by reason of cold and snow, China, and Russia. Crude borax, gold, shawl-woot, during eight months of the year. Of the north- and sheep-skins, are exchanged for woollens, cottons, eastern extremity, European travellers have caught silks, tobacco, spices, toys, tea, and porcelain.

some faint glimpses ; but, on the whole, these regions According to official Chinese geography, the whole are almost unknown to Europeans. of Thibet contains sixteen towns. Lassa, the capital, ;:

POLTGAMY—DRESS—THE KIANG. 429

the Rome of Central Asia, is in a large plain, in pair of huge boots : silks and furs are worn by the rich.

Ouei : it is city, but its houses a small are of stone, A fine white silken scarf is an invariable present on and are very spacious and lofty. It is inhabited occasions of ceremony, accompanied by a complimen- chiefly bj merchants and artisans. In the surround- tary letter. The ordinary buildings are very rude, and ing plain are twenty-two temples, all richly adorned quite unornamented, consisting of rough stones with- and seven miles east of the capital is the " holy moun- out cement ; but the religious edifices, uniting palace " " tain," or Pootala, the Vatican of the Grand Lama. temple, and monastery, display extraordinary splendor. His temple-palace is said to be three hundred and sixty-seven feet high, to contain ten thousand apart- ments, filled .with images in gold and silver, and to have its roof richly gilded. Its exterior is decorated CHAPTER CCXIX. with numberless pyramid^ of gold and silver. The state apartments are at the top of the edifice, which is 3000 B. C. to A. S. 1849. seven stories high. History of Thibet — Early Thibetans — Numerous priests and monks are maintained at the Wars — Empire — Conquest by China. expense of government, and by presents which they receive. The Chinese have their military commander Thirty centuries before the Christian era, when the and civil governor at Lassa. The villages and mon- first Chinese colonies descended from the Kuenlun asteries, it may here be remarked, are generally situated Mountains, which separate Thibet from Tartary, they about half way up the insulated rocks which diversify found the Sanmiao, a Thibetan people, inhabiting the the table plain of Thibet. The rock above shelters banks of the Liang River, which runs through the prov- from the cold blasts; that below offers channels to ince of Hoo kooang into Lake Toong ting, in Central carry off the melted snow, while in the heart of the China. Even in times of a still higher antiquity, Thi- rock are excavated granaries and magazines. betan communities seem to have occupied the western

Gertope is the chief market of the shawl-wool ; it is part of China as far south as the Nan ling Mountains rather a camp than a town, consisting merely of black and as far east as the province of Honan. The Sanmiao tents made of blankets fastened to stakes by ropes of were driven by the above-mentioned Chinese colonies hair, and adorned at the tops with flags formed of into the mountains around Lake Kokonor, west of the shreds of colored, silk and cloth. It is in the midst of provinces of Chensi and Szutchooan. Indeed, they a vast plain, scattered about upon which may be con- long occupied the west part of the former province, tinually seen some forty thousand sheep, goats, and which was not brought under the Chinese dominion till yaks. Ladak is the seat of a considerable trade, being the second century B. C. the place of transit for the caravans which traverse The descendants of the Sanmiao received the name both sides of the valley of the Indus, from Thibet, Hin- of Kiang from the Chinese — a name they afterwards dostan, and Cabul. The people of this region held applied to the whole Thibetan race. They led a themselves independent of China, till she assigned it to nomadic life, and had numerous flocks ; they also cul- the Grand Lama, out of respect to whom they abstain tivated portions of land, but the produce was not con- from the marauding habits which they previously prac- siderable. Their manners and customs were the same tised, but require that all the shawl-wool exported to as those of the barbarians of the north : they lived in Cashmere shall pass by the Ladak route. complete anarchy, and knew no other law or right than The Thibetans are of a mild temper and frank man- that of the strongest Hence their country bore the ners : the men are stout, and have something of the name, among the Chinese, of Land of Demoiis, or

Mongol aspect : the complexion of the women is brown, Western Barbarians. enlivened by a mixture of fresh red. Their amuse- Like all the rest of the Thibetans, the Kiang pre- ments are chiefly chess, which they thoroughly under- tended to be descended from a leirge species of ape, stand, and the pageantries of a splendid worship. and the people of the country still gloty in this origin,

Polygamy of a singular kind exists ; all the brothers of and boast of being the most ancient of die human race. a family having the same wife, chosen by the eldest. Middle Thibet is still called Ape Land, and a writer Marriages are not solemnized by the priests, nor are who lived long among the Mongols declares that the they attended with much ceremony : if the lover's pro- features of the Thibetans much resemble those of the posals are approved by the parents of the female, they ape, especially the countenances of the old men, sent proceed with their daughter to the house of their as religious missionaries, who traverse Mongolia in intended son-in-law — the friends and acquaintances of every direction. These vaunt their apish parentage, the parties forming the marriage train. Three days and are quite pleased with what might seem the are passed in the amusements of dancing and music, ugliness of their faces. and when these have elap-sed, the marriage is consid- The Kiang were often at war with China during the ered as concluded. first two dynasties ; but when, in 1125 B. C, Wouwang The Thibetans are temperate, and even abstemious overthrew the Chang dynasty, their chief furnished their chief beverage is the tea-porridge of Tartary, a him auxiliaries. Yet for more than a century they kind of pap of flour, salt, butter, and tea leaves. An sent no embassy to China, although vassals. Hence, old traveller says that they have substituted the about the middle of the tenth century, the emperor drinking out of die skulls of their masters for their attacked and defeated them; since which time they ancient and abominable custom of eating their relatives ceased not to discjuiet the frontier, till effectually who died of old age ; but this needs confirmation. checked or driven off, about 2^0 B. C. The national dress is of thick woollen cloth, and pre- In the third century B. C, a Thibetan tribe, called pared sheep-skins, with the fleece turned inwards : the the Yuetchi, mingled with a blond race called the religious orders wear a vest of woollen with red sleeves, Oosun, both leading a nomad life, and rich in cattle, a large mantle resembling a plaid, with a kilt and a mhabited the country between the snowy ridge of 430 EASTERN THIBETANS—THE DZAN-PHOO.

upper tributaries of the Nan chan, the Hoang-ho, and cient Turks : they were nomads, and followed, with the little river Boolanger, in about latitude 40°. These their cattle, the course of rivers and meadows, lived people the Hioong noo attacked and subjugated in 201 under felt tents, and had different encampments for B. C., and again in 165, when the prmce of the Yue- summer and for winter. The nation was fierce, brave, tchi was slain, and his antagonist took his skull and had and warlike. It subjugated all its neighboring com- it made into a drinking-cup, which he used on grand munities east of the Caspian, and in Transoxiana, and occasions. even ruled at Khotan. Between the fifth and sixth A part of the dispersed Yuetchi returned to the centuries, the nation sent an embassy to China. Its south of the Nan chan, which separated their primeval language differed from that of all the other barbarians.

abode from Thibet, driving out the Kiang : here they In the seventh century, the Ye-ta became tributary to received the name of Little Yuetchi. The other por- the Turks, and were confined to Sogdiana. tion of the nation, much more numerous, and called the The Thibetans of the east founded several obscure Great Yuetchi, escaped toward the north-west, and kingdoms, generally wresting them from the power of

encamped on the banks of the Hi, which runs into Lake China ; all of these, however, fell at last under Chi- Balkash. It expelled from their country the Szu, who nese rule. About A. D. 556, during serious troubles retired into Transoxiana, where they attacked the in China, one of these kings became quite powerful, Greek Bactrians, and destroyed their empire. and took the titie of Dzan-phoo, that is, " born of the After having sojourned in their new countiy some spirit of heaven," or " hero chief." The ordinary resi- years, the Yuetchi wore joined by their old neighbors, dence of this ruler was on the stream which runs near the Oosun, who had escaped into the Hi country, to Lassa. Though they had small towns, the people avoid the vexations of the Hioong noo. The Oosun then mostly preferred to encamp near the towns, under pushed the Yuetchi to the westward, and forced them felt tents. The subject tribes on their frontier were to cross the Jaxartes, where they took possession of nomads. Transoxiana, and founded a powerful empire, which Their ordinary nourishment was milk, beef, mutton,

lasted several centuries. To the west it was coter- and roasted grains : they never ate horses or asses. minous with that of the Asi or Parthians. In the Their garments were made of felt and woollen cloths, course of time, the Yuetchi conquered Cabul, Canda- which they manufactured themselves. When an in- har, and all the countries on both banks of the Indus. dividual died, horses and oxen were killed upon his The ancients knew them under the name of Indo- tomb, and interred with him. They had no writing, Scythians. but used notched sticks and knotted strings to register In the year 126 B. C, the Chinese sent to induce what they wished to recollect. Every year they re- them to attack, on the west, the Hioong noo — irrecon- newed the oath of allegiance to their king, called the

cilable enemies of the Yuetchi ; but these latter pre- little oath, on which occasion they sacrificed dogs and ferred the conquest of the fertile provinces of Parthia asses. Every three years, also, the little oath was and Sinde, A chief of one of the five hordes of the taken, and men, horses, oxen, and asses were sacri- nation, having put to death the chiefs of the other ficed. They began the year at the period of the ma- hordes, in 80 B. C, declared himself king of the turity of grain. nation, and obliged it to adopt the name of his own In 590, the Dzan-phoo extended his kingdom, which horde. He invaded Parthia, took Cabul, and his son reached on the south-west to the frontier of the Brahm- ravaged Sinde. This power now went on increasing. ins, or India. The capital was at Lassa. Having At the end of the second century A. D., its capital obtained some idea of the religion of Buddha, he sent was situated near where Khiva now is. Six hundred his prime minister into India, in 632, to study there miles eastward was its other capital. Some time the doctrine in all its purity. Under him the power

after, one of their kings again invaded Sinde with a of the Thibetans increased greatiy : this caused them to large army, and also took five principalities north of be much feared, and gave them a great preponderance Candahar.* in Central Asia. They could easily set on foot an In the fifth century, the Yuetchi declined through the army of some hundred thousands of well-disciplined aggrandizement of the Sassanides of Persia on one troops. Nothing, then, could be more flattering to the side, and of the Jeoo jan of Tartary on the other. A Chinese emperor than the proposition of their chief, portion of them had spread east as far as the Altai and by an embassy, in 634, to acknowledge himself the Khotan, and bore the name of Ye-ta. These be- vassal of China. came powerful about A. D. 400, extended themselves Four years after, the emperor sent an ambassador west, and had their principal camp south of the Oxus. to the chief to keep up the good understanding. But In their capital, (probably Bamian,) which was square, on the chief's asking his daughter in marriage, the and three miles in circumference, was the royal palace, emperor refused her to him. This incensed the chief, and many Buddhist temples, richly gilded. for Turkish kings had already been thus honored. Their manners were the same as those of the an- Much enraged, therefore, he led his army to the fron- tiers, and sent to the Chinese court rich presents, under

pretext of his future marriage with the princess ; but the * The Yuetchi had at this time chariots drawn by two or came appointment of an op- four oxen. About 430 A. D., a Yuetchi merchant' emperor's only answer was, the to manu- to the court of the emperor of China, and proposed posing force along his frontier. The armies met, the an article hitherto obtained facture glass of different colors — Thibetan chief was defeated, but obtained peace and from the west, and at a very high price. Under his direction, the mountains, the hand of the emperor's daughter, A. D. 641. the proper mineral to make it of was found m colored In 649, he defeated the king of Middle Hindostan, or and the merchant succeeded in making very beautiful construct of this sub- glass. The emperor employed him to Bahar. We next find the Chinese emperor interposing contain a hundred persons. stance a spacious hall, which would between the Dzan-phoo and another king, whom that and resplendent, that it "When done, it was so magnificent the chief had defeated ; but, on the submission of might have been deemed the work of genu. From this time former, recalling his troops. The Dzan-phoo then glass ware became cheaper in China. ;

WARS BETWEEN THE THIBETANS AND CHINESE. 431 turned his arms in another direction, and his kingdom ilar depredations were renewed every year. The became quite extensive, so that the emperor thought it land of Fergana, too, on the extreme west of the necessary to send an army and governor-general to empire, was taken from the Chinese, and its king was assert his power over the four military districts of the obliged to seek safety in China. Dzan-phoo, namely, Koutche, Khotan, Karachar, and The Thibetans were at this time in alliance with Casligar. But the Chinese generals quarrelling, two the Arabs on their southern border, who were then bodies of their troops were cut off in• detail, near the warring in Mawarannahr. They had even Arab Lake Kokonor. troops in their armies. The following year, the Thus the Thibetan power went on increasing. Turks, who were at war with China, induced The Turks endeavored to embroil them with the Chi- the khalif of the Arabs and the Dzaniphoo of the nese, but did not succeed, though at last the emperor, Thibetans to aid them with their troops in attacking in consequence of their ceaseless incursions, sent, in the countries in Central Asia, subject to China. The 678, an army of one hundred and eighty thousand allies besieged two cities in the country of Cashgar men, and gave them battle near the lake. The Chi- but the Chinese, aided by other Turkish hordes, were nese were defeated, but their opponents gained nothing. enabled to raise the siege. In 722, the Thibetans On the death of the Dzan-phoo, during a regency, the attacked the kingdom of the Little Bolor, whose king emperor sent a general ostensibly to pay his respects asked help of a Chinese governor, and the Thibetans to the regent, but with secret orders to fall upon the were ultimately defeated. After this check, they Thibetans at unawares. The general, however, wrote did not venture, for some years, to annoy the frontiers

back that all were on their guard, and nothing was of the empire ; but in 727, they began again to be done. troublesome. Several cantons of Western China had fallen into Similar events succeeded each other, with various the hands of the Thibetans, who possessed as far as the success on both sides. The Chinese were not able to Celestial Mountains north, to the Himmaleh south, and subdue this brave and restless people, and the result to the BeluT Mountains west. Suddenly the Chinese of the enterprises against them was, to render them combined with the eastern Turks, and drove the Thi- only the more proud and insolent. In 729, the Chi- betans from their four northern districts, above named. nese took one of their cities, which was deemed im- The regent, afflicted at these reverses, thought the pregnable, and, carrying war into the enemy's coun-

best mode of recovering his lost provinces was, to ask try, laid it waste for more than three hundred miles.

a Chinese princess for his young prince in marriage. The Dzan-phoo asked for peace and a princess : both The empress Woo-heoo, who then governed China, were granted, and the frontier troops were withdrawn. without returning a definite promise, endeavored to But war was renewed because the Dzan-phoo kept up ascertain the condition of the Thibetans, and the terms a war which the Chinese had desired him to desist

they offered : the regent proposed that the imperial from. The success was various. A rebellion pre- troops should evacuate the four chief provinces above vented the emperor from punishing his invaders. named, and that a country should be fixed upon for China was ruled by a eunuch, who did nothing. The each one of the ten Thibetan hordes, and that each Thibetans took the Chinese capital, a city of West

horde should have its independent chief. The em- China, afterwards called Singan. The emperor fled :

press decided to yield the terms asked for ; but, in the enemy pillaged the city, burned the palace, and return, demanded the cession of the Kokonor prov- proclaimed another emperor. Nevertheless, at the ince, which would round off the Chinese territory. approach of a Chinese army, they abandoned the city, The parties, however, could not come to terms, and and returned into their own country, loaded with an hostilities continued. immense booty. A. D. 763. In 702, the Dzan-phoo, having come of age, dis- A prince of Turkish origin excited a new revolt in trusted the good regent Khinling, and put to death China the next year, and, leaguing with the Thibetans

many of his adherents and relations ; upon which Khin- and Turks, raised a formidable army, and invaded the ling was so much grieved that he committed suicide. north-western provinces. His death caused disunion Several officers devoted to him passed over to China, among the allies, of which the Chinese took advantage, and offered their services to the empress, who accepted detached the Turks from the league, and employed them. Notwithstanding this desertion, the Dzan-phoo them to combat the Thibetan army, which was entirely sent an army, which pillaged the Chinese frontier, but defeated. The Turks (Hoei he) took vast numbers

was beaten back. He then sent an embassy ; but his of prisoners, and carried off all the booty the Thibet- proposals of peace were rejected, and the plundering ans had taken from the Chinese the year before. incursions continued, to the great damage of the fron- It is not necessary to recount the trains of similar state tliat, in tier ; so that the Chinese were obliged to keep up a events which followed : it is sufficient to large standing army to defend it. 821, a peace was concluded between the Thibetans The next year, the Dzan-phoo sent an embassy to and Chinese on a solid basis, and a stone monument, ask again of the empress a princess of the blood royal. commemorating it, was erected in the middle of Lassa, He carried a thousand horses and two thousand ounces on which the treaty was engraven. This monument of gold, as presents. While this was going on, the is still to be seen in the enclosure of the great temple. southern provinces of the Thibetans revolted, and the But this did not hinder a renewal of wars, the result Dzan-phoo led an army against them. He defeated of which was, that, in 866, the power of the Thibetans, them, but lost his life in the action. His son, seven which had dominated in Central Asia for more than years old, succeeded him, to whom a Chinese princess four hundred years, was almost entirely destroyed. taken by the Ouigoors, was promised ; but, as he demanded a considerable Their northern territories were province for her dowry, the alliance did not take place. their south-eastern by the kings of Yunnan. But the of Consequently, in 714, a Thibetan army of a hundred fatal blow was the establishment of the kingdom In 1015, the nation thousand men ravaged the Chinese frontier ; and sim- Hia in the north-west of China. !

432 RELIGION OF THE THIBETANS. appears again on the page of history, sending an em- In the latter part of the last century, the king of Ne bassy to China against the Hia. After various ex- paul, tempted by the report of the wealth of its tem- ternal disasters and internal troubles, the Thibetans, plesj and especially that of Pootala, marched an army wearied with dissensions, recognized the sovereignty into Thibet from the south, and, after an obstinate ofChinainll25. war, compelled the lama to purchase peace by an Zingis, the Mongol conqueror, seems to have estab- ample tribute. » lished the spiritual power of the grand lama, as we The Chinese emperor, looking upon the lama as have elsewhere stated ; and his present title, it is sup- his spiritual father, sent an army, of seventy thousand posed, originated at that time. Zingis does not appear men into Thibet, in 1791, who, notwithstanding a to have interfered at all with the domestic administra- vigorous resistance, drove the Nepaulese troops back tion of the temporal affairs of this kingdom. But, though across the mountains^ The emperor now assumed in a manner independent of Zingis, Thibet became the civil sway of the country, leaving the lama his tributary to Kublai Khan. During the Ming dynas- spiritual jurisdiction. The Chinese still rule Thibet ty, in the fourteenth century, it was an independent with a mild sway, leaving all the ecclesiastical institu- kingdom again, and so continued down to the conquest tions undisturbed, and in full possession of their ample of China by the Manchoos, who also subjugated Thi- endowments ; the tribute, conveyed by an annua, bet, except the western part, previous to A. D. 1725. embassy to Pekin, is extremely moderate.

Temple-palace of Teshoo Lomboo, near Jikadze, in Eastern Thibet.

CHAPTER CCXX. The word lama signifies one who shows the way, applied to spiritual concerns. All the priests, who are Shaman- Religion — Buddhism, Lamaism, exceedingly numerous, are lamas, but they are of va- ism, or the Religion of Fo — Its History rious degrees. The Grand Lama is at th6 head. He and Doctrines. resides in a magnificent temple at Pootala, nearLassa, the capital of Thibet. is deemed the Buddha, the The religion of Thibet is that generally known under He or Fo, the Deity himself, residing, however, in the form the title of Buddhism, or Boodhism, from Buddha, the of a man. When the human body of the lama dies, Boodh, its founder. It is called Lamaism, from in Tartary, the priests, guided by certain signs, and proceeding Grand Lama, its sovereign head in Thibet ; according to established forms, point out the child into mixed with fetishism, it is called Shamanism ; in China, whose body Buddha shall go, and there Buddha philosophized, it becomes the religion of Fo. It prevails becomes accordingly installed. Thus the perpetual over more minds than any other religious system in the of a god on earth is sustained. is the is remarkable for combining external rites miracle Such world ; and institution of the grand lama. This dignitary has no and manifestations with metaphysical dogmas. Thus hand, that man, by self-con- direct temporal power ; but he is the head of the it maintains, on the one Buddhist cilurch over all Asia, as the pope of Rome templation, can become so exalted as to be absorbed relig- is the head of the Catholic church liuoughout the into the Deity — and this is the highest end of a his more ig- it teaches that God, or Buddha, world. So exalted is he, in the eyes of ious life : on the other, worshippers, that, it is said, a divine odor is becomes incarnate in the Grand Lama, and that divine norant while the grossest and exhaled from his body, flowers spring up from his emanations fill the priesthood ; great mass of the footsteps, and, at his bidding, parqhed deserts are re- coarsest idolatry is practised by the adaptation to opposite freshed with flowing rivulets. Even his excrements people. It is, doubtless, this mystic and the. formal are used as amulets, it being believed that they have classes of minds — the dreamy contributed to its ex- the power to cure diseases ' materialist — that has largely Out of this being, so full of divinity, flows an tension. ;

PRIESTS—RELIGIOUS CEREMONIES. 433

emanation to ten superior lamas, called kootooktoos. too's protection over his reign and the empire. The These are also divine, and constitute subordinate child laid his hands on the deputy's head, and gave spiritual heads of the nations of Tartary, &c. They the blessing asked for, and then blessed the lamas are perpetuated in the same way as the grand lama. and people. Presents were brought him, also, from the When a kootooktoo dies, the supreme pontiff indir grandees and others, on the two following days. For cates the infant body into which the spirit shall go. seventeen days the fete was kept up, with prize wres- When the grand lama has thus decided, the oldest tling, by several hundred wrestlers on a side ; horse- lamas — that is, priests — in the coiAtry are sent to racing, by nearly four thousand horses, — a thousand examine the infant, and verify the its fact of selection. and more at once ; and archery, in which more than In 1729, an installation of the Mongolian kootook- three hundred archers contended. Prizes were then too took place at Ourga, his capital. Just after sun- distributed, and names of honor, such as " Lion," rise, the principal temple was decorated, and the idol " Strong Elephant," &c., were given to the victors. of the saint Abucha, to whom lamas address prayers Beside the kootooktoos, there are multitudes of for long life, was placed opposite the entrance. On ordinary priests spread over all countries where tho the left was erected a throne, adorned with precious Buddhist religion prevails, thronging around the tem- stones and rbh stuffs. There were present the sister ples, occupied in religious services, begging, or per- of the deceased kootooktoo, the three chief khans of forming fanatical or monkish feats and fasts : they Mongolia, and the deputies or proxies of the Chinese abound especially in China and Farther India. In Thi-

emperor, and of the grand lama ; the new kootook- bet, eighty-four thousand priests are supported by the too's father, the three khans of the Kalkas, and several government. The temple of the grand lama, at Lassa, other Mongols of distinction. The number of lamas is three hundred and sixty-seven feet high, and has ten assembled was twenty-six thousand, and that of the thousand rooms. On the plains around are twenty-two people, above one hundred thousand. other temples, some of enormous extent. These edi-

First, two hundred lances with gilt points, and fices are thronged with priests : twenty thousand are in adorned with bronze figures of wild beasts, were attendance upon the grand lama. Vast numbers of brought out and placed in two rows before the door pilgrims come to him from distant countries every and a line was formed of two hundred Mongols, with year. He is never seen, except in a remote and secret

drums and large brass trumpets. Six lamas then part of his temple ; here, surrounded by lamps, he came forth, bearing the sister of the deceased kootook- seems absorbed in religious reverie. He never speaks, too, and followed by the khans, the principal govern- or gives a sign of respect, even to princes. With an ors, and all the other persons of distinction, arrayed air of sublime indifference, he lays his hand on their in splendid costumes. The procession moved in heads, and this is regarded as an inestimable privilege. silence to the tent of the new kootooktoo, which was In 1783, an English embassy went to Thibet, where the residence of his father, a Mongol prince. they saw the lama of Teshoo Lomboo, who seems to An hour afterward, the new kootooktoo appeared, have been a kootooktoo. He was a child eighteen conducted by the principal grandees and senior lamas, months old, and officiating as lama, performed his part who held him by the hand and under the arms. They with " surprising propriety.'' The temple at this place placed him upon a horse, magnificently caparisoned, is described, as of vast extent and magnificence. It whose bridle was held by a priest of high rank on (jne appears that, in Thibet, the priests are the aristocracy, side, and the senior lama on the other* When the holding the wealth of the country in their possession. kootooktoo came out of the tent, the lamas chant- The leading people adopt tlte-clerical profession, as

ed hymns to his honor, accompanied by the instru- being the road to honor ana riches ; the laity con- ments, while the nobles and the people bowed pro- stitute the lower classes. The priests are enjoined to foundly, and raised their hands toward heaven. celibacy, and marriage is therefore esteemed not only

The procession halted in front of six richly adorned irregular, but vulgar. I tents, in an enclosure before the temple. The lamas There seem to be rich revenues connected with the took the kootooktoo from his horse with the greatest temples, many of which are filled with gold, silver, and all this, , respect, and led him into the enclosure. The elder jewels ; beside the Jamas of every degree lamas then took him into the temple, into which the receive numerous presents, some of them sent by sister of the former kootooktoo — now received kings and princes to the grand lama and the kootook- as his own sister — and all the grandees likewise toos, and of great cost and value. The monks of entered. The envoy or proxy of the grand lama Thibet, who live on the borders of India, are said to

then seated him on the throne ; and -the proxy of the be a dirty, good-humored class, who do not scruple to emperor announced to the people the order of his engage in trade. In the great central establishments,

master to pay the kootooktoo the honors due to his there is more dignity ; the deportment of the superi-

rank. Hereupon, the whole assembly prostrated ors is humane, obliging, and unassuming ; that of the themselves three times. The bells used by the priests inferiors, respectful and proper. The religious ser- were now placed before the little lama, omitting the vices consist of loud music, in which the priests are one the former kootooktoo used. " Why have you trained to raise their voices to a stentorian pitch, not brought my usual bell .' " said the child. On accompanied by drums, trumpets, cymbals, hautboys, hearing these words, the khans, governors, lamas, and and every sonorous instrument capable of making a is all the people shouted, " It is our real high priest ; it noise. A favorite devotional practice gazing on a " revolve rapidly fe our kootooktoo ! wheel with painted letters, made to by He then blessed his sister, the grandees and lamas, the hand. It is singular, that while the Hindoos pay and afterwards the people during the evening. Early religious veneration to certain lakes and snowy peaks the next day, the emperor's deputy brought rich pres- of Thibet, particularly Manasarouara Lake, and ents, and presenting them with the greatest respect, Mount Chumularee, the Thibetans haye many Hin- solicited, m the name of the emperor, the kootook- doo idols in their temples, and make devout pilgrim- 43-1, DOCTRINES OP THE BUDDHISTS. ages to Indian shrines, particularly at Benares, Jugger- life. Thus it germinated, and grew with widening naut, and Laput. shade, like its emblem, the banian-tree, planting nur- Thibetan literature, which contains learning of series of its own branches, till it has been firmly rooted great antiquity, is exciting some interest in Europe in the minds of not less than four hundred millions of at present, and perhaps may, upon further investiga- the human race." * Its history, as it may be gathered tion, help to solve some of the problems of the from books of the Buddhists themselves, not only of early history of our race. Buddhism, especially, from India, but also of China, Thibet, and Mongolia, refers the fact that it is the most extended religion in the to Central India as the first seat of the system ; and its world, has attracted the special attention of the learned. doctrines, so far as they are understood, have evidently

It is believed that the whole system, after laborious grown out of brahminism. Its mythology, too, is that research, is now brought within our reach. Its exter- of the Hindoos, in its principal features. nal characteristics, were long since made known, A quickening of moral feeling against the I^anthe- by the Catholic missionaries, who, in penetrating into ism of the brahmins, may be said to lie at the foun- Central Asia, were astonished to find a religion in dation of Buddhism. The tendency of brahmin many respects like their own. Beside the Grand philosophy was to confound the Deity with the works

Lama, who greatly resembles the pope, they found of his creation ; though it taught the existence of a patriarchs charged with the spiritual government of divine principle pervading all nature, yet in practice provinces, a council of superior lamas, who unite in it made the creation itself, as God, the highest object conclave to elect the supreme pontiff, and whose insig- of worship, rather than a life-giving being, essen- nia even resembled those of cardinals ; convents of tially separate from visible realities and ideas of the

mind ; moral distinctions were consequently obliter- monks and nuns ; prayers for the dead, auricular con- fession, the intercession of saints, fasting, kissing the ated. feet, litanies, processions, holy water, bells, candles, But that sense of responsibility which clings to man

&c. Some of the priests were scandalized to see could not be entirely destroyed ; and, in proportion as that the divinities presiding over the rites and cere- it reasserted its authority, the notion of the identity of monies, were the coarse and disgusting idols of the God and nature was necessarily dissipated, opening heathen they came to convert. the way 'to a new idea of the Deity. Such was the One of the religious books of Buddha lays down force of long-established opinion, however, identifying the with objects cognizable by the senses, — thus the following moral propositions : — Deity Sins are the ten black, five mortal, five near, and making him a mere aggregate of ideal forms, — that four heavy sins, and the three vices. The black sins there was a sort of necessity, in opposing Pantheism, to deny all attributes to God — to conceive of simple, are divided into sins by actions, words, and thoughts ; by actions, as murder, robbery with violence and im- abstract existence as the highest Being. In Buddhist language, God was Soobhava, that is, self-immanent pure actions ; by words, as lying, threatening, calum- substance, while all inferior existences are mere illu- ny, and idle discourse ; by tiioughts, as envy, hatred, and evil imaginations. sions, except so far as ideal forms are endowed with reality by the presence of the Deity. All action, The ten following virtues are to be practised : to purpose, feeling, thought, having been thus abstracted pardon the condemned, or save any one's life ; to ob- from the idea of Deity, the highest human attainment serve cleanliness ; to speak politely ; to speak the is," of course, an imitation of this state — a similar truth ; to preach and preserve peace ; to follow the sublimation of existence above all qualities. This is precepts contained in the sacred books ; to be con- the Nirvana of the' Buddhists — the religious exalta- tented with one's station ; to assist one's neighbors ; and, tenth, to believe in remuneration, that is, in the tion to which the devout aspire. punishment of evil and the reward of virtue. Their religious history of the world is curious. A The mortal sins are assassination of one's parents, fatality, it is said, having occasioned the development superiors, conquerors, khoubilgans, or regenerated of self-immanent substance, the first emanation was Intelligence, or Buddha, together with vyater, which persons ; and exciting discord among priests. The five near sins are, throwing down the subourgans — elements combined have given origin to all existing chapels in the shape of pyramidal columns — causing things. A Buddha state is the last state at which man the death of a hermit, attacking his reputation, seizing arrives in the progress of perfection, before reaching as a on the presents made to the priests, wickedly shedding the goal of Nirvana. But the idea of Buddha, the blood of regenerated persons, or saints devoted to teacher of mankind, is founded upon a supposed per- kalpas, series the service of the temple. petual and invariable rotation of great or The four heavy sins are each subdivided into four of ages. In each of these, — the series of which begins of degrees, which are, 1. Sins that tend to total perdition, at an indefinite point of past time, — after an age corruption, degradation, and decay, one of restoration such as plots against the saints ; 2. Sins arising from more contempt, such as depreciating the merit of others, has succeeded. This restoration has occurred or less frequently ; and in each case the first Emanation refusing to listen to the truth, contempt of the lamas ; Intelligence has imbodied among men, in 3. Sins arising from blasphemy, such as criticizing the or become of human spirits true religion, taking the defence of the ten black sins, order to promote the disentanglement vortex effulgence of its being guilty of the five mortal sins, &c. from the of illusion, by the Such are some of the practical forms and doctrines original light. theory The round of ages making a great kalpa had been of this system ; its origin and deserve more the Buddhists, eleven particular notice. " Buddhism," says Professor Salis- already completed, according to time's at the commencement of the present kalpa, and bury, " is an offshoot of the Indian mind, not in the fresh days of its prime, but when the stock had ap- parently become too massive to be thoroughly ani- * See Professor Salisbury's Memoir on the History of Bud- mated — too firmly incased to burst forth with young dhism, in the Journal of the American Oriental Society, voL i. SPREAD OF BUDDHISM. 436

Buddha had as often been incarnate. Since the pres- sion was not tolerated in Hindostan after the seventh ent series of ages began its revolution, Buddha has century, when brahminism succeeded in expelling this, appeared, it is said, four times, and last in the person its formidable antagonist, from the country. of Sakya-muni, or the Sakya Saint, called, also, Cha- The king or dzanphoo of Thibet, having had some kiamouni, Shigemooni, and Godama — and who has notions of the religion of Buddha, sent his prime min- given the law to the existing age. This Buddha, ac- ister Sambouoda, to India, in A. D. 632, there to study cording to Chinese and Japanese authorities, was born the doctrine of Sakya-muni, in all its purity. Eetum- in 1029 B. C, and died in 950. Olfier calculations ing to Thibet, this minister composed two kinds of fix his death at 1522 B. C. The Ceylonese, Bir- characters proper to write the language of the country. mans, and Assamese date it at 543 B. C. His master, Srongdsan, the king, then caused to be Sakya was of the Kshattrya, or warrior caste, being built at his capital, Lassa, the chief temple of the the son of a prince who ruled over a small, independ- religion he had just adopted. ent kingdom, in the north-west corner of Oude, on the Another authority adds that the establishment of edge of the Himmaleh range, at a place called the Buddhism on a firm footing in Thibet, seems to date Yellow Dwelling. Hence, probably. Buddhism obtains from about the middle of the seventh century, (A. D. its title of the yellow religion. Sakya's personal 639—641,) when the above Srongdsan married two apostleship appears to have extended over all Cen- princesses, the one of China, and the other of Nepaul, tral India, and his religion was espoused by many of who each brought with them, to the Thibetan court, the kings. At Shrasvati, in Oude, a rich householder large collections of Buddhist books, as well as images is said to have erected several large buildings in of Buddha. A commission was appointed of an a grove, inviting Buddha and his disciples to reside Indian pundit, twoNepaulese teachers, one Chinese, and there. Here, it seems, he spent twenty-three years, one Thibetan, to translate the books of doctrine and and composed the Aphorisms, one of the three parts the ritual, and thus the " sun of the religion was made of the Buddhist Bible. In 543 B. C, the chief succes- to rise upon the dark land of Thibet." The whole sor of Buddha convened a council, at the capital of collection of the Thibetan Buddhist books consists of Maghada, of a certain number of the clerical order the Kahgyur, or Gandjour, a " Translation of Com- supposed to be most advanced in the doctrines, and mandments," embracing one hundred volumes — they added the other two parts of the Buddhist Bible — some say one hundred and eight — and the Stahgyur, the " Prescription concerning Moral Conduct," and in two hundred and twenty-five volumes. the " Appended Law." Yet that development of Buddhism, which seems to There have lately been discovered in Nepaul, and have been peculiar to Thibet, called Lamaism, was re- sent to Europe, the Sanscrit originals of these three served for a later age. Under the Mongol, Zingis books of their Bible, viz., the Sutra, the Vinaya, and Khan, in the thirteenth century, temporal and spiritual the Abhidarma ; or " Fundamental Texts," " Disci- power were first united in the person of the recog- jline," and " Metaphysics." It is said to be demon- nized head of the clerical order of the Buddhists, on strated that the greater part of the books held sacred his elevation to the rank of a sub-king in Thibet, by the Buddhists of Thibet, Tartary, and China, are then included in the nominal empire of- the Mongols. but translations from these. A Mongol author says, that " Zingis sent an ambas-

Asoka, king of Magadha, was the great patron of sador to the head lama with the following order : Be Buddhism, and is said to have erected eighty-four thou the lama to adore me now and in future. I wiU thousand stupas, or topes. These are a sort of shrines become master and provider of the alms-gifts, and or relic-depositories, built in the shape of a bubble, make the rites of the religion a part of the state es- with a bead at the top — because it is said Buddha was tablishment: to this end have I exempted the clergy of wont to compare life to a water-bubble. Soon after Thibet from taxation." Thus the religious reverence — 241 B. C.,the seventeenth year of Asoka's reign, at of the nation was shrewdly availed of as best adapted the end of the third grand ecclesiastical council — be- to sway the popular will, and the spiritual authority gan the great age of Buddhist missions. Propagandists was made to subserve the interests of the empire, by were now sent, by the head of the mendicant frater- union with a temporal power based upon it. nity, into Cashmere and its dependencies ; into the After the middle of the thirteenth century, when

Western Himmalehs ; to the Mahratta country, in the Buddhism had extensively spread among the Mongols south-west part of Hindostan, where were erected themselves, a grandson of Zingis made the grand lama those vast monumental structures of Buddhism — the of Thibet " king of the doctrine in the three lands," cave-temples in Salsette, Ellora, &c. Missionaries that is, grand lama or patriarch of the religion of of this religion also made proselytes in Ceylon, in the Buddha for the whole empire : and at the same time western nations, particularly the empire of Antiochus, this spiritual chief of the Buddhist religion was treated and probably in Egypt ; also in the cold plains north as having the prerogative of dispensing temporal power " Europe, of the Himmaleh, inhabited by monsters," as the by consecration ; just as the sovereigns of brahmins called foreigners. From Ceylon, Buddhism before the reformation, were accustomed to receive their spread to Farther India, and even beyond. In A. D. crowns and the unction of royalty at the hands of the which succeeded 418, five priests brought it to Japan, from Candahar ; Roman pontiff. Under the dynasties and, in the sixth century, " idols, idol carvers, and the brief period of the Mongol empire, there seems to priests, again came " to Japan, " from several countries have been an increased parade of veneration for the beyond sea." Buddhist patriarchs, while at the same time less power In A. D. 495, the patriarch of the Indian Buddhists was in their hands. Under these circumstances, the transferred his seat to China, and the succession was ecclesiastical system reached that acme of absurdity, no longer continued in India. From the middle of the the lama worship, which first became loiown to Eu- fifth century, indeed. Buddhism began to be overpow- ropeans through tlie Jesuit missionaries. originating ered in India and in the Indus country ; and its profes- It would therefore seem that Buddhism, ; —

436 BENEFITS OF BUDDHISM — CHINA.

in Hindostan, spread thence to other countries And further — it is believed that Buddhism, in spite that the patriarch of the religion dwelt in India, whence of its abuses and corruptions, has benefited the ruder

he transferred his seat to China. At a later date, it nations of Asia, among whom it has prevailed, inas- became established in Thibet, where it continues to much as it has taken the place of a mischievous sys-

the present . day ; though, in the course of ages, tem. Brahminism is fatalism ; it virtually takes

through the juggles of priestcraft and the policy of away man's individuality and responsibility ; Buddhism princes, it has assumed its present form. Its rites and gives him both. This, with other causes, has con- ceremonies differ in different countries, and, blended tributed to extend this faith. In India, the brahmins with other superstitions, its spirit is often modified. For were a priestly aristocracy, who held the king entirely these varieties of Buddhism we must refer the reader in the power of their caste. Buddhism broke down to the notices of China, Tartaiy, Farther India, &c. the caste system — always fatal to progress and im- In general. Buddhism inculcates good moral pre- provement. It originated with a man of the soldier

cepts ; but its whole history and present condition CEiste, and would naturally be embraced by kings who afford melfmcholy evidence of the duplicity of priests wished to free themselves from priestcraft. By its and princes, and the ignorance and gullibility of the greater sympathy with individual man, and by teaching masses. At the present day, this mighty institution is him his personal responsibility and capacity for im- a machine by which kings and chiefs sustain their provement and progress, and giving every one a motive

thrones, and by which, through the aid and coopera- and an opportunity to rise — even to the priesthood — it tion of the priests, they are able to perpetuate their elevated the masses. These would become the natural despotisms. The connection between church and state allies of the king in reducing the power of the priestly is clear, for the emperor of China has at his court a aristocracy — as in Europe the masses joined the kings fcootooktoo, or nuncio of the grand lama, and in 1820, in putting down the military aristocracy. claimed the privilege of naming the child into whom a Beside political reasons, there are also moral ones, new kootooktoo was to pass. The shameless trick of which may assist in accounting for the progress of passing off a man as God, in the case of the grand Buddhism. The sympathy for individual man, induced lama, and teaching the people to worship him as such, the Buddhist missionaries to interest themselves for is explained by the fact that the priests, who perform foreigners, who were called " barbarians" and " mon- the juggle, thereby secure to themselves wealth, power, sters" by the Brahmins. The rude tribes of Asia felt

and homage ; that such a system is upheld by mon- this fellowship, and it conciliated affection to Bud- archs, is accounted for by considering that in this way dhism, contrasted as it was with the " haughty, unsym- they maintain their dynasties, which give them the pathizing, and despiteful spirit" of Brahminism, and place and privileges of divinity. However the mind other creeds. A maxim of Buddhism was, " whatever

is shocked by this view, we must not indulge contempt misery is in the world is caused by selfishness ; what- toward these Asiatic nations, for it is to be remembered ever happiness there is, has arisen from a wish for the that during the middle ages, and down to the reforma- welfare of others"— a truly Christian principle, which tion — nay, even in some degree at a later day — could not fail to commend itself to the hearts of mil- similar practices have prevailed in Christendom. lions, especially in the lower walks of life.

€^m.

Scene in China. House. Boat. Fort, Srldge. Ships. Pagoda.

CHAPTER CCXXI. miles, or twice that of the United States. It consists of China Proper, with several dependent countries Introduction — Geographical Sketch. Chinese Tariary, Thibet, Corea, and a number of The Chinese Empire is the most populous in the islands lying along the coast. world, its inhabitants being estimated at two hundred We have already given the history of Tartary. and fifty to three hundred and fifty millions — form- which is occupied by numerous nations and tribeS; ing about one third part of the population of the globe. most of which belong to the Mongolian race, and there- Its extent is five million four hundred thousand square fore have a general resemblance to the Chinese, who CHINA, ITS BOUNDARIES, CLIMATE, SOIL. 437

are also of the Mong&l stock ; but they are altogether more rude and uncivilized than the Chinese. We have also given a distinct account of Thibet, and thbugh the pfeople there are Mongolians, they are as little pol- ished as the inhabitants of Tartary. Corea has only a nominal dependence upon China,

and we have given it a separate notiSfe : its people, however, are physically assimilated to the Chinese, though less polished, and less advanced in arts, knowledge, and refine- ment. China Proper contains about one fourth part of the territory of the empire, and three fourths of the population. It is the portion which embraces that peculiar nation, so dif- ferent from all others, called Chinese. It presents topics of great interest, and merits a particular and distinct notice. China Proper is bounded on the north by

Tartary, and the Yellow Sea ; east by the

Pacific Ocean ; south by the China Sea, Laos, and Anam ; and west by Thibet. It is gen- erally an uneven plain, though crossed by two ranges of mountains, the Peling range in the north, and the Meling range in the south. The two chief rivers are the Hoang- ho, — also called the Yellow River, its waters being dis- gfehtle, and hospitable manners. The Ia:nguage is a colored by the yellow earth, along its banks, — and the dialect of the Japanese. Yang-tse-Kiang. Both take their rise in Thibet. The The climate of China is cold at the north, the winters first is one thousand eight hundred Eind fifty miles long, at Pekin being attended with deep snows and severe and the last, two thousand miles. frosts. To the south, it is hot. Lying in the same The Island of Hainan lies upon the southern coast, latitude as the United States, and embracing nearly the about eight miles from the main land. It is one hun- same extent upon the Pacific as our country does upon dred and fifty niiles long and seventy-five broad, and the Atlantic, the seasons and temperature are remark- is quite populous. A part of the people are subject to ably similar. The soil of China is various, though

China, and a part remain independent. It produces generally fertile : the whole is under industrious and gold, lapis lazuli, and various valuable and curious skilful cultivation, and yields abundant crops. It pro- woods. Formosa,* or Tai-wan, lies in the China Sea, duces all the fruits common to ti'opical and temperate sixty miles from the coast. It is two hundred and forty latitudes. Camphor and cinnamon-trees grow in the miles long and sixty wide. It is traversed by a range fields and gardens. of mountains twelve thousand feet high, the tops oif which are covered with snow the greater part of the year. Several peaks are volcanic. The climate of this island is temperate, but the seas around are among the most tempestuous in the world, being visited by typhoons, whirlwinds, and waterspouts. Earth- quakes are frequent and violent. The soil is fertile, and parts are highly cultivated, yielding grain and various fruits. The Chinese, who occupy only the western part, first settled here in 1662, reducing the natives to a tributary state. They are about six hun- dred thousand in number ; the aborigines occupy the eastern part of the island: they are of a slender make, and resemble both the Malays and Chinese. The Loo Choo Islands, lying to the north-west of Ten Garden. Formosa, are thirty-six in number, about four hundred miles from the main land. The soil and climate are The tea shrub,t or tree, grows wild in fields and fine, and the people are remarkable for their kind, hedges, but is improved by cultivation. It rises to the

* The Island of Formosa is associated in most minds with model of piety and learning. The cheat was finaUy detected the imposture of George Psalmanaser. He was bom about and Psalmanaser sank into obscurity. He, however, was an 1679,, and being weU educated, probably by the Jesuits, he able writer, and found employment as such. He seemed hecame a ^jv^ndering pUgrim, sometimes pretending to be a deeply to repent his imposition, and enjoyed, to a certain Japanese, and sometimes a Formosan. After various adven- extent, the sympathy and respect of several distinguished men. tures, he went to , and being patronized by t The origin of this plant is given by the Japanese in the Compton, passed himself off as a native of Formosa. He following legend. A missionary, named Darma, visited played his^pait admirably; and such was his ingenuity, that China about 516 B. C. As he was one day doing penance, cut off he wrote a grammar of the Formosan language, and actually he fell asleep. As a punishment for his weakness, he the ground. From these translated the Ohuich Catechism into this fabricated tongue ! his eyebrows, and threw them upon He was weU received by literary men, and was 'regarded as a the tea plant immediately sprung up ! 438 POLITICAL DIVISIONS OF CHINA— GOVERNMENT.

Height of four and six feet. It is generally grown in The history of China represents the early inhabitants gardens of no great extent. The leaves are gathered of this country as divided into numberless savage their by families, and sold to merchants who trade in the tribes : they were gradually civilized by emperors, article. This is a peculiar product of China, and is and for ages have been in advance of other Eastern the great staple of the country. Sixty millions of nations m the arts of life. They had numerous strug- pounds are annually sent to Europe and America, be- gles with the Tartars, Thibetans, and Coreans, but side what is used in Asia. Rice is more generally their dominion over them has now been established for grown in China than any other part of the world : it centuries. In the year A. D. 1644, China was con- constitutes the chief bread stuff of the people. quered by the Manchoos, and the reigning family have The silkworm is cultivated in China, and here silk since been of this stock. A large number of Man- is said to have been first manufactured. The insects choos are settled in China, and many of the leading of China are exceedingly various and brilliant ; among officers of the government are of this Tartar blood.

Butterflies. Head of a Chinese. them are numerous beetles and butterflies, some of Though the Tartars and Chinese are different nations, great size, and others of extraordinary brilliancy. The still, being both of the Mongol race, they bear a general wild animals of China are little known ; the cattle are resemblance in their features, and the two nations have the humped species of India ; one kind is not larger than readily assimilated under the same government. a hog. Camels and elephants do not appear to be in use, and there are few horses. The pigs are prover- 9. Hoo-nan is rich in minerals. Its capital, Tchang-cha- bially small. foo, is a large city on the Heng Kiang. 10. Fokian, on the coast opposite Formosa, has extensive The political divisions of the Chinese empire are as plantations of tea. The capital is Fu-tcheou-foo. : China Mongolia, Thi- follows Proper, Manchooria, 11. Quang-tun contains the city of Canton. bet, Bootan, Little Bucharia, Soongaria, and the 12. Quang-si is a mountainous district, with Kuei-ling- islands already mentioned. Chiha' 'Proper is divided foo for its capital. is the most mountainous of Chi- into nineteen provinces.* 13. Kuei-tcheou province na, being crossed by the Nan-ling range. * 1. Pe-tohe-li is the most northern province. The 14. Yun-nau is the south-western province, bordering on country consists of an extensive plain. The climate is severe Cochin China. in winter. Grrain is produced in large quantities. In this 16. Se-tchu-an, the largest of the provinces, is fertile, popu- province is Pekin, the capital of the empire. lous, and encircled by mountains. Its. capital is on an island 2. Chang-tung has for its capital Tsi-nan-foo. formed by the River Min-kiang. 3. Kiang-BU contains many large towns, of which Nankin 16. Chen-si is mountainous, with fertile valleys. Its capi- is the principal. tal, Si-ngan-foo, the ancient capital of China, is nearly as 4. Ngan-hoei has Ngan-king, on the Yang-tse-Kiang, for large as Pekin. its capital. 17. Shan-si is mountainous, yet studded with villages and 5. Ho-nan is rich in grain. Its capital is Khai-fong-foo, towns.'j,.Tai-tong-foo, one of the principal cities, is near the near the Hoang-ho. great wall, and is strongly fortified. 6. Hoo-pe is in the centre of China, and is exceedingly 18. Kan-si, the north-western province, is mountainous, populous and fertile. Wu-tchang-foo, on the Yangtse many of the peaks being covered with snow. The capital, Kiang, is one of the largest inland towns of the country. Lan-tcheou, is on the Hoang-ho. 7. Che-kiang, produces abundance of silk, rice, and grain. 19. The province of Leao-tong, or Moukden, extends along Its capital is Hang-tcheou-foo, on the River Tsien-tong-kiang. the shores of the Yellow Sea. It formerly belonged to Man- 8. Kiang-si is well cultivated, producing cotton, sugar, chooria. The capital is Moukden, or Fung-thian-foo, where indigo, silk, with extensive manufactures of china ware. are the tombs of the kings of the present Manchoo dynasty Nan-tchang-foo is the capital. of the empire. EXAGGERATED ANTIQUITY OF THE CHINESE. 439

CCXXII. of British power, and as having yielded to it so far as CHAPTER to submit to a degree of intercourse — before inter- Preliminary Remarks on China — The Fabu- dicted — with other nations. Such a people, so aft- cient, so lous Period of Chinese History — The Three numerous, and so advanced in civilization and Emperors — The Five Emperors. knowledge, even from antiquity, may be excused, if not justified, in their assumption of superiority in many China, in its history, its institutions, and its people, respects over all nations of the west, — especially as, presents very peculiar and interestin^eatures. It has during so many ages of their history, they have many claims upon the attention of the world, both in had contact only with nations of barbarians and in- view of the past and the present. Its situation at this feriors. day is full of import, and the prospect as to the future The origin of the Chinese, like that of other Asiatic is not without hope. So far as the merchant and the nations, is lost in the depths of the most remote anti- missionary may obtain access to its people, and the quity. They have a fabulous chronology, similar to opportunity of intercourse with other nations shall by that of the Hindoos, and equally extravagant. It in- this means be enjoyed, changes of an important char- cludes dynasties of monarchs each of which held the institutions of acter may be expected to take place in sceptre during eighteen thousand years ; but after this, an immemorial date. their lives dwindled to so narrow a span, that the reigns The Chinese empire is the oldest now existing on of nine monarchs are comprehended in forty-five thou- the earth. It has survived those changes which have sand six hundred years. The ten ages which elapsed affected and at last destroyed every other nation dis- from Tan-kou, or Pan-kwo, the first man, to Confucius, tinguished in ancient history — Assyria, Babylonia, are computed by some of their writers to comprise Egypt, Greece, and Rome. Those have had their ninety-six millions of years. It is proper, however, to decline and fall, while this people appear to have state, that the Chinese treat their own fabulous records existed apart as a distinct family almost from the era with contempt. The first dawn of authentic history com- of the dispersion at Babel. The present European mences with Fo-hi, in the year 2989 before Christ — nations are but a people of yesterday, compared with a period which accords sufficiently with the best estab- the Chinese, in respect to duration. lished chronologies. Even after this date, the Chinese At a period as early as the date of Thebes in Egypt, annals are tinged by fable, and it is not till the acces- this nation had reached a settled form of government sion of Yu, of the Hea dynasty, that reigns of the and a high state of civilization, from which if they have ordinary duration indicate that their narrative is at not materially advanced, they'have at least not receded. length placed on a solid basis. We do not, of course, admit the extravagant claims, Choo-foo-tsze, or Confucius, the greatest historian of which have been set up for them, of an antiquity China, gives an account of the Chinese monarchs dur- exceeding by many thousand years the period of the ing a period of two thousand five hundred and sixty- Mosaic date of the creation. The Chinese, like other two years, which is new to the English reader. It old nations, have a fabulous period. They do not includes their history from the time of Fo-hi, the themselves believe in such an antiquity. Their more founder of the empire, to the close of the Hea dynasty.

authentic records come within the period embraced in Due allowance must be made for that portion of it sacred chronology, at least if we allow the Samaritan which is obviously founded on tradition. The early computation. Chinese, to whom these annals refer, were not, how- The Chinese is also the most populous nation now ever, the first people of China, but they displaced the dwelling on the globe. Surprising as is the long line tribes they found here. The empire indubitably had of their historic records, the extent of their population its origin in the north part of China, not long after the is a subject of still greater wonder. That a third part deluge of Noah. Bands of colonists came down from of tlie human race should be found within the limits of the Kuenlun Mountains, and subjugated or extermi- one empire, and that not by any means .the largest in nated the barbarous races, one after another. Some territorial extent, is an anomaly in history. The most relics "of these indigenous tribes are preserved in the populous of the European nations dwindle mto insig- mountains of Western China, where they bear the nificance by the side of the three hundred or three name of Miao, and are probably of the same race as hundred and fifty millions of China. They are truly the aboriginal Thibetans.* We do not deem it neces- a world by themselves. The account of their numbers sary here to go into these obscure and confused de- is taken from government records, and, though we tails, but proceed to folKw the history after it assumes should be obliged to allow something to national pride, a methodical shape. their substantial accuracy must still be admitted. When the Chinese first settled in the province of The Chinese, also, are the most civilized nation of Chen-si, they are said to have been almost complete the East. For thousands of years, learning and the savages. They were strangers to all the arts, to every arts have flourished there, and though in general they form of social union, and to every idea which could fall short of the nations professing Christianity, yet raise the man above the brute. But the means by their attainments are respectable, and, considering which they were initiated in the useful arts, and their secluded situation, even surprising. In a. few par- gradually rose to that measure of improvement which ticulars they probably excel all the rest of msinkind. gave them so distinguished a place among the Oriental The degree of perfection by which they are distin- nations, form the chief theme of their early history. guished in some of their arts, appears to have been In this retrospect, the most remarkable circumstance reached in an early period of their history. is, that the prince is commemorated as the sole in- These obvious peculiarities respecting the Chinese ventor and teacher of every science and craft — from people entitle them to notice, especially as they have been placed, of late years, in an interesting situation * EJaproth. — See further, at the beginning of the second before the moral and political world, as the antagonists chapter of the history of Thibet. ;

440 THE HEA AND TANG DYNASTIES. astronomy to agriculture, from preparing the machin- silkworm, and in weaving cloth for garments. Hwang ery of war to manufacturing musical instruments. reigned, according to historians, one hundred years. Although it is impossible, in these representations, not He was illustrious by his greatness and virtues. to suspect some disposition to flatter the throne, yet it We now come to the period of the Five Emperors. really appears, by recent observations among the Of the first four of these little is recorded. They chiefs, both of Africa and the South Sea Islands, that were represented as exceedingly virtuous, except Che- sovereigns, in this early stage of society, take the lead she, the last, who was deposed on account of crime in many concerns tvhich are afterwards advantageously and incapacity. Tang-yaou, (2330. B.C.,) brother left to the zeal or ingenuity of private individuals. of the preceding emperor, was only sixteen years old As the narrative becomes more modern, we find the when he took his place. According to the ancient monarch employing such of his subjects as he con- record, he possessed great talents and benevolence. siders best qualified, to preside over the different Every twelfth year he visited his several states ; and, branches of national economy. during these visits, if the widow or destitute came and In remote times, however, it is obvious that China complained of cold and hunger, he relieved them, was not governed upon those despotic principles which saying, " I too have been hungiy and cold." Through afterward acqmied so complete an ascendency. such acts of kindness, he secured the unbounded af- There is nowhere, indeed, any trace of republican fections of his people. Yu-shun, his son, was called institutions in that country ; but in all the early suc- to assist in the government before his father's death. cessions, the crown is represented as purely elective. It was under his superintendence that the people were On the death of the reigning prince, the people assem- addressed on popular subjects, and several of the bled and chose the person whom they judged best principles of Chinese morality were established and fitted to succeed him, and who was usually a minister, developed, viz., that the conduct of the father should not a son, of the deceased monarch. be just and correct, of the mother, kind and merciful The three first emperors of China were Fo-hi, that friendship should exist between elder brothers,

Shin-nung, and Hwang. Fo-hi is spoken of as teaching — even though by different mothers ; — that younger the people how to catch fish, and to cultivate the soil. brothers should be respectful and courteous to their He also made the first step towards the invention of elder brothers, and that children should be dutiful. " writing, called the Pa-hwa ; yet this consisted merely Here was laid the foundation of that permanent in the formation of the kov,a, which comprised eight order of things which has continued to this day, and lines varying in length, and imitated from those which has distinguished the Chinese from all other people. appear on the back of a dragon. These lines, being Filial piety and reverence for superiors have been arranged into clusters of two and two, in connection from that time the key-stone of the Chinese constitu- vith knotted cords, formed sixty-four combinations, tion, and its essential conservative principle." Tang- capable of expressing that number of ideas. This yaou died in the seventy-third year of his reign. His " work has been an object of the deepest veneration character is summed up thus : Though rich, he was among the Chinese, who believe it to possess such a not proud ; dignified, yet not self-important. Though spiritual and mysterious virtue as to contain the germ attired in royal robes and his carriages drawn with of all things. Even the great Confucius made it the white horses, and though his mansion was adorned subject of an elaborate commentary ; and yet its whole with carved work, his table was spread with plain merit seems to consist in being the first approach to an dishes, and he would not listen to lewd songs. His art of such vast importance as literary composition. son died in the forty-eighth year of his reign. As a It is stated by Chinese historians that Fo-hi reigned prince, he is recorded to have loved the lives of his one hundred and fifteen years. Shin-nUng, or the people, and disliked the putting of any one to death." divine Nung, we are told, made himself acquainted with the five kinds of grain, and all kinds of shrubs and vegetables, especially those of a medicinal nature. OHAPTER CCXXIII. fitted a tree so as to a plough, and taught the He make 2169 to 1110 B. C. people agriculture, as well as the healing art. He The Hea and Tang Dynasties. reigned, as is stated, one hundred and forty years. How-YU was now called to ascend the throne. Shin-nung is said to have been succeeded by seven This was near the period sovereigns, whose united reigns make three hundreiJ when the Egyptian monarchy is supposed to have been and eighty years. This period Confucius considers founded by Menes, or Misraim, 2188 B. C. According to doubtful. If these years be deducted from the reign, some accounts, the Hea dynasty is, in fact, the first in Chinese of Fo-hi, the Chinese histoiy may be said to com- history,* Dur- mence no earlier than 2989 B. C. It is, doubtless, * Chinese history records an inundation of the rivers, not so remote even as that era. which, in 2293 B. C, devastated chiefly the northern prov- inces: Hwang was remarkable as a child, and grew up this deluge is almost of the same date as that of Ty- phon, or Xisuthrus, which was 2297 B. C. At this epoch, distinguished for his wisdom. He improved the method the. history seems to put off the marvellous, and merit more adopted of recording events by Fo-hi, by the inven- coniidence in respect to facts, without being more exact as tion of written characters. One Chinese writer ob- to dates. Yu, whose merit, and especially the signal service performed in serves, that all modern written characters may be he drawing off the waters of the inundation, had called him to the throne, became the founder of the Hea traced to those invented by this emperor. During his dynasty, which commenced twenty-two centuries B. C, and it that the phenomena of the heavenly bodies reign was continued for four hundred and forty years', finishing in 1767. were recorded ; their revolutions calculated ; the prin- The Chang succeeded, reigning six hundred and forty-four years, till 1123 B. ciples of arithmetic explained ; a standard for weights C. The absence of facts, in the history of these two dynasties, confirms the truth of the and measures fixed, which, with slight alterations, exist annals, for the ima^ation was not resorted to, as in miany early histo- to the present day ; the popular music corrected, and ries : it is another mark, also, of that dry spirit of exactness the people instructed by the empress in rearing the which characterizes the Chinese. — Klaproth. THE TANG DYNASTY. 441 ing the reign of How-yu, the Le-ko wine vj^s invented. sages. If you govern your subjects with equity, you The emperor foresaw in its agreeable flow the dcmor- will be beyond the reach of misfortune." ahzation of his people, if permitted to indulge in it. Vuthing, another prince of the second dynasty, its importation. are ttJld He therefore prohibited We passed the whole of his three years of mourning for his that it was in reference chiefly to the example of this father in a house near the tomb, imploring Heaven present emperor led to bless monarch, that the of China was him with such virtues as were suitable to his tears in his that station. to observe, with eyes, he could not When the term was expired, he returned to meet his august father after death, tlliless the vice of his palace, where he saw, in a dream, a man repre- opium smoking were eradicated. If Yu, at this early sented to him by Heaven as his future prime minister, period, would not allow the importation of an intoxi- whose features were so strongly impressed upon his cating liquor, with what propriety could he, the present mind, that he drew an exact portrait of them, and emperor, permit the importation of twenty-seven caused the man to be sought for. Such a person was thousand chests of opium, by which his subjects were found in the condition of an obscure mason, working in stupefied and degraded, and his laws rendered nuga- a village, whence, by the emperor's command, he was tory ? How-yu was a great proficient in astronomy, brought to court. Being questioned on a variety 6f astrology, and agriculture. On the latter subject he points concerning government, the virtues of a sover- wrote a work, in which he taught his subjects how to eign, and the reciprocal duties of princes and subjects, improve their lands, by manuring, levelling, and drain- he returned answers marked with so much wisdom as ing. How-yu died before he had completed the excited the admiration of the hearers. The emperor eighteenth year of his reign. constituted him his prime minister. The new favorite, Three emperors followed, whose reigns were short, in his administration of government, astonished the amounting together to only fifty-one years, during empire by his knowledge and prudence. which two or three wars were waged with rebellious This dynasty continued through six hundred and officers. How-seung succeeded, in 2091 B. C. This fifty-six years, under thirty emperors. Like the Hea prince was raised to the throne by the Se-ang famity dynasty, it was terminated by the vices of the last of and the nobles. He warred in two instances with them. It was under the dominion of this line of sov- foreigners. He was put to death, in the twenty-eighth ereigns, that the eastern foreigners are spoken of as year of his reign, by a chieftain named Han-tsuh. His exceedingly troublesome, and as compelling the impe- son Sliaou-kang was then proclaimed emperor. This rial court to retire to the centre of thfe empire. prince established the government upon the best models The period which has been described above, is of his predecessors. He died in the sixty-first year deemed the classical portion of Chinese history, and of his reign, greatly venerated, and was succeeded by a familiar acquaintance with it has long been crasid his son How-choo, 2042 B. C. This prince distin- ered an essential proof of Chinese scholarship. T3on- guished himself in war, and, as a general, was a tinually, therefore, referred to by their poets and ora- worthy descendant of the immortal How-yu, the tors, .the records of these early reigns starhped^ no founder of the dynasty. He was followed by ten doubt, to a considerable extent, the character of sub- emperors, till the establishment of another dynasty in sequent events. It is by a reference to this period, 1767 B. C. when both prince and people felt bound to practise Little is said of these sovereigns in history. Their virtue, and enforce the laws, that the anger of Heaven reigns in general were not long. The last, Hoio-kwei, might be averted, that the Chinese explain the origin fell into great excesses. The power of the Hea dy- of the terij^ Celestial Empire. The mild, paternal nasty, it is said, declined through neglect of the god- government of the ancient sovereigns of China was dess Ceres. The ancient worthies were much more called celestial, because the principles upon which wise in an attention to agriculture, by means of which they governed were received from Heaven, or were, they caused the country to prosper, and obtained the at least, believed to be in accordance with the will of love of their people. How-kwei died in the fifty- Heaven. In this view, the Chinese are less arrogant second year of his reign, execrated by his subjects. and absurd, perhaps, than we are apt to suppose them. In this dynasty happened an eclipse, in regard to which It is only parallel with our practice in calling ourselves the Chinese records affirm that Hi and Ho, who pre- a Christian nation. That the Chinese should exult in sided over the department of the mathematics, were their annals, and such annals, is at least a pardonable put to death, because they had not foretold and inserted weakness. The successful warrior is not a favorite in it in the epheraeris of that year — a neglect which was their history. To this day, the Chinese rank the civil then a capital offetice. much higher than the military service. Chin Tang, that is, Duke Tang, was the founder of the Tang, or Shang, dynasty. He became displeased with the conduct of his sovereign, withdrew to his own capital, and, at length, declared himself independ- CHAPTER CCXXIV. ent. In view of his virtues, the people elevated him mOE.C. toA.S. 479. to the sovereignty. He is said to have had the most excellent qualities. His modesty was almost unparal- The Dynasties of Tcheou, Tsin, Han, Heou leled: he was the only person in the empire who Han, Tein-ou-ti, and Song — Confudus. thought he was unfit for so important a trust. He was After the Tang dynasty succeeded that of Tcheou, often on the point bf resigning his crown, but his no- commencing 1110 years B. C, and ending 246 B.C.* bles would not consent. Tay-we was one of his suc- cessors. This prince, being once terrified by a pr»digy, * Tcheou, or Wen-wang, by hia virtues had united all the which made him apprehensive of a revolution, re- parties opposed to the tyrannical emperor, Chew-sin, who was ceived the following impressive lesson from his minis- led into numerous debaucheries and cruelties by his favorite ter : " Virtue has the power of triumphing over pre- mistress, Ta-H. But Wen-wang died, leaving the deliverance 56 442 CONFUCIXJS.

and dangerous than the liberty which It constitutes the third, and includes thirty-five em- more dread^l I of complaining. perors. Chaus, the fourth emperor of this dynasty, is they had exercised edict was not long endured the said to have heen excessively fond of hunting. In This tyrannical ; despair, rushed upon the palace, pursuit of that sport, he did incalculable damage to pdbple, driven to and of the reigning family, except the crops of his subjects. Their remonstrances being murdered the whole the son. In a unheeded, they determined to destroy him. For this king himself and his youngest short time, upon the young purpose, as he was wont to pass a large river, on his the enraged multitude insisted prince and the minister, to return from the chase, in a boat which waited for him, being delivered up to them, spare his own son, to be brutally they caused one to be built of such construction as to the royal infant, gave them his stead. break in pieces before it could reach the opposite murdered in emperor of this dynasty, shore. Entering this boat, he and his attendants soon It is related of another, habit of giving orders^ whenever went to the bottom. that he was in the fires, that they should take Livang, the tenth prince of this dynasty, acted in his army perceived lighted him. In one of these alarms, such a tyrannical manner, that he stood in awe of up arms and hasten to mistress was greatly enter- the remarks of his subjects, and actually prohibited observing that his favorite tained by the proceeding, he frequently repeated the them from conversing together in public ; nothing witness the bemg seen but men, formerly friendly, endeavoring signal for her amusement, as also to vexa- having taken such unnecessary to shun each other, and walking in mournful solitude, tion of the soldiery at his min- trouble. The consequences may be foreseen. On a with their eyes fixed on the ground. _ One of of real importance, the soldiers, isters had the boldness to tell him that he was not subsequent occasion having been so often deceived, neglected a signal of placed upon the throne to make his subjects miserable ; alarm, while the enemy penetrated to the monarch's that it was not easy ta stop the tongues of men ; and that the silence which he had imposed upon them was tent and slew him.

Confucius instructing his Disciples.

It was in the reign of Ling-te, during this dynasty, maxims, and possessed much influence even with (549 B. C.,) that Confucius, the celebrated moralist, kings, as well as with his countrymen in general. He philosopher, and lawgiver, was born. He was evi- died in the seventy-third year of his age. dently a man of great knowledge, and of extensive The fourth dynasty, called Tsin, was a short one wisdom, and was beloved on account of his virtues. of forty-three years, terminating 203 B. C, and in- He rendered signal service to his country by his moral cluding four sovereigns. It was, however, signalized

of his country to be completed by his noble son, Wou-wang, sovereigns, even after the loss of their thrones, power in who gained one great battie, — the battle of liberty, — causing China is regarded only as a possession de facto, and each new the tyrant to flee to his palace, to which he set fire, and per- power which elevates itself is legal at the instant when the ished in the flames. Wou-wang, however, though he restored occupation of the empire is achieved. Legitimacy ceases, happiness to his country, committed a mistake, long fatal to too, when tyranny becomes insupportable. Confuciua, Men- the peace of China. He destroyed the ancient form of cius, and all the ancient Chinese philosophers, affirm and es- pure monarchy, and substituted for it a species of feudal tablish the right of subjects to deliver themselves from op- system. The &st foimders of the Chinese empire consisted pression by regicide. But Wou-wang shared the country

of but about a hundred equal families ; and while' the Indo- among his generals, and kept for his own family but a com- Europe, divided itself^ the Germanic race, spread over as it still paratively small proportion ; hence came the division of aoes every where, into hereditary castes, superior one to the empire into so many petty principalities and independent other, and even preserving this superiority hereditarily, and kingdoms, which, large and small, were, in the time of Cyrus, without the possession of any domain whatever — the Chi- (S30 B. C) very numerous. These petty princes were en- nese race is composed of families perfectly equal among gaged*in perpetual wars, like the dukes and counts at France, themselves, and recognizing no other dominion than that of the before the king gained complete ascendency over h:s nomiiiial reigning flynasty, to which liiey are submitted in the most vassals. — Klaproth, absolute :manner. Whilst Europeans accord legitimacy to THE HAN DYNASTY. 443

by several important events. The celebrated great wall The_^iA dynasty, which commenced about two hun- of China, which still astonishes those that behold it, was dred years before the Christian era, terminated in the finished by one of the emperors, named Tsin-che-hwang- year A. D. 221. It is called the dynasty of Han, and te, about the year 214 B. C. Extending fifteen hundred lasted four hundred and twenty-four years, under miles in length, it separates China from its northern twenty emperors. The head of this dynasty yas. neighbors, and was erected to protect the country from Lieu-pang, a soldier, magnanimous, humane, and gen- their incursions. It was about this period when the erous, a citizen of one of the three kingdoms of China. Chinese first adopted their famodf law of non-inter- After seventeen pitched battles with a rival rebel, and course, by which all foreigners are prohibited passing overcoming the last emperor, he ascended the throne, the frontier, or even landing on the coast. This law united the whole empire, and took the name of Kao- is erroneously supposed by some to have been directed Tsou, or Kao-hwang-te. This monarch reigned with wholly against the English, or against other modern clemency a^d moderation. He was one of the few

European nations generally ; whereas it has been in who governed for themselves. Under the rest, the

force upwards of two thousand years ; and instead of eunuchs enjoyed a great degree of authority, which taking oflfence at the Chinese, for not abandoning at they always abused. In his reign, paper, ink, and once one of the fundamental rules of their ancient hair pencils — the last still used in China instead of policy, we ought rather to commend them, while pens — were invented, according to some others, as ; retaining the rule in modern times, for permitting we have seen, assign them a date a little earlier. foreigners to use the port of Canton. Vuti, or Wouti, one of the princes of this family, Tsin-che-hwang-te suppressed the tributary king- was an eminent encourager of learning, and ordered doms, and reduced them to their former state of prov- the morality of Confucius to be taught in the public inces. Elated with success, he became ambitious of schools.t He, however, fell under the power of a being thought the first sovereign of China. With this strong delusion, in endeavoring to discover a liquor view — according to some authorities — he ordered all which would make him immortal. His reign was the historical writings and public records. to be burnt, somewhat prolonged, and was signalized by many and many of the learned men to be burnt alive, that heroic exploits in wars with the Tartars. Besides

past events might not be transmitted to posterity. It . subjugating many tribes of the Hioong-noo, he estab- would seem, however, that he was not able to obliter- lished colonies north-west of China, built cities, and ate all the monuments of by-gone ages.* gave military governors to his newly acquired prov-

* The events of this dynasty are thus represented by other Bubduing the southern barbarians to the sea-shore, he put all

authorities : At the end of the third century before the Chris- the lazy, idle vagabonds of his empire, to the number of five tian era, China, divided into petty kingdoms, was a prey to hundred thousand, into fortresses, and obliged them to oc- wars and disorders which were ever on the increase. Its south- cupy themselves in useful labors. ern part, south of the Nan-ling Mountains, was occupied by Previous to this time, the princes of the three northern another race — barbarians. Seven sovereignties had been kingdoms of Tsin, Tchao, and Yen, had constructed walls

formed in the bosom of China ; among these, that of Tsin against the Hioong-noo: Tsin-che-hwang-te undertook to was the most powerful, having a fifth of the surface and a unite these several walls into a single one, which should tenth of the population of China. stretch &om the westernmost province of Chensi, as far as

Its king managed to subdue all his rivals j and, dying in 251, to the eastern ocean. He assembled for this vast purpose his son succeeded him, but died a few days after, leaving an immense number of laborers, and placed them under the

his own son to reign ; his son, Tsin-che-hwanff-te, may supervision of several bodies of troops. He was then in the be regarded as the true founder of the Tsin dynasty, a thirty-third year of his reign, (214 B. C. ;) but he had not dynasty which has given to China the name it bears among the satisfaction of seeing this work completed, which lasted the natives of the West. ten years, and was hot finished till after the extinction of his He ascended the throne at the age of thirteen, and became dynasty. one of the greatest of the Chinese emperors, reigning over an After so many public undertakings, he might have looked for

extent of temtory almost equal to that of China Proper at gratitude j but he was constantly annoyed with the revolts of the present day. This he divided into thirty^sii provinces, the grandees, who aimed to bring back the feudal system, with besides four tributaries, which he conquered, south of the all its evils. Out of patience with the quotations and repre- Southern Mountains. The imperial capital was at Hiang- sentations importunately urged on him as to their rights and yang, near Si-ngan, on the opposite side of the Ouei River. wrongs, their privileges and prerogatives, he commanded all The emperor embellished this capital with magnificence, the ancient historical books to be burnt, and especially those and caused to be built hero palaces exactly resembling all the by Confucius, who had lived three hundred years before. These royal residences of the sovereigns he had conquered — a truly orders were rigorously executed. This destruction the lit-

Chinese idea ! He ordered that the precious furniture, which erati have never pardoned, and consequently the character decorated each of these palaces, should be removed to its of the reformer has been maliciously blackened in the Chinese counterpart, and that the persons who dwelt in and about annals. His general, Moung-thian, however, made some lit- each particular palace, to minister to the wants or pleasures tle amends for this irreparable loss, by the discovery of paper of its master, should also be transported to the new palace, and the pencil. Before this the characters had been engraved, there to occupy similar oifices. These buildings, in such with a style, on tablets of bamboo, or were traced upon it varied styles and taste, occupied an immense extent of coun- with varnish of a deep color. An easier mode of forming try along the banks of the Ouei. They communicated to- the letters was also introduced. This emperor's whole fam- gether by a magnificent colonnade, which extended around ily perished by the hand of a factious assassin — a sad example them, and formed a vast and superb gallery, where one could of the ingratitude of the people toward great men, who have be protected from the weather at all seasons. served them and rendered their country illustrious. — Klap- His progresses through the empire exhibited a pomp roth. hitherto unknown. He every where constructed edifices of t The lapse of time had buried in oblivion the ancient emperors of the grandeur or public utility ; broad and convenient roads, and feudal system of the Tcheou ; so that the well-tended canals facilitated intercourse and commerce, Han dynasty could, without risk to the centralization of the which now revived under the auspices of peace, after such sovereignty, order a search for the books which had ap- long wars. For ages northern Cluna had been exposed to peared so dangerous to the Tsin. The most careful per- con- the ravages of the nomads, now called the Hioong-noo : these quisitions were then made throughout the empire, and he chastised with an army of three hundred thousand men, siderable fragments of the ancient works were recovered, and and exterminated them, or drove them far beyond the distant even entire books. It was wi|h these materials, and with mountains of their country, with no wish to return. After the help of an old man who knew the Chou-king by heart, ;

444 HAN AND OTHER DYNASTIES

inces of Central Asia. In 108, the Ouigbor Turks of this last was attacked by one of his relatives ; his and Little Bucharia were subjugated, and his armies children were slain, and he himself was taken pris- pushed into the Kirghis country. He gained four oner, and obliged to wait at table upon the usurper, in signal victories over the Tartars, and drove them far the habit of a slave. He was afterwards put to death. bejiond the wall, or reduced them to submission Nankin became the capital of the empire at this thence he carried his successful arms into the king- period. The dynasty terminated in Ngan-ti, an in- doms of Pegu, Siam, Cambodia, and Bengal, and then dolent, ineflScient prince, unworthy of holding the divided them among his generals and officers, who sceptre. had assisted in the war. His sagacious policy of con- The eighth dynasty was that of Song. It began federating the nations of Western Tartary against the Hi- under a revolted general, A. D. 420, and lasted fifty- oong-noo has been detailed in our history of the ancient nine years, under eight emperors. The name of the Turks. It was in A. D. 102, that Panchao extended general, afterwards emperor, was Lyew-Hu. His the Chinese sway as far west as the Caspian, and sent employment at first was that of selling shoes from to China the heirs presumptive to the crowns of more place to place. He enlisted, as a soldier, became gen- than fifty kingdoms he had subdued for his emperor. eral, and at last usurped the throne. His person and In the reign of Houon-te, an embassy came from deportment were ine.xpressibly noble and majestic. Rome, in A. D. 166, from An-tun — as the Chinese His virtues were more particularly frugality and valor. called the emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus — king His son and successor, Veuli, was the contrast of of Ta-thsin, or Great China, as they denominated the himself. Veuti was killed by his own son, and the Roman empire. The embassy came by way of Ton- parricide fell by the hands of his brother. The latter

quin : others followed during this dynasty. incurred not a little enmity by the freedom of his Ling-te, a sovereign of this dynasty, is said to have speech, of which the consequence, in the end, was caused all the wise maxims of the ancient emperors, fatal to him. One of his wives stifled him in his bed, contained in five classical books, to be engraved on as she had been mortally offended by his calling her old. tables of marble, and publicly exposed at the entrance Veuti was very much attached to the bonzes, who

of the academy. Under his reign, several factions were the priests of the Buddhist religion in China ; but arose, one of which was denominated the Yellow Caps, as in his time the empire was divided into two parts, and made itself master of the empire, which in the the sovereign of one part ordered all the bonzes to be -end led to its dismemberment. massacred. The sixth dynasty was a short one of fifty-four years, ending A. D. '265. It is called the dynasty of Heou-Han. It began with a prince descended from Lieu-pang, and ended with his grandson. This young CHAPTER CCXXV. prince was endowed with great ardor and courage. A. S. 479 to 907. He sustained for some time his father's tottering throne, The Ninth, Tenth, Eleventh, Twelfth, ai\d during attacks from every quarter. At length, as Thirteenth Dynasties. affairs were verging to a fatal crisis, and the feeble The name of the founder of the ninth dynasty was emperor was still hesitating what measures to pursue, he Kanti. This wretch made his way to the throne by felt impelled to expostulate with him, saying, "There the murder of two princes ; but his career was a short is no time for deliberation ; this is the decisive moment; one. He was less distinguished by his military resolve either to conquer, or die with arms in your exploits than by his learning. He used to say, that hand and the crown on your head." The emperor if he dould reign ten years, he would make gold as still refusing to fight, the son,. in his mortification and cheap as dirt. His son was the author of the famous grief, retired to the hall of his ancestors, slew his wife, law which prohibited the mandarins from remaining and then himself, while the emperor tamely surren- more than three years in the same place. In the dered to Song-chou, his rival. reign of the latter appeared Fan-Chin, a patron of China at this time was divided into three empires, literature, but professing the most detestable princi- under the three branches of the dynasty of Han. ples. His doctrines were, that all things proceed The various parts terminated at different periods. from chance ; that the soul perishes when the body Under the se»en

ter's reasons for suicide, he cried out, " not I Do hold of the empire, and ordered one hutidred thousand df of my crown Heaven ? Am I beholden for it to my the bonzes to take wives. grandees ? What occasion, then, had that unfortunate Tai-tsong, sop " of the last sovereign, was one of the man to destroy himself ? greatest of the Chinese princes. He Was wise, frugal, In the latter part of his reign, Hewta-king, monarch and affable. His reply to his ministers. Who attempted of Honan, but his vassal, revolted him. from Having to excite m his mind apprehensions from his too great succeeded in making himself master of Nankin, and familiarity with his subjects, might serve as a model-, seizing upon the emperor's personj'the captive prince perhaps, to sovereigns of more enlightened nations — appeared before his conqueror with such majestic " I consider myself in the empire as a father in his intrepidity, that the latter shrank from his gaze, ex- family. I carry all my people in my bosom, as if they claiming, " I could not believe it so difficult to resist " a were my children. What then have I to fear .? power which Heaven has established." With a refined In the tenth year of his reign, this prince lost his species of cruelty, not daring to stain his hands with empress, for whom he indulged a most immoderate the emperor's blood, he condemned him to a lingering grief. He raised a monument to her memory more death, by retrenching part of his sustenance every superb than any thing of the kind before known in his day. The unfortunate monarch called for little a dominions ; but being reproved for this ostentation, he just before his honey death ; but this request^ simple ordered it to be demolished. His minister dying soon as it was, was denied. He died a few hours after- after, the emperor caused a noble eulogium to be ward. inscribed on his tomb, and turning to his courtiers^ The second in succession after this " emperor attached remarked, We have three kinds of mirrors : the first to the religion himself of Fo ; and while his attention serve the ladies to dress by ; the second are the ancient was absorbed in the mysteries taught by his disciples, volumes, in which we read the rise, progress, and de-

his prime minister attacked him in his capital. The cline of empires ; the third are mankind, in whose sovereign, roused at last from his religious reveries, actions, if we will study them, we may see both what took up arms, marched round the ramparts, examined we ought to practise and what to avoid. I possessed " the position of the enemy, and exclaimed, All is this last mirror in the person of my minister. Alas 1

lost ; it is over with the sciences." He then set fire he is now no more, and I shall never find his equal." to his library, consisting of a hundred and forty thou- Tai-tsong left his son excellent instructions, which^ '

sand volumes, and surrendered to the conqueror, who however, proved useless to him ; for he attached him-, put to death both him and his son. self to a wicked and artful woman, who by her crimes The founder of the eleventh dynasty (A. D. 557) filled the court and kingdom with mourning. The was extremely attached to the bonzes. His brother, wife of the succeeding emperor was neither less cruel who succeeded him, had, before his accession, con- nor less criminal. Of his son it is said, that he di-

cealed himself in private life ; but on the throne he vorced his wife, put three of his children to death displayed the qualities of a great prince. This mon- without cause, and finally married his daughter-in-law. arch ordered the night watches to be distinguished by He was particularly opposed to every appearance of beating a drum — a practice which has ever since luxury, and endeavored to extirpate it by destroying been observed. There were five emperors of this the precious metals and ornaments belonging to his dynasty, the last of whom was dethroned by the prime palace. minister of the western empire. Under the ninth successor, the power of the eunuchs The twelfth dynasty (A. D. 596) consisted of three occasioned a rebellion. The eleventh caused every emperors, all renowned men. The first, without pre- part of his empire to be explored in search of the tensions to learning, had, nevertheless, a solid, pene- waters of immortality, of which tlie disciples of Lao- trating mind, and was devoted to the welfare of his eyun pretended to have the secret. This liquor being people. He built public granaries, which were annu- presented to him by the eunuchs, he instantly died. ally filled with rice and corn by the rich, to be dis- The fifteenth emperor of this dynasty instituted a law

tributed to the poor in times of scarcity. He improved which is still observed. It is this : once in seven years music and eloquence, was inexorable against cor- the provincial mandarins are obliged to send a written rupt judges, and excluded from all public employments and circumstantial confession of the faults they have those whose rank in life did not render them respect- committed, and to ask the emperor's pardon. If they able. His son prohibited his people from wearing endeavor to palliate these, they have no favor to ex- arms, and ordered all books, treating of war, politics, pect, and are invariably deprived of their employ- agriculture, and medicine, to be revised by the most ments. As in the case of the emperor before men- learned men of his empire, and to be distributed tioned, his son, — though in many respects an amiable immortality, among his subjects. • sovereign, — in search of the waters of In the thirteenth dynasty (A. D. 618) Kong-ti, one took a fatal draught which closed his career. of the emperors of this dynasty, was dethroned by Siguen, in the same year in which he was crowned. The son of the latter, at the head of his father's army, entered the palace, and having viewed its magnifi- CHAPTER CCXXVI. " such a cence, exclaimed with a deep sigh, No ; A. D. 907 to 1641. stately must not be suffered to stand any longer, edifice Incursions of the Tartars, and other Incidents. being good for nothing but to enervate the spirit of a nor profikble to enter prince, and cherish his vicious inclinations. Thus say- It would be neither interesting reigns which now fol- ing, he ordered the whole building to be set on fire, mto full details of tlie different re- lowed in the long course of history. Any further con- and it was reduced to ashes. He, however, soon account of the several dynas- signed the throne, in order to live in tranquillity. This nected enumeration and therefore be dispensed with. prince was very desirous of increasing the population ties and emperors may :

446 SEVERAL DYNASTIES.

A few only of the principal events will be referred to, the utmost care was taken to restrain the soldiers, so and occasional mention made of the leading characters that there was no great slaughter made, yet the fate who figured in history. of the few who fell drew a flood of tears from the

The most important events from this period (A. D. emperor ; and as the city had suffered from famine, 900) pertain to the struggles of the Chinese to repel as well as by the long siege, the emperor im- the attacks of the various half-civilized but warlike mediately sent a hundred thousand measures of rice, tribes — chiefly Tartars — bordering on the frontiers to be distributed among the inhabitants. It is needless of China. to say that with such a disposition he proved himself Notwithstanding every precaution on the part of the worthy of his exaltation. Chinese, about the fifth century of the Christian era, Tay-tsong, of this dynasty, was the Meecenas of his the Tartars took possession of the north and west of times. He patronized learning, and collected a library China, and the country became divided into two king- which consisted of eighty thousand volumes. He was doms : the capital of the north was Pekin, and that of a prince of generous and magnanimous feelings, as the south Nankin. Four hundred years later, that is to was evinced by his lenient treatment of a brother who say, in the tenth century, the period at which we are had manifested a mutinous disposition. A gentle now arrived, these two kingdoms were united. Pre- reproof of that brother induced the latter to destroy viously, however, to this event, in the reign of Yuang- himself,' which so affected the emperor that he shed te, many canals were cut through the empire, by tears over his corpse, and caused it to be interred with which several rivers were united, and great facilities the greatest funeral honors. given to commerce. Ching-tsong, also of this dynasty, was a prince wor- Tai-tfu, who established the fourteenth dynasty, thy of being commemorated. He caused the ancient (A. D, 907,) by murdering his predecessor, lived but books to be reprinted and spread through the empire. a short time to enjoy the reward of his crime. His The appearance of a comet during his reign was sup- eldest brother slew him, and was himself killed by posed to portend some calamity. The emperor, on another brother, Moti by name. Anarchy was now this occasion, agreeably to the custom of the times, at its height in the empire. Moti was attacked by an directed that all his faults should be laid before him, able general supported by a powerful party, and being that he might, if possible, avert the omen. At the vanquished, killed himself in despair, and his family same time, he remitted taxes to the amount of several became extinct. millions, and set at liberty thirteen thousand prisoners. Chwang-tsong, of thefifteenth dynasty, from the ofiice It happening that a son was born to him at tliis period, of general, stepped to the throne. As emperor, he pre- he attributed the blessing to the favor of Heaven, and served his martial habits, lived very frugally, and slept as an attestation that his own religious and charitable on the bare ground, with a bell around his neck to pre- deeds were accepted. Under his reign it was com- vent his sleeping too long. In his earlier years, he was puted that twenty-two millions of people were era- a criminal lover of pleasure ; and he is accused of being ployed in cultivating the land. sordidly avaricious, and destitute of commiseration This emperor was, perhaps, even excelled by his for the poor. Ming-tsong, the son of this emperor, son Chi-tsong, in moral character. The latter banished was a great encourager of learning. During his reign, from his palace all the worshippers of images, and paid block-printing was invented among the Chinese. He his adorations to the invisible God of heaven. By a was given to devotion, £md all his prayers were offered timely supply of corn and rice, he saved half a million for the good of his subjects. of his people from destruction, in a time of famine. Tai-tsu, the founder of the eighteenth dynasty, The virtuous principles instilled into his mind by his

(A. D. 951,) had a high veneration for Confucius, and father's prime minister had the effect, it is believed, of paid a visit to the tomb of that renowned philosopher. producing so good a character. That officer constantly This emperor was blessed with a son who imitated his pressed upon the prince the ten following maxims " virtues. When at the very summit of human gran- Fear God : Love your subjects : Endeavor to attain deur, that son, whose name was Chi-tsong, still retained perfection : Apply yourself to the sciences : Raise per- a modest deportment. A plough and a loom were sons of merit to tiie dignities of the state : Give atten- found among other insignia of his palace. In a time tion to the advice that is offered you : Reduce the of dearth, he ordered the granaries to be opened, and taxes: Moderate the rigor of punishments: Avoid " the rice to be sold at a very low price. These are prodigality : Hold debauchery in horror." my children," he said, speaking of his people. *' It It was in the tenth century that the Khitan Tartars would be improper that their father should abandon obtained a footing in China. They were expelled, them and leave them to famish with hunger while he however, by means of the Eastern Tartars, whose aid has. enough to satisfy his own wants." In this ex- was solicited, but who, like other stipendiaries in some tremity, the rich idols were, by his order, melted down cases, refused to depart when their services were no and coined into money. longer required. The Jutchin Khitans, in the twelfth Of Tay-tsu, the founder of the nineteenth dynasty, century A. D., pursued their conquests again, crossed (A. D. 960,) the following story is told, illustrating his the Hoangho or Yellow River, and marching directly parental affection. At the siege of Nankin, reflecting toward the imperial city, captured and plundered it. on the slaughter which would be made in it, he feigned They also seized the emperor, Kin-tsong, and his con- sickness when it was on the point of surrendering. sort, and carried them away captives. The crown This caused an alarm among his officers, who came devolved on Kaw-tsou, who fixed his court at Nankin. around his bed, every one proposing some remedy. He made several fruitless efforts to recover some " The only remedy," cried he, " that can effectually provinces from the Khitans. cure me, is in your power. Swear to me that you will The monarch of that barbarous people, however, not shed the blood of your countrymen." Upon their aimed at gaining the esteem of his Chinese subjects, taking the oaths, he appeared sufficiently well. Though by bestowing much attention on their learning and on ;

Li-TSONQ— KUBLAI — CHING-TSU — LI. 447 their learned men. He advanced to Nankin, and took of a magnanimous turft of mind, though very much it; but being informed that Yo-si, the general of the dreaded on account of the cruelties with which he Song or South^n Chinese, was approaching to the commenced his reign. He was rigid in his treatment relief of the city, he burned the palace, and retired of the bonzes ; and he ordered all the books of chemis- northward. The rear guard, which he was unable to try which treated of the water of immortality to be rescue from the attack of Yo-si, suffered so much, that committed to the flames. He patronized learned men, this time the Khitan Tartars from never dared to cross and promoted the knowledge of philosophy. the River Kiang ; though afterwar^, in the year 1163, The catastrophe of this race, which ended with the their king approached the mouth of that river, and thirteenth emperor, was preceded by continual com- commanded his troops on the pain of death to cross it motions during several reigns. Two rebels arose, who but they refused, and, killmg their sovereign, retired. divided the empire, but soon turned their arms against In the year A. D. the chief 1210, of the Western each other. One only survived, whose name was Id. Tartars, or Mongols, quarrelled with Yong-tsi, emperor He marched into the provinces of Shensi and Honan, of the Khitans, and in two years after, the Mongol gene- where he despatched all the mandarins, and showed rals forced the great wall to the north of Chensi, made favor to none except the common people, whom he incursions as far as Pekin, the capital of the Khitan freed from the payment of taxes. By these means he empire, and defeated an army of three hundred thou- was able to increase his army to such an extent that sand of that people. In this century, (A. D. 1225,) an he conceived himself sufficiently powerful to assume emperor named Li-tsong, carried on a vigorous war the title of emperor. * against the Tartars. He took the city of Honan from Li next advanced towards the metropolis, into which them, and reduced the capital, Shang-tong, after a long he found means to convey a number of his men in and sanguinary siege, in which the Tartars were disguise, who were to open the gates to him at his driven to such extremities as to feed on human flesh. appearance there. After a short time, he entered the In a fit of despair, their king, Nagaiti, hanged himself, city in triumph, at the head of three hundred tiiousand just before the surrender. In him ended the empire of men, while the emperor, devoted to superstitious cere- the Eastern Tartars, after it had continued one hundred monies, shut himself up in his palace. When the and seventeen years, under nine princes. latter found himself betrayed and deserted, and unable A small remnant of that nation, however, continued, to escape, he resolved fo lay violent hands on himself, and gave rise to the family that afterwards conquered rather than incur the disgrace of falling alive into the the Chinese, and governs it at the present time. power of the invader. It was during the nineteenth dynasty that the celebrated For this purpose, he conducted his beloved empress Zingis Khan and his successors established their do- into a private and distant part of the gardens, without minion in China. Heading the Western Tartars or uttering a syllable. She at once understood his silent Mongols, who inhabited a desert and inhospitable region, emotions of agony, and having tenderly embraced him, whence most of the conquerors of Asia have proceeded, she retired into the wood, and there suspended herself Zingis Khan, in 1209, entered China, poured his irresist- by a silken string. The emperor hastened to join her ible armies over the northern provinces, and com- in death. First cutting off the head, of the young pelled them to submit to his authority. Kuhlai, his princess with his cimeter, he hanged himself on another grandson, called by the Chinese Houpilai, entered on tree. His example was soon followed by his prime his grandfather's conquests in this country, and reigned minister, queens, and faithful eunuchs. for a time over the northern provinces. It is said that When the body of the self-immolated emperor was Kublai^but more probably a descendant of his — laid before the rebel Li, as he sat upon the throne, the brought the whole country into subjection in 1280, and inhuman wretch treated it in a most shameful manner. that with the nineteenth dynasty ended, in fact, the Chi- He moreover beheaded two of the deceased emperor's nese dominion, until the year 1357. Kublai had the sons, and his ministers ; but the eldest son was so wisdom and prudence to govern the Chinese according fortunate as to escape by flight. While the princes to their ancient laws and customs, as related in a pre- and nobles of the empire submitted to the usurper, one vious chapter. This procedure, together with the gen- prince, whose name was U-san-ghey, who commanded eral excellence of his character, entirely reconciled the the provinces of Leaoo-tong, alone refused to acknowl- people to the Tartar sway, so far as they were brought edge his authority ; but Li marched against him, at invested the under it. It was in the reign of a king of the Tartar the head of a powerful army. Having race, under the twentieth dynasty, that the famous seat of that prince's government, the tyrant resorted canal was dug, which is nine hundred miles long. to a most cruel expedient to induce him to surrender. During the same 'dynasty, the religion of Fo was He showed him his father loaded with chains, declar- firmly established in the empire. ing that he should instantly be sacrificed, if the son In 1364^8, the Tartars were again driven out by a refused to submit. The brave prince was nearly over- Chinese general named Choo, or Chu, as previously come at so sad a spectacle, but remained firm to his understanding the in- detailed, who founded the Ming dynasty — the last before sovereign. The good father, he made, ap- the dynasty now existing. Heading a numerous com- tentions of his son by the signs which submitted to his pany of insurgents, he reduced many considerable cities plauded his resolution, and quietly and provinces, and defeated the imperial army in a fate. of avenging his sover- battle. His successes were so great that he assumed U-san-ghey, in the purpose also his father, immediately conclude^ a peace the title of emperor, and fixed his court at Nankin. eign, as Tartars, and invited them In a few months, however, he made himself master of with the Manchoo or Eastern Tsong-ti„, their king, PeHn, and erected that country into a sovereignty, to his assistance against Li. immediately, which obliged the rebel which he gave to one of his sons. He proved to be a joined the prince directly to Pekin. But king of great wisdom and penetration. to raise the siege, and march in that place, and, after Ching-isu, of the twenty-first dynasty, was a prince he did not think himself safe 448 THE TARTAR SWAY. plundering and burning the palace, he fled, with his sides, as a deliverer. Thus ended the twenty-first immense treasure,into the province of Shensi,orChensi. dynasty, by tliis memorable revolution, as also the Tsong-ti died almost immediately after he entered Chinese race of sovereigns. A second time, there- China, but previously declared his son Shun-chi his fore, the race of the Eastern Tartars was called to the successor. The young prince was shortly after con- sovereignty of the Chinese empire, the dynasty com- ducted to Pekin, and was joyfiiUy welcomed, on all mencing in 1641-4.

TaoH-kwang, Emperor of China.

CHAPTER CCXXVII. to the ancient laws and customs -of the Chinese. The A. S. 1644 to 1831. civil offices of the state were given to such of the natives as were found The Tartar Sway and Present Dynasty. qualified for them, and this prin- ciple he adhered to in the disposal of the highest dig- The revolution effected by the Eastern Tartars, as nities. He evidently sought the public good, rather abeady described, was far from being complete at than the extension of his power. He favored the first. Resistance was kept up against them in differ- cause of learning, and became himself somewhat of ent parts of the country. The nobility imagined that a proficient in several sciences. A few years after diey should find the Tartars merely auxiliaries, who he had assumed the government, a general whose in placing native would assist them a Chinese on the name was Coxinga, from attachment to the ancient throne ; but these" allies considered that the empire Chinese, opposed the measures of the new emperor. was jusdy the reward of their trouble. Subiijission to He laid siege to the city of Nankin ; but his troops, •fliem, under these circumstances, was difficult. Com- having given themselves up to dissipation on the occa- different provinces petitors arose in the against Shun- sion of the general's birthday, were in this condition chi, the Manchoo emperor, and hostilities were obsti- attacked by the besieged, and a prodigious slaughter nately earned on both by sea and land ; but the vigor of them ensued. The emperor, in consequence of, «f the Tartars, stimulated as it was by the incalculable misconduct and affliction in his domestic relations, value of the prize within their grasp, was crowned became melancholy, and died, leaving a very young with complete success. child, Kang-hi, as his successor. Shun-chi acquitted himself with great address in It was under Kang-hi that the whole empire was bis new station. He showed a marked deference brought into subjection about the year 1662. Consid- KANG-HI-YONG-CHING-KIEN-LONG-KIA-KHING. 449

ered as the emperor of the whole country, he was the It was during the reign of this emperor, on the 13th founder of the existing or Ta-lsing dynasty, represented of November, 1731, that the city of Pekin was nearly by the emperor Tdhu-kwang, now on the throne, the fifth overturned by an earthquake. So severe a one had

of his race. . Kang-hi proved to be a very capable and never before heen felt in China. The suddenness and meritorious prince. He had doubtless profited by the violence of the first shocks were so great, as to bury wise counsels of the four noble guardians whom his a hundred thousand inhabitants in the ruins of their father had appointed for him" in his minority. He, houses. A still greater number perished in the sur- however, issued a severe order a^inst the Catholic rounding country, where whole villages and towns converts at one time. All their churches were demol- were laid prostrate. The emperor, deeply laffected ished, and the whole city of Ma-kau was in danger by the calamity, ordered an account to be taken of the of sharing the same fate, had not one the of Jesuits, families that had suffered by it, with an estimate of the who still retained some influence at court, prevented damage it had ^occasioned, and advanced considerable it. The Jesuit was, however, himself, and others sums for their relief. him, imprisoned with and loaded with irons, some time Kien-long. succeeded Yong-ching in 1736. In the after. estimation of Eiirope, Kien-long stood at the head of Kang-hi was unhappy in his domestic relations, the sovereigns of half-civilized nations,, during the last on account of the conduct of his two sons;, who re- half of the eighteenth century. His long reign of more belled s^gainst him, and were successively banished than sixty years is said to have been peaceful and the kingdom. In 1720, he received the "congratula- happy. In the latter part of it, viz., in 1793, ithe cel- ithe tions of whole empire, on the signal victory which ebrated British embassy, under Lord Macartney, ar- his forces had gained over the Eleuts, who possessed rived in China, with a view to the establishment of a the country of the lamas, and had been guilty of rav- commercial intercourse between the two countries. A ages for several years in succession. This victory full account of this embassy was presented to the pub- gave him the sole command of the kingdom of Thibet. lic by Sir George Staunton, the secretary of the dele- In November of the same year, the czar of Muscovy gation. A like splendid embassy also appeared in made his public entry into Pekin, with a numerous China, in 1795, under Mr. Titsing. Mr. Van Braam, and splendid train, habited after the European man- the secretary, wrote an account of that embassy. ner. The Muscovite was received at court with all Kien-long died on the 11th of February, 1799. His due respect, though he could not gain the object of his successor, Kia-khing, reigned over twenty years, visit — the adoption of measures for the establish- dying in August, 1821. Just at the time of his death, ment of a free commerce between the dominions of the famous Russian mission, under Timkowski, was the two sovereigns. approaching the Celestial Empire.

The emperor died suddenly on the 20th of Decem- Kia-khing, like his predecessors, pursued the pecu- • ber, 1722, in the sixty-ninth -year of his age, having liar policy of the Chinese in guarding against the first declared, in the presence of his assembled gran- admission of foreigners, of any description whatever. dees, his fourth son, Yong-ching, his successor. It wEis doubtless "apprehended that the obtaining of a It was in the reign of Yong-ching that the Jesuits footing in China would lead to its disturbance or over-

were banished from China, and the Christians were throw, as it had done in other Eastern nations. The persecuted, not excepting those of the imperial fam- Chinese permitted foreigners, the English in particular, ily. They had been introduced into the empire many to carry on a restricted intercourse with them, at the

years before, headed by Father Xavier, the great single port of Canton ; but they steadily opposed everj' apostle of that country. As will be seen elsewhere, attempt to obtain exclusive privileges, to build forts, or they were at first well received, for the sake of the to establish permanent factories.

scientific information they brought with them ; but, As the present dynasty is that of the Tartars, it is alarm being taken at the efforts at proselytism, which, to be remarked, that the occasional struggles of the

it was Supposed, would lead to a spiritual supremacy Chinese with the Tartars may be considered, after all, dangerous to the state, they were driven from the more in the nature of a civil war, than of a war with country. Anterior to the entrance of the Jesuits, viz., a foreign nation. The physiognomy of the Tartars in 1518, the Portuguese, after having obtained various and Chinese shows, as already stated, that the^both situations on islands along the coast, for purposes of belong to the same race — though the one inhabited a commerce, sent their first embassy to China. colder climate, and became, therefore, a people of In other respects than in regard to his treatment of less effeminate habits than the other. Hence the ease the Catholics, Yong-ching showed himself a wise prince, with which the Tartar monarchs identified themselves assiduous and indefatigable in the discharge of the duties with their predecessors, and adopted the laws and of the government, steady and r&solute in bis disposition, customs of the country they had subdued. endowed with a degree of eloquence and' address, and attentive in answering the memorials which were presented to him. He governed wholly by himself, and no monarch was ever more absolute or more CHAPTER CCXXVIII. dreaded by his subjects. This unlimited authority A. D. 1821 to 1841. enabled him to enforce a great many wholesome laws The Present Dynasty continued — Recent and framing which he spent whole regulations, in History. days and nights with the most persevering industry. The surest way of gaining his favor was by presenting Taoxt-kwang, the present emperor, ascended the him with some scheme tending, to the public good, or throne on the death of his father, in the year 1821. to the relief of his subjects in limes of calamity — in He was the second son, and chosen in consequence of the execution of which, if it appeared practicable, he having saved the life of his father, in an insurrection spared no pains. which occurred in 1813. He is the first Chhiese 67 ;

450 TAOU-KWANG— DIFFICULTIES WITH THE ENGLISH. sovereign whose name is connected with English and ble character, took place among the mountain tribes of American history. Soon after his accession, the dis- the Miao, or Meaou-tse, befqre noticed. It cost the tant Tartar tribes, who have always been found to be government the labor of nearly six«years to suppress troublesome dependants, made an insurrection in Lit- it ; and it is supposed that the object was finally ac- tle Bucharia, m the suppression of which dreadful bar- complished more by the bribery of the chiefs, than by barities were committed. the power of the Chinese arms. In 1826, there was, Not long after, a second rebellion, of a more formida- also, an insurrection of the Tartars of Mongolia.

Taou-kwang saving the Life of his Father.

But a war was now ready to break out, of a very tsih-seu, to the office of high commissioner, with full different nature from any which the Celestial Empire powers to adopt any measures he might find necessary had known. It was with a civilized and Christian race for the accomplishment of the desired object, and that a contest was to be waged, and not with barbarous punish, with the utmost severity, buyers, sellers, and hordes, whose mode of warfare is familiar to the smokers of the drug. The new commissioner arrived Chinese. Little, most probably, did they know of at Canton in March, 1839, with a view to execute his the real power and superiority of their enemy, or of trust. their own utter incompetency, by any force of num- At this time, the British trade was under the control

bers, to meet the military tactics of Europe. The of a superintendent ; but he had never been allowed to result of the collision must have been a matter of become a permanent resident at the British factory. astonishment, as well as of mortification, to the whole The British, as well as several other nations, were Chinifee nation. permitted to have their factories, consisting of brick or The commercial intercourse between England and stone edifices, just outside of the walls of Canton, on China was entirely in the hands of the East India a very limited space of ground. Here the foreign Company till 1833, when the term of their charter merchants were permitted to remain at their several expired, and all British subjects were equally at liberty establishments only just long enough to transact their to send out ships to China, for tea and other products business, the very longest term being four months of the country. This change afforded ample opportu- and if their affairs were not settled by that time, they nities for carrying on a contraband trade in opium, the must leave them in the hands of the Hong merchants, importation of whith was prohibited by the imperial that is, the Chinese individuals who were authorized to

government ; but the drug was eagerly purchased trade with these factories, called in their tongue Hong.

whenever it could be obtained, and it was therefore sup- When the commissioner arrived, it happened that there plied by smuggling. The evils of the trade and of the were several British ships in the river, having some- use of the drug by all classes of the Chinese, — more what more than twenty thousand chests of opium on particularly described in a subsequent chapter,* — board. These he demanded should be given up to be

induced the public authorities, with the emperor destroyed ; and he also required that the owners should at their head, to concert measures for the effectual bind tiiemselves by a written engagement never to eradication of these evils. After various consultations, bring any more of the article to China, with the un- Taou-kwang appointed a raandarm of high rank, Lin- derstanding that if they broke their engagement, they would be liable to be punished by the Chinese laws.

' • See the General Views, which close this article. This demand of Lin was not complied with ; upon HOSTILITIES BETWEEN THE CHINESE AND ENGLISH. 461

which all the native servants were withdrawn from the countrymen, deemed it advisable to surrender the itctories, and the factories themselves were surrounded opium. After the landing of the article, which occu- 1^ a body of Chinese and Tartar troops, who guarded pied several weeks, the English merchants at the fac- the merchants as prisoners, while the Hong merchants tories were left at liberty to depart. Lin, upon re- were instructed to ascertain the ownership of the chests ceiving instructions from the emperor, proceeded to of opium. In the mean time, Lin, by means of man- destroy the immense mass of opium, " thus manifest- ifestoes, made several eiTorts to persuade the English ing," in the words of the emperor, " to the natives to comply with his requirements|iseeming, the on dwelling on the sea-coast and the foreigners of the whole, to decline measures of severity, provided that outside nations, an awful warning." The opium was his purpose could be effected without them. But, cast into trenches dug near the sea, where it was finding his exhortations disregarded, he threatened to quickly decomposed by means of quicklime, salt, and put to death the occupants of the factories. water mixed with it — the mixture running into the In view of this alternative, the British superintend- sea. This act was consummated in the month of ent, Captain Elliott, in order to save the lives of his June, 1839.

British Fleet at Bong Kong.

The British merchants had now removed to Macao, ber of the same year; but the Chinese were soon a Portuguese settlement, where most of their families driven back, though their fleet was commanded by were residing. While they were in that place, it hap- their most celebrated admiral, named Quan. The pened that, in some quarrel between the English and Chinese suffered a great loss — several of their vessels Chinese sailors, one of the latter was killed by an being destroyed in the action. This defeat was as- accidental blow. The governor of Canton, as soon tounding to the authorities at Canton, who had placed as he was apprised of the occurrence, demanded that great dependence on Quan, nor did they dare to send the assailant should be given up to justice. But a true account to the emperor. Edicts were now this was refused, as the English are not amenable to published almost daily, threatening to close the ports Chinese law. In retaliation, the governor gave orders forever against the English, if they continued to act that provisions should no longer be supplied to the in defiance of the imperial demands. Efforts were English at Macao, on which Captain Elliott removed also made, by Lin and his assistants to strengthen their the whole fleet to Hong Kong, a rocky island, about fleet ; but nothing of much importance occurred till thirty-five miles distant, inhabited at that time chiefly the month of June, 1840, when an armament arrived by fishermen, but which has since become an English from India, under the command of Admiral Elliott, settlement. In the mean time, arms and men were which was added to the British ships already assem- sent for from India, to protect the lives and property bled in the bay of Hong Kong. of her majesty's subjects in China. Suspension of Upon this reenforcement having been effected, the trade between the two nations was then ordered by Chinese bddly attempted to destroy the whole fleet, by

Lin, while the Chinese fleet was preparing to make an sending fireships into the midst of it ; but the attempt attack on the English ships at Hong Kong. was abortive, as most of them exploded before The attempt was not made until some time in Novem- they came near enough to do any mischief. As this 452 SUCCESSES OF THE ENGLISH. scheme proved to be fruitless, great rewards were of- day, a message was sent to Admiral Quan, demanding fered to those who should either kill or capture any the surrender of the remaining fort. As the latter of the English, or take one of their ships. Numbers wanted three days' time for consulting with Kishen, it of the English were accordingly kidnapped by the was granted. Kishen, in the alarm which he now Chinese of the lower orders, who were constantly on felt, renewed the negotiation with Captain Elliott, the watch for any soldier or sailor who was found sep- promising to fulfil all the terms of the treaty, provided arated from his companions. It was by these treach- the Bogue forts were given up. This was accordingly erous methods that British soldiers and seamen became done by the English : the captives were restored to prisoners in China, and not by the chances of war. their friends, and the British troops left Chusan, and They were confined at Ningpo for some months. It took up their quarters at Hong Kong, which they now is probable, however, that the Chinese may not have considered their own. They left Chusan the more considered themselves as acting a dishonorable part, readily, as, from its unhealthiness to foreigners, it had being unacquainted with the rules of European warfare. proved the grave of many of the English while resi- The active operations of the British commenced dent there. In the mean time, the emperor, hearing with the capture of Chusan, on the 5th of July, 1840. that the English had met with still further success, Chusan is a fine island, about fifty miles in circum- sent to Ningpo, ordering the massacre of all the pis- ference, containing a dense population, and situated oners there ; but this command, fortunately, was not near the eastern coast of China, about half way be- received until two days after they had been sent away tween Canton and Pekin. Tinghae, the capital, is a at the solicitation of Kishen. lar_ge city, in a plain not far from the sea. There The emperor's indignation was aroused against his were some artificial d^ences to the place, but, without ministers for not beating and expelling the English, artillery and soldiers, with which Tinghae was ill or, in other terms, for not performing impossibilities. supplied, they were of little use. The Chinese were They were degraded, or otherwise punished. Kishen speedily dislodged from them by the invaders. The was particularly obnoxious to his master, because he mandarins, seeing how affairs were likely to terminate, had held communications with Captain Elliott. " Such determined to abandon the city, as they were so defi- proceedings," as the emperor told him in a letter, cient in the means of defence. In the course of the " pass the bounds of reason. Worthless that you are, night, they evacuated it, followed by all the soldiers what sort of heart is contained in your breast ! " The and the greater part of the inhabitants, who carried unfortunate offender was speedily arrested, and conduct- away with them much of their property. When the ed to Pekin in chains ; all the members of his family,

English entered the town the next day, they found it according to the laws of China, shared in his disgrace. nearly deserted. He was a man of immense possessions, having several Towards the close of the year 1840, an attempt was palaces, extensive lands, besides many banking bouses made, on the part of the Chinese, to recover Chusan in several cities. His property in gold, silver, and by means of negotiation. Kishen, who was appointed jewels was also enormous. Among the valuables imperial high commissioner, was a wily politician, found in his palaces, were some score of gold watches, and, promising Hong Kong in the room of Chusan, two images of horses, and two of lions, made of pre- as also the indemnification of the merchants for their cious stones, a bedstead composed wholly of tortoise opium, and the release of the prisoners at Ningpo, shell, several crystal wash-bowls and basins, and a induced Admiral Elliott to give up Chusan. This quantity of rich silks, broadcloths, and furs. affair was transacted upon the Pecho River, where the As Captain Elliott at length came to the conclusion admiral met Kishen on his way to Canton. The British that the Chinese did not intend to make any compen- fleet, a portion of which left Chusan, arrived at Toong- sation for the opium, although this was the principal koo Island about the time Kishen reached Canton. article of the treaty, he proceeded again to the Bogue, This island is not far distant from the Canton River. where the Chinese had been busy in strengthening the Nearly at this season. Admiral Elliott, on account of fortifications. The second attack upon the Bogue forts ill health, resigned his command, and it rested with was on the 26th of February, 1841 ; all' of them were

Captain Elliott to negotiate with the Chinese commis- taken, and many lives lost : we pass over the dreadful sioner, who, though not wanting in professions, did details of the carnage. Among the Chinese slain was not appear very ready to fulfil the engagements which the brave old Admiral Quan, who fell as he was leading had been entered into with the admiral. The object his men to repulse the foe. The emperor was exceed- of Kishen, it is supposed, was only to gain time for ingly grieved at the loss of the veteran, and showed hostile purposes, under pretence of making an amicable his high estimation of him in the rewards and honors arrangement. This state of things was put an end to — bestowed on his family. after a suitable offer of adjustment, within a given time, on the part of the English commander — by an attack on the Bogue forts, which, on the 7th of January, 1841, were taken by storm, the Chinese experiencing a ter- CHAPTER CCXXIX. loss of life. rible A. S. 1841 to 1845. The Bogue, or Bocca Tigris, is a narrow pass, about The continued forty-five miles from the mouth of the Canton River, War — Peace. having the strong forts of Amunghoy and Chuenpee Geeat efforts were now made for the extermination on one side, and that of Tycocktow on the other. The of the English, by calling out the militia, and by prom- forts first taken were those of Chuenpee and Tycock- ises of rewards to all who would assist in accomplish- tow. These were bravely defended by the Chinese ing their destruction. The militia marched down to and Tartar troops, hundreds of whom fell in the ac- Canton by thousands, but they were wholly incompe- tion, while many were destroyed by the burning, or tent to contend with men accustomed to regular ser- blowing up, of seventeen war junks. On the following vice. The emperor appointed his nephew, Yi-shan, CAPTURE OF CHINGHAE AND NINGPO. 453

to the command of the armies, and restored Lin that of Canton should tie open to British trade, and to some of his former dignities. also issued He a presenting no other alternative than force, if compli- mandate to the tea-growers to destroy their crops, ance was not granted. An expedition was immedi- promising to compensate them for the loss -^ but this ately undertaken against Amoy, a strongly fortified mandate was not fully complied with, Threatenings city and port in an island of the same name, situated of degradation and punishment were plentifully given about midway between Canton and Chusan. It was out against the high officers, if they failed to inflict due surrendered ^yithout resistance ; but several of the chastisement upon the barbarian^ This impolitic mandarins, in the despair which they felt, committed course kept his Celestial Majesty in ignorance of the suicide — a very common practice in China, in times real character of the war, as every disaster was studi- of difiiculty and danger. Leaving a garrison at ously concealed from him. It was not until circum- Kolongsoo, a small rocky island forming a part of the stances rendered it impossible to conceal the true con- fortifications of Amoy, the expedition made its way to things, that dition of the emperor awoke to a sense of Chusan, which was, speedily retaken, but not without danger in the which a portion of his vast empire was the sacrifice of many lives on the part of the Chinese, involved. who vainly attempted to defend Tinghae, the capital. Chinese, as early The as the first of May, 1841, The conquest next achieved by the British was that broke the truce that was made after the second capture of Chinghae, a large and opulent city at the mouth of of the Bogue forts, by several hostile acts against the the Ningpo River, the occupation of which was pre- shipping on the river. At the same time, the British and paratory to the attack upon Ningpo itself. "The Dutch factories were plundered, and partly destroyed, taking of Chinghae was accompanied by some of the by a large body of troops. It was now resolved to most frightful scenes of imisery that were witnessed make a direct attack on Canton, which was approached during the whole course of the war. The Chinese by two different branches of the river, Captain Elliott having prepared to make a vigorous resistance, the sailing up the one, and General Sir Hugh Gough the city and citadel were bombarded at once ; and as the other. The latter attacked and carried four for- former was very densely peopled, numbers of the tresses about two miles from the walls of the city, inhabitants were killed, even in their houses. Among though gallantly defended by the Tartar troops, with a the melancholy incidents of that dreadful day was the great loss on the part of the latter. The people of bereavement of a poor man, whose four children were Canton saw with dismay the English flag waving on struck at the same moment by a cannon ball. The the forts to which they had trusted for safety. During distracted father was seen embracing their lifeless the day, the firing from the walls of the city was bodies in turn, and attempting to throw himself into

continued ; but, at night, all the principal inhabitants the river, while his friends were holding him back. departed with their families, taking with them their ' These,' remarked an officer, who was an eye-witness

plate and jewels, and other valuable effects. of this sad spectacle, ' are the unavoidable miseries of ; Canton, without doubt, might have been easily occu- war ' nor was it, on this occasion, a solitary instance

pied by the British ; but Captain Elliott preferred mak- of such calamities." ing terms with the authorities of the city, and stayed Chinghae was taken on the 10th of October, 1841, further proceedings on certain conditions. One of these and on the next day the fleet proceeded up the river was the payment of six million dollars for the use to Ningpo, having left a guard of three hundred men of the British government, besides an indemnity on in the captured city. The city of Ningpo, now a account of the loss at the factories. Scarcely had the place of so much interest and importance to Great Tartar troops marched out of the city, when several Britain, was taken without the least opposition on the thousand men appeared on the heights in hostile part of the inhabitants. Many of these assisted the array — a circumstance which appeared suspicious English to scale the walls, and open the gates, so that

to the English ; but upon inquiry it was ascertained the horrors experienced at Chinghae were avoided. that a volunteer force of rustics from the surrounding An incident highly illustrative of the Chinese charac- villages had assembled, to the number of twenty-five ter may be mentioned in connection with the British thousand, to deliver their country from the barbarians. occupation of this place. One day a paper was thrown The magistrates of the city, however, prevented their over the wall addressed to the English, embracing, patriotic interference. among other arguments, the following singular appeal The despatches to Pekin by Yi-shan, gave an utter- to their feelings, on the impropriety of remaining any " ly false account of these transactions. Not a word was longer in China : You have been away from your

said about the ransom money, and thus the emperor country long enough ; your mothers and sisters must was kept in profound ignorance of the real state of be longing for your return. Go back to your families, affairs. When the greater part of the money had for we do not want you here." been paid, and security given for the remaining The Chinese, chagrined at the loss of their impor- amount, the British troops returned to Hong Kong. tant cities, made a desperate effort, in the month of Captain Elliott, whose arrangements were not generally March, 1842, to recover Chinghae and Ningpo, both approved of, was superseded by Sir Henry Pottinger, of which they entered on the same day, by scaling the with who arrived at Macao in August, 1841. In the mean walls ; but in each case they were repulsed con- time, the mandarins of Canton, paying no regard to siderable loss. At the same time, a fleet of junks was the treaty, erected new fortifications in many places sent out against Chusan, but with the same ill success. along the river, and repaired those that had been These measures proceeded from a. plan formed by the injured. Trade proceeded as usual, and opium was chiefs of the army, and some of the governors. The the again selling along the whole line of the coast. next attempt to stop the progress of invaders was miles from The new British commandant was more decided and at Tsekee, a town about eleven Ningpo, assembled, peremptory than his predecessor, requiring, in addition where the Chinese forces were foi:ming an Here, as they attempted to to all the other stipulations, that other ports besides extensive encampment. :

454 RETURN OF PEACE. cut off the supplies for the enemy, brought by the miles higher up the river. It was strongly garrisoned, country people, it became necessary to attack them at and another sanguinary conflict was expected ; but just once, and the imperial troops were again put to flight, about the time that an attack was to be commenced, leaving above six hundred dead on the field. a flag of truce was displayed, and the British general

Hostilities were now suspended for two months : was informed that certain high commissioners were on the emperor, still ignorant of the true state of affairs, the way for the purpose of negotiating a peace. The continued to issue orders for the total annihilation of result was, that a treaty of peace was concluded on the enemy. The British array, on the 7th of May, the 29th of August, 1842, highly favorable to the left Ningpo, in its progress towards the north, with British nation. the intention of reaching Nankin, and eventually Pekin, The following were the articles of the treaty provided the emperor should persist in his opposition " Lasting peace and friendship to be preserved be- to the terms demanded by the government of Great tween the two empires. China to pay twenty-one Britain. On their route between the Ningpo and Nan- millions of dollars, as an indemnification for the kin Rivers, they came to the town of Chapo, the chief expenses of the war. The five ports of Canton, port of communication between China and Japan. Amoy, Foo-choo-foo, Ningpo, and ChangJiae, to be The Tartar troops, which covered a chain of hills in open to the British, who shall have the liberty of

the vicinity, fled without making any attempt to pre- appointing consuls to reside in those towns ; and reg-

vent the English from entering the city. But it hap- ular tariffs of import and export duties to be estab- pened that three hundred took refuge in a temple, to lished, so that the merchants may not be subjected, which they were pursued, who, under the mistaken as they have been, to the impositions of the Chinese idea that, if they surrendered, no quarter would be authorities. The island of Hong Kong to be ceded given, fired on the enemy, killing and wounding sev- forever to the crown of England." The above were eral British officers. This act of useless resistance the principal articles. A few disturbances subse- cost the lives of all, with the exception of about forty, quently occurred, which somewhat endangered the

who were made prisoners, but were subsequently re- continuance of this peace ; but they were happily leased. Most of the wives of those who were killed suppressed or adjusted without recurring to the " last — for the soldiers lived with their families in a part resort" of nations. of the city — not knowing where to look for protec- Soon after these events — in the year 1845 — the tion, and apprehensive that slavery would be their lot, United States despatched a minister to China, who should they fall into the hands of the foe, threw their succeeded in establishing a treaty of peace and com- helpless infants into the tanks and wells, and killed merce with the government. themselves or each other. The British, however, res- cued a number of these poor women from death. Soon after the taking of Chapo, the fleet entered the noble river Yang-tse-kiang, or Child of the Ocean, and on the 2d of July anchored at Chin-keang-foo, a CHAPTER CCXXX. fortified city, and, in this part of the country, strongly General Views — Introduction of Christianity an important barrier for the defence of the interior. into China. No sooner had the English set foot on shore, than the Chinese troops fled down the hills, and dispersed in all To some part of Chhia, Christianity was doubtless made known at an early period. We are, however, directions ; but the Tartars bravely defended the city, firing incessantly from the ramparts. These were at unable to establish the date. The apostolic age has length ascended by scaling ladders, and after some sometimes been assigned as the epoch, under the desperate fighting, in which many Englishmen were labors and preaching of the apostle Thomas. From killed, the British' flag was raised in triumph on the tradition, and even written accounts, we learn that walls. The contention lasted till night, when the Thomas was the apostle of the East, acknowledged inhabitants began to make their escape from the city. to be such by all the Eastern or Chaldean Christians. The next morning a sad spectacle was presented — the " He was the first preacher of Christianity among the usual effects of cruel war. The streets were strewed Hindoos, and founded the churches of Malabar, where, with the dead, the houses were mostly left desolate or to this day, the ancient monuments, writings, and tra- in flames, the shops were pillaged, and evidences of ditions afford the most indubitable proof of his apos-' female suicide were visible in every quarter. tolic labors among them. More than two hundred The taking of Chin-keang-foo is memorable for one thousand Syrian Christians, on the coast of Malabar of those extraordinary acts of individual resolution to and Coromandel, hold, with one uniform tradition, that Thomas, the apostle, was the founder of their churches. which some would give the name of heroism ; others, that of folly or madness. This was the self-sought It appears from the learned Assemann and other sub- writers, that fate of the Tartar general, who had made the greatest sequent Thomas, having passed through exertions to save the city, but who, when he found the country from Malabar to Coromandel, and made conversions to the faith that the contest was decided in favor of the enemy, great in those parts, proceeded to some coast in the called went into his house, and taking his accustomed seat in over East, China, which * an arm-chair, ordered his servants to set fire to the may have been that country now called Cochin-China." authorities dwelling. His body was found the next day much Other are adduced in the article from burned, but retaining the sitting posture in which he which we have taken the above, to show that Thomas had placed himself to meet the approach of death. was the introducer of Christianity into the East, and Probably he had swallowed opium, to deaden his with great probability into China. The Chinese his- tories, however, give date to the introduction of the senses ere the flames approached him. no British It was near the middle of August, when the

* vol. i. fleet arrived within sight of Nankb, about forty Chinese Bepositoiy, No. 2< NESTOKIAN AND OTHER MISSIONS TO CHINA. 455

Christian faith into the empire, and are silent as to the In the fourteenth century, the Turks and Tartars results of missionary labors. All that appears from wholly extirpated the Christian religion in many cities is, that about that time the them — beginning of the and provinces, and caused the religion of" the Prophet" century an extraordinary person second — arrived in to be taught in its stead. The nations of the Tartars, who taught doctrine purely China, a spiritual, and among whom such numbers had professed or tolerated general admiration upon him by the drew fame of his Christianity, universally submitted to the Koran. To by the holiness of his life, virtues, and by the number this course they were compelled by the terror of of his miracles. • death, or the fear of slavery ; for Tamerlane, their this time till A. D. From 636, we have no record of leader, spared no manner of violence or cruelty to in China. Christianity From a monument which was effect such an object. By these means, and the ex- in discovered 1625, and is still preserved by being clusion of new teachers, the Christian faith was over- wall built into the of Si-ngan-foo, we learn the progress thrown in Tartary and China. Toward the close of gospel from 636 till the its of the date of erection in 780. the fourteenth century, the Latin Christians ceased to According to this record, the Syrian Christian mission be mentioned. The influence of the Nestorians con- entered China the year above named, in the reign of tinued a century or two longer. the emperor Tae-tsung, was favorably received, and The more modem Catholic missions* to China before the end of the century, Christianity was pro- were connected with commercial views on the part mulgated, and churches built in the provinces which of the governments that favored them. The Por- then composed the empire. A persecution among the tuguese were the first to open maritime intercourse Christians rose in 699, and a fiercer one in 713. Dur- with that country. The Spaniards followed the ing that time, a great' many churches were destroyed, Portuguese, and introduced Jesuit missionaries into and doubtless many of the teachers suffered martyr- the empire. These visited most of the chief cities dom. Hence we find that a second mission arrived of the empire, and fixed their abode at Nankin, in China soon after, the names of whose leaders are then the greatest and most enlightened city of enumerated. Then follows the state of Christianity China. Their scientific knowledge procured for them during the reign of three or four emperors who favored great fame and influence. They renounced the cos- it, most of whom honored the commemoration of tume of honzes, or holy men, which they had first Christ's nativity with profound respect. assumed, — as such persons were not only despised Timotheus, the patriarch of the Nestorians, who by the grandees, but even considered as the ministers lived till 820, appointed David metropolitan of China of vulgar superstition, — and assumed the habit of ; and this sect seems to have been numerous in Tartary the learned, from whom the great ofiicers are and the adjacent regions. In the time of Zingis chosen. Their attainments in physical science, which Khan and his successors, though the Christians resi- in Europe would have been deemed altogether sec- dent in those countries were much distressed, yet it ondary, appeared almost miraculous in the eyes even would seem that numerous bodies of Nestorians were of the most accomplished Chinese. The mandarins, still scattered over all the northern parts of Asia and at the same time, seem to have possessed a degree China. In 1202, Zingis Khan conquered Un-khan, of good sense which enabled them to appreciate the the fourth and last of the Christian kings in Central philosophical principles of the missionaries, espe- Asia, who is supposed by some to be the Prester John cially when they were confirmed by experiments. of early travellers. Zingis married his daughter, and They themselves, indeed, had an observatory with several of his descendants had Christian wives. Till very fine instruments, in which an astronomer was near the close of this century, most of the Mongol constantly stationed to report every change which

princes, though tolerant to all religions, rather favored took place in the heavens, and the events which it the Christian. This circumstance afforded a good portended. But the popular belief was that the earth opportunity for the Nestorians to propagate their reli- was a level plain, with the heaven rising in an arch

gion all over the East, and particularly in China. above it ; that night was caused by the sun's retiring The Roman pontiffs, also, sent ambassadors to the behind a mountain ; and that eclipses took place in emperors, and missionaries, chiefly Franciscan and consequence of the god Holochan's covering the sun Dominican monks, quite to Pekin. There they with his right hand, and the moon with his left. gathered some churches, and at length established Some of the learned were surprised when they were told an archbishop with several suffragans. In 1307, that the earth was globular ; that its opposite side was Clement V. constituted John de Monte Corvino arch- * The only missionaries in modern times, who were at all bishop is, Pekin. translated the of Cambalu, that He successful in China, were Jesuits. In 1541, the next year books of the New Testament and the Psalms of David after their order arose, Xavier went to the East. In 1552, he into the language of the Tartars. Benedict XII., in left Goa, touched Malacca, and before the close of the year, died at San-shan. Dominicans, Augustines, and Capuchins 1338, sent new nuncios into China and Tartary ; and followed, and attempted to enter the eounlry, but were re- so empire in China continued, the long as the Tartar pulsed. In 1579, Miguel Kuggiero, an Italian Jesuit, arrived Latins and Nestorians had Uberty to profess and prop- in China, and commenced the study of the language. Tvvo agate their religion. Much greater success would years subsequently, he went, in the capacity of a chaplain, the Macao ships, to Canton, and there acted in his real doubtless have attended these efforts in China and with character, as a missionary. He was joined by Matthew Ricci, elsewhere, had the Christians been united; but the in 1632. After a good deal of deception on their part, smd Catholics and Nestorians strove to undermine each much opposition among the people, they effected some con- other, and were each in turn protected at the expense versions to their faith, and secured several protectors and in various journeyings and of the other. But near the close of this century — the friends. Eicci spent his time labors, and succeeded in establishing churches in the empire, thirteenth the xMahometan religion- gained the as- — as at Nankin and Pekin, and other places. His lectures on west, the khans, cendency, especially in the and m the exact sciences, and his presents, won his way among the some instances, allowed the Christians to be perse- people, and he was so fortimate as to enjoy the favors of the cuted. emperor himself. He died in 1610i ;;

456 SPANISH AND FEENCH MISSIONS.

inhabited, and that its shadow, intercepting the sun's also to eminence in these pursuits. The expeditions rays, caused the moon to be eclipsed. Great was their undertaken, with this view, into distant regions, were I wonder on being informed that the first j of these guided by that mixed spirit of religion and science

kiminaries was larger than the earth ; but on learning which prevailed at his court, and particularly distin- I that the stars were larger also, their j amazement knew guished the order of the Jesuits. A remarkable bounds. great doctor j no One at length exclaimed, mission of this nature was sent, in 1685, to Siam, " You may consider us Tartars Gerbillon, j and barbarians, for accompanied by Taohard, Le Comte, and begin i you where we end." Bouvet. These distinguished persons were instructed, The Spanish Jesuits enjoyed a long period of favor when their primary object should be attained, to make at court, and even converted several persons of the an effort to penetrate into China, with a view both of imperial family to Christianity ; yet, with this excep- opening a mercantile intercourse, and of diffusing the tion, they do not boast of any great success in diffus- light of Christianity. After meeting with a variety of ing their religion. Although, with an overheated zeal, adventures, they made their way to Pekin, where they they dashed the idols of the Chinese in pieces — without were graciously received at court, and performed the giving any deadly offence — yet, when they attempted ko-tou, or act of reverence to the emperor, by beating to substitute a purer faith in the place of idolatry, their foreheads nine times against the ground. He they were met by the coolest indifference. While all requested to know whether there was any favor which the other Oriental nations had some strong religious they were desirous to obtain, bidding them freely ask

impressions, the learned in China made it their boast it. The missionaries, who seem to have been no not to worship any god, either false or true, and to strangers to the arts of a court, answered, with French take no concern in what might happen after this life. cleverness, that their only wish was to lift up their Their veneration was exclusively bestowed on their hands daily to the true God in prayers for his majes- ancient sages, in whose honor alone they conceived ty's prosperity. This discreet reply pleased the that temples ought to be erected. To this was added emperor, and the Frenchmen were kindly and hospi- the greatest alarm and displeasure at every innovation. tably treated. The result was, that the whole body of the Chinese From this time the missionaries, who were able literati assumed a hostile attitude to the European men, and well acquainted with the sciences, acquired missionaries, and opposed their attempts to introduce a great ascendency at the court of China. The en- a new belief. Among the charges brought against lightened mind of Kang-hi appreciated their supe- them, was that of being great talkers and mountebanks, riority to his own people in various branches of knowl-

which is admitted by the Jesuits themselves to be true edge ; he became their pupil, and took regular lessons to a considerable extent. It was added, that they from them. He assigned them a spot, within the sought to gain converts rather by the display of precincts of his palace, for building a church and

European curiosities than by arguments ; and here, convent — furnishing materials, and even money, to too, the missionaries seem unable wholly to deny that assist in its construction. It is true that the importu- watches, harpsichords, looking-glasses, and tweezers nity of the Li-pou tribunal, and of some leading had involved them in this reproach. mandarins, once extorted from him a decree, prohibit-

These hostile feelings increased, till, on a particular ing the exercise of Christianity ; but, on the urgent occasion, they burst forth unrestrained. One of the representations of the foreigners and their friends, it chief functions of the Chinese tribunal of astronomy, was soon rescinded. The strangers were also em- was to fix an auspicious day for the performance of ployed in various important offices, for which their any great public duty — a choice which its members superior knowledge fitted them. They were formed were supposed to be fully qualified to make, by view- into detachments, which proceeded through the several ing the aspect of the heavens. The missionaries, in provinces of the empire, and even its subject territories undertaking such an office, somewhat merited the in Thibet and Tartary, to make a coniplete survey of

catastrophe in which it involved them. One of the those regions, and draw a map of them upon scientific

princes having died, it was their part to name the most principles. The Frenchmen proved also extremely proper day and hour for his interment. They under- serviceable in conducting negotiations with Russia

took the task ; but some time after, the empress and Father Gerbillon accompanied the commission mother, and next the emperor himself, died. The which was sent to the frontier to fix the boundaries of charge was then immediately urged that the Christians, the two empires. Numerous individuals of the impe- instead of the favorable day which they were bound rial household became converts, and made an open to fix, had named one that lay under the most malig- profession of Christianity. nant influence, and had thus involved the realm in these The intelligence of these circumstances excited an

dreadful calamities. This ruined the Jesuits : four of extraordinary interest in France, where a sort of the chief among them were thrown into dungeons, Chinomania sprang up and continued for some time. where one of them perished, and the remainder were During its prevalence, the most extravagant stories

expelled from China ; and, although the surviving respecting the Chinese empire were implicitly believed. prisoners were released afterwards, and restored to a Numerous additional missionaries followed in the train degree of favor, the success of their mission was at of those who had so successfully made their way in an end. that country. This state of the public mind gave We shall pass over the attempts of the Dutqh to rise to a singular imposition. When Le Comte re- obtain a footing in the empire, and give a sketch of the turned home, he was surprised to hear of the existence more successful undertakings of the French. Louis of a Chinese princess in Paris, who was making a dis- XIV., ambitious of every sort of greatness, viewed with tinguished figure in that gay capital. This princess, emulation the extraordinary influence which England who claimed the highest rank in her own country, and Holland had obtained by trade and manufac- called herself Couronne, a name which no real to raise his tures ; and he spared no exertion kingdom Chinese could pronounce. Her story was as follows :

PRINCESS COTTRONNB IMi'OSTURE — PROTESTANT MISSIONS. 457

had embarked for Japan, She with a view to a matri- converts of the imperial blood were exiled to a monial connection, and had been captured, first by a desolate region in constant Tartary ; yet, continuing and then by a French vessel ; Dutch by the latter she to the Christian faith amid all their sufferings, they brought to Europe and, after was ; much cruel treat- were brought back and confined in dungeons. Under had been left state ment, in a of total destitution. the enlightened emperor, Kien-long, who ascended however, Being able, to pronounce the word Pe-kin, the throne in 1736, Christianity again flourished attracted notice, and soon managed to learn she suffi- a college was established at Pekin for its propaga- cient broken French to tell her stc^jy. Such a novelty tion, and four young princes became converts. her at once into notice " " brought ; she was the lioness But persecutions were soon renewed, and the better of Paris, and nobody thought of questioning her judgment and feelings of Kien-long were over- veracity. Ladies of rank took her under their pro- powered by the united voice of the tribunals and great tection, and not only relieved her wants, but intro- mandarins. A new decree was issued, and Chris- duced her into the first circles of society, where she tianity was su(>pres'sed. was received with all the respect due to her illustrious This proved, however, to be only a suspension a£ birth ! Even poems were composed in celebration of the efforts of the missionaries, for many of the priests her adventures. found means to return to their fields of labor. Things Le Comte, who had never heard of such a name continued in this state till, in 1785, a decree was as Couronne, in the East, readily suspected the fraud. passed which afforded the Christians some mitigation The whole story was contradictory to Chinese man- of their evils, particularly in Pekin. ners. Princesses of that country, so far from taking During the present century, the mission has been in sea, scarcely leave their apartments. For a state voyages by low and declining ; yet, on two or three occa- a Chinese princess to go to Japan in search of a sions at least, it has drawn forth the severe animadver- husband, was as little likely as that the duchess of sions of the government ; once in 1805, again in 1811, Orleans should set out on an expedition to wed the and a third time in 1815. The number belonging to chief of Oonalaska. Le Comte did not hesitate to the Roman missions in China is not easily ascer- announce his suspicions. The marquis de Croissi tained. But, on a map of missions presented in 1810. insisted on arranguig an interview, by which the lady's to the governing bishop of Macao, the number of pretensions might be brought to the test. She could European bishops, assistant bishops, and missionaries not refuse, though she deemed it necessary to impeach is put down at more than thirty ; that of native the honesty of Le Comte. When the day had arrived, preachers at eighty ; and of Chinese Christians at over she was not to be found ; but, after a diligent search, two hundred thousand. Thus Christianity has a partial her place of retreat was discovered. Finding it im- toleration in China — the Catholic priests frequently possible to evade the scrutiny, she proceeded to face adopting the Buddhist rites and ceremonies, and min- the traveller with the utmost coolness and intrepidity. gling them with their own. The first look removed every shadow of doubt from The Chinese, like maoy other heathen nations, in the mind of Le Comte ; her features, her air, her recent times, have been permitted to share in the gait, had in them nothing Chinese. She immediately labors of Protestant missionaries. Since the war with began conversing with fluency in broken French, but Great Britain, the country has been more particularly without the least mixture of any thing akin to the open to these efforts. In Canton, the American Board Chinese idiom, and pronouncing with perfect ease, of Commissioners for Foreign Missions have one sta- sounds which no native of China can utter. She tion, three missionaries, and five others as helpers. In talked of having travelled, in less than three days, Amoy, they have one station, three missionaries, and from Nankin to Pekin, a distance of more than six two others as assistants. In Fuh-chan, the same so- hundred miles; and she described gold coins which ciety has one station, five missionaries, and three others* were never used in the empire. Le Comte wrote to aid them. some Chinese characters on a paper, and placed it in Laudable efforts have been made in modem times down, and her hand ; she held the writmg upside to translate the Bible into the Chinese language. This pretended to read it, uttering with rapidity words has been done chiefly by Protestants. The e^orts of entirely without meaning. He then spoke to her in the Romanists have been limited, it is believed, to parts Chinese, to which she replied in her own gibberish. of the New Testament. Among the principal persons Having thus gone through her part, she boldly in- engaged in this enterprise, the names of Morrison, sisted that she had stood the trial triumphantly, and Milne, and Marshman, are well known. But owing that the insinuations of Le Comte against her arose to the great peculiarity of the language, imperfect from pure malignity. So reluctant are mankind to be acquaintance with it, and other causes, these versions awaked from an agreeable illusion, that she continued, are not by any means correct and satisfactory. Ef- for a time, to have adherents, even after the fullest forts are msScing at the present time to supply the pre- exposure of the fraud. vious deficiency, if possible, in this interesting depart- The prosperity of the missionaries ceased with the ment of evangelization, by a combination of the learn- reign of their protector, Kang-hi, His successor was ing and talents of the various missionaries from superstitiously attached to the laws and institutions of Protestant Christendom, now in China. China, and open to those complaints against innova- tion which the mandarins were ever ready to prefer. The missionaries were all banished from the country except those at Pekin, who were necessary for the CHAPTER CCXXXI. and these were not construction of the calendar, General Views, continued — Opium Trade. allowed to teach their religion. Three hundred of the opium trade in churches and three hundred thousand Christians were The character and extent together with the consequences which have deprived of their priests and rulers. The Chinese Chma, 68 ,

458 THE OPIUM TRADE.

grown out of it in recent times, give to its history a pared in India, and, as before intimated, is a monopoly peculiar interest; of this we shall therefore present a of the wealthy and powerful East India Company. brief outline. The revenue derived by this company from the trade By the laws of China for nearly fifty years, the amounted, in the year 1837, to two million five hundred

of opium had been it -nine five hundred and thirty pounds. importation prohibited ; yet had and thirty thousand been extensively cultivated, under the direction and When the sales have been effected at Bombay and monopoly of the East India Company, and systemati- Calcutta, the opium is shipped on board vessels ex- cally smuggled into China. While it was a violation pressly fitted out for the trade, which proceed imme- of all laws, it also produced the most baleful effects. dia,tely for China. They are called clippers, and are It corrupted the morals and destroyed the lives of the remarkable for their beauty and sailing qualities. inhabitants. But the emperor at length made a vigor- " Arrived on the coast, they deliver their cargo into a ous effort to put an end to the nefarious traffic ; and class of vessels called receiving ships, which are al- in March, 1839, the English merchants at, Canton were ways anchored at the station of Lintin, or the adjacent compelled by the Chinese authorities to surrender their anchorages of Capsingmoon, or Cumsingmoon, situated smuggled opium to the amount of twenty thousand two within the Bocca Tigris, at the mouth ofthe Canton River. hundred and eighty-three chests, valued, at cost prices, " As the importation is expressly forbidden by the at about ten million of dollars ; and it was destroyed by Chinese government, it has now to be smuggled clan- the order of Lin, the Chinese commissioner. destinely into tlie country. For this purpose, native In consequence of this event, a series of hostile smuggling boats are employed, which are well manned transactions took place at Canton ; several warlike ex- and armed. Orders from Canton are given to them, peditions sailed from England ; and a war was com- with which they proceed to the receiving ships, and menced and carried on, which resulted in the submission the opium is delivered to their charge. It is taken out of the government of China to the conditions imposed of the chests, examined and, after being packed in con- by the British power, as we have related. The object venient parcels, arranged in readiness to be easily car- of these hostilities, as stated by Lord John Russell, was, ried off in case of pursuit. This is the usual way in " first, to obtain reparation for the insults and injuries which the importation is effected; but some portion offered to her majesty's superintendent and her majesty's is also taken up to Whampoa occasionally, and a certain subjects by the Chinese government ; second, to obtain number of chests is disposed of along the coast to the for the merchants trading with China an indemnification northward. Collision with the authorities rarely takes for the loss of their property, incurred by threats of place, as fees are regularly paid, for connivance, to the violence offered by persons under the direction of the officers of the imperial preventive squadron. Indeed, Chinese government; and third, to obtain a security it is not unfrequent for the custom-house officers them- that persons and property, in future, trading with China selves to be engaged in the smuggling trade, and gov- shall be protected from insuU or injury, and that their ernment boats have been observed taking in a cargo trade and commerce shall be maintained on a proper of opium in the open face of day. footing." Whatever disguises may be thrown over it, " When arrived at the city of Canton, the opium however, the wax against China was the direct con- passes into the hands of the native brokers or melters, sequence of the smuggling of opium by the British. who subject it to a process by which the crude article Had the Chinese set the laws of England at defiance, is reduced to a watery extract. The Chinese designate in a similar manner, it is quite certain that confisca- the varieties of Indian opium by the names of black tion of property alone would not have been the extent earth, white skin, and red skin, which severally fetch of the punishment. about eight hundred, six hundred, and four hundred As opium is the most powerful of narcotics, and at dollars a chest." the same time one of the most valuable of all medi- It is not known at what period the use of opium com-

cines, it is employed in a great variety of cases. Its menced in China, but there is reason to believe that its use, however, otherwise than as a medicine, is attended growth and preparation have been known to the Chi- with effects similar to those of the intemperate use of nese themselves for ages. Up to the year 1780, the is said to Portuguese supplied Chinese ardent spirits. Its habitual or excessive use the with foreign opium ; be more deleterious than the latter. It is a remark after that period, the English trade in the article dictated most probably by an intimate knowledge of the commenced, by the establishment of a depot for the subject, that " There is no slavery on earth to be named sale of the drug to the southward of Macao. But with the bondage which opium casts upon its victim. towards the end of the last century, as we have seen, There is scarcely one known instance of escape from the importation was entirely prohibited, and in 179&,

its toils, when once they have fairly enveloped a man." persons found guilty of smoking opium were punished The countries in which opium is most used are with the pillory and bamboo. But notwithstanding the Turkey, Persia, Arabia, and China. But its greatest strong denunciations on paper, the illicit trade went on; consumption is in China and the surrounding countries, the East India Company took the preparation of the where the habit of smoking it is very common, and opium into their own hands,' formed the whole of the attended with the most deplorable consequences. In produce, and sold it annually at Calcutta by auction Mahometan countries, it is used as a substitute for to the highest bidder. A large quantity of opium if ihtoxicating liquors, the use of which is prohibited by made in China itself, where the cultivation of the the Koran. No market on the globe is equal to that poppy, though nominally prohibited, has not been of Canton for this drug, which has been introduced prevented. In various provinces of India, the article is since the year 1796, in violation of the laws of China, grown under a system ofcompulsory labor, for the exclu- wholly by smuggling. The quantity consumed yearly sive benefit of ffie " Honorable East India Company." is immense. It is computed that, in the year 1837, it Various decrees were passed, of great^-aeventyv-^ amounted to four million and eighty thousand pounds. enacting even the penalty of death against those caught The far greater part of this article is grown and pre- trading in the drug. These decrees were, however, CHIEF CITIES OF CHINA. 459 but little, if at all, attended to by the Chinese them- situated in a very fertile plain, twenty leagues distant selves, and were negligently enforced by the authorities. from the great wall. It is, for the most part, the resi- The Rev. Mr. Medhurst, an exemplary missionary, dence of the emperor, and bus palace is in the portion who has most justly and .ably protested against the of it called the Tartar City. Pekin is surrounded iniquitous trade in opium, quite confirms the opinion by a wall fifty feet high, and so broad, that mounted

that the chief blame, as to the confirmed use of the sentinels are placed upon it. The gates, which poison, rests with the Chinese themselves. Mr. Med- are nine in number, make an imposing appearance, by hurst says that, in fact, opium i#not only regularly reason of their vast height. Most of the streets are introduced, but openly sold, in all parts of China. constructed in a direct line, the breadth of the largest Notwithstanding the prohibition, opium shops are as being one hundred and twenty feet broad, and their plentiful, in some towns of China, as gin shops are in .length above two miles. England. The sign of these receptacles is a bamboo In front, the houses make an insignificant appear- screen, hanging before the door, which is a certain ance, being mostly low, and with only a ground floor.

intimation that the slave of intemperance may be there Few have two stories ; still they are often a good deal gratified. ornamented with gilded sculptures, and the doors of Into these shops all classes of persons continually the rich are often of aromatic wood, richly carved. flock, from the pampered official to the abject menial. The imperial palace is the most remarkable of the No one makes a secret of the business or the prac- buildings in this great city, more, however, on account government are of the number of its regularly disposed tice ; and, though the officers of the structures, loud in denouncing the indulgence in public, they courts, and gardens, than the beauty of its architec- privately wink at what is patronized by their own ex- ture. Pekin is estimated to contain one million five ample, or subservient to their own interests. It is a hundred thousand inhabitants. well-known circumstance, that the government officers Nankin is a large city, containing some half mil- come regularly on board the receiving ships at Lintin, lion of inhabitants, but, for some period past, has not and demand so many dollars per chest for conniving been in a flourishing condition. It was the royal resi-

that even dence, until the fifteenth century ; now a large portion at smuggling ; while it is currently reported the viceroy of Canton receives a very respectable con- of the area within the ancient walls is depopulated. sideration for winking at these illicit transactions. The Much of this desolation may, no doubt, be ascribed to military and naval officers sometimes get up a sham the ravages of the Tartar conquests ; but a large fight, in order that they may have to report their vigi- part of it arises from another cause, and that is, the lance and strictness at Pekin; and when the smug- slender construction of the public edifices. The col- glers are remiss in paying the accustomed bribes, they umns are, in most cases, of wood, and necessarily now and then seize a boat or two, to keep them reg- subject to decay. The nine-storied buildings, called ular and submissive. pagodas, being of good solid beech wood, are almost the only permanent edifices. That which is built of porcelain, is famous for its cost and beauty. CHAPTER CCXXXII. Canton is a large city, containing, with its suburbs, nearly a million of inhabitants. It is the largest port Extent of the Empire — Divisions and Chief in China, and the only one that ha,s been much fre- Cities — Government. quented by Europeans. The city wall is more than

five miles in extent, with delightful walks it. China Propek, as we have stated, is a large, com- around There are many handsome buildings in 'Canton, pact country, lying on the eastern side of Asia, ex- as also great numbers of triumphal arches, and temples, tending from about 21° to 41° of north latitude, and well stocked with images. There are often five thou- measuring, in extreme length, from north to south, sand trading vessels lying before the city. about twelve hundred geographical miles, with an A numbei of other large towns exist in China, containing average breadth somewhat less than the length. several- ly an immense population. The capital of the whole empire of China is Pekin, The original plan of the Chinese government was patriarchal. Obedience to the father of each family was enforced in the most rigorous manner, and the emperor was considered as the father of the whole. Every father was absolute in his. own family, and might inflict any punishment short of

death ; and every mandarin of a district had the power of life and death over all its members, though the emperor's approbation was requisite to the infliction of a capital sentence. Since the invasion of the Tar- tars, the government is called an absolute monarchy, though its great fundamental principles have been preserved from the beginning. The system of government, as now pursued, is, on the whole, favorable to the industry of the people, and the idea that population in China presses upon the means of subsistence to the extent once supposed, is an entire delusion. The working classes are con-

tented, and the rights of property are respected ; and there exists in China, as in some Christian countries, large and wealthy middle class. Qhinose servants are Gate of Fekin. a ;

460 GOVEBNMENT AND LAWS OF THE CHINESE. found as faithful and trustworthy as those of otlier shipped with divine honors, and with the attribute of

Avell-regulated countries ; and, among merchants, in- omnipresence, throughout the empire. He is styled stances are on record of some who have risked their the " ," the " Ten Thousand Years." lives to fulfil their engagements. In seaport towns, As the people worship the -emperor, so the emperor however, like Macao and Canton, as in similar large worships Heaven. He himself uses occasionally a towns of Christian nations, some portion of the popula- term of afl^ected humility, as the " Imperfect Man;" tion will, of course, as human nature is at present, exist but every device of state is used to keep up, by habit, in a more or less disorderly and demoralized state. the impression of awe. As an instance of these de-

Their police appear not to be wanting in vigilance, vices, it is stated that no person whatever can pass and the administration of justice is prompt and before the outer gate of the palace, in any vehicle or efficient. liJn horseback, and also that an imperial despatch is The despotic character of the government is tem- received in the provinces with offerings and prostration, pered somewhat by the influence of public opinion. the performers looking toward Pekin. There are some curious practical anomalies, which The sovereign of China has the absolute disposal of seem hardly suitable to a despotism. The people, the succession, and he may go out of his own family in some instances, hold public meetings, by advertise- if he pleases, for an heir. This right has descended ment, for the express purpose of addressing the magis- from time immemorial. The imperial authority or trate, and this without being punished. But they pro- sanction to all public acts is conveyed by the impres- ceed sometimes farther — placarding and lampoon- sion of a very large seal ; and any particular directions ing — though, of course, anonymously — obnoxious or remarks by the emperor himself are added in red, public officers. It may be added, that the censorship commonly called " the vermilion pencil." As high- of the press — that usual concomitant of despotism — priest of the empire, he alone, with his immediate is unknown in China. It has no other limitations than representatives, sacrifices in the government temples, those which the interests of social peace and order with victims and incense. seem to render necessary. If these are endangered; The sovereign's principal ministers form the nuy-Jco the process of the government, as might be expected, or " interior council cham'ber," and the chief council is very summary. lors are four in number — two Tartars and two Chi Under their form of government, connected with nese. The two former always take the precedence. education, the Chinese have become a most good- Below these are a number of assessors, who, together humored as well as peaceable people. Of the sixteen with them, constitute the great council of state. The lectures periodically delivered to the people — lectures Loo-poo, or six boards for the direction of government found in the book of Sacred Institutions — the second business in detail, are — 1. The board of official ap- is " on union and concord among kindred ; " the third pointments, which takes cognizance of the conduct of

" on concord and agreement among neighbors ; " the all civil officers ; 2. The board of revenue, which

ninth "on mutual forbearance;" the sixteenth "on regulates all fiscal matters ; 3. The board of rites

reconciling animosities." From the influence of these and ceremonies ; 4. The military board ; 5. The su-

instructions has arisen, perhaps, their characteristic preme court of criminal jurisdiction ; 6. The board timidity, which is accompanied by its natural associ- of public works. These have under them all subordi- ates — the devices of cunning and fraud. nate offices. The Chinese have acquired a more than common The provinces are placed under the principal charge horror of political disorder. From having lived so of a governor, or, where two provinces are united, of much in peace, they become, in some sort, a nation a general governor. The separate cities and districts of conservatives. They have among them maxims of each province are under the charge of their re- which strongly show their turn of mind on this subject spective magistrates, who take their rank from the as, for instance, " Better be a dog in peace, than a man cities they govern. The total number of civil magis- in anarchy," " The worst of men are fondest of change trates throughout China has been estimated at fourteen and commotion." It has been remarked that no in- thousand. stance has ever occurred among the Chinese of an The criminal code of China is a very efficient en- attempt to change the form of that pure monarchy gine for the control of its vast and densely thronged which is founded on patriarchal authority, or derived population. It has its obvious defects in compelling

from it. In most instances of commotions or revolu- the performance of certain relative duties, its minute tions among them, the sole object has been the destruc- attention to trifles, and especially the relentless cruelty injustice all its tion of a tyrant ; or, when the country was divided and which mark provisions against the into several states, the acquisition of universal power crime of treason. These and a few similar features by the chief of one of them. show its inferiority to the codes of most civilized Distinction and rank arise almost entirely from Christian countries ; but, in other respects, it is well educated talent, and the choice of officjal persons, with adapted to the character and -Circumstances of the a very few exceptions, is determined by this. The people for whose use it is fratned. In China, cases country, therefore, is as ably governed as it could be, of high treason are excepted from all the provisions under the circumstances. " The official aristocracy," of indulgence or safety to the criminal, which are al- who are the real aristocracy of the country, " content lowed in other, capital offences. This absence of pro- with their solid rank and power, aim at no external tection is to be paralleled only by the barbarity of the punishment the innocent family of the culprit display : on the contrary, a certain affectation, on their — being part, of patriarchal simplicity operates as a sumptuary consigned to destruction. In 1803, an attempt was law, and gives a corresponding tone to the habits of made to take the life,.of the emperor, by a smgle as- the people." sassin. He was condemned to death by a lingering In respect to the actual machinery of the govern- process, and his sons, being of tender age, were stran-

is gled ! in the treason, there is not ment, it may be remarked that the emperor wor- Except crime of PUNISHMENTS—THE MILITARY, THEIR DRESS AND WEAPONS. 461

much to be complained of as to the caprice or cruelty it. After this comes exile, either temporary or for which is exercised toward criminals. life, either to a limited distance into the country The most general instrument of punishment is the or beyond the Chinese frontier. The three capital whose dimensions are bamboo, exactly defined by law, punishments are, 1. Strangulation ; 2. For greater also the number of the blows. next as The punish- crimes, decollation ; 3. For the greatest crimes, as ment is the cangue, which has been called the wooden treason, parricide, sacrilege, &c., that mode of execu- collar, being a species of walkino>illory, in which the tion called lyng-chy —"a disgraceful and lingering prisoner is ps^raded, with his olrence inscribed upon death."

I M-

Chinese Encampment.

All the military of the empire are under the man- are, in part, a jacket of blue, turned up with red, or agement of their proper tribunal, or board, at Pekin. red bordered with white. The cap is either of ratan But the power of this board is jealously checked by a or strips of bamboo painted, having a conical shape, dependence on some of the Others, as the funds must and well suited to ward off a blow. Some few are be supplied by the board of revenue, and the materiel defended by an uncouth quilted armor of cloth, studded of the army by the board of public works. The faith- with metal buttons, which descends in a long petticoat. ful Tartar troops are ranged under the eight standards, The helmet is of iron, in the shape of an inverted viz., the yellow, white, red, and blue, together with funnel, having a point at the top, to which a bunch of each of these colors bordered by one of the others. silk or horsehair is attached. The Chinese troops are distinguished by the green The principal arms of the cavalry are bows and flag. Each of the Tartar standards is said to consist arrows, the bow being of elastic wood and horn com- of ten thousand men, constituting a standing army of bined, with a string of strongly twisted sUk. Their

eighty thousand men. There is, in addition, the local swords are generally ill made, and their matchlopks

militia scattered through the provinces ; but this, as we they consider as a weapon inferior to the bow and gather from accounts, is such a ragged and undisci- arrow. Some are furnished with shields constructed plined rout, as to be wholly insignificant in regular of ratan, turned spirally round a centre. warfare. Including this militia, the whole number of The use of artillery in China is of modern date, is ' Soldiers on pay, throughout the empire, has been esti- although the knowledge of gunpowder very ancient. mated at seven hundred thousand, of which the largest The highest military rank is that of a Tseang-keun, Tar- portion are fixed to their native districts — following tar general, one of whom is charged with the care of thair ordinary private pursuits. the regular troops in the province of Canton. This post The clothing and defensive armor of the military can never be filled by a Chinese, but secondary com- 462 CHINESE LANGUAGE.

»nands may. Below these are subordinate officers of hury, he had employed fdi, signifying to kill. He every grade. had repeatedly asked these mourners, therefore, if " they had killed their grandmother ! But serious as the difficulty is in regard to the as- CHAPTER pirates, it is as nothing when compared with the obsta- CCXXXIII. cles which grow out of the systeni of intonation. The Chinese Language. difficulty is not capable of full illustration by writing. The living voice is needed to present a complete idea The Chinese language is a medium for the commu- of it: Still an approximation towards it can be made nica^n of thought unlike all others, and yet very by written communication, sufficient for all ordinary inter"ting to the philologist, general scholar, and purposes. Christian. It has long been a conceded fact, that its Though little attention, it seems, has been bestowed on study is beset with peculiar difficulties. The complete the subject, the fact of the existence of the " tones " was mastery of the spoken language has been regarded by early known. They were distinctly stated and brought many as an impossibility. It is, however, gratifying to view in Chinese books. The highest authoi'ity on to know that many persons are at present diligently this point is the great Imperial Dictionary, made by and earnestly engaged in the study, and time will show order of Kang-hi, second emperor of the present how far the opinion above expressed is founded in dynasty, which was published at the beginning of the truth. last century. The following stanza is used to explain

, The peculiar difficulty of the spoken language of the powers of the four tones of the court dialect : — China, it is said, is not in the sounds, or in the arbi- " trary combinations of the language ; neither is it in the The even tone travels on a level road, neither elevated nor depressed. n want of helps ; for dictionaries, vocabularies, and easy The high tone exclaims aloud, being fierce, violent, and lessons abound, and, what is more important than all strong. the living voices thousands of books, of pure Chinese The departing tone is distinct and clear, gruffly travelling to are at the service of the learner. " The chief cause a distance. of failure, says Mr. Pohlraan,* is to be found in the The entering tone is short and contracted, being hastily gath- ered up." want of proper attention to the aspirates and tones of the language." Some, desiring to avoid the perplexity of the tones, A notation of the various forms which the same have tried, in their career of study, to get along word may assume, illustrates the importance of the without them, but have met with no success. A gen- aspirates and tones, as well as the great peculiarity of tleman now in China began in this way : he acquired this language. The monosyllable pang, for example, a good stock of words, and on a certain occasion, may be uttered at Amoy in ten different ways, and a made special preparation to deliver a sermon. Upon distinct meaning is conveyed by each mode of enun- the close of the exercises, one of the audience — a ciation. various to We need not put down the marks Chinese — remarked to him, " I know very well what denote the aspirates and tones, but may observe that, you meant to say ; but you did not say it." His at- according as this word is marked and pronounced, it tention was awakened by this remark, and he com- means to help, a bee, to hind, to spin, to let go, corpu- menced a diligent search for the defect. He ascer- club, lent, a room, a sail, a or a seam. Such and so tained it to be his neglect of the intonations, and from different are its meanings. And this is not an ex- that time, putting forth every effort to master the diffi- dialect, treme case. In the Canton the number of culty, he is now one of the most successful preachers modifications employed in pronouncing a single word, in the language. is twelve. This arises from its having more tones An instance or two may be mentioned by way of illus- than any other yet known to foreigners' and strangers. tration, in the experience of Mr. Meadows, interpreter It is very important to pay due attention to the use to the British consulate at Canton. " In making out of the aspirate, inasmuch as ignorance or mistake on a report to the superintendent of customs, of the this point will expose one to ridiculous or even worse export cargo of a ship about to leave, he took the " blunders. On a certain occasion, Mr. Pohlman wished English manifest, and read aloud the various articles, to ask a person whether he drank wine, the Chinese in Chinese, to a clerk sitting by him with his writing word for which is tsen ; but instead of employing the implements. The last species of goods, of a very large proper term, he used fsen, which means a hand. By cargo, happened to be vitrified ware. But he gave the inserting the aspirate, he had inquired of his friend wrong intonation ; whereupon the Chinese instantly whether he ate his hands or not. In another instance, lifted up his hands from the paper, and looked at him when visiting a Chinese family, he found the females with surprise, and only stared the more as the words mourning, and, upon inquiry, ascertained that in were repeated ; and with good reason, for he was, in their grandmother was dead. Desiroiis of obtaining fact, deliberately and distinctly announcing that the information in regard to the custom of preserving the large and very valuable cargo just enumerated had dead, so common in China, he attempted to ask them been all burnt up, such being the only meaning of the

corpse had been buried ; but he received whether the words he uttered ! no answer, save a stare of astonishment. On repeat- " On another occasion, he said something to a Chi- ing the question, looks of displeasure succeeded those nese about earnest money, as he supposed. As the of wonder and surprise. And it was only by mutual man did not seem to understand him, he repeated the explanation, that he discovered a most unfor- signs and words ; upon which he' thrust' forward his head, and mistake. Instead of using tdi, which means to tunate listened attentively ; and the louder he spoke, the nearer the Chinese came, anxiously turning one side • " Obstacles to the Acquisition of the Chinese Language," of the head to him, to catch the sound. In fact, in- condensed from an Essay written on the subject by Mr. Pohlman-, and published in the Missionary Herald. stead of saying ting chHen, ' bargain money,' he was "

CHINESE LANGUAGE. 463

shouting Cing ' chiin, tHng chien, do you hear ? do exists in holding converse on any common topic of hear.' you life. The Chinese monosyllable awakens ideas and Mr. Pohlman once fell into an amusing error in perceptions, as well as the grammatical forms of our consequence of that supposing the intonation was not own idioms. Moreover, the spoken language is more universal among the different dialects. It occurred copious than the written ; the oral sounds in the Can- when he had occasion to use a dialect of the interior ton dialect numbering about six hundred and ninety, of Canton province, spoken by the emigrants in the and in the Amoy dialect eight hundred and sixty-six. Island of Borneo. In the late %ar with China, news Still foreigners have no adequate medium as yet for of the preliminaries of a treaty of peace had arrived. the communication of thought. The simple Chinese This gentleman had a Chinese school, and being desir- syllables can be multiplied only by the tones. These ous of telling them the good news, he assembled the the native Chinese are brought up to understand and scholars, to whom he made known the chief articles speak ; but, with a foreign learner, it is a very different of the proposed treaty. It was his intention to be affair. peculiarly explicit in one part, the main article of the As it is not the intention, in this article, to give les- compact, and that was the opening of the five ports sons in respect to this language, but merely to men- for trade and unrestricted intercourse. It was not tion some of its curiosities, or peculiarities, any at- long before a deputation from the school came to him tempt to make these tones intelligible would be out to inquire what was the meaning of the Chinese em- of place. It needs only to be remarked that the peror in giving hatchets to the English, tones are modifications . five and what Chinese of sound in the same the queen of England was going to do with them. word, and that there is nothing like them in the Western By the use of the Malay language, he was made to see, world. They do not consist in any alteration of the

for the first time, that instead of saying pdo than, vowel sounds ; for a in the word pang, " to help," re- " trading ports," he had said poo than, " hatchets." tains the sound of a in father through all the tones.

The truth is, the system of intonation forms an in- Neither is the consonant modified ; for, in words which separable part of the Chinese language. No native of contain only vowel sounds, the tones are as distinct as any province or district ever speaks without using the in those beginning and terminating with a consonant.

tones ; and there is no dialect in existence which has Nor is the quick or the slow enunciatioii of a word not some, if not all, of the eight tones. What puzzles intended, or loudness, or lowness. But the tones are many is, that while the Chinese all speak with the tones produced by the rising, falling, or non-alteration of the peculiar to their native dialects, a vast majority do not sound, as is done with us in learning the octave. know that such a thing as a tone exists. This is owing to So nice a matter are these tones, that the smallest the fact that the tones are acquired in infancy, as soon mistake may destroy the gravity of hearers, in a most

as the child begins to utter sounds ; and nice distinc- seriously intended discourse. Mr. Pohlman says, " Af- tions of words and intonations are never analyzed, or ter studying the language at Amoy several months, thought of. The tone is part and parcel of the word I attempted to preach. In a solemn exhortation to the itself. Hence no word or phrase can be considered audience, at the close of my discourse, I intended to

as acquired, unless we can speak it in its proper tone. hold up the example of Christ, and urge all to be fol- Little children utter the tones with a clearness and lowers of him. After the service, one of the hearers distinctness which are remarkable. The poorest peo- pointed out a ridiculous mistake. By a slight varia- ple, equally with the rich and learned, invariably pay tion in the tone of a certain word, a person is made

' ' the minutest regard to them ; so that a real native to say goat,' instead of example.' In my closing never makes the slightest mistake, even in the hurried remarks, the audience were solemnly urged to come conversation of common life. and follow a ' goat,' when the design was to invite The small number of different syllables, as compared them to follow the 'example' of Jesus." with other languages used by mankind, is a striking It may be added to what has above been said on this feature of the Chinese. In Morrison's Syllabic Dic- subject, that the difficulty of acquiring the language tionary, the whole number is only four hundred and by foreigners has done vastly more than " the great eleven. Should the aspirated syllables be considered as wall " to preserve the Chinese in their exclusiveness, distinct, there are still but five hundred and thirty-three. hostile to international intercourse, and for many The possibility that such a tongue can answer the centuries almost entirely sealed up from the influences same purpose as the most copious polysyllabic lan- of Christianity, and the knowledge of the West. It guages of the West, may well constitute a subject of may be affirmed, with confidence, that no foreigner, at jnquiiy. It has been insisted on by some that the present, can venture, to set himself up as a " master of Chinese vocabulary is utterly insufficient for the pur- Chinese." Though some are fluent in the colloquial posed of communication. It has even been asserted language, yet few are able to write Chinese with any that, in order to convey ideas in conversation, — such is tolerable degree of facility. Versions of the Bible the imperfection of the language, — the Chinese are have been rnade by Morrison, Milne, Marshman, and obliged to mark out with their fingers, or with a stick others, and great praise is due to these translators. in the air, the figure^ of their written characters. They did well, because they did what they could ;• but This, if we recollect afight, was the representation in they were only pioneers in the study of this wonder- the Edinburgh Review some years since. It is put ful tongue. Their versions are all exceedingly imper- forth by another, that every thing beyond the range of fect, and necessarily so, by reason of the limited sight is difficult to .be described by them, and is not extent of their knowledge. readily understood. A plan is now in operation to produce a new ver- All such opinions, however, and all like them, the sion of the Scriptures, by the united labors of all the better informed know to be incorrect. According to Protestant missionaries in that country : somewhat the author so frequently referred to — in actual life, the after the manner, we should think, adopted by tho people do fully understand one another. No difficulty English translators of the Bible under King James. : ;

464 CHINESE LITERATURE.

are called the four precious things ; and the manufac- CHAPTER CCXXXIV. ture of them is considered a liberal occupation. A passage in a recently translated drama strikingly ex- Chinese Literature. presses the brilliant career supposed to be opened to a As in many other arts, so in that of printing, the village schoolmaster, as compared even with that of a Chinese preceded the Europeans. Their first material prosperous merchant. " If you are successful in trade,

for writing consisted of thin slices of bamboo ; but from a little money you make much ; but if you study about the first century of the Christian era, they made letters, your plebeian garments are changed for a sol- of pulp silk, paper a of or cotton, immersed in water, dier's gown. If you compare the two, how much according to the present method. Their modern paper superior is the literary life to that of the merchant or is fine and delicate, but so spongy as to be used only tradesman! When you shall have acquired celebrity, on one side. In writing, they employ the hair pencil men will vie with each other in their admiration of and the well-known Indian ink. you ; over your head will be carried the round um- In the tenth century, the art of printing was invented, marshalled the two brella ; before your horse will be though not by movable types, which have never been files of attendants. Think of the toil of those who used by the Chinese. Their process is as follows traffic, and you will see the difference." the sentence or page is written distinctly on paper, and Despite the honor thus paid to men of letters, Chi- then pasted upon a thin block of wood. The engraver, nese literature does not hold a high rank when com- following the direction of the letters, cuts through them pared with our own. It, however, may well claim our into the wood, which is thus so indented that a sheet attention. It appears that the great works of the laid over and pressed upon it, receives the impression empire are usually composed by associated members of the characters. Thus every word and page of a of the Han-lin Board, under the authority, and printed book is engraved, as in the case of copperplate en- at the expense, of government. These consist chiefly graving with us. Though the process is less expedi- of histories, dictionaries of the language, and compen- tious than ours, with movable types, still, as labor is diums of arts and sciences, or encyclopedias. The extremely cheap in China, printing is by no means authors thus employed are, of course, possessed of dear, and books are abundant. The great extent to suitable materials and abundant leisure, and are not which they are read, may be inferred from a few obliged to gratify the impatience, or court the taste, of facts in regard to the Chinese language. the public. Perhaps, however, the very circumstance The roots, or original characters, of this, are two of writing under command, and the dread of censure hundred and fourteen in number. These were at first from the emperor and his agents, though they may pictures of the objects they represented ;. but in the guard against palpable errors, will paralyze the powers course of time, they have ceased to have any great of invention and the flights of genius. The career resemblance to their original form, and may, there- of authorship, however, is open to every individual fore, be considered as arbitrary signs of thought. The works are not even subjected to any previous censor- the is language of Chinese made up by the combina- ship ; but a prompt and severe punishment awaits the tions of these two hundred and fourteen characters, authors of those which contain any thing offensive to just as various numbers are expressed by the different the government. combinations of the Arabic figures, 1,2, 3, 4, 5, &c. The principal subjects of Chinese literature are, It appears, also, that this language, when printed, is 1. Philosophy, including whatever is taught of the-

understood by the inhabitants of Japan, Corea, Cochin ology and general physics ; 2. History ; 3. The

China, and Loo Choo, who could by no means hold Drama ; and, 4. Novels. oral converse with a Chinese. This fact may be un- In the first and most important of these departments, derstood by considering that if an Italian wishes to the Chinese refer always to one work, — the Y-King, convey to you the idea of twenty-two, you will readily also called Ye-King, Yih-King, and U-king, — as the

understand him if he will write 22 ; though you will most ancient and valuable treasure. Language seems by no means comprehend his words for the same — to sink under the panegyrics which they lavish upon

venti-due. We thus see that, so far as Europe is con- it, representing it as the fountain and centre of all their cerned, in respect to numerals, the figures, 1, 2, 3, 4, knowledge. According to Kang-hi, who studiously

&c., are a universal language ; for though they have adopted Chinese ideas on these subjects, the Y-King different names among different nations, they convey contains all things. Fo-hi, Chin-nong, Hoang-ti, Yao,

to all precisely the same ideas. It is in the same way and Chun are ruled by it. The occult virtue, and the that the written language of China is common to a operations, of Heaven and man, are all comprised in vast population, who yet speak as difierently as the the Y-king. Our respect for this mighty prodiiction

Italians, French, and English. is, however, not a little lessened, when we leant that

From the earliest ages, literature has held a high it was comprised in eight half-legible lines, discovered

place in China. " The literati," says Dr. Morrison, by two sages on the backs of a dragon and a tortoise ! " are the gentry, the magistrates, the governors, the Taking advantage of the national superstition, Confu- negotiators, the ministers, of China." The absence cius wrote an elaborate commentary upon the Y-King, of hereditary rank, and even of any class possessing which was received by the nation with the deepest great riches, leaves the field entirely open to this spe- respect, and was incorporated with the original work, cies of distinction. When the parent exhorts his child of which it has ever since been considered as an to attend to his lessons, he can tell him with truth that essential part. It was said to " form the wings on he may thus become a powerful mandarin, and one of which the Y-king would fly down to posterity." It is

the first personages in the state. From these causes, a probably the only part of real value ; for though it degree of veneration is attached even to the humblest bears, to a great extent, the general character of objects connected with the art of writing. Paper, pen- incomprehensibility which belongs to the original, it is cil, ink, and the marble on which this last is dissolved, interspersed with some useful and beautiful maxims. ; " ! !

CHINESE LITERATURE. 465

The following quotations are derived from, this com- cine, though the Chinese were familiar with the circu- before it mentary : — lation of the blood about sixteen centuries was though inoculation for the " To improye from day to day is a great virtue. He who known in Europe, and in study advances a step every day, has not lost his time and small-pox was practised by them some hundred years his years. before it was adopted in Christendom — it would seem " path of heaven is simple clear ; but the path of The and that they are ignorant of anatomy, and that their the sage is made only with effort and perseverance. medical practice is mingled with the most absurd "It is the sage alone who know^^ow to advance or to jugglery. recede ; to preserve or to see destroyed, without losing his

tranquillity : it is only the sage who can do so. History has been cultivated by the Chinese with " A virtuous man, in the midst of difficulties, vrill adhere great assiduity, and they possess several works of high to his virtuous purpose, even to loss of life." repute among themselves. That which is entitled Beside the Y-King, the Chinese reckon three other Shoo-King, edited by Confucius, contains the early

ancient books, or king, which rank with it, and are annals of the empire, and is held in a degree of held in almost equal veneration. These are the Shoo- esteem almost amounting to reverence. To this we King, or Chou-King, a collection of historical docu- may add, that there are several works on government, the codes of laws established the empire. ments edited by Confucius ; the Shi-King, or Chi-King, including by a compilation of ancient poems, formed also by Con- Poetry is pursued with ardor, and is held in high works, dif- fucius ; and the Li-ki, or Ly-ki, which treats of pro- esteem by the Chinese ; yet their having priety in dress, demeanor, conversation, and the ordi- ferent objects for comparison and illustration from nary conduct of life. In the Li-ki are concentrated ours, and different trains of association, can hardly be the ideas and maxims of the ancient Chinese regard- highly relished by us. Instead of the Alps or the is ing morals and behavior ; and it has probably con- Apennines, the grandeur of mountain scenery tributed more towards forming their character, during suggested to the Chinese by the Kuen-lun and the the last two thousand years, than all the other classics Tan-yu chains, which, though probably more elevated, united. do not convey to the ear the same lofty ideas. For Confucius * was bom in the year 549 B. C, and is the rose and the violet, we have the flower Ian, and justly considered the greatest of Chinese philosophers. the herb yu-lu. Instead of the dove, the wild goose His works are to this day held in the highest rev- portrays to Chinese fancy the image of a tender and erence, and constitute the most cherished portion of faithful lover. Chinese literature. Their practical portion consists It would appear that Chinese verse is not destitute chiefly in maxims which inculcate the virtues of jus- of harmony, and that rh5ane is often used, sometimes tice, patience, mercy, prudence, and fortitude, and, even to an extent of sixteen consecutive lines. The above all, obedience to superiors. Filial piety, and following extracts from the Shi-king afford a good

the diity of submission to magistracy, were his favor- specimen of the more ancient poetry : — ite themes of commendation. On the whole, his "The bland south wind breathes upon and cherishes the works furnish a pure code of morals, founded in the sap of these plants ; hence the grove flourishes, and appears good of mankind, without reference to a future state. to rise anew. But our mother is distressed with labor and We have not space to notice the numerous works care. " bland south wind cherishes, by breathing on them, of philosophers which have appeared since the age of The the woods of this grove. Our mother excels in prudence and respecting Confucius, nor can we enter into details understanding, but we are men of no estimation. several other topics of interest. In regard to medi- " The cool fountain, bursting forth, waters the lower part

* This greatest of Chinese philosophers was born in the thousand ; a select portion of whom attached themselves to petty kingdom of XA. The Chinese, in their embellishment his person, lived with him, and followed him wherever he of his history, tell us that his birth was attended with went, and to them he intrusted the promulgation of his doctrines. heavenly music, filling the air ; that two dragons were seen winding over the roof, and that five characters were observed The prince of L6 dying, Confucius was invited to court by on his breast, declaring him to be " the maker of a rule for his son. The entire management of the state was soon com- settling the world." He was left an orphan at an early age, mitted to his hands. Under his direction, the prosperity of and though poor and unknown, attracted attention from the the kingdom was such, that the neighboring states took the gravity of his manners and his attention to study. At the alarm ; and the prince of Tsi, by intrigues and plots, to which age of twenty-four, he lost his mother, and, wishing to mourn the young prince of Ld was induced to become privy, for her the customary period of three years, resigned an office forced Confucius to leave his native land, and retire into he held under the government, and devoted himself to study. another state. For sixteen years he continued to write and Becoming convinced that the social virtues were best culti- discourse, and at the expiration of this period, returned to vated by an observance of the ancient usages of the country, his own country, where he devoted biiTiaplf to polishing he resolved to devote his life to their permanent establish- and completing his works. Toward the end of his life, when he " ment in China. He established schools wherein to teach his had finished the revision of the Five Classra," he, with great philosophy to such pupils as would go forth and spread his solemnity, dedicated them to Heaven. Chinese pictures, rep- doctrines through the empire. He passed much time in trav- resenting this scene, portray the sage in an attitude of sup- elling and visiting the courts of the various petty princes, in plication, and a rainbow descending from the sky upon the company with his disciples. Like Aristotle, he used to teach book, while his scholars stand around in admiring wonder. them while walking, deriving instruction from what they saw In his seventy-third year, a few days before his death, Con- and he seldom omitted to improve an occasion for pointing a fucius, leaning upon his sta£^ tottered about the house, ex- moraL As he advanced in age and in reputation, his house claiming, — " at L6 became a sort of lyoeum, open to every one who The great monntain is broken The strong beam is thrown down wished to receive instruction. His manner of teaching was, to ! The wise man is decayed allow his disciples or others to come and go when they pleased, asking his opinion on such points, either in morals, politics, Seven days after, he died. His favorite pupil, Tszkung, history, or literature, as they wished to have explained. mourned for him six years in a shed, erected by the side ^ He gave them liberty to choose their subject, and then his grave, and then returned home. In every district in the discoursed upon it. iVom these conversations, treasured up empire, there is a temple dedicated to his memory, and in- by his disciples, they afterwards comxiosed the Lun YQ, now cense is burnt every monring and evening before his name, one of the Four Books. His disciples numbered some three which is suspended in every school-house. ; " ; ; ;

466 CHINESE POETBT. of the region Tsun. We are seven sons, whose mother is The rain has ceased, and the shining summits are apparent oppressed by various cares and labors. in the void expanse. " Sweetly, tunefully, and with unbroken voice, sings the The moon is up, and looks like a bright pearl over the ex- Eaffi'on-bird, hoang-niao. We seven sons afford no assistance panded palm. to our parent." One might imagine that the Great Spirit had stretched forth an arm is some pathos in this complaint of broken There From afar, &om beyond the sea, and was numbering the friendship : — nations."

"The soft and gentle wind brings rain along with it. I and The picture of a clever but reckless profligate is thou were sharers in labor and in poverty ; then you cher- drawn with some force in the following lines : — ished me in your bosom ; now, having become happy, you have left me, and are lost to me. " The paths of trouble heedlessly he braves. " The wind is soft and gentle ; yet when it blows over the Now shines a wit, and now a madman raves. tops of the mountains, every plant withers, every tree is His outward form by nature's bounty dressed, dried up. You forget my virtues, and think only of trifling Foul weeds usurped the wilderness, his breast complaints against me." And bred in tumult, ignorant of rule. He hated letters — an accomplished fool. epithalamia, celebrating the marriage of princes, The In act depraved, contaminate in mind, are among the gayest pieces in this collection. The Strange had he feared the censures of mankind. picture of a perfect beauty, drawn three thousand Titles and wealth to him no joys impart penury pinched, he sank beneath the smart. years ago, is illustrated by images very different from By O wretch ! to flee the good thy fate intends ! those which would occur to a European fancy. O, hopeless to thy country and thy friends ! " The great lady is of lofty stature, and wears splendid In usclessness the first beneath the sky. robes beneath others of a dark color. She is the daughter And cursed, in sinning, with supremacy. Minions of pride and luxury, lend an ear. of the king of Tsi ; she marries the king of Onei ; the king follies, if his fate ye fear." of Hing has married her elder sister ; the Prince Tari-Kong And shun Ms has married the younger. following poem was written by a Chinese who " Her hands are like a budding and tender plant ; the skin The of her face resembles well-prepared fat. Her neck is like paid a visit to London about the year 1813. It was one of the worms Tsion and Tsi. Her teeth are like the written in his native tongue, and addressed to his kernels of the gourd. Her eyebrows resemble the light countrymen. The translation is furnished by Mr. filaments of newly-formed silk. She smiles most sweetly, Davis. and her laugh is agreeable. The pupU of her eye is black, and how well are the white and black distinguished ! LONDON. The following invitation to decent gayety is given " Afar in the ocean, towards the extremities of the north- at the entrance of the new year — a grand period of west. There is a nation, or country, called England. Chinese festival : — The cUme is frigid, and you are compelled to approach " Now the crickets have crept into the house ; now the fire. lest end of the year approaches ; let us indulge in gayety, The houses are so lofty that you may pluck the stars. the sun and moon should seem to have finished their course The pious inhabitants respect the ceremonies of worship. let offence against the in vain ; but amid our joy there be no And the virtuous among them ever read the sacred books. rules of moderation. Nothing should transgress the proper They bear a peculiar enmity towards the French nation bound. Duty must stUl be remembered. Sweet is pleasure, The weapons of war rest not for a moment between them. but it must be conjoined with virtue. The good man, in the " Their fertile hills, adorned with the richest luxuriance. midst of his joy, keeps a strict watch over lumself." Resemble, in the outline of their summits, the arched eye- The disorders of a drunken party are not ill por- brow of a fair woman. The inhabitants are inspired with a respect for the female trayed in the following passage : — sex, " The guests sit down at first with great politeness, treat- Who, in this land, correspond with the perfect features of till ing each other with mutual respect : thus they continue nature. overcome with wine. They then forget all modesty and Their young maidens have cheeks resembling red blossoms. propriety, — run dancing backward and forward. They And the complexion of their beauties is like the white gem. raise wild and senseless shouts, overturn the most precious Of old has connubial affection been highly esteemed among cups, dance in sport, and, as they dance, their feet slide from them. inverted, becomes loosely attached beneath them ; their cap, Husband and wife delighting in mutual harmony. head, and seems about to fall off; while their body to the " still In the summer evenings, throu'gh the hamlets and gardens bends this way and that, and they can scarcely stand : beyond the town, they madly dance. Some run wildly away, amid tumultu- infringe Crowds of walkers ramble without number. ous good wishes from the rest ; others remain, and but The grass is allowed to grow as a provision for horses. the laws of virtue. It is well to indulge in wine ; mod- And enclosures of wooden rails form pastures for cattle. eration must be carefully observed." The harvest is gathered in with the singing of songs The modem compositions, though not held in the The loiterers roam in search of flowers without end. same veneration, appear to display a considerable And call to each other to return in good time, Lest the foggy clouds bewilder and detain them. improvement. They are still, indeed, only short effu-

imagery " The two banks of the river lie to the north and south j sions, composed of mingled reflection and ; Three bridges interrupt the stream, and form a communica- but these two elements are more naturally and inti- tion exhibited in a poetical form. ; mately blended, and more Vessels of every kind pass between the arches, Mr. Davis has furnished us with some specimens of While men and horses pace among the clouds. the other. this school. The following is marked by peculiarly A thousand masses of stone rise one above And the river flows through nine channels : bold and lofty imagery : — The bridge of Loyang, which out-tops all in our empire. " See the fine variegated peaks of yon mountain, connected Is in shape and size somewhat like these." hke the fingers of the hand. And rising up firom the south, as a wall, midway to heaven. In works of fiction Chinese literature abounds. the inverted concave, the At night, it would pluck, from These are, for the most part, short tales, without point of the milky way stars or moral, and might seem designed rather for children Ijnring the day, it explores the zenith, and plays with the adult readers. Among this class of publications, clouds. than ; ;

CHINESE LITERATURE. 467

we may notice the Tsze Pun Yu, which is a Chinese of bamboo ; three sidlb are hung with curtains of cot- collection of tales, romances, fahles, &c. It contains ton cloth, while the front is left open to the audience. no less than seven hundred tales, the titles of some Under these humiliating circumstances, there do not of them being, Ghost of a Fortune-Teller, a Stolen seem to have arisen any great names, to which the Thunderbolt, the Literary Fox advising Men to Chinese people can refer with pride, as national dram- become Fairies, Elves begging Fish, the Man with atists. Numerous pieces have, however, been pro- Three Heads, the Devil turned Watchmaker, a Pig duced, particularly under the dynasty of the Tang. acting the Priest of Taou, the Bhchanted Town, the A collection has been formed of one hundred and Ass of a Mahometan Lady, a Demon bearing Chil- ninety-nine volumes, from which are selected a hun- dren, Vulcan's Toys, &c. The following is a trans- dred plays, supposed to comprehend the flower of this lation from this work, made by a youth at Canton, class of productions. Of these, only five have been

who was studying the Chinese language ; and will translated — namely, two tragedies, the Orphan of afford a specimen of a Chinese book of " small talk." Tchao, by Father Premare, and the Sorrows of Han,

Mr. Davis ; and three The Sagacious Pig. — " In the district of Suhchow, in by comedies, the Heir in his Keangnan, a man was murdered, and his hody thrown into Old Age, by the latter gentleman, the Circle of Chalk, a well. One of the officers, having long sought in vain for by M. Stanislas Julien, and the Intrigues of a Waiting- murderer, was riding by the well one day, when a pig the Maid, by M. Bazin. This certainly is but a small came before his horse, and set up a most bitter cry. His portion of so great a mass y«t, as it consists of fa- attendants not being able to drive the pig away, the officer ; ' ? vorite productions chosen by judicious translators, the said to them, What does the pig want ' whereupon the pig kneeled before him, and made the hm-tou. The officer Chinese drama will not, probably, have cause to com- then bade his attendants to follow the pig, which immedi- plain of being judged a,ccording to such specimens. ately rose up and led them to a house ; and, entering the On perusing even the best of these compositions, we door, crawled under a bed, and began rooting up the ground, discover that the dialogue is nearly as rude and continued doing so until he had uncovered a bloody at once and knife. The attendants immediately seized the master of the inartificial as the scenery. Instead of allowing char- nouse, who, on examination, proved to be the murderer. acters and events to be developed in the progress of " deliberated on the case, took the The villagers, having the piece, each performer, on his first entry, addresses pig, and supported him in one of the temples of Buddha. the audience, and informs them who and what he is, Visitors came frequently to see him, and gave mojjey for his support, saying, ' Such a sagacious pig deserves to be re- what remarkable deeds he has performed, and what warded.' After more than ten years, he died, and the are his. present views and intentions. On these occa- priests of the temple, having procured for him a coffin, sions, he speaks completely in the style of a third per- buried him with due formality." son, stating, without veil or palliation, the most enor- The drama, as might be expected, constitutes a pop- mous crimes, either committed or contemplated. The ular form,of Chinese literature, though it labors under unities, which have been considered so essential to a great imperfections, and is not regularly exhibited on classic drama, are completely trampled under foot any public theatre. Its professors are merely invited and even the license, as to time and place, to which to private houses, and paid for each performance. Shakspeare has accustomed a British audience, is far The sovereign himself does not bestow any patronage exceeded. The Orphan of Tchao is born in the first on the art, beyend hiring the best actors, when he act, and before the end of the drama figures as a grown wishes to enjoy their wit or talents. No entertainment, man. In the Circle of Chalk, a young lady, in one however, given by the prince, or any great man, is scene, receives and accepts proposals of marriage ; in considered complete without a dramatic exhibition the next, she appears with a daughter aged five years. and every spacious dwelling, and even the principal The tragedies labor under a much more serious defect, inns, have a large hall set apart for the purpose. in the absence of impassioned and poetic dialogue. Among less opulent individuals, a subscription is occa- The performer, in the most critical and trying moments, sionally made, to bear in common the expense of a makes no attempt to express his sorrows in correspond- play. It is reckoned that several hundred companies ing language. Action alone is employed, which affords find employment in Pekin ; and along the rivers and a genuine, indeed, though not very dramatic indication great canals, numerous strolling parties live in barges. of the depth of his feelings. The hero, in the most A troop usually consists.of eight or ten persons, mostly tragic scenes, strangles himself, or stabs his enemy, slaves of the manager, who accordingly occupy a very with the same coolness as if he had been sitting down mean place in public estimation. To purchase a free to table. child for the purpose of educating him as an actor, is In concluding our view of Chinese literature, we feel punished by a hundred strokes of the bamboo ; and constrained to remark, tliat it is chiefly valuable as no free female is allowed to many into that class. To throwing light upon the character of tlie most populous this contempt for the performers, as well £is to the nation on the globe, and not on account of any impor- low standard of the drama among the Chmese, who tant materials which it can directly contribute to our seem to view it merely as the amusement of an idle stores of thought. There is scarcely a fact in science, hour, may be ascribed the depressed state in which it a passage in philosophy, an illustration in poetry, or continues to exist. The dramatic poet has liberty and plot in a play, to be found in the whole circle of employment, but he has not honor, which seems quite Chinese books, which, if rendered into English, would as necessary for the production of any thing great serve to benefit our own literature. We cannot but in the arts. Scenery and stage effect, which indeed feel, in spite of the great antiquity of the nation, not- the places of performance would render very difficult withstanding the practical wisdom displayed in govern- to produce, are never attempted. A theatre can at ment, and the ingenuity evinced in the arts, that, in all any time be erected in two hours : a platform of boards the higher qualities of the intellect, the Chinese are an is elevated, six or seven feet from the ground, on posts inferior people. !

468 INVENTIONS OF THE CHINESE.

Tbe Great Wall of China.

CHAPTER CCXXXY. blacksmith — the manufacturer of various iron instru- ments, from a sword to a hoe. This man well under- Arts and Inventions — Great Wall — Canal. stood the modifying properties of heat, and took the Th^ee of the most important inventions or discov- fullest advantage of them, in all the practical con- eries of modern times — so considered in Europe — cerns of his business. He was forming a reaping- had doubtless their origin in China. These are the hook at the time of my visit. A large pair of shears art of printing, the composition of gunpovi'der, and the having one blade fixed in a heavy block of wood, and magnetic compass. It is certain that the art of print- the other furnished with a long handle to serve as a ing was practised in China during the tenth century of lever, stood beside him. Bringing a piece of metal, of our era. The mode of operation there is different the necessary dimensions, from the "forge, at a white from ours, but the main principle is the same. From heat, he placed it between the blades of this instrument, various causes, their books are cheaper than those of and cut it into shape with equal ease and despatch." Europe, three or four volumes of any ordinary work, The Chinese possess considerable skill in various of the octavo size and shape, being had for a sum branches of the manufacture of metals. They have equivalent to fifty cents. The paper which they use the art of casting iron into very thin plates, and of is of different qualities, being manufactured from vari- repairing vessels constructed of these, by means of a ous materials — from rice-straw, the inner bark of a small furnace and blow-pipe, which are carried about species of moms, from bamboo, and also from cotton. by itinerant workmen. Their wrought-iron work is not Their invention of paper dates from A. D. 95. That so neat as that of the English, but is very efficient. which is called Indian ink, in this country, is what the In the ornamental processes of carving wood, ivory, Chinese use in writing, and is of their own manu- and other substances, the people of China greatly excel facture. the rest of the world. Their skill and industry are not The application of gunpowder to firearms was less shown in cutting the hardest materials, as exem- probably derived from the West, however ancient may plified in their snufT-bottles of agate and rock crystal. have been its discovery among the Chinese. In gun- These are hollowed into perfect bottles of about two nery, they have always acknowledged their great infe- inches in length, through the openings in the neck, not riority to Europeans. As to priority of invention in the a quarter of an inch in diameter. What is still more case of the magnetic compass, there can be little hesi- wonderful, the crystal bottles are inscribed on the tation in ascribing it to the Chinese, for it is noticed in inside with minute characters, so as to be read through their annals as early as A. D. 1117. The mariner's the transparent substance compass being in use among the Arabs about the year The two principal manufactures of China — those of 1242, it was doubtless communicated to them either silk and porcelain — might alone serve to give thie directly or indirectly by the Chinese, and by this Chinese a high rank among the nations of the world. means became known in Europe durmg the crusades. Their originality in these articles has never been con- The ingenuity of the Chinese is conspicuously dis- tested. The invention of these is carried by tradition played in the simple modes by which they contrive into the mythological periods. Their care of the silk- to abridge labor, in their arts and manufactures, and worm, which furnishes the material of their silk man- occasionally to avail themselves of a mechanical ufactures, is very exact and methodical, but cannot advantage, without the aid of scientific knowledge. here be detailed. The Chinese particularly excel in Says Dr Abeel, " Chance led me to the shop of a the fabrication of damasks and flowered satins. No FINE ARTS AMONG THE CHINESE. 4t)9 perfect imitation of their crape has ever yet been Chinese books are, for the most part, executed almost made ; and they manufacture a species of washing entirely in outline. These are occasionally very spirited, silk, called, at Canton,^owg'ee, whose softness increases as well as true to life. The drawings on which they use. by place the chief value among themselves, are in water In regard to the porcelain of China, it is indisputa- colors and Indian ink, sketched, in a very slight man- the oi'iginal the similar bly from which manufactures ner, either upon fine paper or silk. borrowed. first of Europe were The porcelain fur- In sculpture, the Chinese are extremely defective, of account is nace which given, %as in Keang-sy, the which could scarcely fail to be the case, in view of province it is same where now principally made. This their policy of discountenancing luxury, the want of was about the commencement of the seventh century encouragement at home, and their ignorance of the our era. of Of the substances of which this manu- efforts of other nations in this art. Their sculptured facture is made, and the process of making it, we can- figures in stone ar^ altogether unooutii in form and not speak in this succinct outline. It is a most proportion this ; but deficiency is in some degree made beautiful invention ; the better kinds have not yet been up by a very considerable share of skill in modelling surpassed in respect to substance., but as regards the with soft materials. Their gods are always represented painting and gildiqg, they must yield precedence to in modelled clay. the productions of Europe. The Chinese music, as an art, cannot take rank with As relates to the fine arts, they doubtless do not that of Europeans. Their gamut is imperfect, and greatly excel, in the European sense. In this depart- they have no idea of semitones. There is never more ment of mental effort, some allowances are always to than one melody, however great the number of per- be made for the peculiarities of national taste, which formers. As Confucius frequently speaks of music, its is generally admitted to be a most capricious thing. antiquity will not be denied ; and the encouragement The arts of drawing and painting do not rank so high which he gives to its cultivation might have been among the Chinese as among Europeans. They have, expected, in the course of time, to produce something therefore, met with less encouragement and made less better than the imperfect art existing there at this day. progress. In works which do not require a scientific Certain characters are used to express the names of adherence to the laws of perspective, they sometimes the notes in their extremely limited scale. succeed admirably. Insects, birds, fruits, and flowers, The number of their musical instruments is very are very beautifully painted, and the splendor and large. They consist of different species of lutes and variety of their colors surpass all that is known in the guitars; several flutes and other wind instruments;

West. One thing in European art tliey do not fully an indifferent fiddle of three strings ; a sort of har- enter into, and that is shading ; they stoutly object to monicon with wires, touched with two slender slips of the introduction of shadows in painting. Mr. Barrow bamboo; systems of bells, and pieces of sonorous states, that " when several portraits, by the best Euro- metals, and drums covered with the skins of snakes. pean artists, intended as presents to the emperor, were They string their instruments with silk and wire, in exposed to view, the mandarins, observing the variety the room of catgut. Many of the people have a ready of tints occasioned by the light and shade, asked ear for music, though accompanied by bad national whether the originals had the right and left sides of taste. • ! the figure of different colors " The wood-cuts in Chinese architecture is entirely different from that

Cbinese Buildings. of any other coiintry. The general form of the houses great cities, a traveller might fancy himself— from the is that of a tent ; those of the lower classes are slight, low houses, with carved, overhanging roofs, uninter- small, and of little cost. All are formed on the model rupted by a single chimney, and from the pillars, of . in the midst a of the primitive Tartar dwellings; but even in the J poles, streamers, and flags — to be 470 GKEAT "WALL — IMPERIAL CANAL. large encampment. The fronts of the shops are covered and little ornamented. The Dutch embassy was once with varnish and gilding, and painted in brilliant colors. received by him in an apartment only ten feet square. The streets of Canton, and of most of the cities, are There are, however, a number of large halls, like gal- extremely narrow, admitting only three or four foot leries, for feasting and public occasions, which are passengers abreast ; but the principal thoroughfares of very splendid. Pekin are fully one hundred feet in width. The rooms, The maritime operations of the Chinese are con- — even those occupied by the emperor — are small fined to the eastern coast of Asia, and the adjacent

The Emperor's Barge. islands. The ships are clumsy, and the vessels called form of square bricks. • The total average height, junks are ill fitted for extended voyages upon the ocean. including a parapet of five feet, is twenty feet, on a On the rivers, there are numerous barges, some of foundation of stone projecting two feet under the brick which are for the conveyance of tribute and the rev- work, and varying, in elevation, from two feet or enue service, while others, for personal accommodation, more, according to the level of the ground. The wall, are fitted up with great expense and display of orna- at the base, is twenty-five feet thick, narrowing, at the ment. There are also a few armed vessels to suppress platform, to fifteen. The towers are forty-five feet smuggling and piracy, but nothing which can be called at the base, diminishing to thirty at the top ; they are a navy. The emperor's barge is magnificent. about thirty-seven feet in the entire height. The At an early period of the Chinese history, the Tar- emperors of the Ming dynasty built an additional inner tars became troublesome neighbors, making frequent wall near to Pekin, on the west, enclosing a portion hostile incursions into the territories of the empire. of the province between itself and the great wall. As they were a much more warlike people than the The latter is now in ruins, in various places. Chinese, they were greatly to be dreaded. To pre- The Imperial Canal is likewise a great work of art, vent their invasions, an extensive and impregnable and, for the purposes of internal commerce, renders wall was built on the northern frontier. This work the Chinese almost independent of coast navigation. has been regarded as one of the wonders of the world, The canal was principally the work of Kublai Khan, and, except the pyramids of Egypt, may be considered and his immediate successors of the Yuen race. . It as the most ancient monument of human labor now forms a direct communication by water between extant. The era of its erection was about two cen- Pekin and Canton, the two extreme points of the turies before the Christian era. empire. In A. D. 1306, the canal was described as This wall bounds the whole north of China, along extending from Pekin to Khinsai, or Quinsay, and the frontiers of three provinces, extending fifteen Zeytoon ; as navigated by ships, and forty days' jour- hundred miles from the sea to the western province ney in length. It is further mentioned that, when the of Shensi, and far into Tartary. In order to obtain ships arrive at the sluices, they are raised up, what- a sufficient number of workmen for so vast an under- ever be their size, by means of machines, and are taking, the emperor ordered that every third laboring then let down on the other side into the water. This, man throughout the empire should be compelled to it is said, is the practice, at the present day.

like ; . Tl^ canal was formed by turning the enter his service ; and they were required to labor waters of some slaves, without receiving any remuneration beyond a of the lakes into artificial channels, which were made bare supply of food. It was carried ov6r the ridges to communicate with the rivers — many branches ex- of the highest hills, descended into the deepest valleys, tending to towns which were not in their course. One crossed upon arches over rivers, and was doubled in hijridred and seventy thousand men were employed important passes, being, moreover, supplied with strong for years in the construction of this great work. For towers or bastions, at distances of about one hundred real utility, it far surpasses the great wall, being, at yards. One of the most elevated ridges crossed by this moment, of the utmost benefit to the Chinese, inland trade the wall is five thousand feet above the level of the sea. whose would not be extensive without it, all works of the as the means of land carriage are scanty, and It far surpasses the sum total of other both kind, and proved a useful barrier against the Tartars, tedious and expensive. One principal merit of this work was, that it until the power of Zingis Khan overthrew the empire. great answered the purpose of drain- The body of the wall consists of an earthen mound, ing large tracts of marshy but fertile land, which, till had retained on each side by a wall of masoniy and brick, then, been quite useless, but were thus rendered cultivation. of the most solid construction, and terraced by a plat- fit for RELIGION OF THE CHINESE. 471

Tien-tan, or the Imperial Joss at Fekln. CHAPTER CCXXXVI. prayer and thanks^ving, without any mixture of idol- atrous practices. Religion Its Rites and Ceremonies —^oss- The Chinese, like other nations, in their religion, were divided into different sects. About the year houses, Idols, Sfc. 560 of the Christian era, one of the Leang dynasty In the several stages through which the Chinese greatly interested himself in introducing Buddhism, advanced from barbarism to civilization, they seem to and this is now the religion of at least one half of the

have admitted the existence of a Supreme Being, inhabitants of China ; but here it has no connection whose almighty power they recognized, and to whom with the government. No creed is made a matter of a national worship was addressed. In early times — state except the recognition of the existence of a besides offerings to Heaven — national sacrifices Supreme Being, and of the emperor as his sole vice- were presented to the mountains, for their influ- gerent on earth. As to every other opinion *nd rite, ences, and to the powers or gods supposed to pre- the people adopt any or none, as they may judge ex- side over the earth, for luxuriant crops, and even to pedient. The learned, indeed, generally affect indif- the deities of woods, rivers, &c. The Supreme Being ference upon the subject, and limit themselves to the whom the ancient Chinese adored passed under the above simple belief, joined to a supferstitious reverence name of Chang-ti, or Tien. Their worship was by for ancestry, and for the ancient sages of the empire. "; ;

472 THE IMPEKIAL JOSS.

The people, however, require some more sensible three towers, each thirty-three feet square. At Nan- objects of worship, and the vacant place has been kin, there is a very celebrated taas, or pagoda, of chiefly occupied by the sect of Fo, — essentially the porcelain it is of an octagon form, and is two hun- ; same with that above mentioned, which rules in Thi- dred and ten feet high. One, at Tong-Tshang-feu, is bet, and has spread thence through all the neighboring of marble, covered with porcelain. regions of Tartary. It appears here, as well as there, The Imperial Joss, or chief idol of the Celestial with its doctrine of transmigration, its numerous im- Empire, is the most revered idol in China ; it is desig- ages, its monastic institutions, its bells and beads, its nated Tien-tan, or the Eminence of Heaven. The noisy music, and its peculiar dress ; all giving it such next idol in importance is the Tee-tan, or Eminence a resemblance to the Catholic worship, that the mis- of the Earth. The former is known as the imperial, sionaries of the church of Rome formerly filled their being the one to which the emperor and chief grandees journals with lamentations on the impossibility of offer their sacrifices : the middle and lower classes distinguishing between the two. Although jealous, worship the latter deity. The temples at Pekin are in general, of every foreign system, the Tartar adorned with all the magnificence of architecture dynasties have been inclined to protect this religion and, when the emperor is about to offer sacrifice, of foreign origin. The same favor has not been the greatest pomp and solemnity is observed. extended to Christianity, which has repeatedly made Previous to the intended ceremony, the monarch, some progress. The precise religious faith of the and all the grandees who are entitled to assist, prepare common Chinese may be gathered from the following themselves, during three days, by retirement, fasting, conversation, recently held by Dr. Abeel, with a person and continence. No public audiences are given, and in that country : — no tribunals are open. Marriages, funerals, and en-

" .? When you are very ill, what do you do tertainments of every kind are prohibited ; and no Ans. " We pray to Buddha for recovery." person is permitted to eat either flesh or fish. On the "But when you find yourself fast failing, and most appointed day, the sovereign appears in the utmost likely to die, what do you then ? " Ans. " We vow possible splendor, surrounded with princes and officers to Buddha to bum quantities of gold paper, if he will of state, and attended by every circumstance demon- restore us." strative of a triumph. Every thing in the temple cor- " But when you are certain you cannot recover, responds in magnificence with the appearance of the what then ? " Ans. " Why, then there is nothing to emperor. The utensils are all of gold, and never ap- be done." plied to any other purpose, while even the musical " Do you never pray, after the conviction that you instruments are of uncommon size, and also reserved must die takes possession of your minds ? " Ans. " No for such uncommon occasions. But, while the monarch there is then nothing to pray for." never displays greater external grandeur and state than " But do you never pray for the future happiness during these processions, he never exhibits greater " of your souls > Ans. " No ; we know nothing of personal humility {ind dejection than during the time the future state of our souls." of sacrifice, prostrating himself on the earth, rolling

" Do you believe \n their immortality ? " Ans. " Yes himself in the dust, speaking of himself to the Chang- but whither they wander, and what they become, we ti in terms of the utmost debasement, and apparently " cannot tell ; here all is dark, dark ! assuming so much magnificence of appearance and Practically, however, at the bottom of the Buddhist attendance only to testify, in a more striking manner, creed, as well as of every other which has influenced the infinite distance between the highest human dignity extensively the human mind in unevangelized coun- and the majesty of the Supreme Being. tries, will be found the same dim conviction of spme It is upon the buildings of their great idols that the superior being or beings taking cognizance of human Chinese bestow most cost, and in which they are most actions, and rewarding the good and punishing the bad whimsically extravagant. They reckon about four " in a future life. It is said that priests of " no religion hundred and eighty of these temples of first rank, are a class much esteemed in China. They are gen- adorned with every thing curious, and filled with an erally poor, uncleanly in their habits, and lead a men- incredible number of idols, before which hang lamps dicant kind of life. continually burning. The whole are supposed to be The temples of Buddha, called joss-houses, are served by three hundred and fifty thousand bonzes, or numerous, and filled with images. These, with the priests. rites and ceremonies, strongly remind one of the The temples, or joss-houses, as they are commonly Catholic churches in Europe. Processions, badges of called, are generally one story high, but they are often dignity, prayers for the dead, fasting, intercession of of immense extent. They are decorated with artificial saints, litanies, bells, beads, burning tapers, incense, flowers, embroidered hangings, curtains, and fringes. are parts of the worship. Some of the images are of One of these temples situated on the north-eastern gigantic magnitude. The Catholic missionaries often side of the suburbs of tlie city of Canton, makes a go into the Buddhist temples, and, presenting the cru- splendid appearance. It is four stories high, has a cifix, persuade the people to adopt their god, using the fine cupola, with many out-houses and galleries. This Buddhist rites, at least for a time and in part. Thus grand edifice was formerly a palace belonging to the many Chinese are supposed to be converted. The Wangtai, or king of the province of Canton, before common religious buildings are mostly low, but exten- the Tartars conquered China, and who was then an sive, and crowded with priests and beggars. independent prince. Before the principal gate of the temple, two large images, either side, are placed. The pagodas are lofty religious temples ; the name, one on in China, is taas. Some of them are very magnifi- Each of them is about twelve feet high; both have cent. One, at Conan, is a building five hundred and spears and lances in their hands. This gate leads ninety by two hundred and fifty feet, surrounded by through a large paved court into the temple, by a few joss-house is built cells for bonzes, or priests. In the centre, there are stone steps. The lower part of the IDQLS OF THE CHINESE— CONFUCIUS. 4.7.? with fine hewn stone, but the upper part is wholly with the name of the>tutelary divinity engraved upon timber. In the lower hall are images of various it of ; a few paper flowers are added by way of ornament. sizes, and of different dignities, all finely gilt, and kept Idols are held in more or less estimation, according exceedingly clean by the priests. The lesser images to the favors which they are supposed to bestow upon placed in corners of the wall, and one of a larger their are votaries ; and when, after repeated applications, size in the open space of the hall. In the centre is their suit is not granted, they abandon the spirit of .that sits in a lazy placed the large god, who posture, with temple, as a god without power— or, perhaps, pull down his heels drawn up to his thighs, almost naked — par- the edifice, and leave the statues exposed in the open ticularly his breast and abdomen — and leaning on a air. Numbers of joss-houses are thus seen in ruins, large cushion. He is ten times larger than an ordinary their bells resting on the ground, their monstrous idols man, very corpulent, of a merry countenance, and all lying unsheltered, and their bonzes wandering in, quest over gilt. Up stairs are a great many images of men of alms, or a more fortunate asylum. and women, deified for brave and virtuous actions. Sometimes the fallen deity is treated with the utmost " " The idols of the temples are, sometimes, represent- indignity and contempt. Thou dog of a spirit ! atives of various genii, or guardian spirits, whose re- the enraged votaries will cry, " we lodge thee in a

spective attributes are expressed by certain emblems commodious joss-house ; thou art well fed, well gilt, statues. connected with their Thus a sabre announces and receiyest abundance of incense ; and yet, after

the god of war ; a guitar, the god of music ; a globe, all the care bestowed upon thee, thou art ungrateful the spirit of heaven. Some of these images are fre- enough to refuse us necessary things ! " Then, tying quently thirty, fifty, sixty, and even eighty feet in the idol with cords, they drag it through a kenijel, height, with a multitude of hands and arms. and bespatter it with filth. But should they happen,' One of the most stupendous in China is a goddess during this scene of vengeance, to obtain, or to fancy of the class of Poosa, which signifies all-helping, or they have obtained, their object, then they carry back plant-preserving, and is apparently a personification the insulted divinity to its place with great ceremony, of nature. She is represented sometimes with four wash it with care, prostrate themselves before it, ac- heads, and forty or fifty arms, each of the heads being knowledge their rashness, supplicate forgiveness, and directed toward one of the cardinal points, and each promise to gild it again upon condition that what is of the arms holding some useful production of the past be forgotten. Sometimes, those who have found earth ; each arm, also, often supports a number of all their gifts and worship unavailing, have brought smaller arras, while the head is covered with a group the idol and its bonzes to a solemn trial before the of smaller heads. One of these images is ninety feet mandarins, and procured the divinity to be dismissed high, with four heads and forty-four arms. The divin- as useless, and its priests to be punished as impostors. ities in the interior of the temples are of smaller pro- While a large portion of the Chinese are followers portions, and in various postures ; sometimes alone, of Buddhism, the doctrines of Confucius exert a great and at other times surrounded by a number of inferior and controlling influence, especially through the higher idols ; some with the heads of animals, others with classes. Of him and his system we have given a suf- horns on the forehead ; some reclining, as at rest, ficient account. His doctrines constitute rather a bgdy others seated cross-legged upon flowers or cars ; but of philosophy, in the department of morals and poli- all of them represented in a state of great corpulency, tics, than any particular religious persuasion. It was which the Chinese regard as an honorable quality. the principal endeavor of this sage to correct the vices The idol Fo is seated upon a nelumbo flower, a spe- which had crept into the state, and to restore the influ- cies of water-lily. The goddess of lightning stands ence of those maxims which had been derived from erect, with two circles of fire in her hand, and a the ancient kings, as Yao and Chun. Among his moral poniard at her girdle. The spirit of fire walks upon doctrines are noticed some which have obtained the burning wheels, and holds a lance and a circle. The universal assent of mankind. He taught men *'to goddess of all things, named Teoo-moo, with eight treat others according to the treatment which they them- arms, is seated in a chariot, drawn by seven black selves would desire at their hands," and " to guard their hogs. The goddess Shing-moo, or holy mother, the secret thoughts " as the source and origin of action. most ancient and revered of all the female deities — But, like other schemes of philosophy, or religion, whose character implies universal understanding, or, merely human, there is much to condemn in the prin- more literally, " the faculty of knowing all that ear ciples of the Chinese moral, teacher. To so gre^t has heard, or mouth has uttered " — was considered by and mischievous an extent did he carry his inoulcatioii the Catholic missionaries as a shocking resemblance of filial duty, that he enjoined it on a son not to live of their holy Virgin. Her statue is generally repre- under the same heaven with the slayer of his father, sented with a glory round the head, and a child in her or, in other words, to enforce the law of retaliation, hand or on her knee, holding a flower of the lien-hoa, and put him to death. The absolute authority of the (nelumbo,) or placed upon a leaf of that plant. emperor is founded on this principle, as being the T?here are divinities, in short, of all possible shapes, father of his people, and possessing all the rights, of a and so numerous, that one pagoda, on the Lake See- father. It would seem, from the history of the Qhinese hoo, contains five hundred of them within its walls. people, that no pagan philosopher or teacher has influ- In almost every city, there is a temple dedicated enced a larger portion of the great human family,, or to Confucius, as a tutelary spirit, in which either his met with a more unmixed veneration, than Confuqius. statue or picture is preserved. Besides these temples, Of Tien, or Heaven, the Chinese sometimes speak numerous small chapels are to be seen in the country as of the Supreme Being, who pervades the universe, is and villages, dediG.ated to the different spirits presiding and awards moral retribution ; and it in the same the " Son of over the land, the water, the mountains, &c. ; but fre- sense that the emperor is called Heaven:" quently, instead of a temple, there is merely a stone Ai other times, they apply the word to the visible sky placed upright at the foot of a tree or bamboo bush, only. The gods appear to hold by no means an 60 474 CUEIOUS INSTANCES OF FRAUD— DRESS.

undivided supremacy ; the saints, or sages, seem to be In acknowledgment for this service, the merchant pur- of at least equal importance. Confucius admitted that chased from the young officer, in his several successive he did not know much respecting the gods, and, on voyages to China, on very favorable terms, the whole this account, preferred being silent upon the subject. of his commercial adventure. He might thus have Though the sages of the country did not claim for been considered to fulfil any ordinary claim upon his

themselves an equality with the gods, yet they speak of gratitude ; but he went further than this. After some each other in a style that seems, to us, like blasphemy. years, he expressed his surprise to the officer, that he A general aspect of materialism pertains to the Chi- had not yet obtained the command of a ship. The nese philosophy or religion, and yet it is difficult to other replied, that it was a lucrative post, which could peruse their sentiments regarding tien, or heaven, with- be obtained only by purchase, and at an expense of out the persuasion that they ascribe to it most of the some thousand pounds — a sum wholly out of his power attributes of a supreme governing intelligence. to raise. The Chinese merchant said he would remove that difficulty, and immediately gave him a draft for the amount, to be repaid at his convenience. The officer died on his passage home, and the draft was

never presented ; but it was drawn on a house of CHAPTER CCXXXVII. great respectability, and would have been duly honored.* Character the Chinese — Their Institutions. of Though the Chinese have systematically excluded

It is believed that the Chinese, in general, have foreigners from their country, the prying eye of curi- been under-estimated, on the ground of their moral osity has discovered most of their peculiarities, and attributes. The people of Canton have been too whh these the world at large have been made ac- readily taken as the representatives of the nation at quainted. Every one is familiar with their dress, per- criterion sonal appearance, and the aspect their houses, from large. Such, doubtless, cannot be a correct ; of as the peculiar phase of character at a seaport, where the drawings on their porcelain. Their complexion the action of whatever is vicious in the national tem- is olive, their hair black and straight, and their eyes per is strongest, is not to be supposed applicable to a small, and, like all of the Mongolian family, set whole nation, in the immense variety of its circum- obliquely to the nose. The dress consists of short, full stances. The current notion that foreigners come trousers, a short shirt, and over all a loose, flowing exclusively for their own benefit, paying little respect robe. The materials are silk or cotton, according to to the Chinese, would naturally inspire the natives of the condition of the wearer. The hair of the men is Canton with no remarkable feelings of courtesy, hon- shaven, except behind, where it is braided in two long esty, or good faith. cues. A fan is a, necessary article in the hand of The ingenuity of the Chinese is doubtless too often male and female. exercised for the purposes of fraud. Sometimes a per- The dress of the Chinese dandy is composed of

son buys a capon, as he thinks, but finds afterward crapes and silks of great price ; his feet are covered that he has only the skin of the bird, which has been with high-heeled boots of the most beautiful Nankin so ingeniously filled, that the deception is not discov- satin, and his legs are encased in gaiters, richly em- ered until it is prepared for being dressed. They also broidered and reaching to the knee. Add to this, an make counterfeit hams. These are made of pieces acorn-shaped cap of the latest taste, an elegant pipe, of wood cut in the form of a ham, and coated over richly ornamented, in which burns the purest tobacco with a certain kind of earth, which is covered with of the Fokien, an English wat6h, a toothpick suspend- hog's skin, and the whole is so ingeniously arranged, ed to a button by a string of pearls, a Nankin fan, ex- that a knife is necessary to detect the fraud. A gen- haling the perfume of the tcholane, — a Chinese tleman travelling in China, a few years ago, bought flower, — and you will have an exact idea of a fashion- some chickens, the feathers of which were curiously able Chinese. curled. In a few days, he observed that the feathers This being, like dandies of all times and all coun- were straight, and that the chickens were of the most tries, is seriously occupied with trifles. He belongs common sort. The man who owned them had curled either to the Snail Club or the Cricket Club. Like the feathers of the whole brood a little while before he the ancient Romans, the Chinese train quails, which

sold them. We are told that it is customary to write are quarrelsome birds, to be intrepid duellists ; and " upon the sign, " Here no one is cheated — a pretty their combats form a source of great amusement. In good evidence that fraud is common, if not general. imitation of the rich, the poorer Chiiiese place at the We must not, however, draw unjust inferences from bottom of an earthen basin two field crickets ; these these facts. Innumerable modes of small cheating insects are excited and provoked until they grow are found in all countries. In judging of a nation, we angry, attack each other, and the narrow field of battle must look at the good as well as the bad. Even at is soon strewed with their claws, antennae, and corse- Canton, where the influences are debasing, favorable lets — the spectators seeming to experience the most specimens of the Chinese character have appeared. lively sensations of delight. general amusements of the Chinese are great- The following is an instance : A considerable mer- The chant had some dealings with an American trader, ly diversified ; but we have not space for details. who attempted to quit the port without discharging his The government is despotic, and rules by fear. Pa- debt, and would have succeeded but for the spirit and rents exercise the most unlimited sway over their chil- activity of a young officer of one of the British ves- dren, and a son is a minor during the life of the father. husband does his wife till she is to sels'. He boarded the American vessel, when upon The not see sent the point of sailing, and by his remonstrances, or other- his harem in a palanquin : if she does not please him, he wise, prevailed on the American to makfe a satisfactory arrangement with his creditor. * The ChineBe, by John F. Davis, Esq, !

IMITATIVENESS — IXFANTICIDE, 475 may send her back. Divorces are easily obtained, The national character of the Chinese is marked with and loquacity is sufficient to cause a wife to be sent quietness, industry, order, and regularity —-qualities home to her parents. The chief beauty of a woman which a despotic government seeks always to foster. is small feet, and these are bandaged from childhood, Filial respect seems to be conspicuous. A general to insure this desirable charm. good humor and courtesy reign in their aspect and

Scene in China. behavior. Even when they accidentally come into col- That the Chinese have an inordinate self-love, and lision with each other, the extrication is effected with- a prevalent contempt of other nations, seems to be out any of that noise, and exchange of turbulent and admitted by every observer, as it is apparent, also, abusive language, which are commonly witnessed on in their governmental acts and manifestoes. These such occasions in European cities. Flagrant crimes feelings, though they take their rise from the impor- and open violations of the laws are by no means com- tant advantages which they certainly possess — more mon. The attachments of kindred are exchanged especially in comparison with the adjoining countries, and cherished with peculiar force, particularly toward — are fostered by ignorance, and artfully enhanced, parents and ancestry in general. The support of the in the minds- ofi the common people, by the influ- aged and infirm is inculcated as a sacred duty, which ence of the mandarins. A timid, miserable policy appears to be very strictly fulfilled. It is surely a has led the latter to consider it their interest to in- phenomenon in national economy, that, in a country crease the national dislike of foreigners. The most so eminently populous, and so straitened for food, dangerous accusation against a native Chmese is, there should be neither begging nor pauperism. The that of being subject, in any way, to foreign in- wants of the most destitute are relieved within the fluence. circle of their family and kindred. It is said to be The distribution of wealth is more equal in China customary that a whole family, for several generations, than in most other countries. Where extreme des- with all its members, married and unmarried, live titution is felt, it arises solely from the unusual under one roof, and with only two apartments, one for degree in which the population is made to press sleeping, and the other for eating — a fact which im- upon the means of subsistence. Poverty is deemed plies a great degree of tranquillity and harmony of no reproach in China. Station derived from personal temper. merit, and the claims of venerable old age, are the Among the other peculiar traits of the Chinese, two things which command the most respect. An em- their artisans are celebrated for imitation. The fol- peror once rose from his seat to pay respect to an lowing anecdote is illustrative of this. Toward the inferior officer of more than a century in age, who close of the last tfentury, an officer of an English ship, came to do homage to his sovereign. that lay off Canton, sent ashore, to a native, an order The crime of infanticide has been frequently for a dozen pair of trousers, to be made of the nankin charged upon the Chinese, but probably with no for which China has been so long famed. The Chi- just ground, at least to the extent supposed. No doubt nese artisan required a pattern — he could not make that in occasional instances of female births, infanti-

: any thing without a pattern so a pair of trousers was cide takes place ; but these cases are said to occur sent, at his request, the same having been mended by only in the chief cities, and amid a crowded popula- a patch at the knee. In due time, the twelve pairs are tion, where the means of subsistence seem to be sent on board, of a fabric of great beauty of quality, effectually denied. In general, the Chinese are pecu- but every pair bearing, like an heraldic badge, the oi)- liarly fond of their children ; and the attachment noxious patch on oce knee, exactly copied, stitch for seems to be reciprocated. stitch, in a style that reflected the highest credit on the This people, in their physical characteristics, as in mechanical skill of the workman, and for the difficult other qualities, are generally superior to the nations execution of which, an extra charge was made upoii which border on therri. The freedom of their the purse of the exasperated owner — who, however, dress giyes a development to their limbs that renders had no alternative but to pay vhe bill many of them models for a statuary. The healthiness ;

476 WOMEN—POLYGAMY— CAUSES OF DIVOKCE.

of the climate also produces its effect. The exist- with onerous ceremonies, which have been transmitted ence, at any time, of that terrible scourge, the chol- from time immemorial. Occasionally, however, these

I era, in China Proper, seems to be doubted — at least, bonds are broken, and there is a correspondent degree

I not ; its effects have been seriously noticed. In France, of convivial freedom.

I the idea has obtained, that the Chinese have been Notwithstanding the general disadvantages on the exempted from this disease by the consumption of tea, side of the sex in China, in common with other Orien- in w^hich, almost of course, they indulge more than tal countries, its respectability is, in some degree, all other nations. preserved by a certain extent of authority allowed to

widows over their sons ; and also by the homage which these are required to pay to their mothers. The ladies of the better classes are instructed in embroidering,

as well as painting on silk ; and music is, of course, a favorite accomplishment. They are not often pro-

ficients, in letters ; but, in some instances, they have become renowned for their poetic compositions. The opinion that polygamy exists universally, in China, is incorrect. It is not strictly true that their laws sanction polygamy at all, though they permit concubinage. A Chinese can have but one tsy, or wife, properly so denominated. She is distinguished by a title, espoused with ceremonies, and chosen from a rank in life totally different from his tsie, or hand- maids, of whom he may have what number he pleases. The offspring of the latter, however, possess many of the rights of legitimacy. A woman, on marriage, assumes her husband's surname. Marriage between all persons of the same surname being unlawful, this law must consequently include all descendants of the

male branch forever ; and, as in so immense a popu- lation there are less than two hundred surnames throughout the empire, the embarrassments that arise Chinese Flower Seller. from such a cause must be considerable. The personal appearance of the women is affected The grounds of divorce, which are seven, are, some

by a most unaccountable taste for the mutilation of of them, amusing. The first is barrenness : the their feet. The practice is said to have commenced others are adultery, disobedience to the husband's

about the end of the ninth century of our era. As it parents, talkativeness, thieving, ill temper, and invet- militates against every notion of physical beauty, the erate infirmities. Any of these, however, may be idea conveyed, doubtless, is exemption from labor set aside by three circumstances — the wife having

or, in other words, gentility. The female, thus crip- mourned for her husband's parents ; the family, since

pled, cannot work ; and the appearance of helpless- marriage, having acquired wealth ; and the wife hav- ness, and the tottering gait induced by the mutilation, ing no parents to receive her back. It is, in all cases, are subjects of admiration with the people. The disreputable for a widow to marry again, and in some Chinese custom, so ridiculous to us, is, however, less cases — especially with those of a particular rank — it pernicious than the fashionable practice of compressing is illegal. The marriage ceremonies are too numerous the waist, with our modern ladies. and complex to admit of description here. The possessor of hereditary rank, without merit, The birth of a son is, of course, an occasion of

has little for which to congratulate himself. The great rejoicing ; the family, or surname, is first given, descendants of the emperors are among the most un- and then the ' milk-name,' which is generally some happy, idle, vicious, and trifling of the community, diminutive of endearment. A month after the event, although their nominal rank is maintained. Occa- the relations and friends, between them, send the sionally, they become involved in abject povetty. One child a silver plate, on which are engraved the three

of the British embassies had a specimen of their con- words, ' Long-life, honors, felicity.' The boy is trained duct and manners, as well as of the little ceremony in behavior and ceremonies from his earliest child-

with which they are occasionally treated. When they hood ; and, at four or five, he commences reading. crowded, with a childish and rude curiosity, upon the The importance of general education was known so English party, the principal person among the man- long since in China, that a work, written before the

' darins seized a whip ; and, not satisfied with the appli- Christian era, speaks of the ancient system of instruc- cation of that alone, actually kicked out the im- tion,' which required that every town and village, perial mob. The impartial distribution — with few down to only a few families, should have a common exceptions — of state offices and magistracies to all who school. The wealthy Chinese employ private teach- give evideftce of superior learning or talent, without ers, and others send their sons to day schools, which regard to birth or wealth, lies probably at the founda- are so well attended that the fees paid by each boy tion of the greatness and prosperity of the empire. are extremely small. In large towns, there are even- The intercourse of social life in China resembles ing schools, of which those who are obliged to labor that of most Asiatic countries. Where women are through the day avail themselves. confined to their homes, or to the company of their Of all the subjects of their care, there are none its . own sex, domestic life exhibits few of peculiar which the Chinese so religiously attend to, as the charms. It is generally cold, formal, and encumbered tombs of their ancestors, as they conceive that any ; "

GEOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION OF JAPAN. 477 * neglect is sure to be followed by worldly misfortune. former residence, but did not forget his filial affec- is here that they manifest " a religious sense," tion. It H]s mother had always expressed great appre- which is hardly shown towards their gods. Theii: hension of thunder, and, when it was stormy, always ceremonies, connected with the treatment of the dead, requested her son not to leave her. Therefore, as are of a striking character, but we have not space soon as he heard a storm coming on, he hastened to for details. Aiccording to the ritual, the original and his mother's grave, saying softly to her, " I am here, ! strict period of mourning is thre^years for a parent mother but this is commonly reduced, in practice, to twenty- The disposal of paternal property, by will, is re- seven months. Full three years must elapse, from stricted to the legal heirs. The eldest son has a death of a parent, before the children can double portion or, the ; more correctly speaking, perhaps, marry. The colors of mourning are white and dull the property may be said to descend to the eldest son, gray, or ash, with round buttons of crystal or glass, in in trust, for all the younger brothers. Over these he lieu of gilt ones. has considerable authority. They commonly live A pleasing, anecdote, in relation to filial piety, is together, and club their shares, liy which means, fam- related of a youth named Ouang- Ouei- Yuen. Having ilies in this over-peopled country are more easily sup- lost his mother, who was all that was dear to him, he ported than they otherwise would be. The constant passed the three years of mourning in a hut ; and em- e.xhortations, in the book of Sacred Edicts, point to ployed himself, in his retirement, in composing verses this usage and the necessity for it, as they relate to in honor of his parent, which are quoted "by the Chinese the preservation pf union and concord among kindred as models of sentiment and tenderness. The period and their families. of his mourning having elapsed, he returned to his

^iijian.

View in Japan.

CHAPTER CCXXXVIII. Besides these, there are a great many small islands clustering along the coasts. The shores are often 660 B. C. to A. 0. 1616. lashed by stormy seas ; on the east, they front the Geographical View — Early Annals — Yori- broad expanse of the Pacific Ocean, whose force is tomo — Taiko — Gongin. unbroken by any island for fifty degrees. Japan is an insular empire, occupying four large Niphon is the largest of the islands, and contains and five smaller islands, which stretch more than a both the civil and ecclesiastical capitals. The Japanese thousand miles along the eastern coast of Asia — from name for their empire, Akitsoo-no-sima, Isle of the Corea nearly to Kamtschatka. It derives its name Dragon-Fly, is derived from a fancied resemblance to from the Chinese, in whose language Japan means that ii^ct in the shape of this, the main island of their " Country of the Eising Sun." With the Corean and archipelago. Niphon is said to be eight hundred

Manchoorian coast, the Japanese islands enclose the miles long, and fifty to two hundred broad ; Kiusiu Sea of Japan, which is six hundred miles across in its is one hundred and fifty miles by one hundred and widest part. The names of the largest islands are twenty ; Sikokf, ninety by fifty. Niphon,iNiption Kiusiu, Sikokf, Jesso, and the Kurile Islands. We are very little acquainted with the geographical 478 EARLY HISTORY OF JAPAN. divisions of Japan, and, with one or two exceptions, of Chinese words introduced into the Japanese lan- we know little more of its cities than their names. guage. The physical aspect of the country is bold, varied, The Japanese count but seventeen dairis down to abrupt, and striking, presenting an infinite sixty variety of A. D. 400, a period of one thousand and years ; generally pleasing landscapes. The mountains are but this is an evident error, as it would give each dairi rugged, and contain active volcanoes. Some of them a reign of sixty-two years, which is quite too long. In are said to have their tops crowned with perpetual earlier times, these king-gods were obliged every snow. morning to remain seated on the throne, for some This empire lies under the same parallels of lati- hours, immovable, with the crown on the head, — else, tude as Morocco, Madeira, Spain, and our own United it was supposed, the empire would fall to ruins ; but States. It is, therefore, enriched with the plants of as this task was found fatiguing, the discovery was both the warm and the temperate climates ; some made that if the crown itself were placed upon the tropical productions, also, flourish on its soil. The throne, it would answer every purpose, and keep the climate varies from extreme heat in summer to ex- state together quite as well. The custom of placing treme cold in winter, and this variety stimulates the the crown upon the throne was therefore substituted energies of the people. The high mountains of the for the more ancient practice. interior, however, and the constant neighborhood of The dairis laid claim, not indeed to divine attributes, the sea, which every where sends up its bays far in- but to a descent from the early celestial rulers ; and land, tend to modify both extremes, producing a healthy they, as "sons of heaven," and ministers of the deity, atmosphere, generally favorable to bodily and mental continued long to exercise over Japan a mingled civil activity. and ecclesiastical sway. It appears probable, however, The surface of the country is estimated to equal in that their power over the greater f)art was little more area that of Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, and North than spiritual, and that its varied districts were held by Carolina. The soil is well cultivated, and supports a civil princes in almost independent possession. The population variously reckoned at from thirty to fifty dairis, as they sunk into voluptuous indolence, committed millions. This population is distributed into some sixty- to the hands of the djogoon, or cuio — the general or two principalities, ruled by chiefs who are vassals of commander-in-chief — that military power which can the civil emperor, called the djogoon or cubo, whose with such difficulty be prevented from becoming per- authority is absolute. manent. This, in the course of time, gave rise to a The Japanese are a homogeneous race, of middling complete revolution in the political situation of Japan. stature, well formed, easy in their gestures, hardy, A succession of brave and able cubos found means honorable, independent, brave, and energetic. Their to reduce all the petty princes under subjection to the complexion is yellowish brown or pale white, but fair general government, and at the same time to monopo- as that of Europeans in ladies not exposed to the sun. lize the supreme direction of affairs. The profound head is large, short nation for the The the neck ; J;he eyebrows are veneration, however, entertained by the high, and the eyes oblong, small, and sunken ; the nose dairi, and the sacred character with which they sup- is broad and " snubby," and the hair black, thick, and posed him to be invested, rendered it impossible that glossy. A true Japanese prides himself upon his he should be wholly superseded. He still enjoyed politeness, courtesy, and strict conformity to the eti- ample revenues to maintain his dignity, with an abso- quette of polished life. lute control over all spiritual concerns, leaving the The primitive origin of the Japanese, like that of solid and temporal power to the cubo. This dignitary all the ancient nations, is lost in the night of fable, or, has ever since maintained it without interruption on at least, is recorded in such mythical language that the part of the dairi, and by a course of severe and

we cannot comprehend it. Japanese traditions say determined measures, has held all the formerly in- they were ruled for more than a million of years by dependent princes in a state of complete vassalage. seven celestial spirits. After that, mortal emperors In the early annals of Japan, we find a civil war ruled for fifteen thousand years, till 660 B. C, when recorded in 471 B. C. ; and a dreadful volcanic erup- the true historical period begins. tion in 285. In A. D. 201, the first empress reigned.

At this date. Sin mou, that is, the " divine warrior," She was a woman of masculine energy, and if is told a Chinese chieftain, passed over to Corea, with numer- of her that she conquered Corea, leading her armies ous followers, and thence to Japan. He was probably in person. She also established relays of posts, in an exile, driven from China by the civil wars which Japan, as early as A. D. 250. Her son distinguished we know to have distracted the empire at that time. himself by his bravery. He stands just upon the con- This adventurer subdued the native Japanese, and fines of true history, in the twilight which separates it established a government of which he was the soldier- from fable. He became the Japanese god of war,

king and kingly priest ; he was called the da-i-ri, Fatsman, and is said to have lived one hundred and that is, " foreign conqueror," and became a spiritual seventy years, of which he reigned eighty-seven. autocrat. This event occurred about one hundred Yoritomo, a descendant of the fifty-sixth dairi, was years after the founding of Rome, in Europe. elected commander-in-chief of the empire in A. D. After this invasion, several other Chinese colonies 1 185, and afterwards cubo, in 1 192—the period at which came over. One of them was composed of three Richard CcBur de Lion sat on the throne of England. hundred couple of young people, sent across the sea The authority of the dairi was from this date more by the Chinese emperor, to search for the " panacea and more weakened, under the successors of Yoritomo. which confers immortality." The colony laiHed in It received the last blow under Gongin, the first Japan, in 209 B. C, and settled there, never to return. cubo of the dynasty still reigning, who came into power This ancient mingling of the Chinese with the Japanese, in 1598.* The consent of the dairi was indeed still shows itself in the similarities observed between the- civilizations of these two nations, and in the multitude * There have been four dynasties of cubos — that of COREA — GEOGRAPHICAL DESCRIPTION. 485

are three forms of religion prevalent in There images of the kamis, together with those of the Sinto religion, that of Buddha, and the Japan — the Buddhist gods. The priests of Buddha in Japan Confucius. Sintoism, while acknowledg- are doctrine of called homes ; they are numerous, comprising ing a Supreme Being, is founded on the worship, in both males and females. They are under a vow of connection with him, of genii, saints, or subordinate celibacy, and there are here, as m other Buddhist gods, from whom the dairi is supposed to be descended. countries, lEirge convents for both sexes. The doctrine The genii, or kami, are the souls of the virtuous who of Confucius has also been brought into the country, and tl^jir are erected has many have ascended to heaven ; in honor followers. Beside these, there are philoso- temples, in which are placed the symbols of the deity, phers, who reject the absurdities of the popular creed, consisting of strips of paper attached to a piece of and seem to possess a refined system of metaphysics, kept in the houses, and containing exalted wood ; these symbols are also notions of the Deity and of ethics. before these are offered the daily prayers to the kamis. There is much that is masculine and original in The domestic chapels are also adorned with flowers the Japanese character, of which pride and cruelty in lamps, a cup of tea and punishments — relics of barbarism and green branches ; and t^o — seem to be the another of wine, are placed before them. Some worst features. Though, when loaded with injuries, the animals are also venerated as sacred to the kamis. Japanese utters no reproachful or vehement expression Festivals and pilgrimages form the chief part of the in return, yet his pride is deep, rancorous, and invinci- ble and the poniard, cheerful rites. The sacrifices, offered at certain sea- ; inseparable from his person, is the sons, consist of rice-cakes, eggs, &c. The centre of instrument of vengeance, when the offender least ex- it in his pilgrimages is the temple at Isje, where is seen no pects ; or is sheathed own bosom, in case ven- image, but simply a looking-glass. Buddhism was geance is beyond his reach. This pride runs through introduced into Japan from Corea, and in many cases all classes, but rises to the highest pitch among the great, leading them to display an extravagant pomp in their retinue and establishment, and to despise every thing in the nature of industry and mercantile employ- ment. Forced often to bend beneath a stern, uncom- promising, and powerful government, they are impelled to suicide — the refuge of fallen and vanquished pride. Self-murder here, like duelling among the Western nations, seems to be the point of honor among the great. The national character is indeed strongly contrasted with that which generally prevails in Asia. Instead of a tame, quiet, orderly, servile disposition, making them the prepared and ready subjects of despotism, the people have a character marked by energy, independ ence, arid a lofty sense of honor. Although said to make good subjects, even to the severe government under which they live, they yet retain an impatience of control, and a force of public opinion, which ren- ders it impossible for any ruler wantonly to tyrannize over them. Instead of that mean, artful, and truckling disposition, so general among Asiatics, their manners are distinguished by a manly frankness, and all their proceedings by honor and good faith. The prominent feature of their character, indeed, is good sense. They are habitually kind and good humored, and carry their ideas of the ties of friendship to what the trading na- tions of the West would deem a Female Bonze. romantic extreme. To serve and defend a friend in every peril, and to is so fer mingled with the religion of Sinto, that the meet torture and death rather than betray him, is con- same temples serve for both, and accommodate the sidered a duty from which nothing can dispense'.

Cnrta. CHAPTER CCXL. of Corea — so that the whole country from south to north may be seven hundred and sixty miles. Its General Description Historical Sketch. — width, lying between 124° and 134° east longitude, CoEEA is a large peninsula on the eastern coast of varies from one hundred to two hundred miles. Its Asia, surrounded on the east by the Sea of Japan, on area may be about ninety thousand square miles, or the south by the Straits of Corea, — which divide it somewhat more than the Island of Great Britain. The from the Japanese island Kiou-Siou, — and on the west seas around Corea are dotted with islands, with high, it by the Hoang-Hai, or Yellow Sea, which separates rocky shores : some of them are inhabited. from China Proper. It extends from south to north, Corea is a very cold country for its latitude. For from 34° to 40° north latitude, or about four hundred four months, the northern rivers are covered with ice,

and twenty miles ; but the countries north of the penin- and barley alone is cultivated along their banks. Even sula, as far as 43°, are also subject to the sovereign the river near King-ki-tao freezes so hard that car- 486 GENEBAL VIE-W OF COE.EA—EAELY HISTORY. riages pass over the ice. In summer, the heat appears commerce is carried on by means of the narrow road not to be great. On the eastern ooasts, fogs are fre- which leads along the sea to the town of Fang-hoan, in quent; La Perouse compared them in density with Leao-tong But as this road traverses the wide district those along the coasts of Labrador. which, by order of the Chinese emperor must remain Rice is extensively cultivated on the peninsula, as uninhabited, and has hence become the haunt of well as cotton and silk, which are employed in the numberless ferocious animals — the passage is much fabrics of the country, and exported in the man- dreaded by travellers. Commerce, therefore, is prin- ufactured state. Hemp is also cultivated, and, in cipally carried on in winter, when the shallow Hoang- the northern district, ginseng is gathered. Tobacco is Hai is covered with ice along its shores, which are raised all over the country. more favorable to the transport of goods than the bad Horses and cattle are plentiful on the mountain mountain roads. Beside the above-mentioned manu- pastures. The former, which are small, are exported factured goods, gold, silver, iron, rice, fruits, oil, and to China. In the northern districts, the sable and some other articles are brought by this road to Pekin.

other animals furnish furs. The royal . tiger, which is We do not know what the Coreans take in return to a native of the country, is covered with a longer and their country. The commercial intercourse between closer hair than in Bengal. On the eastern coast, Corea and Japan is limited to that between the Island whales are numerous. It seems that Corea is rich in of Tsu-sima and the Bay of Chosan, and is carried on

minerals : gold, silver, iron, salt, and coals are noticed by Japanese merchants, who have their warehouses at in the Chinese geographies. each place. They import sapan-wood, pepper, alum, The inhabitants, who are of the Mongol race, re- and the skins of deer, buffaloes, and goats, with the

semble the Chinese and Japanese ; but they are taller manufactured articles of Japan, and those brought by

and stouter. Among them are some whose appear- the Dutch from Europe : they take, in return, the ance seems to indicate a different origin. They speak manufactures of Corea, and a few other articles, a language different from the Chinese and Manchoo, especially ginseng.

though it contains many Chinese words. They have The earliest people of Corea were the Sianpi,

also, a different mode of writing ; though the Chi- a race some of whose branches were very powerful nese characters are in general use among the upper about the middle of the third century B. C. Four classes.*. In manner and civilization, they much re- centuries after, one of their chiefs united the tribes, semble the Chinese, and are likewise Buddhists. Edu- polished them, and became master of an empire four- cation is highly valued, especially among the upper teen hundred leagues in extent. In A. D. 200 to 400 classes. They seem to have a rich literature of their the race had founded four petty kingdoms in Northern

own ; but their language is very imperfectly known China. But all the western Sianpi became lost throfigh

in Europe.. The valleys appear to be well peopled ; the preponderance of the Turkish race. we are, however, so little acquainted with the interior, The Sianpi of Corea lived in North Corea, 1100

that hitherto no one has ventured to give an estimate B. C. ; and became amalgamated with another popu- of the population. lation, in the south part of the peninsula, who were King-ki-tao, the capital, which is a few miles north probably of Japanese origin, as they resembled that of a considerable river, Han-Kiang, appears to be a people in mode of life, manners, and dress. large place, and is said to possess a respectable The Chinese historians relate that Kitsu, a relative library, of which one of the brothers of the king is of the last emperor of the Chang dynasty, had been chief librarian. The mouth of the River Tsing-Kiang, shut up in prison by that prince, whose conduct he did — between 34° and 35°, — on the western coast, is said not approve. Wouwang, who had usurped the throne to have a very spacious harbor. of Chang, and who knew the merit of Kitsu, wished Fushan, or Chosan, is a bay on the south-eastern to make him his prime minister. But Kitsu answered extremity of the peniiisula, opposite .the Japanese him courageously, that having up to this time served island of Tsu-sima, at the innermost recess of which the dynasty of Chang, from whom his family had the town of King-tsheou is built, which carries on an received all its lustre, he could never pass into the active trade with Japan, and is the only place to which service of him who had destroyed it, notwithstanding the Japanese are permitted to come. his great qualities. Wouwang, far from- disapproving In industry, the Coreans do not appear to be much these generous sentiments, thought himself much inferior to the Chinese and Japanese. They mainly obliged, and made Kitsu king of North-western Corea, excel in the manufacture of cotton cloth and cotton in 1122 B. C. this paper ; both of which are brought, in great quantities, Kitsu went over to country, gave laws to his to Pekin. Other manufactured articles, which are new subjects, and civilized them. The names and

exported, are silk goods, plain and embroidered, and deeds of his successors are unknown : they reigned mats. They have attained considerable skill in work- till the petty kings of Yan subjugated them. On the ing iron, as swords are sent, with other articles, to the destruction of the Tsin dynasty, many Chinese emi-

emperor of China as tribute. grated to Corea ; the emperor subjugated the northern No country is less accessible to Europeans than half in A. D. 110, and again in 668. Several petty Corea. They are not permitted to remain, even a kingdoms existed in Corea, sometimes independent, few days, on any part of the coast. It is not well sometimes subject to Japan or to China. One of these this till known what is the reason of policy ; but it seems lasted 934, As the Coreans were civilized by the adopted that the mutual jealousy of the neighboring Chinese Chinese, they the Chinese character ; and it and Japanese holds the king in great subjection. The was not till A. D. 374, that a syllabary was invented commerce of the country is accordingly limited to for the sounds of the Corean language. The Buddhist with these countries it is religion was introduced in most Qhina and Japan ; and even of the kingdoms, from restricted in a very strange way. No maritime inter- 372 to 384 ; in one, not till A. D. 528. course is allowed between China and Corea, but all Without going into further details, we may remark PHYSICAL FEATURES OF AFGHANISTAN. 487 that Corea has been subdued by the Japanese, Man- seraglio. Beside large revenues, and three months' the Chiaese, in choos, and succession ; the last alone labor, annually, from his subjects, he has a tenth of have maintained their ascendency. The kings of all produce, taken in kind. The nobles, in their Corea, like the other vassals of the empire, send to feudal districts, exercise a very oppressive power. Pekin an annual tribute and ambassadors, who are The numerous soldiery are armed with muskets, not received with much distinction. It is said tribute bows, and whips. The ships of war are better than to Japan but, is also paid ; if so, it is probably for the those of the Chinese ; they have cannon and fire- southern provinces only. pots. ^ It is said the army amounts to half a million The Corean king appears to be absolute in his own of men, and the navy to over two hundred vessels country. He has a splendid court, and a numerous of war.

IfgframMiiii,

CHAPTER CCXLI. A. D. 68S to 1708. Origin of the Afghans — The Per- sian and Hindoo Dominion. Afghanistan, or the country of the Af- ghans, a part of the ancient Aria or Ariana,

is bounded north by the Hindoo Koosh Moun- tains and Independent Tartary, east by Hin- dostan, south by Beloochistan, and west by Persia. It is a mountainous country, inter- sected by valleys and wide plains. Many parts are covered with thick forests of pine and wild olive-trees. Others are bare and sterile, or merely afford a scanty pasture to the flocks which are reared on them. The great chain of the Hindoo Koosh forms the characteristic feature of this country. It rises from the lower regions in four distinct ranges. The lowest is clothed with forests of oak, pine, wild olive, and a variety of other trees, including almost every species of fruit, and many of the most valuable herbs and flowers in the richest profusion. The sides are furrowed with multitudes of glens and valleys, each watered by its own little stream. The lower parts of this ridge are carefully cultivated. The second range is still more densely wooded, except toward the top. The third is comparatively naked. The fourth constitutes a range of the stu- pendous Himmaleh system, and soars alofl: APGHANISZA.N in bold masses or spire-like peaks, crowned anflL & with perpetual snow. Such is the clear- BELOOCBIST&H ness of the .atmosphere, that the ridges and hollows of these mountains may be dis- cerned at the distance of two hundred and fifty miles. The extent of Afghanistan is three their hundred thousand square miles ; the population a Persian history, they are said to owe name to six millions. The political divisions of Afghanistan Afghan, the son of Eremia, the son of Saul, king of are uncertain and variable. Afghanistan proper is Israel, whose posterity, being carried away at the time said to he divided into seven provinces. Seistan, of the captivity, was settled by the conqueror in the or Segistan, is an extensive territory, but is mostly a Mountains of Ghori, Cabul, Candahar, and Ghizni. desert, and the towns are small. The provinces are There is no sufficient proof, however, of the truth of governed by khans, or chiefs. The king of Afgha- this genealogy. The Greek writers gave to this coun- nistan has but a limited authority. try the names Paropamisus, Aria, Arachosia, and The Afghans are a very ancient and peculia,r peo- Drangiana. Of the early inhabitants they knew very It is probable ple. Their origin is obscure, though they believe little, and of their history nothing. that themselves descended from the ancient Hebr'dws. In Alexander passed through the northern part of the 488 THE AFGHANS UNDER PERSIA AND HIND OSTAN—INDEPENDENT.

Afghan territory on his march to India, but we possess no very certain accounts in relation to this matter. CHAPTER CCXLII. Previous to this time, the country belonged to Persia, A. S. 1708 tp 1842. and afterwards to the Grmco-Bactrian Kingdom, and Afghan Independence — The British Invasion. still later to Parthia. The independence of the Afghans being thus once The name of Afghan is not recognized by the na- more asserted, Meer Vaiz proceeded to strengthen him- tives of this country, but is applied to them by their self by every means, while the feeble and imbecile Per- Persian neighbors. Their proper name is Pooshtana, sian court attempted to restore their authority by nego- in the p\\iYa.i Fushtanneh. By the Hindoos they are tiation. But the insurgents were emboldened by a series denominated Paitans, Patans, or Pmtans. They are of military successes, and Meer Vaiz, having made perhaps of Arabian parentage, and, like those people, himself master of his native province of Candahar, are divided into tribes. Those of Soor and Lodi, from assumed the ensigns of royalty, A. D. 1708. He both of whom kings have issued, are mentioned in the cherished hopes of attaining to still greater power, but Eastern histories as owing their extraction to the union he died before his plans could be carried into execu- of an Arab chief with the daughter of an Afghan tion. He left two sons, the elder of whom was but leader, A. D. 682. Ferishta, the Persian historian, eighteen years of age. In consequence of their youth, mentions the Afghans as having withstood the progress the government was placed in the hands of their uncle, of the Saracens in the early ages of Mahometan con- Meer Abdollah. He was a man of timid and irreso- quest. In the ninth century, they were subject to the lute character ; hnt Mahmood, the e]der son of Meer Persian rulers of the house of Saman ; and though Vaiz, possessed that fierce spirit which is suitable to a Sultan Mahmood of Ghizni sprang from another race, leader of barbarians. his power, and the mighty empire of which his capital Mahmood soon discovered that a general feeling of was the centre, were undoubtedly maintained in a disaffection toward his uncle prevailed throughout the great measure by the hardy troqps of the Afghan country, and he could not help regarding him as the Mountains. usurper of his birthright. Trusting to this feeling for The dynasty of Mahmood was crushed by the vic- his justification, he collected a band of his adherents, torious invasions of the Mongols, under Zingis Khan seized the palace, entered the chamber of Meer Ab- and Timour, and this country was comprehended, with dollah, and with his own hand put him to death. His Hindostan, in what was called the Mogul empire. friends immediately hailed him as king. The royal The city of Cabul, in Afghanistan, became a Mogul music sounded,* and the assembled chiefs, after capital, and was a favorite residence of Baber, one deliberating on the conduct of the deceased, acknowl- of the greatest monarchs of that race. When the edged the justice of his fate, and proclaimed Mahmood Mogul empire fell to pieces, the hardy Afghan moun- sovereign of Candahar. taineers were not slow in reasserting their independ- The troubles which afflicted Persia gave Mahmood ence. But although the Afghan tribes have given ample leisure, not only to secure himself in power, but birth to the founders of many powerful dynasties, the to mature the plans of his father ; and accordingly he individual sovereigns have seldom been contented to determined to invade Persia. In the history of that fix their residence in their native land. Thus the country, we have given an account of the success of the Ghonees, the Ghiljees, and Lodees, as they rose into invasion, and of the subsequent death of Mahmood. power, turned their arms to the eastward, and erected He was succeeded by his cousin Ashruff, the son of their thrones in the capital of Hindostan. Accord- Meer Abdollah. Under him, the Afghans were expelled ingly, Afghanistan has seldom been more than a prov- from Persia by Nadir Shah, as we have already related. ince or appendage to some neighboring empire, and When that monarch was assassinated, in 1747, an op- though the mountainous nature of the country, and portunity was offered for throwing off" the yoke, which the brave and independent spirit of the people, have had been imposed upon the Afghans by the conquests often opposed formidable obstacles in the wa,y of the of Nadir. Accordingly, an Afghan chief, named most powerful invaders, yet theije has pot been a con- Ahmed Khan, took possession of Candahar, and hav- queror of Central Asia, by whom the countiy has not ing the good fortune to intercept an escort-of treasure been overrun and reduced at least to a nominal and which was proceeding from Hindostan to the Persian temporary obedience. coast, he was enabled to strengthen himself sufficiently Afehanistan was long divided between the monarchs to assume the ensigns of royalty, in October, 1747. of Persia and Hindostan ; but the inhabitants were He proved an able sovereign. The most effectual always turbulent and dangerous subjects. The tribes means which he employed for consolidating the discord- of Ghiljee and Abdallce became subjects of Persia in ant mass of the Afghan tribes, was foreign conquest, the time of Abbas the Great, in the early part of the thereby at once giving employment to their military seventeenth century. Tlie tranquillity established by genius, and gratifying their love of plunder. Hindos- the liberal policy of Abbas was of short duration, and tan, at once rich and weak, was the most attractive his successors were involved in constant disputes and object, and Ahmed immediately invaded that country. wars with the sovereigns of Hindostan respecting the At the battle of Paniput, he broke the power of the Afghans. These people were generally able to main- Mahrattas, who were about to seize the fallen sceptre tain a considerable degree of independence by balan- powerful states. last, pro- cing between these two At * The privilege of having certain kinds of music is, in most voked by the tyranny of the Persian viceroy Georgeen Asiatic countries, carefully preserved. DiflTerent high ranks Khan, they broke out into open rebellion, and, under are designated by the instruments and the number of musi- cians which they are permitted to have. A royal band is a the guidance of a brave and artful chief, named Meer peculiar body, and is called upon to perform on all great oc- hated viceroy to death, and gained Vaiz, they put the casions. The loss of an instrument belonging to such a band, possession of the fortress of Candahar, before any sus- in battle, is deemed of as much importance as the loss of a picion of insurrection had gone abroad. Toyai Btandaid would be in Europe.