Wisconsin Magazine of History

WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY

The State Historical Society of Wisconsin • Vol. 58, No. 2 • Winter, 1974-1975

*"*>.

"*»»*^ a. THE STATE HISTORICAL SOCIETY OF WISCONSIN JAMES MORTON SMITH, Director Officers

HOWARD W. MEAD, President GEORGE BANTA, JR., Honorary Vice-President JOHN C. GEILFUSS, First Vice-President F. HARWOOD ORBISON, Treasurer ROGER E. AXTELL, Second Vice-President JAMES MORTON SMITH, Secretary

Board of Curators Ex Officio PATRICK J. LUCEY, Governor of the State JOHN C. WEAVER, President of the University DOUGLAS J. LAFOLLETTE, Secretary of State MRS. DAVID S. FRANK, President of the CHARLES P. SMITH, State Treasurer Women's Auxiliary

Term Expires, 1975

E. DAVID CRONON JOHN C. GEILFUSS LLOYD HORNBOSTEL, JR. FRANCIS PAUL PRUCHA, S.J. Madison Milwaukee Beloit Milwaukee SCOTT M. CUTLIP BEN GUTHRIE ROBERT H. IRRMANN J. WARD RECTOR Madison Lac du Flambeau Beloit Milwaukee ROBERT A. GEHRKE MRS. R. L. HARTZELL JOHN R. PIKE CLIFFORD D. SWANSON Ripon Grantsburg Madison Stevens Point Term Expires, 1976

THOMAS H. BARLAND MRS. EDWARD C. JONES HOWARD W. MEAD DONALD C. SLIGHTER Eau Claire Fort Atkinson Madison Milwaukee NATHAN S. HEFFERNAN MRS. RAYMOND J. KOLTES FREDERICK I. OLSON DR. LOUIS C. SMITH Madison Madison Wauwatosa Lancaster E. E. HOMSTAD CHARLES R. MCCALLUM F. HARWOOD ORBISON ROBERT S. ZIGMAN Black River Falls Hubertus Appleton Milwaukee Term Expires, 1977

ROGER E. AXTELL PAUL E. HASSETT ROBERT B. L. MURPHY MILO K. SWANTON Janesville Madison Madison Madison HORACE M. BENSTEAD WILLIAM HUFFMAN MRS. WM. H. L. SMYTHE CEDRIC A. 'ViG Racine Wisconsin Rapids Milwaukee Rhinelander REED COLEMAN WARREN P. KNOWLES WILLIAM F. STARK CLARK WILKINSON Madison Milwaukee Nashotah Baraboo

Fellows VERNON CARSTENSEN MERLE CURTI ALICE E. SMITH

The Women's Auxiliary MRS. DAVID S. FRANK, Madtson, President MRS. DONALD F. REINOEHL, Darlington, Treasurer MRS. DONALD R. STROUD, Madison, Vice-President MRS. GORDON R. WALKER, Racine, Ex-Officio MRS. WADE H. MOSBY, Milwaukee, Secretary

ON THE COVER: Head and hand moving in a display of ageless vigor, Frank Lloyd Wright in his ninety-first year graphically indicates his suggestions to an associated architect at Taliesin in August, 1957. Richard Vesey of the Wisconsin State Journal caught the architect at work, the promotion and idealization of which was one of the central goals of the Fellowship he and his wife founded in 1932. Volume 58, Number 2 / Winter, 1974-1975 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY

Published quarterly by the State Historical Society of The Rise of Wisconsin's New Democrats: Wisconsin, 816 State Street, Madison, Wisconsin 53706. A Political Realignment in the Mid-T-wentieth Distributed to members as part Century 91 o£ their dues. (Annual member­ Richard C. Haney ship, $7.50, or $5 for those over 65 or members o£ affiliated societies; family membership, $10, or $7 for those over 65 or Lucas Bradley: members of affiliated societies; Carpenter, Builder, Architect 107 contributing, $25; business and professional, $50; sustaining, Helen Patton $100 or more annually; patron, .1J500 or more annually.) Single numbers $1.75. Microfilmed Organic Living: copies available through Frank Lloyd Wright's Taliesin Fellowship University Microfilms, 313 and Georgi Gurdjieff's Institute for the North First Street, Ann Arbor, Michigan; reprint volumes Harmonious Development of Man 126 available from Kraus Reprint Robert C. Tivombly Corporation, 16 East 46th Street, New York, New York 10017. Communications should be addressed to the editor. The Catholic and Protestant Missionaries Among Society does not assume Wisconsin Indians: The Territorial Period 140 responsibility for statements made by contributors. Second- Michael E. Stevens class postage paid at Madison and Stevens Point, Wis. Copyright © 1975 by the Slate Historical Society of Wisconsin. Book Reviews 149 Paid for in part by the Maria L. and Simeon Mills Editorial Book Review Index 168 Fund and by the George B. Burrows Fund. Wisconsin History Checklist 169

Accessions 172 WILLIAM CONVERSE HAYGOOD EDITOR Contributors 176 WILLIAM C. MARTEN ASSOCIATE EDITOR

JOHN O. HOLZHUETER EDITORIAL ASSISTANT '^rtr;'^.

"^K,.

'* ' -• ^H'4W;...,

Society's Iconographic Collections Wisconsin's delegates to the 1924 Democratic National Convention which nominated John W Davis as the party's presidential candidate after 103 ballots. Albert Schmedeman, elected governor in 1932, is the second man from the right. 90 The Rise of Wisconsin's New Democrats: A Political Realignment in the Mid-Twentieth Century

By Richard C. Haney

ISCONSIN politics underwent seats. Again the outcome was owing to a tem­ w> a sweeping realignment in the porary reaction, this time to the McKinley years following World War II. Although Wis­ Tariff and the Bennett Law, which forced consin's first territorial governor was a Demo­ parochial schools to teach all principal courses crat, and a majority of pre-statehood voters such as reading, writing, arithmetic, and U.S. probably considered themselves the same, it history in the English language. By 1894 Re­ was not until the period following World War publicans again controlled the governorship, II that tlie party achieved extensive political the legislature, and all ten congressional seats. power throughout the state. And when it did, The only two Democratic United States Sena­ the liberal or moderately liberal organization tors from Wisconsin between 1865 and 1900 which came into being in the 1950's bore little were "gold" Democrat William F. Vilas and resemblance to its predecessor. railroad magnate Alexander Mitchell's son The Democratic party in the state, although John.i often a political force with gubernatorial vot­ With the opening of the twentieth century ing percentages in the 45 to 49 per cent ranges, came the progressive era of Wisconsin politics. seldom won electoral victories in the period Robert M. La Follette, Sr., and his legions between the Civil and the Second World wars. pre-empted the liberal political position Except for consistently representative minori­ throughout a thirty-year period. Domination ties in the state legislature, Wisconsin Demo­ of the Wisconsin Republican party by La crats experienced only two temporary inter­ Follette and his progressives, as opposed to ludes of prominence before the turn of the conservative "stalwarts" in the same party, century. The first was the capture of the gov­ "rendered nearly impossible any vitalization ernorship by William R. Taylor for one term of the Wisconsin Democrats as a liberal op­ in the 1870's. Taylor won with an unlikely position."^ Democrats fell back upon a con­ coalition of reform and protest groups: farm­ servative, laissez-faire traditionalism, leaving ers upset by a cost-price squeeze, railroads the most important political battles to the disenchanted with GOP Governor Cadwal­ stalwarts and progressives within the GOP. lader C. Washburn's veto of a railroad bridge appropriation, and Germans advocating re­ '- The three best general studies of Wisconsin's po­ peal of the Washburn-signed Graham tem­ litical past are, alphabetically, Leon D, Epstein, Politics perance law. The second Democratic interlude in Wisconsin (Madison, 1958), Robert C. Nesbit, Wis­ occurred in the early 1890's when George W. consin: A History (Madison, 1973), and William F. Peck won the governorship, and Democrats Raney, Wisconsin: A Story of Progress (New York, 1940). captured nine of ten Wisconsin congressional ^ Epstein, Politics in Wisconsin, 37.

91 In the five gubernatorial elections of the 1920's the average Democratic vote was under 30 per cent of the total, neither house of the state legislature ever experienced a Democratic ma­ jority, and in 1922 the Democrats failed to win enough primary votes to be listed as a separate party on the November ballot.^ In the 1930's Wisconsin politics certainly did not conform to the national pattern. While the Democrats won huge majorities throughout the United States, Wisconsin was controlled during most of the decade by the Progressives, a New Deal-oriented third party headed by Governor Philip F. La Follette and U.S. Senator Robert M. La Follette, Jr., the famous sons of Robert La Follette, Sr. Except for the 1932 election of Albert Schmedeman to the governorship and of F. Ryan Duffy to the United States Senate on the strength of Frank­ lin D. Roosevelt's landslide. Democrats were of no major consequence. They were virtually excluded owing to an alliance between FDR's national Democrats and the Wisconsin Pro­ gressive party, which resulted in Roosevelt and Young Bob La Follette's endorsing one another. La Follette men like David Lilien- thal, John Blaine, and Ralph Immell won major patronage plums from the Roosevelt Administration, while Democrats had to settle for occasional postmasterships. Republicans Society's Iconographic Collections alone furnished the only serious political chal­ Governor Albert Schmedeman signing dental legisla­ lenge to the Progressives. tion in May, 1933. Just as the Depression fostered stalwart- progressive disunion among Wisconsin Re­ The most noteworthy Wisconsin Democratic publicans, so pre-Pearl Harbor foreign policy success between 1900 and 1930 was the election disputes ruptured the liberal-isolationist alli­ of Mayville's Paul O. Husting to the United ance within the state's Progressive party. War States Senate. A progressive Democratic son in Asia and in Europe broke the coalition of of a German-speaking immigrant and a grand­ economic liberals and foreign policy noninter­ son of Solomon Juneau, the founder of Mil­ ventionists throughout the country, and in waukee, Husting benefited from Woodrow Wisconsin, as Progressives split into two Wilson's first-term record, his own popularity groups over the issue, it was evident that the among German elements, his early Wisconsin economically liberal, noninterventionist coali­ antecedents, and the antagonism between his tion formed under Robert La Follette, Sr., opponent in the 1914 election. Governor Fran­ faced permanent decline. In 1938 Philip La cis McGovern, and Senator Robert M. La Follette's bid for a fourth term as governor Follette. Husting narrowly defeated McGov­ was stopped by Republican Julius Heil, who ern and went to Washington as a Wilson sup­ porter in both domestic and foreign policies. Following Husting's death in a hunting ac­ '-' Unless otherwise indicated, election results and cident in 1917, the Senate seat returned to statistics are from either the appropriate Wisconsin Blue Book or from James R. Donoghue, How Wiscon­ the Republicans, and the Wisconsin Demo­ sin Voted (Madison, 1956). The situation was compli­ cratic party reverted to conservative control. cated by active third parties, often socialist.

92 HANEY: WISCONSIN s NEW DEMOCRATS was backed as well by old-line Democrats, and tlie Progressives suffered a further, crippling blow.* Scores of the key leaders of the post-World War II Democratic party, who formerly had been Progressives, maintain that the Wiscon­ sin Democratic party of the quarter-century following the war developed largely because of the disappearance of the Wisconsin Progres­ sive party. Rent by dissension over foreign policy and the new priorities brought on by war, the party declined and died, thus open­ ing the way for a political realignment which at long last fit Wisconsin politics into the na­ tional pattern. Progressive (and sometimes Republican) votes of the La Follette period bear a close relationship to the Democratic votes of the late 1950's and 1960's. "Such a reversal of party lines," one observer has point­ Society's Iconographic Collections, ed out, "is most unusual in American his­ Arthur M. Vinje photo tory. "^ Daniel W. Hoan, right, and John McGonigle of Sun But wliile the pool of available votes thus Prairie at the 1952 Democratic National Convention. can be accounted for easily. Democratic success owes its development to other factors. The the Democratic National Committee. Hoan development began, really, with Daniel Hoan, helped liberalize and reorganize the Demo­ the colorful and cantankerous former Socialist cratic party in Wisconsin by establishing lib­ mayor of Milwaukee. Hoan decided to run for eral county units, inviting former Progressives governor on the Democratic ticket in 1944 into the party, and spearheading the drive to and 1946 and thus provided the impetus which place Robert Tehan in the state chairman­ enabled politically unaffiliated liberals to be­ ship.^ Due to Hoan's influence and the in­ gin to make a success of tlie Wisconsin Demo­ fluence of labor union leaders, Milwaukeeans cratic organization. Hoan became a Democrat and other urbanites dominated the party in for expedient, personal political reasons. He the mid-1940's. They bolstered botli the par­ turned to the party as the most promising ty's liberal policies and its vote totals, but a vehicle to advance liis career, and in so doing solely urban party could not win statewide contributed significantly to its development, elections, and there were few converts to the while failing to realize his personal aspira­ Democratic party in upstate counties. tions. Most obviously, he lent his well-known The next step in the rebirth of the Wiscon- name and campaign personality as guberna­ torial candidate, thereby accrediting the " Report ot State Chairman Patrick J. Liicey, Novem­ Wisconsin Democrats as a bona fide New ber 15, 1958, in "Minutes of Administrative Committee Meetings and Financial Statements," files of Wisconsin Deal-Fair Deal organization in the eyes of Democratic party headquarters, Madison, as o£ July, 1968. Epstein, Politics in Wisconsin, 49; Leon D. Ep­ •* For an excellent analysis of the immediate reasons stein, "A Two Party Wisconsin?" in the Journal of for La Follette's 1938 defeat, see William T. Evjue, Politics, 18: 447 (August, 1956); Julia Boegholt to "The Autopsy," in the Capital Times (Madison), No­ Daniel Hoan, April 14, 1948, in the Daniel Hoan pa­ vember 10, 1938. pers, box 14, file 51, Milwaukee County Historical "^ Horace Wilkic, personal interview, Madison, March Society; Wisconsin Democrat, March, 1950; Capital 19, 1969; John Wyngaard, personal interview, Madison, Times, January 25, 1946. Considerable correspondence February 6, 1969; Theodore H. White, Making of the in the Hoan Papers details Hoan's 1946-1949 political President 1960 (New York, 1961), 97-98; Michael Paul activities. Also enlightening are the March 31, 1949, Rogin, The Intellectuals and McCarthy: The Radical minutes of the Dane County Democratic party, in Specter (Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1967), quote from "Minutes" folder, Dane Comity Democratic Party p. 82. All personal interviews cited herein were with Archives, held by Mrs. Jack Barbash as of October, Richard C. Haney. 1968.

93 Republican for the state Assembly in 1946, and future Democratic Congressman Lester Johnson, who later remarked that he "had to get beat in the GOP primary in 1946, along with Bob La Follette, Ralph Immell, and Gaylord Nelson before I found out that there is no place for a liberal in that party."* Pres­ ent Democratic state Senator Carl Thompson and former Democratic governor John Rey­ nolds also moved to the Democratic party via the Progressive-Republican route. Middle- aged Democrats such as Tehan, Hoan, Uni­ versity of Wisconsin law Professor William Gorham Rice, and Jerome Fox of Chilton opened the door for the young liberals. They instilled the newcomers with a tenaciousness and a guarded optimism that enabled them to weather a decade of defeats before the goal of a balanced two-party Wisconsin was reached. Society's Iconographic Collections, Many of the "young turks," as they became Arthur M. Vinje photo known, first associated with one another in the William B. Rubin of Milwaukee, left, and Harry W. University of Wisconsin Young Progressive Bolens of Port Washington talking in a hotel room Club before World War II and in the state dui-ing the Democratic National Convention of 1944. unit of the American Veterans Committee thereafter. Shortly after the war, Oshkosh na­ sin Democracy hinged on the ultimately ill- tive James Doyle joined the prestigious Madi­ fated decision of Senator Robert La Follette, son law firm headed by Philip F. La Follette. Jr., to re-enter the Republican fold. La Fol­ Carl Thompson was a leader of the Young lette revealed his intention at the final Pro­ Progressive Club and of student government gressive convention in 1946 at Portage, and at the University in the late 1930's, and he brought with him, initially at least, a group of served as Governor La Follette's chauffeur rising young politicians, mostly from outside during his student days. He then became a Milwaukee. Subsequently, the state Republi­ lawyer and real estate dealer in Stoughton, his cans snubbed La Follette and endorsed State home town. Horace Wilkie, a Progressive from Chairman Thomas Coleman's choice for a prominent Madison family, graduated from Senator—then little-known Marine Corps vet­ George Washington University Law School eran Joseph R. McCarthy. While La Follette, and returned to Madison. Gaylord Nelson, a twenty-one-year veteran of the Senate, over- the son of Polk County Progressive leader Dr. confidently remained in Washington attend­ Anton Nelson, graduated from the University ing to government business, McCarthy ran an of Wisconsin Law School. John Reynolds, active and victorious primary campaign with another University of Wisconsin Law School the slogan, "Congress Needs a Tail Gunner." product, grew up in a family of Wisconsin The defeat of La Follette—and the consequent Progressive leaders from Green Bay. His triumph of the Coleman-McCarthy-stalwart father had been attorney general, and his machine over the unseated Senator for control grandfather, a state legislator. Reynolds, of the state Republican organization—left Wilkie, Doyle, Nelson, and Thompson all young, former Progressives who had followed La Follette to the GOP with only one alterna­ tive: the Democratic party.'' ' Roger T. Johnson, Robert M. La Follette, Jr., and Among those who found temporary shelter, the Decline of the Progressive Party in Wisconsin along with Young Bob, in the GOP were fu­ (Madison, 1964); Jack Anderson and Ronald W, May, McCarthy: The Man, the Setiator, the Ism (Boston, ture Democratic governor and U.S. Senator 1952), 85. Gaylord Nelson, who ran unsuccessfully as a "Capital Times, October 17, 1953.

94 were World War II veterans. David Rabino- vitz of Sheboygan, a labor lawyer, was a former Progressive fund raiser. Henry Reuss and ex- Progressive Thomas Fairchild were Milwaukee attorneys who had worked for the Office of Price Administration during the war. Since many of the future Democratic officeholders were lawyers, they had sufficient personal in­ come and somewhat flexible schedules and thus could indulge in political activity.^

EADERS of several liberal po­ litical groups, including Dan Hoan's Liberal League and the Dane County Democratic Club led by Carl Thompson, met in the Retlaw Hotel in Fond du Lac in May, 1948, to establish formally the Democratic Organizing Committee. Its two-fold purpose was to circumvent the statutory' Democratic party organization controlled by Charles Society's Iconographic Collections, Arthur M. Vinje photo Greene, the conservative state chairman who had refused to step down despite a 17i/2-to-2i/2 Carl Thompson and Gaylord Nelson conferring at the 1952 Democratic National Convention. vote by the national convention delegation re­ questing his resignation, and to create an extralegal body which could accept members Voluntary Committee in 1925 when La Fol­ and campaign contributions. The advantages lette and John Blaine were considered out of to the party were clear: the Democratic Or­ step with the national party headed by Calvin ganizing Committee could sidestep the often Coolidge. When the Wisconsin Progressive stringent statutory regulations on campaign party was established as a separate entity in financial operations and on open primaries, 1934, the dominant RVC took absolute con­ and it could encourage mass membership as trol of the state's Republican party. Both the a fund-raising technique, something that the RVC and the DOC were organized for similar statutory parties legally could not. reasons: In 1948 the young Wisconsin Demo­ crats considered most old Wisconsin Demo­ Assisted by veterans like Hoan, Fox, and crats out of step with the Roosevelt and Tru­ Tehan, the youthful Democrats modeled their man administrations, and the DOC, like its new DOC spiritually and ideologically after Republican counterpart, sought ultimate con­ the North Dakota Non-Partisan League and trol of the party machinery. the Minnesota Democratic-Farmer-Labor par­ ty. Structurally it followed closely the pattern During l948 electioneering, the young ex- of Wisconsin's Republican Voluntary Com­ Progressives and their allies used the party's mittee, which had long been in operation. nominating process to gain control of the Founded by stalwart Republicans in 1901 as Democratic organization. In the guberna­ the Eleventh Story League to combat Robert torial nomination struggle, DOC-backed Carl M. La Follette, it evolved into the Republican Thompson easily defeated old-line Democrat William Carroll, who had been a state senator " John Reynolds, personal interview, Milwaukee, and floor leader of the anti-La Follette coali­ April 30, 1969; James Doyle, personal interview, Mad­ tion of Republicans and Democrats during the ison, February 14, 1969; Ruth Doyle, personal inter­ 1930's. The DOC gained the attention of na­ view, Madison, February 12, 1969; Roland B. Day, tional party leaders when Congressman An­ personal interview, Madison, January 27, 1969; Wyn­ gaard interview; La Crosse Tribune, October 10, 1958. drew Biemiller of Milwaukee worked at the Biographical information is drawn mostly from ap­ Democrats' Philadelphia convention as Min­ propriate editions of the Wisconsin Blue Book. neapolis Mayor Hubert Humphrey's right-

95 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY WINTER, 1974-1975 hand man in a floor fight which gave Presi­ gun well before 1949, and Thompson's exhor­ dent Harry Truman a strong civil rights tation was merely a reminder. In a November, plank. Truman subsequently appointed Rob­ 1948, meeting in Madison, the youthful Demo­ ert Tehan to the U.S. Eastern District Court cratic leaders had adopted a DOC constitution judgeship in April, 1949, despite open support drafted by James Doyle, and they decided to by several state and national labor and politi­ begin party-building work immediately. To cal leaders for old-guard Democrat William B. help raise morale and money, the group even Rubin.'" Tehan's success reflected the grow­ sold "D. O. C." T-shirts. The new Democrats ing power and influence of the young men had to organize a grass-roots political move­ he championed, and it reflected as well the ment from the top down, establishing DOC DOC's fruitful cultivation of the national par­ units county by county. The leaders mostly ty through its emphasis on Fair Deal issues. were from Dane County and included DOG In addition to promoting Truman's Fair co-chairman Doyle, Democratic National Com­ Deal and the regular Democratic party, DOC mitteeman Thompson, Horace Wilkie, Gay­ leaders supported the Americans for Demo­ lord Nelson, and freshman Assemblyman Pat­ cratic Action, which had been formed by lib­ rick Lucey of Crawford County.'^ eral Democrats Chester Bowles, Eleanor Roo­ To organize a county DOC unit, state lead­ sevelt, and others. Second district congres­ ers would find one or two persons in a county sional candidate Horace Wilkie remarked in whom they had confidence, then select a during the 1950 campaign that he intended to chairman. The chairman was usually a former "campaign as an all-out supporter of the Fair Progressive, or a labor leader, a postmaster, or Deal and, of course, my platform follows the head of a farm organization—and often the ADA program right down the line." James possessor of two of these qualifications. One Doyle later became national chairman of the or sometimes two or three state leaders per­ ADA in 1953 and 1954, immediately following sonally would visit and talk to the designated his term as DOC state chairman.'' The DOC county leader, encouraging him to organize a without reservation oriented itself toward the meeting and helping him compile a mailing Americans for Democratic Action and the Fair list from several sources. The county leader Deal rather than toward Henry Wallace's produced names of persons whom he knew Peoples' Progressive party, and following the to be liberals; subscribers to The Progressive 1948 election, it gave top priority to building were included; Thompson got hold of the a strong, statewide, liberal Democratic party.'^ younger Senator Robert La Follette's Progres­ Carl Thompson expressed the DOC's evan­ sive party membership list and used it ex­ gelistic determination in 1949 when he pro­ tensively; and state leaders used their contacts claimed at the party's state convention, "Our from the old Young Progressive Club and the hour of victory is at hand. All that is necessary American Veterans Committee. Mailings were is for us to take off our coats and go out and sent to prospective members, and notices often go to work." The hard work actually had be- were placed in weekly newspapers.''' State leaders made still another trip to each county to direct organizational meetings. They " Correspondence in the William B. Rubin Papers, box 13, Archives-Manuscripts Division, State Historical encouraged election of county DOC officers Society of Wisconsin, and the Milwaukee Journal for and promised continued help to get their or­ the month of April, 1949, are excellent sources concern­ ganizations functioning. At first, DOC lead­ ing the Tehan-Rubin judgeship struggle. ers encountered difficuhy in attracting people. " Horace Wilkie to Americans for Democratic Action As late as 1953, only three people attended a headquarters, March 31, 1950, in Americans for Demo­ cratic Action Papers, series 3, box 8, Archives-Manu­ Brown County meeting at wliich John Rey- scripts Division, State Historical Society ot Wisconsin; and James Doyle for Governor leaflet, 1954, in Com­ '••' Capital Times, November 28, 1949; James Doyle mittee on Political Education, tile A, correspondence, interview; miscellaneous pictures folder in biographies box 8, .\FL-CIO Papers, Archives-Manuscripts Division, file drawer, Wisconsin Democratic party headquarters, State Historical Society of Wisconsin. Madison, as of July, 1968. "For a concurring opinion, see Wilham B. Hessel- " Carl Thompson, personal interview, Madison, Feb­ tine, "The Perversion ot Progressivism," in The Pro­ ruary 26, 1969; Patrick J, Lucey, personal interview, gressive, 12: 7 (September, 1948). Madison, March 17, 1969; James Doyle interview.

96 HANEY: WISCONSIN S NEW DEMOCRATS

nolds was chosen chairman. In Pierce County only two men. Walker Wyman and Matt Quinn, attended a DOC rally at Ellsworth. Carl Thompson and James Doyle both drove from Madison to distant meetings, only to find that nobody, including the appointed county chairman, showed up. Doyle described the problem succinctly: "There are places around the state where it takes courage to be a Demo­ crat. The few professed Democrats are like the early Christians. They feel as though they should hold their meetings in the catacombs." Nonetheless, slow but definite progress oc­ curred, due to the leaders' persistence and the assistance of numerous, unheralded local poli­ ticians who created spirited county DOC or­ ganizations.''' Delegates from the county organizations convened for the first time in Green Bay dur­ ing the last week of November, 1949, and the convention gave the fledgling DOC a sense of Courtesy of Ruth Doyle statewide identity that it had lacked when Eleanor Roosevelt and James Doyle at a press con­ the county units were merely the political off­ ference. spring of individual young turks. The DOC adopted a party constitution, formalized an referred nostalgically to the enthusiasm and organizational structure headed by an ad­ camaraderie generated by their watershed ministrative committee and a state party chair­ Green Bay gathering.'^ man, and elected its first officers. Jerome Fox, The Wisconsin Democratic organization who had served the DOC as an interim co- established itself during the 1950 campaign chairman with Doyle and Nelson, was elected as an issues-oriented. Fair Deal party. The chairman without opposition. James Doyle DOC campaigned feverishly in support of became party treasurer, and Carl Thompson Truman's Fair Deal, including the Brannan and Julia Boegholt, wife of University of Wis­ Plan for agriculture, civil rights, extended consin philosopher Carl Boegholt and an an­ social security coverage, and repeal of the tagonist of Dan Hoan, remained on the Demo­ Taft-Hartley Act; and it called for the defeat cratic National Committee. Illinois Senator of Joseph McCarthy in 1952. Gubernatorial Paul Douglas delivered the main address to candidate Carl Thompson and U.S. Senate the approximately 700 delegates from fifty candidate Thomas Fairchild ran ahead of the county DOC units, who braved icy roads and a rest of the ticket. The Wisconsin Democratic blizzard to reach Green Bay. A contemporary vote increased, while nationally the Republi­ observer said the Green Bay convention filled can party gained, indicating that the DOC Wisconsin Democrats with "missionary zeal" organizational work had paid off. Wisconsin and "a spirit of confidence and determina­ Deinocrats had come a long way from 1946 tion," and for years afterward party orators when a sign behind the speakers' table at the state convention misspelled the name of the " John Reynolds, personal interview, Milwaukee, April 30, 1969; Walker Wyman, personal interview, " Wisconsin Democrat, September, November, De­ Madison, March 28, 1969; Charles Ciraham, personal cember, 1949; quote from Milwaukee Journal, Novem­ interview, Whitewater, February 14, 1969; Thompson ber 28, 1949; Sheboygan Press, November 28, 1949; reso­ interview; James Doyle interview; quote from James lution, "The Late Jerome Fox," in Wisconsin Demo­ Doyle speech to 1950 Wisconsin Democratic convention, cratic party convention records, 1957, Wisconsin Demo­ in Wisconsin Democratic party state convention rec­ cratic party headquarters, as ot July, 1968; Wisconsin ords, 1950, Wisconsin Democratic party headquarters, State Journal (Madison), November 28, 1949; Capital as ot July, 1968. Times, November 22, 28, 1949.

97 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY WINTER, 1974-1975

papers to get the junior Senator into political trouble by 1950.'* Senator McCarthy initially seized upon the notion of a rhetorical crusade against communism to win re-election in 1952. In their concerted effort to unseat McCarthy, the Wisconsin Democrats attracted attention out of proportion to actual strength. John Reynolds, in a 1960 speech at Harvard Uni­ versity, remarked about the impact of McCar­ thy on Wisconsin politics: "I believe that the Democratic party could never have become cemented into any kind of functioning body witliout the unifying effect of Wisconsin's new Junior Senator, Joseph R. McCarthy."'^ McCarthy and his supporters had provided Wisconsin Democrats with a cause, a cause that was to become, like hard work and faith­ ful adherence to the national party and its leaders, another source of Democratic success. Thirty-six-year-old James Doyle was selected party chairman in preparation for the 1952 anti-McCarthy crusade. Doyle, a thoughtful, soft-spoken man, devoted up to seventy hours a week to his job as DOC chairman. He com­ bined thoroughness with great patience and consideration in dealing with others, and on his travels throughout Wisconsin to build the DOC he had made some valuable political acquaintances. Thomas Fairchild emerged as the DOC candidate for the U.S. Senate after much in- traparty jockeying and a close primary victory over Henry Reuss. (As party chairman, Doyle could not be a candidate.) Fairchild was a mild-mannered former Progressive who was elected attorney general in 1948, the only Courtesy of Capital Times Democrat to win a statewide office between Presidential candidate .4dlai Stevenson and U.S. Senate 1932 and 1957, and he had run a respectable candidate Thomas Fairchild. race against Senator Alexander Wiley in 1950. With unknown first-term Assemblyman Wil­ President, "Harry S. Trumann." Yet state liam Proxmire as challenger of popular Re­ Democrats still lacked the organization and publican Governor Walter Kohler, the Fair- the candidates to compete on equal terms with the perennially dominant Republicans.'^ " Leroy Gore, Joe Must Go (New York, 1954); Morris To its coalition of ex-Progressives and labor Rubin (ed.). The McCarthy Record (Madison, 1952); Karl Meyer, "The Politics ot Loyalty from La Follette unions, the DOC in 1952 added voters who to McCarthy in Wisconsin, 1918-1952" (Ph.D. disserta­ opposed the tactics and positions of Senator tion, Princeton University, 1956); Senator McCarthy, Joseph McCarthy. McCarthy's conflicts of in­ in Committee on Political Education, file B, boxes 1, terest. Senate absenteeism, tax troubles, and 4, 6, 7, 8, AFL-CIO Papers; Richard Rovere, Senator other political embarrassments had been pub­ Joe McCarthy (Cleveland, 1959); Wisconsin Democrat, McCarthy supplement, January, 1952; Capital Times, licized sufficiently by some Wisconsin news- April, May, 1946, February, December, 1947. ""New Wisconsin Democrat, April 20, 1960; Capital " Milwaukee Journal, May 11, 1946. Times, March 11, 1960.

98 HANEY: WISCONSIN S NEW DEMOCRATS child-McCarthy race became of paramount Club, the feeling of most party professionals importance to the Democrats.^" was that the effort was doomed to amateurish The anti-McCarthy campaign was a team failure. The party supplanted the anti- effort. Fairchild contrasted his views on a McCarthy crusade with an eagerness to attract wide variety of issues with those of Senator more votes, to develop winning candidates, McCartliy, and Proxmire and other Democrats and to deal principally with economic issues.^^ campaigned against McCarthy rather than against their own opponents. The nonparti­ san Wisconsin Citizens' Committee on the SIGNIFICANT step towards McCarthy Record organized anti-McCarthyites A attaining these goals was tak­ throughout the state, including incumbent en in 1953 when Lester Johnson captured the Republican Secretary of State Fred Zimmer­ congressional seat for largely rural west-central man, Lawrence University President Nathan Wisconsin in a special by-election after Pro­ Pusey, former Wisconsin Veterans of Foreign gressive Merlin Hull's death. Johnson, a form­ Wars Commander Sverre Roang of Edgerton, er Progressive like his Republican opponent University of Wisconsin football captain Jim Arthur Padrutt, hammered at agrarian eco­ Hammond, and Dr. John Schindler of Mon­ nomic issues and capitalized on dissatisfaction roe, the author of the best-selling How to with the • Eisenhower Administration's farm Live 365 Days a Year. Organized labor in policies. State Democrats soon adopted John­ Wisconsin concentrated its 1952 efforts on son's successful tactic of wooing the farmer defeating McCarthy. Although Fairchild led vote, and what one observer had called a state Democratic balloting and McCarthy ran "historic antipathy of rural Wisconsin to last among Republicans, the anti-McCarthy Democratic candidates" changed by the mid- crusade fell short.^' 1950's into a contest for a mercurial farm vote McCarthyism helped expand and unite the which neither party could take for granted.^^ state's Democratic minority, but party wheel- William Proxmire, the party's candidate for horses realized after the 1952 election that governor in 1952, 1954, and 1956, ceaselessly further growth depended on more than just reiterated facts about the heavy farm property anti-McCarthyism. As for the Senator, said tax rate, and he excoriated the legislature for John Reynolds, "Frankly, he's not worth a its failure to grant tax exemptions to dairy resolution." While some Democrats partici­ farmers for state-required milk houses. He pated in the 1954 bi-partisan Joe-Must-Go attacked Governor Walter Kohler's support of the federal cut in milk parity rates, using '^ Robert Griffith, "The General and the Senator: Kohler's position as his main 1954 campaign Republican Politics and the 1952 Campaign in Wiscon­ issue, lambasted Republican agricultural poli­ sin," in the Wisconsin Magazine of History, 54: 23-29 cies, and alluded to declining farm prosperity. (Autumn, 1970); Michael O'Brien, "The Anti-McCar­ With these arguments, Proxmire won an im­ thy Campaign in Wisconsin, 1951-1952," in the Wiscon­ sin Magazine of History, 56: 91-108 (Winter, 1972- pressive 49 per cent of the vote, and Demo- 1973). "^ Dorothea Schindler, personal interview, Monroe, April 9, 1969; Rubin (ed.). The McCarthy Record; David M. Oshinsky, "Wisconsin Labor and the Cam­ ''' Milwaukee Sentinel, July 12, 1954; David P. and paign of 1952," in the Wisconsin Magazine of History, Esther S. Thelen, "Joe Must Go: The Movement to 56: 109-118 (Winter, 1972-1973). According to Eisen­ Recall Senator Joseph R. McCarthy," in the Wisconsin hower aide Emmet John Hughes in The Ordeal of Magazine of History, 49: 185-209 (Spring, 1966); Frank Power (New York, 1962), 38-40, Dwight Eisenhower, Theodore and Jane Cloak, "Joe Must Go: The Story of then a presidential candidate, deleted from a speech, Dane County in the 1954 Recall Against McCarthy," prepared for delivery in Milwaukee, some words of manuscript in the Archives-Manuscripts Division, State praise for his friend General George Marshall, whose Historical Society of Wisconsin; Gore, Joe Must Go. loyalty had been questioned by McCarthy. Years later '-•' Green Bay Press Gazette, September 29, 1948; Leon James Doyle estimated that Eisenhower's decision gave D. Epstein, in "Size of Place and the Division of the McCarthy 60,000 votes which otherwise would have Tw'o-Party Vote in Wisconsin," in the Western Political gone to Fairchild, thus accounting tor a difference of Quarterly, 9: 149 (March, 1956), maintains that "this 120,000 votes in an election in which the margin was volatility gives the farm vote an importance in Wis­ only slightly greater than 120,000 votes. James Doyle consin politics beyond that indicated by mere num­ interview. bers."

99 efforts in urban areas together with an in­ creased portion of the farm vote would pro­ duce victory, and they concentrated on pocket- book issues. Proxmire, a Harvard- and Yale- educated economist making his third try for the governorship, advocated a broader state income tax base as an alternative to institut­ ing a sales tax, warned of growing unemploy­ ment in urban areas, and met with farmers in their own town halls throughout Wisconsin. President Dwight Eisenliower and Senator Alexander Wiley, however, led a statewide Republican landslide. Nevertheless Demo­ cratic Congressmen Henry Reuss, Lester John­ son, and Clement Zablocki were re-elected, and there was no major shift of power in the state legislature. Proxmire lost to Vernon Thomson in a close race for governor, but in five years of continuous campaigning he had Society's Iconographic Collections, Courtesy of Harvey Kitzman established himself as the Democrat most At the White House: Congressman Clement Zablocki, familiar to Wisconsin voters. Mrs. John Gronouski, Julie Gronouski, President Lyn­ The special election in 1957 to fill the U.S. don B. Johnson, Stacy Gronouski, John Gronouski, and Senate seat made vacant by Joseph McCarthy's Congressman Henry Reuss. death presented Proxmire with a fourth, and perhaps final, opportunity to win office. Fol­ crats increased the size of their legislative lowing an easy primary victory over Congress­ minority. man Clement J. Zablocki of Milwaukee, The 1955 election of labor-backed Philleo Proxmire faced his two-time conquerer, form­ Nash to the state chairmanship over Horace er Republican Governor Kohler. Kohler won Wilkie underscored union influence in the a divisive seven-man GOP primary in which party. Unions contributed money (an "affili­ he carefully identified himself as a moderate ation payment to the Democratic coalition, Eisenhower Republican and made no effort yielding a substantial voice in the affairs of to disguise his distaste for McCarthyism. that party"), manpower, and organization to Backed by many McCarthyites, conservative Democratic campaigns. And state Democrats former Congressman Glenn Davis ran a close in turn supported pro-labor legislation, en­ second. No major issue or controversy en­ dorsed the union position in the bitter Kohler livened the Proxmire-Kohler contest, and strike, and tried unsuccessfully to block the Proxmire capitalized on the division between Republican-sponsored Catlin Act which out­ GOP moderates and the McCarthyites, many lawed direct union political contributions in of whom refused to support Kohler's candi­ Wisconsin.2* dacy. Years later, Proxmire admonished: The Democrats anticipated the 1956 elec­ "Never forget the tendency of the Republicans tion with optimism. They hoped that labor in Wisconsin to save the Democrats."^^ Republican division, a nationwide Demo­ ^ Wisconsin Democratic party convention records, cratic trend, and Proxmire's relentless cam­ 1955, in Wisconsin Democratic party headquarters, as of July, 1968; quote from David Adamany, "Money in paigning combined to produce a Proxmire vic­ a State Political System: Wisconsin" (Ph.D. disserta­ tory over Kohler by a comfortable margin of tion. University of Wisconsin, 1967), 201; Oshinsky, more than 100,000 votes. Syndicated column- "Wisconsin Labor and the Campaign of 1952"; H. Gay- Ion Greenhill, Labor Money in Wisconsin Politics, 1964 (Princeton, New Jersey, 1966); and Donald P. ^ William Proxmire, personal intervie*v, Madison, Kommcrs, "Organized Labor's Political Spending and May 17, 1969, and conversations with and observations the Catlin Act" (master's thesis. University ot Wiscon­ of Proxmire throughout 1970; Wisconsin State Journal, sin, 1957). August 29, 1957, and (quote) June 5, 1967.

100 Society's Iconographic Collections, George Koshollek photo, Milwaukee Journal William Proxmire holding hands with his wife Ellen following his election to the Senate in August, 1957.

ist John Wyngaard, a respected observer of during Senate recesses to spend his time at state politics who writes with a Republican plant gates, high schools, and service club bias, accurately assessed the election's signifi­ luncheons in Wisconsin rather than at tax­ cance for Wisconsin Democrats when he wrote payer-financed "conferences" in places like that "without the Proxmire precedent, his par­ Bermuda or Acapulco. He sometimes spent a ty prob;ibly would not have prospered to the day working in a cheese factory or on an as­ extent that it did during the succeeding dec- sembly line, and his campaign days often ade."26 lasted eighteen hours. Proxmire is a con­ William Proxmire's campaign techniques scientious, fiercely independent, and hard­ revolutionized Wisconsin politics, just as had working man who maintains that jogging and Robert La Follette, Sr.'s, tactic of publicizing physical conditioning keep him mentally alert state legislators' roll call votes and Governor and enable him to withstand a rigorous work Walter Kohler, Sr.'s, use of his private airplane schedule. His 1957 victory launched him on a as early as 1928. Proxmire always kept in lengthy career in the United States Senate, close touch with his constituents, preferring wliere he now enjoys considerable seniority and influence, and provided state Democrats ^ Wisconsin Slate Journal, January 10, 1968. with the breakthrough which within five years

101 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY WINTER, 1974-1975

four of the ten congressional seats. For the first time since 1895, Wisconsin Democrats held all three top state elective offices as well as their share of minor state posts. The party's financial condition improved and its member­ ship mushroomed. Lucey turned the Wiscon­ sin party into an efficient, businesslike vehicle to be used by candidates for winning elections. Lucey made several controversial innova­ tions. He centralized authority by appointing loyal lieutenants to powerful party positions; and he arbitrarily increased the cost of Jeffer­ son-Jackson Day dinner tickets from $25 to 1100 in 1962 and muted his critics by getting President John Kennedy to deliver the major address. Less controversially, he encouraged voter registration and get-out-the-vote drives, Society's Iconographic Collections, Milwaukee Journal photo especially in heavily Democratic Milwaukee Mrs. Warren Spahn calling on south Milwaukee resi­ County where the size of an election-day turn­ dents as part of a Democratic voter registration drive. out often determined statewide victory or de­ feat. Democrats were told that "a 60% regis­ made them the political equal of the Repub­ tration would mean that Deinocratic candi­ licans. It provided them, too, with an object dates in state-wide races could need more than lesson in campaign technique, a technique 60,000 votes in the non-presidential election emulated by others but rarely with Proxmire's of 1958 coming into the City of Milwaukee devotion.2'' and still win."^^ To encourage registration Patrick J. Lucey was chosen party chairman and voting, Lucey led precinct schools in at tlie 1957 state convention a few weeks after Madison to teach party workers how to con­ the Proxmire victory. Backed by most of the duct productive registration drives, unions young turks from Dane County in a hotly- provided workers and manned phones to contested election, he narrowly unseated in­ prod voters, and the party held schools for cumbent Philleo Nash by 692 to 687 votes.^** legislative and county office-seekers to teach Lucey, a well-organized and rather private the fundamentals of winning elections.^" person and a former assemblyman from Craw­ Lucey also stressed the importance of build­ ford County, moved to Madison and in 1954 ing Democratic strength in county court­ established what became an extremely success­ houses, in each of which eight elective officers ful real estate agency. He served six years as serve. He operated on the premise that failure chairman, and during his tenure the state's to run a candidate for any one county office Democrats won the governorship in three suc­ "will cost state and congressional candidates cessive elections, captured both U.S. Senate at least 100 votes." The strategy paid rich seats, and solidly entrenched themselves in dividends at the grass roots, and it assisted at the higher levels. Democrats steadily increased ^ Proxmire conversations, 1970. The Senator enjoys saying that one of his most difficult political challenges was to convince his old-guard Republican father, a -"" March 14, 1962, minutes of the Dane Comity Demo­ Lake Forest, Illinois, physician, that Senator Paul cratic party, in "Minutes" folder, Dane County Demo­ Douglas, a liberal Democrat from Illinois, was a con­ cratic Party Archives; "Voter Registration, 1958," "Mil­ scientious Senator and a good fellow. Dr. Proxmire waukee Political Analysis, Part I, Registration," in finally was swayed, to the dismay of many of his patronage, voter registration, and presidential primary friends, after the two Senators carefully planned a file drawer, Wisconsin Democratic party headquarters, "surprise" introduction. as of July, 1968. -'" Official tabulation of votes signed by Clarence '""New Wisconsin Democrat, January 22, 1960; "Get Bylsma, elections commission chairman, in Wisconsin Out the Vote Campaign" folder, Wisconsin Democratic Democratic party convention records, 1957, Wisconsin party convention records, 1961, Wisconsin Democratic Democratic party headquarters, as of July, 1968. party headquarters, as of July, 1968.

102 Society's Iconographic Collections, Tom Barlet photo. Capital Times State Democratic chairman Patrick Lucey, Madison Mayor Ivan Nestingen, Don Eisenberg, State Senator Horace Wilkie, Mrs. Robert Dolan, Jack DeWitt, and Padraic Kennedy opening the joint Citizens for Kennedy and Nelson for Governor headquarters in October, 1960. their share of county courthouse jobs through­ gressional seats to give the Wisconsin delega­ out the state between 1954 and 1965.^' tion a 5-to-5 split. John Reynolds was elected The rise of Lucey to the chairmanship, the attorney general; Philleo Nash, lieutenant Proxmire breakthrough, and a national Demo­ governor; and Eugene Lamb, state treasurer. cratic trend made 1958 a banner year for Most important for the Democrats, state Wisconsin Democrats. Senator Proxmire easily Senator Gaylord Nelson upset incumbent Re­ won re-election over token Republican op­ publican Governor Vernon Thomson. position. The party won a 55-to-45 majority in Nelson, who had helped organize the DOC the state Assembly and increased its state Sen­ in the late 1940's, was well known in party ate minority. Robert Kastenmeier of Water- circles but relatively unknown to the general town and Gerald Flynn of Racine won con- public. A shrewd political infighter who gen­ erated considerable public trust. Nelson began " Epstein, "A Two-Party Wisconsin?" 444; New Wis­ campaigning for the governorship more than consin Democrat, November, 1964; quote from Patrick a year before the 1958 election. He needed Lucey to district chairmen, July 6, 1962, in Minutes of Wisconsin Democratic Party Administrative Committee desperately to create public recognition, a Meetings and Financial Statements, Wisconsin Demo­ need he filled by early developing a genuine cratic party headquarters, as ot July, 1968. gusto for the small-town banquet circuit and

103 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY WINTER, 1974-1975

men, a majority of the Wisconsin Democra­ tic Administrative Committee, labor leaders such as Wisconsin AFL-CIO President George Haberman, and farm organization leaders from areas bordering Minnesota. Although Gaylord Nelson preferred either Adlai Steven­ son or Humphrey as the nominee, he main­ tained as neutral a posture as possible to pre­ serve his own chances for re-election. Lucey openly and outspokenly supported Senator Kennedy, and was backed by Madison Mayor Ivan Nestingen, Attorney General John Rey­ nolds, Congressman Clement Zablocki, Na­ tional Committeewoman Vel Phillips, and a handful of other Democratic leaders. To fur­ ther complicate matters, James Doyle was na­ tional chairman of Adlai Stevenson's presi­ dential campaign organization. With the Kennedy-Humphrey campaign under way, the Society's Iconographic Collections, pro-Humphrey majority of the state Demo­ Wisconsin State Journal photo cratic Administrative Committee passed a Representative Robert Kastenmeier campaigning in a motion so that fewer at-large delegates than Waunakee bakery. originally agreed could attend the Democratic national convention. Chairman Lucey and the the urban union hall. From the first he en­ pro-Kennedy minority were enraged, since joyed getting together with the home folks. Kennedy appeared likely to win more votes Two months before election day, he was able but not necessarily more congressional districts to look back upon a twelve-month campaign than Humphrey. Several lesser 1960 primary in which he had visited all but two counties, incidents also created ill will, and almost all had added 30,000 miles to his car, and had state Democratic leaders agreed later that the delivered over 200 speeches. He expounded primary—won by Kennedy—seriously divided his views on normally dull topics like taxation the party.-'^ and the state budget in such an engaging man­ Despite intraparty divisions. Democrats ex­ ner that he captured voter interest and in­ perienced continuing success in the early stilled understanding. His campaign expertise 1960's. In 1960 itself. Governor Nelson and carried him to the statehouse, then four years Attorney General Reynolds were re-elected, later to the U.S. Senate, where he still serves.^^ fom of the five incumbent Democratic Con­ Intense and often bitter intraparty battles gressmen survived, and the party increased its accompanied the unprecedented Democratic number of courthouse offices. Republicans, electoral successes. Lucey's defeat of Nash in however, regained an Assembly majority, cap- 1957 for the state chairmanship aroused hard feelings. Nelson and Lucey, both assertive and •" Probably the most comprehensive study of the strong-willed men, found that the interests of 1960 Wisconsin presidential primary is a manuscript governor and party chairman did not always by Lucius J. Barker, "The Presidential Primary Recon­ coincide. The 1960 presidential primary, pit­ sidered: Wisconsin, 1960," a copy ot which was lent ting Massachusetts Senator John Kennedy to the author by Patrick Lucey in March, 1969; also see Wisconsin State Journal, March 25, 1960; Theodore against Minnesota Senator Hubert Humphrey, C. Sorenson, Kennedy (New York, 1965), 136; Lucey created hostility and long-lasting suspicion interview; Reynolds interview; Sheboygan Press, Janu­ within Wisconsin ranks. Most active state ary 29, B'ebruary 1, 1960. Nearly unnoticed amid the Democrats supported Humphrey. He com­ presidential primary excitement was the election in April, 1960, of Henry Maier, a Democrat, as mayor of manded the allegiance of most county chair- Milwaukee, a post which had been controlled by the city's socialist party for most of the preceding half ^' Wisconsin Democrat, September, 1958. century.

104 HANEY: WISCONSIN'S NEW DEMOCRATS tured three state constitutional offices, and carried the state for Ricliard Nixon over John Pi Kennedy in the presidential race. The party, however, remained divided along Lucey (pro- Kennedy) and anti-Lucey (pro-Humphrey) lines in its convention vote for Democratic National Committee seats, and Lucey regular­ ly came under fire throughout 1961. The Milwaukee County Democratic chairman en­ gaged liim in a rimning battle over everything from federal patronage to seating arrange­ ments at fund-raising dinners. Governor Nel­ son publicly endorsed Assemblyman Frank Nikolay for the state chairmanship despite Lucey's intention of seeking a third term, but Nelson and Lucey agreed to a truce after Nikolay's unit of the National Guard was called to active dmy for a year. The 1962 state Democratic convention voted, with Society's Iconographic Collections, Milwaukee Journal photo Lucey's blessing, to advocate repeal of a state sales tax compromise signed into law by Gov­ Patrick Lucey and Robert F. Kennedy walking in a ernor Nelson a few months earlier, about hotel corridor. whicli the N'eiv Wisconsin Democrat, a. party newspaper controlled by Lucey elements, said: Nelson challenged incumbent Republican "Gov. Gaylord Nelson and his staff always Senator Alexander Wiley, a twenty-four-year said it would 'be a cold day in Wisconsin' veteran of the Senate whose advancing age when he signed a sales tax—and it was. It was an insurmountable handicap against a was, in fact, 3 degrees below zero."^'* rival who campaigned on his acliievements as governor. Reynolds, a staunch opponent of the sales tax, consciously turned his race for the governorship against Republican Philip 'HE bickering did not dilute Dem­ Kuelm into a virtual sales tax referendum. ocratic successes at the polls. In Wisconsin's Democratic party met the chal­ 1962, Nelson and Reynolds headed the ticket, lenge articulated in the Times and passed and the political change of scene in Wisconsin from adolescence to maturity with the elec­ elicited from the Neiv York Times on election tion of Jolm Reynolds as governor and Gay­ eve an astute observation: lord Nelson as Senator. A Republican-Democratic two-party sys­ Reynolds' victory was particularly signifi­ tem, a tardy arrival in Wisconsin, is facing cant. John Gronouski, a Wisconsin economist a maturity test this year. who was named Postmaster General and am­ Political students believe the system has bassador to Poland during the 1960's, has said come to stay. However, unless the Demo­ that he believes Reynolds' election demon­ crats can elect at least one of their state­ strated that the earlier Proxmire and Nelson wide candidates they will flunk the test victories had not been flukes. Reynolds' po­ and may not be able to compete seriously litical image and public personality bear out again for a few years.^^ the observation. He is a friendly, charming, and hospitable man, always disarmingly can­ '•''' Lucey, the state chairnian and a staunch ally of did and straightforward. As attorney general, the Keiniedys, had considerable influence over federal patronage in Wisconsin during the Keiuiedy Adminis­ and even as governor, he never attracted a tration. Capital Times, September 6, 1961, June 11, bipartisan personal following among voters 1962; Wisconsin Stale Journal, September 22, 1961, like the followings which Proxmire and Nel­ June 23, June 24, 1962; New Wisconsin Democrat, De­ son gradually built for themselves. Thus, his cember, 1961. 1962 victory signified without doubt that ''-New York Times, October 21, 1962. 105 it to a greater degree than had Robert M. La Follette, Sr., as a Republican renegade or his sons as czars of the Wisconsin Progressive par­ ty. Similarly, Wisconsin Republicans like Melvin Laird rose to national prominence without the stigma of stalwart-progressive fac­ tionalism which had hindered tlieir predeces­ sors when Wisconsin was a one-party state. A two-party balance in modern Wisconsin began to evolve when a cadre of youthful ex- Progressives went into the "catacombs" throughout the state and steadily built a new Democratic party. They concentrated on es­ tablishing grass-roots support from the time they chose the Democratic party as their po­ litical vehicle in the middle 1940's until they created a professional, election-winning or­ ganization by the early 1960's. The decline of the Progressives and the subsequent defeat of Senator Robert La Follette, Jr., in 1946 had set the stage for the steady growth of the Democrats to achieve parity with the powerful state GOP. But a number of factors accounted for that achievement. Urban and labor votes, which had buttressed Democratic President Franklin D. Roosevelt and the Wisconsin Pro­ gressive party during the 1930's, became Dem­ ocratic rather than Republican in state con­ tests following the death of the Progressives. Democrats benefited from the political impact upon Wisconsin in the 1950's of McCarthyism, the cost-price squeeze on farmers, and the close alliance between the party and politically ac­ tive labor union leaders. And they gradually nurtured candidates who could win elections. Society's Iconographic Collections William Proxmire's breakthrough to a United Governor John W. Reynolds being sworn in by Chief States Senate seat in 1957 led the way, and was Justice Timothy Brown. followed a year later by Gaylord Nelson's win­ ning of tlie governorship. Although nation­ Wisconsin Democrats, too, had been victorious wide political trends and considerable help in forging a political balance in the state.^^ from the national Democratic party certainly This realignment of Wisconsin politics, in contributed to tlie growth of the state's party, the making from 1946 to 1962, gave both these were of secondary importance. The de­ Wisconsin parties a stronger voice in national voted efforts of Wisconsin political leaders affairs. As Democrats who agreed basically acting upon political conditions unique to with the national party, Wisconsinites like Wisconsin account for the rise of the state's Proxmire and Nelson were able to influence mid-twentieth-century Democratic party. The result is modern Wisconsin's evenly balanced ^ Reynolds interview; John Gronouski, personal in­ Republican-Democratic political structure. terview, Milwaukee, April 30, 1969.

106 Lucas Bradley: Carpenter, Builder, Architect

By Helen Patton

LTHOUGH the imprint of Lu­ Others, too, have recognized Bradley's con­ A-cas Bradley—carpenter, builder, tribution through the First Presbyterian and architect—can be found on scattered build­ Church. Architectural historians Rexford ings throughout Racine and other Wisconsin Newcomb and Talbot F. Hamlin both have and midwestern cities, his major work is un­ lauded the structure but could not account for doubtedly the First Presbyterian Church of Bradley's early training or his sensitivity to Racine at the corner of College Avenue and design and proportion. They identified him Seventh Street, one of the finest existing Greek as an immigrant from the eastern United Revival churches in the Midwest. Dedicated States who was versed in the tradition of the in 1852, the church exterior's original warm, Greek Revival school, most practitioners of yellow brick has mellowed to soft brownish which had based their work on the well-known tones, creating an impression of quiet elegance handbooks of master architects Asher Benja­ and repose that contrasts markedly to the ad­ min and Minard Lafever, whose 1851-1852 jacent buildings and the nearby traffic. Pearl Street Congregational Church in Hart­ Compilers of the Historic American Build­ ford, Connecticut, specifically inspired Brad­ ings Survey have characterized the church as ley.^ distinguished by simplicity and refinement, Lucas Bradley, who lived and had a flourish­ devoid of an excess of affectation, and har­ ing business in Racine from 1844 to the late monious in all its parts. They praised the 1880's, was born on June 22, 1809, in the ham- brick workmanship as the highest quality, and they stated that none of the buildings in the their war ot independence from Turkey, 1821-1828. Survey possessed such a wealth of beautifully Greek architectural forms were used for inspiration shaped moldings, many of which were under­ rather than as precise models for dwellings and other cut in the cleverest manner imaginable. Of structures. See Talbot F". Hamlin, Greek Revival Archi­ tecture in America (New York, 1944), 252; Richard Bradley himself they said that he was "an W. E. Perrin, "Greek Revival Moves Westward: The architect practicing his profession as if he be­ Classic Mold in Wisconsin," in the Wisconsin Maga­ longed to the immortals like Bullfinch, La- zine of History, 45: 199-202 (Spring, 1962), and The trobe and Mills. The church belongs in this Architecture of Wisconsin (Madison, 1967), 63-67. Re­ search for this article derived in part from Helen F. class."' Patton, "Public School Architecture in Racine, Wis­ consin, and Vicinity from the Time of Settlement to 'Library of Congress, Historic American Buildings 1900" (Ph.D. dissertation. University of Wisconsin, Survey (1936). The Greek Revival style in architecture, 1965). dating roughly between 1820 and 1860, had its roots ^Rexford Newcomb, Architecture of the Old North­ in a general interest in classical archeology that flour­ west Territory (Chicago, 1950), 127; Hamlin, Greek ished then, and in American sympathy for Greeks in Revival Architecture, 252.

107 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY WINTER, 1974-1975

churches, and he developed a solid local repu­ tation as an architect-builder. This tradition of the small-town or rural architect-craftsman continues today. Some rural neighborhoods still have their "experts"—skilled and usually I self-taught mechanics, carpenters, masons, handymen—fellow farmers who supply their services for a fee to those who seek them out. They do not advertise, they simply are known. Miles Bradley and later his sons appear to have occupied an analagous position in North­ ville. As towns grew and neighborhoods waned, the specialists abandoned farming al­ together and became craftsmen exclusively, increasingly refining their skills and increas­ ingly confining them, until, as in today's cities, a host of workers and professionals is needed to build and maintain even a relatively sim­ ple dwelling. Only in isolated, rural pockets linger some all-around craftsmen like the Bradleys, the elder of whom passed on his skills to his sons. All Miles Bradley's sons worked with him, but Lucas was said to have been the most gifted and most interested in architecture.^ Family tradition and records indicate that the numerous Bradley children were educated at an academy in Auburn, New York, the county seat of Cayuga County and the home of an aunt and uncle. It is assumed, however, Author's Collection that Lucas Bradley received his training in Lucas Bradley in his later years, photographed by architecture from his father, although he was Easson Bros. & Co. of Racine. only sixteen when Miles Bradley died of pneumonia. let of Northville, township of Genoa, Cayuga On June 3, 1832, in Sennett, New York, County, New York, the sixth of a family of Lucas was married to Lucinda King, a native twelve children and one of nine sons born to of Brockville, Canada, and in 1838 they left Miles and Cliloe Allen Bradley. His parents Northville for Tiffin, Ohio, where they stayed had been born in Hamden, Connecticut, and for six months. From Tiffin they moved to were married in Northville on November 6, St. Louis, where they made their home for the 1796. Both descended from New Haven, Con­ next six years.* necticut's first colonists and from even earlier St. Louis was a booming town in the 1840's Massachusetts settlers. The tradition of west­ and a fine place for builders and contractors. ward movement, therefore, long existed in the Bradley family. •' Elliot G. Storke, History of Cayuga County, New Miles Bradley, his father Eli, and a brother York (Syracuse, 1879), 489; conversations with Misses Clarinda and Emily Winslow, Madison, nieces of Brad­ Medad settled in Northville about 1794 or ley, 1964. The Misses Winslows' remarks were based 1795. Medad was a butcher and stock dealer, in part on family records and letters which in 1974 while Miles became a prosperous farmer, car­ were owned by their sister. Dr. Mary Isabel Winslow, penter, contractor, and rural architect, con­ Dodge City, Kansas. Miss Emily Winslow died No­ tinuing in the latter three professions the vember 30, 1973; Miss Clarinda Winslow died Septem­ ber 18, 1974. colonial New England tradition of combining ' Hamlin, Greek Revival Architecture, 252; conver­ them. He built homes, barns, schools, and sations with Misses Clarinda and Emily Winslow.

108 «?**• 5;.;:^ri:^rU---n*.'rr

r. ,,

•I

Missouri Historical Society Bradley's first known "western" building, the Second Presbyterian Church in St. Louis, dedicated in 1840. The architect lived in St. Louis from about 1838 to 1844, when he moved to Racine.

The shacks and cabins of the city that was for a different climate, since St. Louis's loca­ founded in the 1760's were being replaced by tion on low-lying lands often was considered permanent btiildings, which architectural stu­ imhealthy. Sometime in 1843 Bradley made a dents have classified as sound in construction, trip to Racine and in 1844 he reported his excellent in design, dignified, and gracious. impressions in a letter to his mother. He de­ Bradley almost immediately was engaged to scribed Racine's "salubrious" atmosphere and begin work on tlie city's Second Presbyterian commented tliat Wisconsin Territory was fill­ Church, which was a splendid precursor of liis ing up with the "best kind of emigrants from later Racine structure. New England and New York and not a few The lot on which it stood was at tlie north­ respectable and wealthy from old England." west corner of Fifth (now Broadway) and Racine was a "fine healthy little place on Walnut streets and was bought for §10,000 Lake Michigan about 70 miles north of Chi­ from Pierre Chouteau, an important fur trad­ cago."^ Bradley surely was convinced, too, er whose family was associated with the Amer­ that this thriving lakeshore village with so ican Fur Company. Made of brick and stone, many fellow New Englanders and New York­ the church cost $42,000—the most costly in ers offered attractive business opportunities Missouri at tliat time and also considered the in addition to good, clean air. best arcliitecturally. It was dedicated on Octo­ On September 15, 1844, the Bradley family ber 11, 1840, and abandoned twenty-eight arrived in Racine and Lucas soon plunged years later on June 28, 1868.''' into an active civic, business, and religious While in St. Louis, Bradley took in his life. He was an alderman in the first Racine sister Lovinia and her three cliildren for a City Council in 1848, and he represented the short time. Lovinia's death of consumption Third Ward as a member of the first Board cotild have contributed to the family's searcli of School Commissioners which convened on

"John Albury Bryan (ed.), Mis'Muri's Contribution " Lucas Bradley, St. Louis, to his mother Mrs. Chloe to American Archileclurt (St. Louis Architectural Club, Bradley, Kings F'erry, New York, July 21, 1844; letter St. Louis, 1928), 11. owned by Dr. Mary Isabel Winslow. 109 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY WINTER, 1974-1975

May 10, 1852. He joined and faithfully at­ streets, and the 1847 Lathrop Warehouse on tended the First Presbyterian Church and the the Root River at the foot of Main Street, Racine Bib'e Society. both probably functional commercial build­ But it was in architecture and building that ings.^ he made his signal contribution to the com­ By 1850 Bradley was firmly established in munity—and to other communities as well. He Racine as a builder, architect, and owner of a designed churches, public and private school factory for finishing lumber, altogether em­ buildings, homes, business buildings, and a ploying eight workers. Two carpenters lived bridge. For his sources he used the structural in Bradley's household at the time the 1850 principles and the classical decorative elements census was taken, David Evans and Owen Wil­ as well as the architectural proportions and re­ liams, both 21 and both born in Wales, along finements found in builders' and carpenters' with Mary Williams, 23, also born in Wales. guides. Examination of his buildings shows The Bradleys housed, too, a nephew and niece, that he was capable of producing wide varia­ Daniel, 10, and Mary, 8, children of Lucas's tions in style, subtle nuances within styles, brother Calvin who lived in Tiffin, Ohio.^ and that he could adapt his designs to chang­ Lucas, described as a carpenter and joiner ing architectural tastes. His earliest known by the census enumerators, liad established his buildings, and perhaps his finest, belonged operations along prefabrication lines by 1850. to the Greek Revival school. Later his build­ In his factory on the riverfront, he received ings became eclectic, incorporating popular lumber which he often personally selected in forms such as A. J. Downing's cottage style, yards as distant as Manitowoc. He owned fa­ which he used in designing homes, and Gothic cilities for kiln-drying and preparing the lum­ Romanticism, which he used in homes, ber for building purposes, and for cutting it churches, and college buildings.'' As with to specifications. He then shipped precut and Bradley's earlier Greek Revival structures, prefabricated materials directly to building these later buildings are noteworthy because sites from his own factory and yards. For jobs of his understanding of proportion, combina­ in Beloit, for example, he first transported tion of materials, and manipulation of ordi­ materials by team, then, after some rail con­ nary brick and wooden trim. nections were laid, by boat to Chicago and by Bradley family tradition credits Lucas with rail to Beloit. When the Racine to Beloit line building and designing "all of Racine's best was completed in 1855, he was able to have early residences," but no evidence other than materials loaded in one city and unloaded in hearsay links him with such homes as the the other.'" Greek Revival Kuehneman House at 1135 In 1856 Bradley formed a partnership with Main Street and the Hunt House at 1247 Main Street. Both are listed, along with the First * Fanny Stone (ed.), Racine and Kenosha County Presbyterian Churcli, in the Historic American History (Chicago, 1910), I: 401. The Hunt home, orig­ inally the Mitchell House which stood at the southeast Buildings Survey. The first documented corner of Ninth and Main streets, was moved to the works of Bradley were business buildings no southeast corner of Ninth and Lake, and then moved longer standing—Durand's new block, built by Mrs. J. W. Knight to the present location when in 1849, a fireproof brick structure occupying Thirteenth Street was vacated. Old Oaken Bucket, Sep­ tember 15, 1849, p. 158; Racine Advocate, February 27, twenty feet on Main and eighty feet on Third 1867, p. 7, article stating that the old Lathrop Ware­ house built tiventy years before by Lucas Bradley was •'Andrew Jackson Downing, Cottage Residences, being torn down. Rural Architecture and Landscape Gardening (reprint, »U.S. Census, 1850, population schedule, Racine Watkins Glen, New York, 1967); Andrew Jackson County, 84, and schedule 5, Products of Industry, Ra­ Downing, A Treatise on Landscape Gardening (New cine County, 448, manuscripts in State Historical So­ York, 1856), for remarks on rural architecture; Perrin, ciety Library. "Wisconsin's Victorian Houses: Architectural Reflec­ ^° Bradley's business operations and prefabrication tions of Society in Transition," in the Wisconsin Maga­ system are described in newspaper articles and in his zine of History, 45: 290-295 (Summer, 1962), and correspondence. See Racine Advocate, April 16, 1856, "Pointed .Yrches and Buttressed Walls: Gothic Stylism November 30, 1859; Racine Democrat, November 19, in Wisconsin Architecture," in the Wisconsin Magazine 1856, November 30, 1859; Lucas Bradley to A. L. Cha­ of History, 47: 238-248 (Spring, 1964), and The Archi­ pin, May 21, 1851, May 23, 1851, September 23, 1851, tecture of Wisconsin, 72-93. Series CIII 16, Beloit College Archives, hereinafter BCA.

110 PATTON: LUCAS BRADLEY

John G. Meder, and the subsequent rapid ex­ ing, masonry, and excavation, because he pansion of the firm suggests strongly that wanted to travel as little as possible. If Chapin Meder considerably bolstered the company's approved the arrangements, Bradley proposed capital. The two men enlarged their factory going to Beloit by stage via Darien within two and increased facilities for manufacturing to or three weeks to lay out the foundation, make meet increased demands for flooring, doors, all necessary plans, and give directions for sash, blinds, and other building articles in the building the walls and setting the sills. All booming region around southeastern Wiscon­ the work required before plastering would be sin. Their shop had a thirty-five horsepower done in Racine, he wrote, and the prefabri­ engine, three planing machines, scroll and cated parts sent with enough men to erect the boring machines, two turning lathes, and one building and to prepare it for the plastering, of Balie's eccentric machines for turning which he wanted done in October, "the best broom handles. They installed a kiln capable month in the year for such work.''^^ of drying 7,000 feet of lumber in thirty hours, Two days later Bradley again wrote the col­ and they employed "upwards of forty hands" lege president, saying that he was going to —a five-fold increase in employees in a six- Milwaukee to attend the dedication of the year period.11 new Plymouth Congregational Church, spend the Sabbath there, then go by boat to Manito­ woc to purchase lumber.'^ ECORDS of the construction of Work on the Chapins' home progressed as R the First Presbyterian Church planned. On September 23, 1851, Bradley in Racine and a home for the Reverend Aaron admonished Chapin, "Keep an eye on the L. Chapin, president of Beloit College, both masons and see that they finish their work in 1851, give valuable insights into Bradley's properly to the ground." He also asked that prefabrication and business operations. The they have the building clean and in suitable friendship of Bradley and Chapin probably condition for the final work. He promised to began when Chapin was minister of the First visit Beloit to supervise the finishing touches, Presbyterian Church in Milwaukee, now Im- if possible, mentioning that he was very busy manuel Presbyterian Church, and it ripened and involved in "putting the roof on the into a lengthy professional relationship, with [Racine Presbyterian] church which is a very the result that Bradley's mark soon became heavy job." permanently stamped on Beloit as well as On October 14, 1851, Bradley wrote that he Racine. They doubtless had discussed plans would be in Beloit "on Tuesday next with for Chapin's home earlier, but they agreed four men prepared to bring our work on your on them in May, 1851. It is possible that house to speedy completion." A team had Chapin had been in Racine for the laying of been sent on the fourteenth with part of the the cornerstone of the First Presbyterian lumber for finishing the work, and the balance Church on May 6, 1851. In a letter to Chapin was ready for shipment. Bradley said he did later that month Bradley wrote that linear not want to hurry completion, stating that the sketches of the plan and two front elevations walls should be thoroughly dry before final of the design "hit upon" when Chapin had been in Racine had been sent to him by the "Bradley to Chapin, May 21, 1851, Series CHI 16, morning mail. Bradley explained an accom­ BCA. panying bill and estimate and stated that he 1= Bradley to Chapin, May 23, 1851, Series CIII 16, would have to add quite an item for transpor­ BCA. Congregationalists and Presbyterians had close tation. He offered to "furnish the timber and denominational ties in territorial Wisconsin and dur­ ing the first years ot statehood. The Plymouth church lumber, nails, hardware, window weights and was dedicated on May 25, 1851, and stood on the south­ cords and do the carpenter and joiner work east corner of Milwaukee and East Wells streets. It has as per bills." He preferred to have some other been razed. George Warner Mygatt, a Milwaukee person responsible for the painting and glaz- architect with Connecticut antecedents, designed the church, which was built by Edwin Palmer. Milwaukee Sentinel, May 24, 1851; Frederick T. Mygatt, A His­ ^'Racine Advocate, November 19, 1856. No bio­ torical Notice of Joseph Mygatt . . . with a Record of graphical sketch ot Meder has been located. His Descendants (Brooklyn, New York, 1853), 82-83.

Ill WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY WINTER, 1974-1975

the First Presbyterian Church in Racine. The roof was laid in late September. In December, furnaces were installed—a fairly early year for central heating devices. Work was "hindered very much by the tinners not getting along with their part of the work, and the plasterers are ready and waiting to commence their work, as soon as the furnaces can be gotten I PI 3 into operation." In January, 1852, Bradley again reported, this time positively, about progress on the church, but mentioned that Beloit College Archives David Evans, the Welsh carpenter who had The home of Aaron L. Chapin, Beloit College presi­ lived in his household, was leaving for Cali­ dent, erected in 1851 and still in use as the college fornia, then at the zenith of its gold boom president's dwelling, although much altered. and fertile territory for skilled workers.'^ The church was completed, at a cost of work started. He mentioned that "our new 510,600, and ready for dedication on June 10, church is progressing very well." 1852, a year and a month from the time of The Chapins moved into their new home the laying of the cornerstone. Dedication before November 28, 1851, when the architect services conducted by the Reverend Mr. Cha­ wrote that he was pleased the family was able pin were favored by beautiful June weather to occupy the house before the time appointed. and an audience so large that some visitors Bradley's blessing was a happy one: "May the were unable to find seats, despite the fact that candle of the Lord ever shine about your the church was then the largest in the city.^^ dwelling, affording you peace and prosper­ Similar in some respects to tlie Second Pres­ ity."" byterian Church in St. Louis, Racine's First An early photograph of the Chapin dwell­ Presbyterian Church remains the most signi­ ing verifies that Bradley already was mixing ficant work of Lucas Bradley. The style of styles in his design, not adhering exclusively the church is Doric—the oldest and simplest to the Greek Revival mode in which he de­ of the classical Greek architectural orders— signed so successfully, but not succumbing with a graceful Ionic (the second, "scroll" or­ completely to the rage for Italianate villa der) spire. (The tliird order, Corinthian, houses. The Chapin home—much altered, still with its leafy ornaments, appears in the in­ standing, and in use as the college president's terior.) Overall dimensions of the building home—combined both elements. Its propor­ originally were fifty-seven by ninety-one feet. tions and roof treatment were villa-like, but Two fluted Doric columns of Lockport the portico, window ornamentation, and false stone, a warm, tan New York limestone, stand pediments related to the classical school. De­ on the portico. These are flanked on either spite the mixtme, the house's proportions ex­ side by brick pilasters or piers capped with ceeded the ordinary and mark Bradley as a the same stone. The corner pilasters continue domestic architect as well as an ecclesiastical around to the left and right sides. Four pilas­ architect of consequence. ters on the sides and the two corner pilasters Simultaneously in Beloit, Bradley was in­ frame the five windows on each flank. volved in finishing several rooms in the Mid­ The treatment of the flank is beautifully dle College building of the college, a building refined, particularly in respect to the brick­ which he did not design. He later was to de­ work of warm, yellow, Racine-made brick laid sign and build more Beloit College and Beloit buildings. " Bradley to Chapin, September 23, December 12, Bradley's 1851 correspondence with Chapin 1851, both in Series CIII 16, BCA; and January 29, 1852, Series CIII 17, BCA. contains a few references to the progress on "Racine Journal Times, February 5, 1939, article by Henry Stekete, one of a series on the F'irst Presbyterian " Bradley to Chapin, September 23, October 14, No­ Church in Clipping File, Racine Public Library; Ra­ vember 28, 1851, all in Series CIII 16, BCA. cine Advocate, June 9, 16, 1852.

112 Roof

by the local firm of Lewis and Crook. The coarse foundation of limestone, probably quar­ ried in or near Racine, is capped with a water table (or slightly projecting, horizontal band above the foundation) of Lockport stone. Ris­ ing from the water table are the pilasters with Doric caps, between which are the gracefully proportioned windows, each with stone base and cap. Just below the roofline, the Doric brickwork frieze rising above the liorizontal band, or arcliitrave, is composed of alternat­ ing miniature pilasters of cleverly molded brick—called triglyplis, under which dentils (or "teeth") are added as a further refinement and a suggestion of support—and of metopes, or the spaces between the triglyplis, which are slightly wider and have no supporting dentils. The roofline is particularly interesting. The triangular gable or pediment at the front of the church and tlie roofline of the flank are supported by finely worked, regularly spaced wooden dentils at the top of the entablature, which constitutes the entire space between tops of columns and roofline. Under the roof­ line, at eacli corner, is a classical, carved honeysuckle motif. Ever since its 1852 dedication, the church's graceful steeple has been considered an out­ standing leatme. It consists of four sections with the uppermost being an octagonal spire originally covered with shingles cut to give the effect of scales, ft is said that Bradley traveled to Michigan to select choice timber for the spire, and it also is said by members of the family that he was the last man on the spire when it was erected, to assure that it was straight and properly aligned.^'' sketch by Vickie Rettenmund From the portico double doors lead to the .4dapted from the measured drawings made for the vestibule Irom wliich two entrances open to Historic American Buildings Survey in the 1930's, this the auditorium. In the vestibule, stairways scheme details a corner of the First Presbyterian Church on either side lead to the balcony. The bal­ of Racine. The window and pilaster have been re­ cony was designed with a recess for the organ. duced in greater proportion than the other elements. Each side of the recess is supported by two massive Corinthian columns, quite in contrast the church first opened, the platform on to the slender Corinthian column balcony sup­ which the plain desk stood was within a recess ports on the main floor. about eight feet deep. This space, now oc­ The gracefidly arched white ceiling of the cupied by the organ and the choir stall, thrusts interior is broken into panels and ornamented out from the 1852 recess about six feet. The with rosettes centered in each panel. When desk and three chairs stand on a platform with a curved front projecting in front of the '" Conversations with Misses Clarinda and Emily choir stall. On either side of the recess, pilast­ Winslow, 1964; Specifications and Articles of Agree­ ment for Building the First Presbyterian Church of ers have replaced the severe Corinthian col­ Racine, church archives. umns which originally stood where the cornice

113 The First Presbyterian Church of Racine, as photographed for the Historic American Buildings Survey.

_ i f" Society's Iconographic Collection crossed the recess. Pulpit lamps are fastened ed white with red-brown trim. They match by brackets to the sides of the pilasters with the organ facade of reddish brown as well as matching lamps on side pilasters extending the top rails of the pews. The church is car­ around the auditorium. peted in red, with pew cushions of textured The seats, with a capacity of 550 to 600 beige fabric. The original, clear glass windows persons, are arranged on a circular plan, shaded by Venetian blinds have been replaced sweeping around the desk, each range of slips by quiet stained glass memorial windows. or pews forming the arc of a circle, the arc On either side of the desk two doors open growing wider from the desk to the entrance into an annex which replaces the original doors where the curvature is slight. Two of separate lecture room, thirty-three by forty- the four aisles run on either side of the house seven feet. It was designed with accommoda­ close to the wall, which originally afforded a tions for 200 people and was furnished with rather novel feature—hinged seats fastened settees, a small desk for the lecturer, and, as by a table joint to the sides of the house. The in the church proper, the windows were shad­ seats could be raised, thereby eliminating the ed with Venetian blinds.^* side aisles, to provide additional seating when the occasion required. Paneled woodwork, pulpit, and pulpit ™ Racine Advocate, Jime 16, 1852. The Bradley chairs are beautifully detailed in wood, paint- memorial window is first on the southwest side. 114 PATTON: LUCAS BRADLEY

'HE balance of the 1850's accounts for much of Bradley's docu­ mented architectural work, including an 1856 church in East Troy, an 1859-1862 church in Beloit, an 1853 high school in Racine, three 1855 ward schoolhouses in Racine, the 1854 North College for Beloit College, an 1855 dwelling in Beloit, the 1858 College Chapel and Academy Building for Beloit College, and the design, specifications, and drawings for an 1853 turn bridge for the Root River in Ra­ cine. In addition, he built, but did not de­ sign, the first building for Racine College in 1852, the second building in 1854, and a home for Sydney Sage in 1854 in Racine. He also continued operating his manufacturing en­ terprises. It was an altogether busy decade, during which Bradley began his gradual shift from architect and builder to almost exclu­ sively builder. Shortly after the dedication of the First Presbyterian Church, Bradley drew plans for Racine's first high school and the first union high school in Wisconsin. The site was on Seventh Street, just east of the church, between Barnstable (now College) and Wisconsin streets. The Racine Board of Education, of J'J'.'O yi 2 jz,' let'3.. 11 & /I which Bradley was a member, adopted his Beloit College Archives plans on December 13, 1852, and let the con­ Bradley's own drawing of the facade of Racine's first tract first to L. S. Blake, then subsequently high school. to C. Cutter in February, 1853.1'' Superintendent of Schools A. Constantine entire width of the building, giving access to Barry described the building as Greco-Italian, entrances on either side. Stairs to the sec­ "ornamented with pilasters and eliptic [sic] ond story rose at both ends of the hall. The arches all round, with a heavy bracket and hallway across the front of the building gave cornice, and to be surmounted with a hand­ access to two small recitation rooms and to some cupola for a bell.''^" Plans called for a two hallways leading into the principal school­ two-story, cream-colored brick building, fifty room, which seated 200 students. The arrange­ feet wide by seventy-five feet long, thirty feet ment of the second floor resembled the first, high above the stone basement. The basement but included three recitation rooms. housed two Chilson's hot air furnaces, their Specifications called for the schoolyard to fuel supply, and a recreation and exercise be enclosed by a substantial picket fence with room for use in inclement weather. Students large, Grecian-style corner and gate posts. The could enter the basement from outdoors, leave grounds were to be separated into two play­ their wet garments, and warm and dry them­ grounds—one for boys, one for girls—with a selves before going to their schoolrooms. tight fence between and each provided with The main entrance fronted on Seventh suitable outbuildings.^' Street. The outer door opened into a trans­ Two small sketches, the only known archi­ verse hall nine feet wide and extending the tectural drawings by Lucas Bradley, of the Racine high school have survived in the Beloit "/bid., February 16, February 23, 1853. The Union High School stood on what is now the Courthouse College Archives, where it had been assumed Square. ^Ibid., February 16, 1853. '^Ibid., February 23, 1853.

115 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY WINTER, 1974-1975

I ! J I 1 "l 1 1 I

...J ...._i

, H^HfiF

Beloit College Archives Belier'cd for years to have been the first drawings for the Beloit College Chapel, these plans actually are for the Racine high school. Bradley, whose signature is at the lower right, evidently submitted them as a suggestion for the chapel outline.

for years that they diagrammed the Beloit or in the present restored Beloit structure. The College Chapel and Academy Building of chapel's original pediment, bracket, and chim­ 1858. The sketches are a floor plan and an ney followed the Italianate villa style. The elevation, signed "L. Bradley." Careful study actual chapel had no cupola, either in the and comparison of them with early photo­ photographic or restored versions, whereas a graphs of both the Racine school and the cupola appears in Bradley's sketch. The front college building, however, prove that the and flank elevations, too, differ between the drawings' front and flank elevations resemble sketch and early photographs. Windows were the school far more than the chapel. The constructed in the front recesses of the high floor plans are almost identical to those de­ school as shown in the drawing, while in the scribed by Superintendent Barry and others. chapel the niches are solid brick. Flank and Another point of resemblance between the front walls of the high school, with the slender drawings and the photographs of the school is spaces between the arched niches and squared the brick pilaster treatment, the pilasters be­ windows, are nearly identical to the elevations ing structural, necessary to support the walls in the drawing and very unlike the chapel and thrust of the roof. The school's pilasters walls with more massive brickwork, squared terminate in elliptical arches, and Bradley recesses and arched windows. Thus the plans created a rhythmic transition from them to in the Beloit College Archives surely are those the long horizontal cornices by adding brac­ of the Racine Union High School, not those kets. The brackets departed from pure Greek of the chapel, and they may have been sent Revival and "modernized" the building in the to Beloit as an example of the kind of building Greco-Italian mode. Bradley proposed rather than an exact sketch A photograph of tJie Beloit Chapel, taken of it.22 before its roof was remodeled, shows a differ­ ent pediment than the one either in the sketch -'- Sketches signed L. Bradley, in BCA. 116 Old Fourth Ward Schoolhouse, Racine, designed by Lucas Bradley and built in 1855.

Racine County Historical Society

A late 1880's photograph of the Union High In June, 1855, the school commissioners ac­ School, which was razed in 1895, and the sur­ cepted a plan by Bradley for construction of rounding buildings indicates that the school three ward schools. The Board let the con­ harmonizes with the First Presbyterian Church struction contract, too, to Bradley, and he but does not vie with it for attention. Taste erected the buildings in time for the opening and personal philosophy may liave led Brad­ of school in September, 1856. The total cost ley to design a simpler schoolhouse than was ,'j>13,010.46 for construction, completion church. His life was bound closely to the ready for sealing and furnishing, and the sep­ Presbyterian Climch in Racine and southeast­ arate playgrounds and outbuildings specified ern Wisconsin, and it is very likely that lie be­ alike for the high school.^'i Bradley's factory lieved a liouse of worship merited richer orna­ undoubtedly turned out the millwork for these mentation and more detailed work than a buildings. school. Although exterior walls have been altered From the time he built Racine's high school by additions and remodeling, the main struc­ in 1852 until he witnessed completion of the tures of the three schools are used today. No Fom-tli Ward School (now Washington sketches or specifications exist, other than School) in 1874, Bradley served as unofficial those in brief, contemporary newspaper ac­ architect for the school board. He designed counts. The buildings were erected in the all the school buildings and all additions to 'Third, Fourth, and Fifth wards, and they were them erected during this twenty-two year span, uniform in plan, forty by fifty feet, two stories with the possiljle exception of the 1868 Third high above their basements, constructed of Ward School (now Franklin School). But Racine yellow brick with limestone founda­ there is strong evidence that he designed it, tions and sills, with due regard for "archi­ too, since Bradley was Racine's most promi­ tectural effect as well as convenience for school nent architect and contractor at the time, and purposes." Each school included "a showy it is imlikely that an out-of-town architect cupola for a bell," and a somewhat onion- would have been sought.^^ shaped spire of solid wood.^^ The actual "architectural effect" consisted -•' No records have been found ot the contractor or of a heavy, unrelieved facade, with flanks architect other than a reference to a John Cover in an article in the Racine Journal, January 20, 1868. Since there was no John Cover listed in either the Racine or were taken from some standard plan and adapted City Directory or the U.S. Census records, it is assumed by local contractors and builders. See Patton, "Public that the reference was to James Corse, a contractor School Architecture in Racine, Wisconsin." in Racine and in business with Bradley in 1870. Since -' Racine, Board ot Education, Official Proceedings, the conmuniity had protested the hiring of a superin­ June 22, 1855, microfilm copy in Archives-Manuscripts tendent from out of town, it is unlikely that the board Division, State Historical Society of Wisconsin, typed would have hired an out-of-town architect. Until fur­ copies in offices of Racine Unified School District ther evidence can be found, it would seem safe to No. 1; Racine Advocate, March 19, 1856. assume that the building plans were drawn by Bradley '^° Racine Advocate, October 3, July 11, 1855.

117 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY WINTER, 1974-1975 broken by two rows of five double-hung win­ dows. Double entrance doors pierced the front of the buildings. Transition from building to roof was accomplished by brackets hung in double series, or pairs, interspersed by brick­ work to simulate dentils. Lightning rods and chimneys added some interest to the roof. The chimneys' brick ribbing suggested closure at the top. Greek cross openings further decorat­ ed them, front and back, three on each side.^^ The three ward schools are excellent exam­ ples of "plane surfaces in American architec­ ture," characterized by Sigfried Giedion as a persistent fact in nineteenth-century American building.^'^ Use of the flat wall of wood, brick, or stone continued in America, while Euro­ pean architects sought to change the plane surfaces of wall through unbalanced treat­ ments of wall and ground plan. The Ameri­ can practice owed its existence partly to the economy and simplicity which a scarcity of skilled labor enforced, and partly to the con­ tinuation of eighteenth-century building prac­ tices as exemplified in Bradley's work. To be cheap, a brick wall had to be kept flat and Author's Collection simple. Openings were cut cleanly into the North College building of Beloit College, erected in flat surfaces and were unrelieved except for 1854 and now considerably altered. lintel and sill. Bradley clearly attempted to keep costs at flange inward from the base, supporting the a minimum in the ward schools. He adapted brick water tables. The windows are simple his method of constructing sturdy brick walls statements, direct in effect, withoiu ornament. to architecture which could be produced cheaply. The forthright honesty of treatment, devoid of pretense, gives these three build­ N 1854, Bradley contracted to de­ ings a special significance. Elements of Brad­ I sign and construct the North Col­ ley's design lead to the suggestion that the lege Building for Beloit College. The struc­ schoolhouses grow out of the ground on which ture, as it originally existed, was in the they stand. Their limestone foundations Italianate style, three stories, brick, with a low- pitched roof and a small pediment, or gable, ^ Racine, Board of Education, Official Proceedings, set into the front roof. On the front wall, September 5, 1856. The lightning rod supplier, Cush- four brick pilasters terminated in elliptical man, was paid $154.95 for rods for the three buildings. arches, dividing the building into three sec­ Rods were mentioned also in Proceedings of November 9 and December 3, 1855. The Third Ward School was tions, while the surfaces of the flanks were renamed the H. G, Winslow School in 1898, honoring divided into two sections. On front and flank, former school superintendent Winslow, 1881 to 1892, double-hung windows were evenly spaced be­ who was the husband of Lucas Bradley's sister Emily. tween pilasters. Brackets at the head of each The old Fourth Ward School became the Lorenzo Janes School by school board action in 1896, honoring pilaster created a graceful transition from a pioneer citizen who was one of the three original wall to roof. owners of the commons on which the school was lo­ Today the roofline has been changed. The cated. In 1892, the board officially named the 1855 Fifth Ward School in honor of James A. Garfield. Ibid., triangular pediment set into the roof has been August 8, 1898, May 27, 1896, May 27, 1892. removed along with the supporting brackets. ''Sigfried Giedion, Space, Time and Architecture The pilasters received Doric caps and no long­ (fourth edition^ Cambridge, 1963), 353-355. er terminate in elliptical arches, and a portico 118 \

with Ionic columns and a gable roof grace the entry.2* Lucas Bradley's collegiate architecture is well represented not only at Beloit College, where he was architect and builder, but also at Racine College, where he was builder alone, using the plans of J. F. Miller, a New York 4 * r ' < t architect. The Beloit College buildings were Greco-Italianate in style, while those of the , i> ^ I' f *^ Episcopalian Racine College were English n^ A- Gothic, a style which became increasingly pop­ ular on college campuses from mid-century on. f Bradley had a close association with Racine College both as builder and as a member of the Board of Trustees, a post to which he was elected in 1856.29 Society's Iconographic Collection: Park Hall was the first Racine College Taylor Hall on the campus of Racine College. Brad­ ley's firm served as contractors for all of the Racine building erected, with the cornerstone cere­ College buildings except the chapel. mony on May 5, 1852, and completion for the 1853 fall term. It was named for the Right Reverend Roswell Park, D. D., the first college lor Orphanage. Taylor Hall burned, on Feb­ president. Park Hall burned on January 15, ruary 4, 1875, but the walls were left standing 1864, with the exception of one wing, but was and the structure immediately was recon­ rebuilt by the time the school reopened in structed. In 1871 Bradley joined the dining the fall. Next came Kemper Hall in 1857, a hall to the south wall of Kemper Hall, and twin to Park Hall, named for the Right he very likely built the Grammar School or Reverend Jackson Kemper, bishop of the dio­ Assembly Building in 1871-1872, which com­ cese. The two structures formed the south and pleted the east front of the quadrangle. All of north boundaries of an intended quadrangle, the buildings still stand and constitute a con­ the east front of which was completed in ference and retreat center for the DeKoven 1871 and 1872 with the building of the Dining Foundation, operated by the Sisters of St. Hall and the Assembly Hall. A chapel was Mary of the Episcopal Church.5" built in 1864, with Miller as architect and no In 1853, Racine's city fathers determined a record of the builder. In 1867 Bradley built turn bridge should span the Root River at Taylor Hall, named for Isaac Taylor, a Racine the foot of Wisconsin Street and Bradley was man whose widow bequeathed $65,000 to the paid ten dollars for design, detail drawings, college and who was responsible, too, for Tay- and specifications, but it is not known whether the bridge that ultimately resulted (after con­ siderable maneuvering) owed its conception to '" Bradley to Chapin, February 15, May 26, June 19, June 26, September 26, December 13, 1854, Series CIII him.31 21, BCA. Photographs in BCA. ^College Mercury (Racine College), July 6, 1871, p. '" College Mercury, February 8, 1868, September 30, 294. The article credits "Mr. Miller, architect" with 1871, March 1, 1872; Mrs. Frank Hall, an unpublished the new Dining Hall, "the same man who drew up and untitled paper read to the Racine Historical So­ the plans for Taylor Hall and the Chapel." A later ciety, June 6, 1947, in the Clipping File, Racine Public article. College Mercury, September 30, 1871, p. 305, Library. credits Lucas Bradley as architect and states that he "'^ Racine Advocate, January 26, 1853, under Council "deserves great praise both for the character of his Proceedings, notes that Lucas Bradley, chairman of the work, and the rapidity of its completion, being only bridge committee, was authorized to advertise for pro­ sixty days from the breaking of the ground." Racine positions to build the turn bridge. Bradley was paid Advocate, September 16, 1871, states that "the building for the design, detail drawings and specifications but was completed in 60 days under the supervision ot the the bridge of his design could not be built for funds architect and builder, L. Bradley, Esq." Miller is men­ allocated and plans drawn by J. M. Earl were adopted. tioned in several references as architect and probably Earl's plans could not be used because his bridge was drew the plans which Bradley adapted to the specific not able to support sufficient weight. Ibid., March 2, needs ot Racine College. June 24, 1853.

119 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY WINTER, 1974-1975

sign, at which he was expert, for a more popu­ lar style verifies his ability as an architect, his business-mindedness, and his willingness to accommodate clients who desired buildings in the latest mode.^^ In 1856 Bradley was at work on plans for the First Congregational Church in Beloit, and he also designed ancl erected a church for the First Congregational Society of East Troy in Walworth County—his only documented frame church. It is difficult to visualize how this latter structure looked. Two rooms were Beloit College Archives finished and services were held there until The William Porter dwelling in Beloit, now razed, 1872 when a frame building with a high spire built and designed by Bradley in the cottage Gothic was erected, and the earlier space reportedly style in 1855. was used as a basement.^* During the same year Bradley traveled to In 1854 and 1855, Bradley took two docu­ the East and later reported to President Cha­ mented excursions into domestic architecture. pin that he had seen good public and private The earlier structure was a carpentry contract buildings there and had obtained some valu­ for the Sydney A. Sage home, "one of the most able "hints as to architectural style, modes of beautiful and tasty residences to be found any­ warming and ventilation" which he hoped to where," and now a part of a factory.^^ He later make available to his clients. The "hints as contracted as both architect and builder on to architectural style" stemmed in part from a February 9, 1855, widi Professor William visit to the Pearl Street Congregational Porter of Beloit College for an American Church of Hartford, Connecticut, designed in Gothic home to cost about $1,550. Bradley Renaissance Revival style by Minard Lafever promised to furnish the necessary timber of New York and erected in 1851-1852. With "scantling" or framing, joists, shingles, and the Pearl Street Church firmly in mind, Brad­ lumber, as well as nails, hardware, and glass ley embarked on a design project for the Be­ to "erect, set up and furnish a two-story dwell­ loit Congregationalists, a parish to which ing in the village of Beloit." The house, which Chapin belonged. The result was a modified was razed in the late 1950's or early 1960's, copy of the Pearl Street Church, which stands borrowed from A. J. Downing's "cottage today in Beloit as a tribiue to Lafever's Gothic" or Gothic Revival, popularized in the original building and Bradley's skill at adapt­ 1850's and 1860's. An existing photograph ing others' works to different situations, bud­ shows it to have been an interesting mixture gets, ancl environments.3^ of elements—brackets, verge boards, two-story bays, and ornamented porches—and totally ^•''Contract for William Porter home, February 9, unlike Bradley's Greek Revival or Greco- 1855, Series Clll 21, BCA; photograph from BCA Italianate buildings that preceded it. Har­ courtesy of Robert Irrmann. mony prevailed in its proportions, but the fact ^^ Racine .4dvocate, November 5, 1856, notes that the that Bradley abandoned Greek Revival de- East Troy church had been completed. The First Con­ gregational Society of East Troy voted on February 25, 1856, "to accept Mr. L. Bradley's proposition to '^ Ibid., September 18, 1854; Racine Journal Times, build a church according to plans and specifications." June 25, 1939, report of an interview with Emma Sage, Church Records in the office of the First Congrega­ Sydney Sage's niece. The house was in Sagetown, just tional Church, East Troy, Wisconsin; First Congrega­ north of what is now State Street and near the North tional Church, Centennial Anniversary, 1839-1939 (East Western tracks. Interior centerpieces and cornices orna­ Troy, 1939). Both the 1856 foundation and the 1872 mented the parlors and halls, together with mirrored structure have been razed. doors and sidelights of stained glass. By 1939 the house '"In February and March, 1856, Bradley spent more sheltered a charity day nursery. A portion of the orig­ than tour weeks in the East and mentioned in his let­ inal dwelling appears as part of tlie front of the factory ters to Chapin that his letters of introduction "pro­ building now standing between Peck and Wilson cured ... a very warm reception" from such persons streets. as Chapin's brother in New York, a Mr. Cotton in

120 Beloit College Archives The First Congregational Church in Beloit, about 1880, with Beloit College in the middle distance. A tornado on June 11, 1885, destroyed the church's steeple. Other buildings are: (1) Memorial Hall, Beloit College; (2) College Chapel, Beloit College; (3) Middle College, Beloit College; (4) North College, Beloit College; (5) Joseph Barr Peel home, 707 Bushnell Street; (6) Charles B. Salmon home, 719 Busfinell Street; (7) Chapin home; and (8) home of John Pfeffer, long the Beloit College fanilor, who successfully resolved to have a house larger than the president's.

Financial difficulties, probably related to 1883 and replaced by the present structure in the Panic of 1857 and subsequent hard times, 1894.36 delayed the building of the Beloit church for The building is made of so-called Milwau­ several years. The cornerstone was not laid kee cream brick—the yellow brick which was until Tuesday, July 12, 1859, and it took used in such profusion in Milwaukee that it three years to raise sufficient money through became known as the "Cream City." The subscriptions before the building was ready brick, however, was made outside Milwaukee for dedication on July 6, 1862. The last of as well; in the instance of the Beloit church, Bradley's classical revival churches, this time at a brickyard three miles west of Rockton, in the Renaissance Revival Palladian mode Illinois. as was the Pearl Street Church, the impressive The church has three front entrances. The structure is 100 feet long and seventy feet center entrance is in an eighteen-foot-square wide, with a tower twenty feet square at the vestibule that serves as the base for the pro­ base. A tall and delicate 200-foot spire was jecting center tower, which breaks through the added nine years after the completion of the top of the pedimented front. Two side en­ church, but it was destroyed by a tornado in trances occupy nine-by-fourteen-foot spaces.

New Haven, and Mr. N. Cotton in Hartford. Bradley " Mrs. R. K. Richardson, The Centenary, the First to Chapin, May 23, 1856, Series CIII 21, BCA; Bradley Congregational Church in Beloit, Wisconsin, December to Chapin, March 31, 1856, Series CIII 21, BCA. 30, 1838-December 30, 1938 (Beloit, 1938), 15-16.

121 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY WINTER, 1974-1975

and gallery stairways ascend from them. Door­ ways with circular heads lead from each en­ trance into the meeting room, which seats about 1,200 persons in 152 pews on the main floor and sixty-two pews in the gallery. Twelve bronzed iron Corinthian columns support the gallery and are carried in repeti­ tion to support the groined arches above the gallery and the barrel vaulting of the ceiling. The pulpit stands in a recess twenty-six feet wide and seven feet deep under a semicircular arch thirty-two feet high. The interior wood­ work was originally grained in imitation of oak and the walls and ceiling were pure white. Six tall Palladian windows with semicircular arches and narrow double lights of clear glass rise the height of the building on the right and left flanks, with similar Palladian windows on the front of the tower and the wall on either side of it above the three doors. Pews were made locally and still are in use, each Connecticut Historical Society painted white and finished with top rails and The Pearl Street Congregational Church, Hartford, Connecticut, designed in 1851 by Minard Lafever of arm pieces of Wisconsin black walnut.^'^ New York. Bradley studied it before designing a During the prolonged planning and con­ similar church for the Beloit Congregationalists. struction of the First Congregational Church, Bradley designed and built the Chapel and Academy Building for Beloit College, in some •"Jacob Landy, The Architecture of Minard Lafexier (New York, 1970), 186-191, 279. The Pearl Street Chinch measurements were: length, 138 feet; width, 68 feet, 6 inches; pediment, 14 feet high and 53 feet wide; tower, 22 feet square at its base and 212 feet high to the top of the spire. The main meeting room was to the right of the entrance, not directly ahead as in the Beloit church. Bradley adopted the more traditional arrangement, while Lafever turned the meeting room to the side to accommodate the church to a narrow lot stretching along the middle of a block. In his plans for the Beloit church, Bradley modified the luxurious interior of the Pearl Street Church. The elaborately groined and paneled ceiling, further en­ riched by ornamented moldings and rosette bosses, is treated with plainer panels in the Beloit church. The richly carved corbels from which the arches sprang are similar in both churches, but the Pearl Street arches have a higher arc and spring higher and more grace­ fully. The Corinthian balcony supports of the Pearl Street Church are considerably more massive and extend from Connecticut Historical Society Beloit College Archives the main floor to support the arches of the balcony. Interiors of the Pearl Street Church of Hartford (left) In the Beloit Church two tiers of lighter Corinthian and the First Congregational Church of Beloit. Brad­ columns are used—one to support the balcony, another ley's version is less dramatic architecturally than La- to support the arches above the balcony. On the whole the Pearl Street interior is more open with a fever's original, owing to the varied treatment of arches soaring effect produced by the ribs of the arches. Landy and pillars. The second tier of windows in the Hart­ characterizes the style as Palladian, while Richardson ford church obtained light from skylights, visible in calls it Florentine Romanesque. The general category the exterior view above. of Renaissance Revival applies to either.

122 PATTON: LUCAS BRADLEY ways similar to the Racine Union High in terms of hiring more than one person to School. Unlike the high school basement, the design and build a structure, and structures Chapel and Academy basement contained only themselves were becoming more technically heating apparatus. On the first floor, the main elaborate, incorporating heating systems, oc­ door opened into a transverse hall with stairs casionally some plumbing, and other mechani­ at either end leading to the second story. cal devices associated with the industrial revo­ Room arrangement may have been along the lution. Specialists appeared. And Bradley lines suggested in Bradley's high school seems to have become one of them—a specialist sketches, but their original configuration is in erecting quality buildings, either of his not known. The main facade is divided by own design or that of some other architect. four supportive pilasters into three parts. One Second, there is little doubt that Bradley, the is occupied by the double entrance door at businessman, had found that contracting of­ the center, which has an arched transom. Only fered greater financial rewards and chose to two windows appear in the facade, directly follow that direction rather than specialization above the entrance. The other two parts of as an architect. the facade as created by the pilaster treatment Whatever the reasons for Bradley's profes­ are simply long, vertical brick insets, which sional transition, his firm constructed a goodly rise from a limestone lintel and are arched at number of known designs by other architects the top, thus relieving the plain facade. Brac­ during the decade, including some of Racine's kets joined the walls to the roof. A photo­ most prominent buildings. Chief among them graph taken about 1860 shows no pediment or is St. Luke's Episcopal Church. An earlier gable, only a triangular front roofline rising structure burned to the ground on January 4, above the central doorway.^^ The building 1866, and six months later the ctiurch had still stands, although much altered with Greek selected E. Townsend Mix, a fashionable Mil­ Revival elements imposed upon it. waukee architect, as designer and Lucas Brad­ Bradley's last work for Beloit College was ley as builder for a new sanctuary on the the first South College building in 1868. It northwest corner of Main and Seventh streets. was a frame building designed as a men's The yellow brick structure in English Gothic dormitory and later used by the chemistry de­ style is trimmed with a warm limestone. The partment. The detailing of the woodwork and congregation began using the building on Sep­ masonry demonstrate Bradley's attention to tember 8, 1867, although it had not been ornament and workmanship, and the overall completed.**" proportion and relation of the building's vari­ Bradley constructed the Taylor Orphanage, ous segments allude to Bradley's traditional another Racine landmark, in 1868. Built at sense of design.^^ a cost of 150,000, it was demolished in 1974. It stood south of the city's boundary on the east side of Taylor Avenue about one-half mile south of the intersection of Durand and Tay­ lor avenues. It resulted from a dream of Isaac !OUTH COLLEGE was one of Taylor, who spent a part of his childhood in S'Bradley' s few documented archi­ an English workhouse and who made his for­ tectural commissions of the 1860's, the decade tune as a lumber merchant. He knew poverty during which he turned more and more from and the hardships of an inadequate livelihood architect to contractor. Several reasons could and therefore determined that Racine should account for this gradual shift in emphasis. have a proper asylum for orphans. He died in First, the architectural profession by 1860 was November, 1865, before his dream was real­ much more firmly established, especially in ized, but Emmerline, his widow, carried out cities, apart from the related functions of con­ his wishes. The resulting Victorian Gothic tracting and building. Clients usually thought building somewhat resembled the dormitories

"* Photographs in BCA. =«• Bradley to Chapin, October 26, 1868, Series CIII •"' St. Luke's Episcopal Church, Racine, Centennial, 24, BCA; photographs in BCA. 1842-1942 (Racine, 1942).

123 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY WINTER, 1974-1975

Society's Iconographic Collections The Taylor Orphanage of Racine, built by Bradley in 1868 at the behest of the widow of Isaac Taylor, a successful Wisconsin lumber merchant, who had spent part of his English boyhood in a workhouse and who subsequently vowed to ease the path for Racine youths in similar straits. of Racine College both in style and interior architect for which is not known. The home arrangement, suggesting that J. F. Miller was still stands, a handsome structure made of architect or that Bradley adapted the plans of yellow Racine brick with brackets and a wid­ Taylor Hall to the orphanage. The orphanage ow's walk. In 1870 Bradley built a home for included a chapel, sewing room, dormitories, T. J. Emerson at Main and Ninth streets, in nursery, staff rooms, dining room, kitchen, 1872 a home for Lewis C. Osborne at Main and laundry.*! and Seventh streets, and an 1870 addition to Residential construction, too, occupied the J. I. Case home on Main Street. (The Bradley in Racine, with several documented architects are not known.) None of these buildings between 1868 and 1874. In June, houses still stands. In 1874 he constructed a 1868, he began work on an Italianate home for well described house for George iMurray of Thomas Jones, now 1144 Main Street, the Slausondale, just west of Racine. The Mur- rays devotedly attended the First Presbyterian *^ Racine Advocate, May 2, June 30, 1868; February 26, April 23, 1870; August 17, 1872; December 26, 1874. Church and their "Slausondale Mansion" Taylor Orphanage is now Taylor Home, a residential overflowed with Racine's 400 during the "an­ treatment center for young people. Difficulties in heat­ nual sociable" and a housewarming in March, ing and upkeep as well as changed needs in housing 1875, just after it was completed. A local jour­ led to the building of smaller residential units on the nalist described the dwelling as a "Granger" Taylor Orphanage grounds, one for boys and one for girls. When the original building was razed in 1974, style residence, assumed to refer to a rustic or the smaller units were already in use. farm style, and it was furnished completely in

124 PATTON: LUCAS BRADLEY the Eastlake style, a heavy and massive mode No records have come to light of buildings created by Sir Charles Eastlake. The architect constructed or designed by Lucas Bradley af­ of the Murray home is not known.''^ ter 1875, although he maintained an office at The Gorton Block in Racine, another Brad­ the foot of Main Street until 1880, then from ley construction job but not of his design, went 1880 forward in his two-story Gothic home up in 1875. It served as a post office, office at the corner of Sixth and Villa streets. It is building, and home for specialty shops, and not known whether he designed or built the stood on the east side of Main Street with its house in which he lived. Relatives say that he south flank on Fifth Street. The building was retired from active business in about 1886, in financed by Hugh Gorton, who had "travelled ill health. the state over, visiting the many places where Bradley drew his will on September 20, modern taste and skill had erected public 1884, then on October 29, 1885, added a codi­ buildings for post offices, and benefitting by cil. In addition to his wife and adopted all the experience of other cities, returned daughter Minnie, he remembered nieces and determined to excel them in every respect."*' nephews and a number of religious and chari­ A bank now occupies the site. table organizations, especially those relating to One of the last of Lucas Bradley's major Presbyterianism in the Midwest. He asked plans was a courthouse for Racine County, that his gold-headed cane, presented to him on later built to a different design. Bradley re­ New Year's Day, 1875, by his workmen, be re­ ported to the county's board of supervisors on turned to their spokesman, Evan R. Evans. November 22, 1873, that he had "prepared The cane is now owned by the First Presbyte­ hasty pencil sketches of plans and elevations rian Church. of a Court House" and that he would • be He died "from illness incident to old age" pleased to present them to the board. He re­ early on January 10, 1889, at the age of ceived permission to make a presentation, but seventy-nine. His published obituary contains when bids were awarded, Bradley was the high a tribute "from one who knew him long and bidder and lost the contract. Bradley's court­ well," and who wrote about his achievements: house plans and specifications again indicate His monument will not be the stately shaft his adaptiveness to changes in taste and build­ of marble in the silent city, but the churches, ing materials. He recommended then popular asylums, homes, places of business, all along galvanized iron cornices for the courthouse, our busy streets, and the men, in Racine and and he called for a popular architectural form, elsewhere, whom his example, counsel and the Romanesque. The foundation was to have help have led into lives of happiness, useful­ been of stone, the structure of brick, with a ness and honor.''^ mansard roof and an elaborate cupola sur­ mounted by a lantern. The Romanesque style called for exterior walls "broken by projec­ tions, recessions, pilasters and belting course." adoptetl. Contracts for the present structure, by Hola- Water closets, a sewerage system, gas lights, bird and Root, were let in May, 1930, the cornerstone and furnace heat figured in the plans. H. C. was laid in the same year. The building was dedicated Koch, a Milwaukee architect, won the com­ in 1931. '"Racine Journal, January 16, 1889; conversations petition, but his building has fared no better with Clarinda and Emily Winslow, September 22, and than many structures of that era. It was re­ October 3, 1964; author's correspondence with Mary placed by the present building dedicated in Isabel Winslow, January 8, and March 13, 1974; Lucas 1931.« Bradley probate file. File #1432, Probate Court, Racine County Courthouse. Minnie, the adopted daughter, was a Norwegian orphan who was listed in 1860 as an *'Ibid., February 27, 1874. eight-year-old member of the Bradley household. The •"Ibid., November 29, December 13, 1873. date of her adoption is not known. U.S. Census, 1860, " Racine County, Board of Supervisors, Official Jour­ Racine County, population schedule, p. 90, manuscript nal, 1876, pp, 7-9. Racine Advocate, November 29, in State Historical Society Library. The gold-headed December 13, 1873. There were delays between 1873 cane came into possession of Judge Alan Simpson of when Bradley submitted plans and 1876 when bids Racine and was given to the church in 1973. Racine were finally let. Bradley was in competition with Journal, January 16, June 5, 11, 1889, quote from eleven architects when the plans of H. C. Koch were tribute by "D" on January 16, 1889.

125 Organic Living: Frank Lloyd Wright's Taliesin Fellowship and Georgi Gurdjieff's Institute for the Harmonious Development of Man

By Robert C. Twombly

'HE thirty apprentices who ar­ as the many parallels between the philoso­ T rived at Spring Green, Wiscon­ phies of Wright and Gurdjieff who met and sin, in the fall of 1932 did not fully ap­ talked several times during the 1930's and preciate their situation. Drawn by the mys­ 1940's. The Institute was much more instru­ tique of Frank Lloyd Wright, they came to mental in the creation and subsequent his­ study architecture. But they soon discovered tory of the Fellowship than the famous Bau- that the new Taliesin Fellowship had been haus in Germany or even Wright's old Oak created by two equally strong personalities for Park, Illinois, studio; and Georgi Gurdjieff txvo distinct but integral purposes. Frank may have been as important for Wright's Lloyd Wright aimed to propagate his architec­ later thought as Louis Sullivan was in his tural principles, but his wife Olgivanna, work­ early years. ing through him, envisioned the Fellowship Georgi Gurdjieff was a complex man of as a means of disseminating the wisdom of her uncertain origin. Born of Greek parents in teacher, Georgi Gurdjieff, a "spiritual master" the late nineteenth century, he had lived in with whom she had studied from 1920 to 1924. Armenia, Turkey, and Russia before the Bol­ Far from being unaware of her intentions, shevik revolution. For several years until Wright endorsed them, for Georgi Gurdjieff 1922, Gurdjieff traveled extensively through­ was one of the few persons he openly admired. out Eurasia and the Orient, learning from The Taliesin Fellowship—now institution­ "remarkable men,"* as he called them, phil­ alized as the Frank Lloyd Wright School of osophical and religious principles unfamiliar Architecture, as much Olgivanna's brainchild to Westerners. He opened his Institute with as her husband's—was inspired by the Insti­ fifty disciples, Russian friends, and clients, tute for the Harmonious Development of Man supported by donations from wealthy patrons, which Gurdjieff had established in 1922 at fees for psychological therapy on alcoholics the Prieure de Avon in Fontainebleau near and drug addicts, and student tuition. Among Paris. The structure and daily regimen at the his most prominent admirers in Europe and two estates were quite similar, as strikingly the United States were H. G. Wells, Rudyard Kipling, Christopher Morley, and Algernon Blackwood; John O. Cosgrave, editor of the AUTHOR'S NOTE: I wish to thank Ms. Judy Negron of Nezv York World Magazine; Wisconsin novel- New York City for her critical reading of, and val­ uable contributions to, the manuscript. I also wish to thank the Personnel and Budget Committee of the Social Science Division, City College of New York, for ' Meetings with Remarkable Men (New York, 1963), its 1973 summer "mini-grant" which enabled me to the second of Gurdjieff's three-part series. All and complete the research. Everything.

126 TWOMBLY: WRIGHT AND GURDJIEFF

Gurdjieff taught that human beings were the biological products of three interacting "centers"—the physical, emotional, and men­ tal. Of the three, the physical was well de­ veloped, the mental not at all, and the emo­ tional only partly. Man had once been in perfect balance but technology had relieved him of the burden of thought while Judeo- Christian civilization had made emotional ex­ pression seem "savage." Gurdjieff's objective was to develop man's emotional and mental powers, unite them harmoniously with his body, and bring them under self-control and self-direction. This was to be achieved by self-discovery through self-observation, espe­ cially but not entirely during the performance of arduous physical labor and certain "sacred" dances. Gurdjieff's followers worked con­ stantly, sometimes without apparent purpose. Fritz Peters, a resident at the Institute dur­ ing the 1920's, noticed that although the work was often necessary, maintenance was not its primary function. Gurdjieff might order the lawn to be mown, for example, just after it had been done, or set someone building a wall, then abandon it unfinished. Peters concluded Nott, Teachings of Gurdjieff that Gurdjieff's actual intention was to create Georgi Gurdjieff, disembarking from an ocean liner. conditions suitable for reflection and self- observation, unusual conditions that could ist Zona Gale; Harlem Renaissance writer illuminate the hidden inner person.* The Jean Toomer; English author Katherine Mans­ ultimate purpose of activity at the Institute field who died at Avon; A. R. Orage, editor in was to stimulate introspection under condi­ London of The New Age; Russian philosopher tions of stress to enhance balanced growth. P. D. Ouspensky; Mrs. Enrico Caruso; Harold Every evening after dinner advanced stu­ McCormick of reaper fame; and Margaret An­ dents performed complicated dances and derson and Jane Heap, publishers of The rhythmic exercises called "gymnastics." Based Little Review. After achieving notoriety in on rituals Gurdjieff had observed on his trav­ Europe, Gurdjieff came to America in 1924 els, they were actually improvisations he had to raise money and open a branch of the In- choreographed for student performances at stitute.2 A number of study groups sprang the Institute and on tour. One observer wrote up, most notably in Chicago and New York. that "the demonstrations are unique in their Gurdjieff visited the United States several presentation. They consist of movements times in the 1930's and 1940's and, after which include the sacred gymnastics of the selling the Prieure at Fontainebleau in 1933, esoteric schools, the religious ceremonies of moved to Paris where he died in the American the antique Orient, and the ritual movement Hospital in 1949. His last years were spent writing and instructing small private gather­ ings in the intricacies of his philosophy.^ de Hartmann, Our Life with Mr. Gurdjieff (1964; Penguin Books, Baltimore, 1972); [C. S. Nott], Teach­ ings of Gurdfieff: The Journal of a Pupil (New ' Zona Gale, letter to the editor. The New York York, 1961); Fritz Peters, Boyhood with Gurdfieff Times, March 1, 1924. (1964; Penguin Books, Baltimore, 1972); Fritz Peters, ' Most of the information in the Gurdjieff section Gurdfieff Remembered (1965; Samuel Weiser, Inc., of this article is condensed from Margaret Anderson, New York, 1971). The Unknowable Gurdjieff (New York, 1962); Thomas * Peters, Boyhood, 26, 152, and passim. 127 Nott, Teactiings of Gurdjieff Members of Gurdjieff's institute performing a "dervish prayer," about 1924, with Olgivanna Hinzenberg, later Mrs. Frank Lloyd Wright, at the front left. of monks and dervishes—besides the folk- sisted of maintenance and improvement of dances of many a remote community" entirely the estate, gardening, cooking, laundering, and unknown to Europe. They were bewilderingly cleaning, hopefully to make the place as self- complex and precise, exceptionally graceful, sufficient as possible. After a lunch break, and were accompanied, she noted, by mysti­ work continued until 4 o'clock tea, then more cal and inspiring music, usually arranged by work until dinner at 7. At 8:30 everyone re­ Thomas de Hartmann—a Russian composer paired to the "gymnasium" where Gurdjieff of minor importance—who played with dig­ directed activities, composed new dances and nity and profound expression.^ Although the melodies, and lectured intermittently to stu­ dances were publicly performed to raise money dents and guests. The routine varied on Sat­ and advertise the Institute, their principal urday afternoons when everyone took a Turk­ purpose was to develop self-control. Part of ish bath, and on Sundays, reserved for relaxa­ Gurdjieff's method, aside from instructing his tion, sumptuous meals, discussions with Gur­ pupils in the meaning of the dances and the djieff, or perhaps excursions to Paris.^ Gur­ emotions they evoked, was to stop the exercise djieff did not believe in classrooms or formal suddenly, requiring the performers to hold instruction but relied instead on personal con­ difficult positions for lengthy intervals, at the tact and individual assignments, although he same time solving complicated mathematical occasionally addressed the assembled body. problems. The idea was to stimulate mental When he spoke he was intentionally oblique, and physical dexterity in an emotional con­ forcing the students to determine for them­ text so that the three centers, all released by selves the significance of his teachings and the dance, could be brought under conscious the value of their experiences. He also be­ control. Through this exceptionally difficult lieved that learning was in large part instinc­ effort and through other kinds of strenuous tual, that much could be gained by careful labor—which Gurdjieff at times called "inten­ observation of growth processes in birds, tional suffering"—he aimed to awaken his fol­ plants, and animals. The natural logic of lowers to their physical, mental, and emotional organic development, including that of the possibilities which could then be united in self, he insisted, could be discovered only by the harmonious balance necessary for per­ sustained effort. Gurdjieff directed his stu­ sonal fulfillment. dents toward their naturalness—their lost or­ The daily regimen at the Prieure was de­ ganic selves—which to him meant the reunifi­ signed to implement Gurdjieff's theories. cation of their centers. Wisdom and truth Everyone rose at 6 A. M., ate a meagre but by were not taught so much as discovered at the all accounts sufficient breakfast (coffee and Institute, and Gurdjieff's role was to release toast), and began assignments. Tasks con- in the individual the means of discovery

° Maud Hoffman, "Taking the Life Cure in Gur­ djieff's School," in The New York Times, February 10, "Peters, Boyhood, 9-10; Hartmann, Our Life, 105, 1924, sec. 7, p. 13. and passim.

128 TWOMBLY; WRIGHT AND GURDJIEFF through dance, labor, self-awareness, and open­ phenomenon "is one symptom of our disor­ ness to the natural world. dered time."* Gurdjieff's technique had an obscure but discernible logic. Newcomers, even children, were put to hard work and told to do it con­ scientiously even though its purpose was not 'RANK LLOYD WRIGHT'S Tal­ immediately clear. After a while, according F-iesin Fellowship was as far re­ to Fritz Peters, "one became conscious of moved from Depression unpleasantries as the being thrust into somewhat frustrating cir­ Institute was from Prosperity's uncertainties. cumstances," such as laboring next to an­ And like Gurdjieff, Wright was magnetic, other whose temperament clashed with one's offering a total world view in an orderly en­ own, or being taken off a project just as one vironment remote from social chaos. Wright was becoming interested. "Most of the novice was sixty-five years old in 1932 when he and students seemed to be put through a period Olgivanna opened their doors to apprentices. of purposeful frustration," Peters remem­ Although he had had very few commissions bered. Soon they began to wonder what they since World War I, and was considered some­ were doing and why, and since no one, not thing of an architectural elder statesman, he even Gurdjieff, would tell them, they even­ scorned his professional obituaries. Wright tually reached a kind of breaking point. It saw the Fellowship as a means to "increase not was then they were told to observe themselves only my interest and enthusiasm for my work" carefully while working, to make a mental but also "my capacity to apply it."^ Critics record of their feelings. If the students stayed speculated that he had assembled a group of long enough to master their frustrations and youngsters gullible enough to pay for the to report honestly on their self-observations, privilege of growing his food and repairing they were taken into an "inner circle" where his estate, but cynicism did not prevent the they attended readings, lectures, and partici­ Fellowship's instant success. Even though the pated in the dances. If they continued their Wrights raised tuition from $650 to 11,100 commitment to the philosophy and the pro­ before students arrived, they found themselves gram, they began private audiences with Gur­ with a waiting list equal to enrollment. The djieff. By this time—usually after several years Fellowship began to repair and expand —they were loyal followers.'' Wright's buildings, and the architect, freed Rising through the ranks at the Institute for the first time in years from many mun­ was an irregular and informal process, deter­ dane worries, entered one of his most creative mined solely by Gurdjieff's assessment of in­ periods. Like Gurdjieff, he found sustenance, dividual progress. He seems to have had an inspiration, and necessary ego-gratification unusual awareness of other people, to know from the young people and other admirers what was happening without observing it, he gathered around him.^" and his comments to individuals were percep­ The Fellowship's stated goal was to de­ tive enough to convince them that no one had velop a "well-correlated human being," a ever understood them so well. Gurdjieff creative person who could work as well with prompted blind and enduring loyalty. Fol­ the hand as with the "mind's eye."" Conse­ lowers spoke of him in hushed tones, virtually quently, Taliesin Fellows were expected to worshiping his every move. It is likely that the popularity he achieved in the 1920's and 1930's was in large measure prompted by his " Editorial introduction to C. E. Bechhoter, "The extraordinary personal magnetism which, with Forest Philo-sophers," Century, 108: 66 (May, 1924). "An Autobiography (New York, 1943), 399. his nonrational teachings, appealed to disillu­ " On the Fellowship and Wright's philosophy see sioned intellectuals and self-proclaimed "ar­ Robert C. Twombly, Frank Lloyd Wright: An In­ tistes" whose faith in Western values had been terpretive Biography (Harper & Row, New York, 1973), shattered by the war. As the editors of Cen­ chapters 7, 9. tury magazine put it in 1924, the Gurdjieff " Circular letter, "An Extension of the Work in Architecture at Taliesin to Include Apprentices in Residence," summer, 1932, reprinted in An Auto­ ' Peters, Gurdjieff Remembered, 126-127. biography, 390-394.

129 methods, that included everything essential and nothing unessential, and that met the needs of client and architect. Organic build­ ings were natural in that they were inspired by the forms and processes of nature, increased contact between indoors and out, were com­ pletely harmonious, and lived as organisms for their users, changing in function and char­ acter over time. Organic buildings, Wright insisted, were missionaries of an indigenous American architecture and culture, and could be designed only by those who understood "organic living," the life-style at Taliesin. Wright believed that all things in the uni­ verse were of a piece, parts of an integrated, harmonious, perfectly correlated whole. While not immediately obvious, this "whole" was available to the patient observer of nature and life who could train himself to discover organic principles. Urbanization and indus­ trialization had rendered life inorganic, how­ ever, forcing people from the land into bu­ reaucratic work situations and box-like liv­ ing compartments. But in the organic society Wright envisioned, nothing would be inhar­ Society's Iconograpliic Collections monious and each person would perform an Master architect Frank Lloyd Wright instructing a individually satisfying and socially useful role. group of apprentices in 1937 at Taliesin near Spring Wright's attempt to delineate the good society, Green. his Utopian scheme called Broadacre City, in­ corporated the notions of an acre of land master the essentials of molding and casting, for each person, locally controlled social ser­ potting, weaving, sculpting, painting, drama, vices, decentalized government, production by and rhythm, architecture of course, and to small farms and industries based on regional become proficient in one. The Wrights pro­ resources and markets, and supervision of the vided orchestral, choral, dance, and drama natural and constructed landscape by archi­ groups, a wide range of films, opportunity tects trained in organic philosophy. In Broad- to write for publication, and unending physi­ acre City land could be held only as long as cal labor. Part of the Fellow's day was devoted it was used productively. Physical labor de­ to necessary work, part to drafting, and part termined cash value and was the means by to supervised relaxation, for only a well- which individuals discovered their potential. rounded individual, Wright believed, could "Work was adventure," Wright wrote, and be an "organic" human being (or architect). each person found himself by "adding tired One who could work with the hands as well to tired."^^ Physical labor also revealed the as the mind, who had "heart-felt" as well as characteristics of tools and materials, essen­ "head-felt" knowledge, who knew materials tial knowledge in an organic society (like as thoroughly as theory, who was in short a Broadacre City and Taliesin) where most peo­ philosopher craftsman—only that person ple would build their own homes. The study could create "organic architecture." Wright of organic processes and the performance of never defined his famous concept precisely arduous labor were central to Wright's educa­ but it implied buildings that reflected the tional theory. By these means students could social, cultural, and physical environment, discover the essentials—the defining charac- that solved all the problems at hand, that grew out of the materials and construction "^n Autobiography, 17-22. 130 ^v r«^-^'*- S^ift'i mt mst

Society's Iconographic Collections A model of a portion of Broadacre City, displayed by a Fellowship apprentice. The apprentices, together with Wright, made several such three-dimensional models of his ideal city. teristics, the "nature"—of themselves and the verified, and their decisions made from above. material world, could learn the principles of In architectural matters Wright had the final universal order, and thereby be equipped to word and in everything else Olgivanna ruled build and live organically. Wright repeated­ with an iron hand.'^ ly stated that he labored "in the cause of It had been planned that way, of course. architecture," the goal of which was an or­ Wright notified prospective applicants that ganic civilization. their "especial predilections or idiosyncrades, Daily life at the Fellowship was charac­ although respected, will not be separately en­ terized by hard work and by study of "the couraged." He reserved the right to dismiss nature of materials." The Taliesin apprentice any student at any time for any reason with­ rose before dawn, breakfasted, and began his out notice, even after the thirty-day trial per­ assignment in the fields, the laundry, the iod. "The Fellowship ... is not on trial," kitchen, or on construction sites. Work con­ Wright pontificated, "the apprentice is."i* tinued after lunch until 4 o'clock tea, when Wright imposed and Olgivanna enforced fixed everyone moved to the drafting room to draw, hours for rising, eating, working, relaxing, and paint, or build models. Dinner at 7 was fol­ retiring. Smoking, long hair, casual clothes lowed by relaxation and lights out at 10. On at dinner, alcohol, and, later, drugs were pro­ Saturday evenings there was usually a movie hibited. When a colony of beards sprouted or a musicale, and on Sundays after a quasi- at Taliesin one summer, Mrs. Wright remem­ Unitarian service with the Master sometimes bered, they "endured" it for awhile, but then presiding and a formal dinner, the Fellowship "one day we laid down the law. Fourteen met with Mr. and Mrs. Wright for discus­ sion. Except for a constant flow of paying visitors and invited guests, and periodic chang­ " Daily life was described by apprentice Eugene Masselink, "At Taliesin," in The Capital Times (Madi­ es in job assignments, the apprentices' sched­ son, Wisconsin), February 2, 1934. Also see Joan W. ule was rigidly programmed. Although the Saltzstein, "Taliesin Through the Years," in the Wrights did not personally supervise them— Wisconsin Architect (October, 1969), 15. straw bosses came from the ranks on a rotat­ ""An Extension of the Work . . . ," in An Auto­ biography, 392-393; also see The Taliesin Fellowship, ing basis—their lives were directed, their work 1933 pamphlet and application.

131 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY WINTER, 1974-1975 absurd beards were quickly shaven." One of ing collectivity in which individuality could the women apprentices remarked in defense not threaten the "well-balanced" order.** of her hirsute colleagues that Smith College undergraduates had once engaged in a pipe- smoking fad which the administration ignored and the students soon abandoned. "I think 'HERE ARE many obvious and it frightful that they let the young girls in­ not so obvious parallels between dulge in such a grotesque habit," Olgivanna Wright's Taliesin Fellowship and Gurdjieff's remarked in alarm and, characteristically, Institute for the Harmonious Development without a hint of humor. "They should have of Man. First of all, their objectives were been disciplined instead." One Chinese Fel­ similar: to create "correlated" or "balanced" low was disciplined at a Sunday evening musi­ individuals. Gurdjieff aimed to harmonize cale when, unfamiliar with American and the three "centers," Wright to synthesize the Taliesin custom, he rose to play his violin head, hand, and heart. Since both believed wearing dirty, unlaced boots. Mrs. Wright that learning had as much to do with in­ flew into a rage. "What right do you claim stinct as with books, and that self-knowledge for such insolence in our house?" she de­ was the key to all knowledge, neither used manded "severely." "Kindly leave this classrooms or formal instruction. Both room."15 stressed arduous physical labor as a means to The apprentices were naive enough to be­ personal co-ordination, mental and emotional lieve, as one wrote, that "nothing in the life expansion, as a way to build character, un­ of the Fellowship is forced or artificial." "Just cover natural/organic processes, and open as an organic building grows naturally, so the the doors of self-perception. Both advocated apprentice lives naturally and spontaneously, the study of nature in two senses: the worlds working at whatever tasks arise. . . ."i" But of biology, zoology, and botany, and the na­ Wright saw it differently: "The Taliesin Fel­ ture or essence of things, those defining char­ lowship is a 'work' of individual apprentices, acteristics that revealed universal structure co-operating and co-ordinating like fingers on and natural law. Both used the word "organ­ my hand. They are the fingers of the hands ic" to refer to a higher stage of personal and of Frank Lloyd Wright," he emphasized, "and social development. Both believed that mod­ will carry on the principles I have enunciated." ern man had been conditioned through edu­ Apprenticeship at Taliesin is "much where cational systems, working conditions, the arts, it was in feudal times," he admitted candidly, and the media to overemphasize the intellect, "with this important difference: an appren­ throwing him out of harmony with himself, tice then was his master's slave; at Taliesin making him "inorganic" or "unbalanced." he is his master's comrade"—but with the pro­ Gurdjieff and Wright therefore emphasized viso—"to the extent he qualifies himself. . . ."" nonrational, essentially anti-intellectual means Ogilvanna noted that "discipline exercised to self-awareness, individual growth, and per­ over members of the Taliesin Fellowship grew sonal reunification. stronger as the years went by. We had to Their two establishments were also quite show them the delicate line which lies be­ similar. Students arose with the sun (or be­ tween self-expression and self-indulgence." By fore), ate organically grown food from the 1959 she could write with satisfaction that premises, had tea together at 4 and dinner at "the incidents I have described [those related 7, and labored strenuously at least eight hours above] cannot even be conceived at Taliesin" a day before engaging in the speciality of the now. The "especial predilections" that had house—in the gymnasium or the drafting worried Wright in 1932 had given way to a room. Both groups aimed at self-sufficiency "harmonious" social life, a smoothly function- by raising their own crops, maintaining and erecting their own buildings, providing for ^° Mrs. Frank Lloyd Wright, "Our House," in The the landscaping, laundry, heat, water, power, Capital Times, February 9, 1959. "•Earl Friar, "At Taliesin," ibid., April 24, 1936. cooking, and as many other necessities as " Sterling Sorensen, "Wright's Taliesin is League of Nations in Miniature," ibid., September 28, 1947. " "Our House," ibid., February 9, 1959.

132 Society's Iconographic Collectior A formal gathering of the Fellowship in 1937, with Mr. and Mrs. Wright in matching armchairs at the side of the fireplace, flanked by their daughters Svetlana (left) and lovanna (seated on the floor). William Wesley Peters, later Svetlana's husband and vice-president of the Frank Lloyd Wright Foundation, is conspicuous with a bow tie at the right-center. possible. Self-sufficiency led them to rural ed in the Master or his agent; neither were isolation, especially desirable because out­ fellowships in any true sense, except among siders ridiculed them, because they consid­ the students. Both discouraged disagreement ered the larger society corrupt, and because with authority, independent action without they could thus achieve mutual reinforcement permission, intellectual investigation or artis­ in a kind of social vacuum. Although indi­ tic expression that wandered from the offi­ viduals had their own tasks, hours for all cial way. Dissent, insubordination, or rivalry activities were fixed; there was little time at with the Master sent one packing, and at both either place for personal errands and projects institutions students "played the game" eitiier or a private life. Both "schools" had their because they believed in it or to enter the "masters" who lived in a rather expansive inner circle. In the fundamentals of philoso­ way quite apart from the life-style of the stu­ phy and implementation, the Institute and dents. Each had its inner circle available to the Fellowship were very much alike. some after a lengthy stay, the demonstration So were the results of the experience. Stu­ of unusual talent, or currying favor. Both dents tended to remain for years, unless of establishments were authoritarian and hier­ course they quit in disgust or bewilderment. archical with power and decision-making vest­ Some who arrived as apprentices when Talie-

133 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY WINTER, 1974-1975 sin opened in 1932 never left, some died there sion.2° Gurdjieff and Wright had much to after decades in residence, some "graduated" offer—that is beyond dispute—but by thwart­ only to return later. The average stay today ing individuality and admitting no deviation is eight years. Several of Gurdjieff's followers from their methods and theories, they at­ who had traveled with him in the early days tracted true believers "who found niches with­ lived at Avon as long as he owned it, from in the confines of the group and the stric­ 1922 to 1933, while others kept close for the tures of the philosophy. remainder of his life. Wright and Gurdjieff The many similarities between the two both inspired undeviating loyalty, devotion, men, their "schools," philosophies, and stu­ and worship, and both provided a very real dents do not necessarily prove a causal rela­ sense of security, safety, and peace in an iso­ tionship. But several observers who knew lated, tightly-knit, autarchical community with the Wrights and Gurdjieff in the 1930's were its own ideals, quasi-religious atmosphere, eso­ certain that the Institute had inspired the Fel­ teric truth, and sense of superiority over those lowship, primarily because of Olgivanna.^^ who did not "know." Born in Cetinje, Yugoslavia, around 1898, The Masters' personal magnetism and ap­ Olgivanna Milanoff came from an aristocratic parent omniscience seem to have attracted Montenegrin family, was educated in Turkey personally insecure or socially marginal peo­ and in czarist Russia, and in 1917 gave birth ple. Some of Gurdjieff's most prominent fol­ to Svetlana, a daughter by her husband, Vlade- lowers were actually in tenuous circumstances: mar Hinzenberg. Shortly thereafter the cou­ Katherine Mansfield was dying of tuberculo­ ple separated and in 1920 Olgivanna began sis; Jean Toomer was a black author denying a four-year association with Gurdjieff, travel­ his blackness; A. R. Orage ran a shoestring ing with him and his disciples from Tiflis in avant-garde journal, also true of Margaret Russian Georgia to Constantinople, Berlin, Anderson and Jane Heap, who were social Dresden, and Paris, finally settling at Fon­ outcasts in other ways. Taliesin attracted tainebleau when he opened his Institute. She young people unhappy at their colleges or seems to have been a willing student for by who variously were seeking after truth. The the time she left Gurdjieff she had become most self-assured of those who came—Paolo one of three or four instructors, assisting Soleri and Bruce Goff, for example—left younger pupils in the intricacies of the exer­ quickly.i^ Very few dedicated graduates of cises. And she was also, as one informant either institution achieved distinction in put it, "definitely" close personally to her their fields (except locally, and even then the Master, with whom she discussed her plans, number is small, or unless, in Gurdjieff's case, or lack of them, for the future. In February, they came with established reputations). The 1924, she appeared with Gurdjieff and twenty- work produced by Wright's students and five pupils in New York where at Carnegie firm since his death in 1959 is imitative (of Hall and the Neighborhood Playhouse they him), redundant, involuted, imprisoned by its own theories, unrelated to social and architec­ ™ For illuminating comments on present-day Taliesin tural change, and is received with amused see Loudon Wainwright, "Guardian of a Great Legacy," tolerance even by conservatives in the profes- in Life (June 11, 1971); Wolf von Eckardt, "The Wright Idolaters," in The Washington Posl, May 8, 1966; and " Soleri, an Italian by birth who now lives and the events surrounding the marriage and separation of works near Scottsdale, Arizona, in the proximity of William Wesley Peters, chief Taliesin associated archi­ Taliesin West, is known for his ceramic bells, "earth tect, and Svetlana Stalin, daughter of the Soviet pre­ houses," and "arcology"—his synthesis of architec­ mier: The New York Times, April 8, 1970, February 24, ture and ecology which will house 3,000 people. 27, 1972; The Record (Bergen County, New Jersey), He spent about two years in the Fellowship in the February 29, 1972, from Los Angeles Times News Ser­ 1940's. Current Biography Yearbook, 1972, pp. 398- vice; The Washington Post, March 30, 1972; and Good 401. Goff, who was born in Tulsa and who has prac­ Housekeeping (July, 1972). After her separation from ticed principally in the Southwest, lives at Tyler, Peters, Svetlana told an interviewer, "I am perfectly Texas. He is known for the extensive use ot glass in convinced that I am free" in the United States. "The his designs; his biographical sketch in the Britannica only time I lost this freedom was at Taliesin West, Encyclopedia of American Art, 239, does not mention when I was again under pressures and controls. . . ." his Fellowship apprenticeship, but does credit Wright's The New York Times, March 6, 1973. inspiration. ''^ See footnote 38 below. 134 TWOMBLY: WRIGHT AND GURDJIEFF demonstrated their dances in a fund-raising joint endeavors, related manifestations of a effort. She returned to the Institute for sev­ single impulse. eral months but in November traveled to Chi­ cago to arrange a divorce with her estranged husband.^^ 'HEIR PLANS for the Fellowship Olgivanna met Wright (then separated may have also been affected by from his second wife) at the Petrograd Ballet the establishment of a Gurdjieffian commune in Chicago, probably on November 30, 1924. not far from Spring Green during the summer In his autobiography he recalled that after of 1931. Jean Toomer, author of Cane (1923), the performance she told him about her life a collection of stories, sketches, and poems gen­ at the Institute. Wright had heard of the erally regarded as the most innovative product New York presentations and was eager to of the Harlem Renaissance, had adopted Gur­ learn more of "that remarkable training," as djieff's philosophy in 1923 and immediately he called it. Her account of the Institute, he become an ardent disciple. Since he lived wrote, "was fascinating revelation. . . . She in Washington, D.C, and later spent part of seemed to approve and like what I had to 1924, presumably the summer, at Gurdjieff's say about it. Between us across that tea table Institute, it is likely he attended Gurdjieff's went more from each to each than I can ever New York performances. Toomer visited describe." And "it was not in words," he Fontainebleau again in 1925 and 1926, then added, "although the words were good."^^ spent several years traveling across the United The relationship culminated in marriage in States speaking on Gurdjieff and forming 1928. Shortly thereafter, in a lecture at Prince­ study groups. Quite prominent in North Side ton University, Wright proposed the creation Chicago intellectual circles by 1931, Toomer of "industrial style centers," business-financed arrived in Portage, Wisconsin, in June to rural outposts where master, artisans, and ap­ deliver a series of lectures at a workingman's prentices would sustain themselves from the institute held at the home of novelist Zona sale of innovative crafts (much like Soleri Gale, then a follower of Gurdjieff, and at oth­ and his bells in the desert).^^ Soon the idea er local residences. At about the same time evolved into the concept of the Taliesin Fel­ he and Margery Latimer, a promising young lowship, first announced in a 1931 pamphlet, Portage author, and six other men and wom­ "The Hillside Home School of the Allied en moved into a farmhouse for the summer Arts: Why We Want This School." In the in what was publicly described as a "psycho­ meantime, Olgivanna published an article, logical experiment" and an "artists' colony." "The Last Days of Katherine Mansfield," in Several local people as well as distinguished the March, 1931, issue of The Bookman, a visitors from Milwaukee, Chicago, and the glimpse into her life at the Institute and her University of Wisconsin attended lectures. friendship with the dying writer. Given Toomer continued to speak around town, Wright's interest in Gurdjieff, Olgivanna's and Portage took enormous pride from the role in founding the Fellowship,^' and their notoriety.^s His popularity rose even higher personal and philosophical closeness, it seems likely that the two literary efforts of 1931 were daughter of Montenegrin dignitaries aiming to be educators, composed and sent out during the sum­ ^'^ Twombly, Wright, 145-146; Wright, An Auto­ mer the following circular letter": "An Extension of biography, 510; Mrs. Frank Lloyd Wright, Our House the Work . . ." cited in footnote 11. (An Autobiog­ (New York, 1959), 275; [Nott], Teachings, 62, 84-85; raphy, 389.) Clearly, the Fellowship was a joint interview with a New York City Gurdjieffian, Septem­ undertaking. ber 28, 1974. *• On Toomer see The Register-Democrat (Portage, ^ An Autobiography, 510-511. Wisconsin), July 13, 1931 (including one of his ^ Modern Architecture: Being the Kahn Lectures speeches), February 15, March 9, 1932; Mabel Mayle for 1930 (Princeton, New Jersey, 1931); Wright, The Dillard, "Jean Toomer: Herald ot the Negro Renais­ Future of Architecture (New York, 1953), 108-111. sance" (doctoral dissertation, Ohio University, 1967); ^ When Wright described planning the Fellowship, Darwin T. Turner, In a Minor Chord: Three Afro- he consistently used the word "we," and at one point Americans and Their Search for Identity (Southern remarked: "After talking the 'idea' over, pro and Illinois University Press, Carbondale, Illinois, 1971), con, we, a son of Wisconsin Welsh pioneers and a 37-39, 58; "Just Americans," in Time (March 28,

135 Society's Iconographic Collections Apprentices, members of the Fellowship, Mrs. Wright (in the right foreground, wearing a large, dark picture hat), and daughter lovanna (white picture hat) at Taliesin West, bidding farewell to William T. Evjue, editor and publisher of Madison's Capital Times and an outspoken advocate of Wright's work, March 31, 1959. Within days, Wright was taken ill and died after surgery. in October when he and Margery Latimer an­ Toomer had wed secretly, that unmarried cou­ nounced their engagement. The farmhouse ples had cohabited at the commune where experiment closed in September and the next nude bathing, naked tree climbing, and free month the couple left for a winter's honey­ love had flourished. Portage residents here­ moon in California, but occasional press com­ tofore uninterested came forward to hint at ment kept them and their interest in Gurdjieff illicit goings on; others who had thrilled to before the public.^'^ the venture now dissociated themselves and Toomer's honeymoon with Portage ended condemned the participants.^^ Actually the in March, 1932, when a San Francisco re­ experiment had been an attempt to implement porter revealed what the residents at the Gurdjieff's teachings. Toomer was clearly in farmhouse already knew, that Toomer was charge, directing physical activities and philo­ partially black. (He was the grandson of sophical discussions. The days were given over P. B. S. Pinchback, Congressman, lieutenant to athletics and gymnastics, according to the governor, and acting governor of Louisiana, Gurdjieffian prescription that self-knowledge himself only partially black.) The story, was best achieved through strenuous effort. picked up by International News Service and The evenings included lectures, readings, dis­ spread over the Milwaukee front pages, was cussions, and presentations at the homes of packed with distortions: that Latimer and interested outsiders. The Wrights had no direct contact with the commune but they 1932); Frank Durham (comp.). The Merrill Studies knew of its existence. They were acquainted in Cane (Charles E. Merrill Pub. Co., Columbus, with several people involved with it, includ­ Ohio, 1971), 15; The Capital Times, March 21, 1932. ing Zona Gale and probably Toomer (he and ^ On the Toomer-Latimer marriage see The Regis­ ter-Democrat, October 24, 31, 1931; Daniel P. Mc­ Olgivanna had been at the Institute in 1924), Carthy, " 'Just Americans', A Note on Jean Toomer's Marriage to Margery Latimer," in C L A Journal, 17: 474-479 (June, 1974). (The entire issue is devoted to '^ Wisconsin News (Milwaukee), March 17, 19, 1932; Toomer.) Milwaukee Sentinel, March 18, 20, 21, 1932. 136 TWOMBLY; WRIGHT AND GURDJIEFF and at least one other occasional participant The relationship between the two men was visited Taliesin at the time. Such a conspicu­ actually a complicated one. Both were su­ ous undertaking only fifty miles away, vir­ preme egotists, reluctant to acknowledge tually coinciding with their Mansfield article greatness in anyone but themselves. Although and Hillside pamphlet, undoubtedly rein­ they got along rather well, referring to each forced their plans for the Fellowship.^^ other affectionately as "the old man,"^' there Margery Toomer died in childbirth in Au­ was an unmistakable chill in their warmth. gust, 1932, again reviving discussion of Gur­ They respected each other as professionals, djieff in a surge of press innuendo.'" After Gurdjieff understanding that Wright was a the Fellowship opened two months later in great architect, Wright that Gurdjieff was October, among the first invited guests was "the best" as a spiritual leader.^* But Gur­ none other than Georgi Gurdjieff himself. djieff thought Wright philosophically igno­ Arriving in June, 1934, after a lecture in Chi­ rant—"Wright was as a child compared to cago, Gurdjieff so impressed Wright that the Gurdjieff," one of his disciples wrote—and architect wrote a column for Madison's Capi­ was no less patronizing toward him than tal Times in which he praised him, in fact, toward other mere mortals.'^ Wright carped gave Gurdjieff his highest accolade by labeling that one of Gurdjieff's manuscripts was bad­ him an organic man. "In him we see a mas­ ly written (the pot calling the kettle. . . !), sive sense of his own individual worth," Gurdjieff that Wright was an old man who Wright wrote in August, 1934. "A man able had outlived his usefulness (this on the eve to reject most of the so-called culture of our of an incomparable burst of architectural period and set up more simple and organic creativity!). Through their inflated egos they standards of personal worth and courageously, feared each other as potential rivals. "Well, outrageously, live up to them. . . . Notwith­ Mr. Gurdjieff," Wright remarked one night standing superabundance of personal idiosyn- after a long conversation with the apprentices cracy [denied to the apprentices], Georg at Taliesin, "This is very interesting. I think Gurdjeef [sic] seems to have the stuff in him I'll send some of my young people to you in of which our genuine prophets have been Paris. Then they can come back to me and made. And when prejudice against him has I'll finish them off." cleared away his vision of truth will be recog­ "You finish!" Gurdjieff exploded. "You nized as fundamental. . . ."^^ Gurdjieff, in are idiot. You finish! No. You begin. I fin­ America to raise money, visited Taliesin at ish."'^ ii J5 ^ measure of Wright's admiration least twice, in 1934 and 1936, captivating the for Gurdjieff that he did not throw him out, apprentices and their Master so much—by his did not even get angry. Wright eulogized Russian cooking as well as his conversation— Gurdjieff at New York's Cooper Union in that Wright confessed being "honored" to 1949, and in 1950 wrote that he "not only have had him as a guest.'^ He never applaud­ intends to awaken a man to the nature of ed anyone else as loudly. glish architect and historian, called the Beal corre­ spondence to my attention. According to C. S. Nott '•^The Register-Democrat, July 31, 1931; Mrs. George and others, Gurdjieff visited Taliesin arotmd 1939, A. Murison, Portage, to author, July 25, 1974; John and probably three or four times in all during the O. Holzhueter, Madison, to author, July 25, 1974; 1930's. The Wrights saw Gurdjieff in Paris shortly telephone conversation between Miss Katherine Green, before and shortly after World War II. Portage, one of the participants, and author, August ''' Anonymous informant, September, 1974. Another 3, 1974, informant, whose identity cannot be revealed, re­ •" The Register-Democrat and Milwaukee Journal, membered (August 6, 1974) from his years at Talie­ August 17, 1932; The New York Times, August 18, 1932. sin that Wright "liked Mr. Gurdjieff, and they were ^'"At Taliesin," in The Capital Times, August 26, two great men who admired each other very much." 1934. •" Interview with New York City Gurdjieffian, Sep­ •"Ibid.; Eugene Masselink to Mr. and Mrs. George M. tember 28, 1974. Beal, undated 1936; Helen Beal to parents, July 12, "" C. S. Nott, Journey Through This World: The 1934; Jimmy Drought to the Beals, November 6, 1934, Second Journal of a Pupil (Routledge & Kegan Paul, all in the Beal Manuscripts, Department of Special London, 1969), 152, taken from chapter 17, "Taliesin Collections, Kenneth Spencer Research Library, Uni­ and the Frank Lloyd Wrights," 138-156. versity of Kansas, Lawrence. John Sergeant, an En- ''"Ibid., 151-152.

137 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY WINTER, 1974-1975 himself. . . . He knows how!" Like Lao Tse, During the 1930's when his association with Jesus, and Augustine, Wright added, Gur­ Gurdjieff was closest, Wright produced his djieff was "himself a seer." And the admiration most important and comprehensive books, of­ was mutual, despite the rivalry. Gurdjieff re­ fering an organic philosophy to ah inorganic vealed it when he reminded a group of Chica­ world.' Prior to his awareness of Gurdjieff, go followers before leaving for Taliesin that Wright had concentrated on building matters "we are going to special place."'^ but after Olgivanna introduced him to her Wright respected Gurdjieff most of all, it master's teachings, as soon as their life to­ appears, as a teacher. Although he had de­ gether was settled, Wright shifted his literary veloped his architectural principles long be­ emphasis to human nature and social theory. fore meeting either Olgivanna or Gurdjieff, The architect, in short, became the philoso­ it is significant that after his marriage in 1928 pher. While it would be an overstatement to the character and content of his writing suggest that Gurdjieff alone was responsible, changed noticeably. During several tumul­ it is inescapable that his entry into Wright's tuous years before 1928 Wright had concen­ consciousness coincided with the transforma­ trated his articles on building materials and tion. construction techniques, on fundamental pro­ cesses and methods of putting and keeping things together—in direct contrast to his shat­ S TIME PASSED Taliesin's com­ tered private life. After 1928, he became in­ A mitment to Gurdjieff remained creasingly abstract, writing less on organic strong. Over the years visitors have remarked architecture, more on organic life. In his on his continuing influence. "There is no speeches he discussed Broadacre City as often question but that Olgivanna 'ran' Taliesin as individual house types, the proper kind of West like a transplanted Prieure," Fritz Peters man along with the proper kind of dwelling. recalled of his 1939 visit, "even down to the As Wright became more general—perhaps architectural students wearing the same 'cos­ ranging too far from his field of competence tume' that Gurdjieff students sometimes wore —his prose deteriorated and his vocabulary for so-called demonstrations of dances and/or changed. He used words like correlation, in­ movements." C. S. Nott, who had known Ol­ tegration, unity, and harmony more frequent­ givanna at Fontainebleau in 1924, spent the ly, not Gurdjieff's words exactly but almost. summers of 1940 and 1941 in Spring Green: "Apart from the architectural school," he wrote, "the person who inspired the life of 37 Wright's 1950 comment appears on the dust jacket of Gurdjieff's Meetings with Remarkable Men; Gur­ the community was Olgivanna Lloyd Wright; djieff's is in Nott, Journey, 80. and she had received the inspiration from

The funeral cortege of Frank Lloyd Wright, April 12, 1959. Mrs. Wright leads the mourners, with the hills of the Wisconsin River valley and with Taliesin, the famous dwelling, in the background. TWOMBLY: WRIGHT AND GURDJIEFF the Prieure, from her work with Gurdjieff." Unlike his wife, Frank Lloyd Wright was "Apart from the Prieure, which of course was not a Gurdjieff disciple. Nor did he imitate on a still higher level, our life that summer the Greek philosopher. Perhaps "imitate" is [1940] at Taliesin," Nott rhapsodized, "was too strong a word, even in reference to Olgi­ as full a life as it is possible to have on this vanna. A prominent New York City Gur­ planet."^^ Around the time of Gurdjieff's djieffian remarks that although Olgivanna has death in 1949, Olgivanna and her younger always been a conscious disciple, her work was daughter lovanna began to choreograph their an "offshoot" from his own presumably more own versions of Institute dances. The title of "official" way. But it is not to be condemned, a 1950 public performance—"An Inner Exer­ he pointed out, for Gurdjieff had instructed cise in Concentration of Attention Within his students to go forth and spread the word, Oneself"—seems deliberately chosen to cure letting circumstances dictate methods.''^ Ol­ insomnia, but it clearly reveals its inspira­ givanna disseminated Gurdjieff's teachings at tion.^^ IYI her numerous writings and talks the Fellowship without necessarily identifying about Taliesin and her late husband, Olgi­ them as such, but with her husband's complete vanna continues to refer to her former men­ approval. It is likely, furthermore, that even tor, and her own book of armchair philoso­ during Gurdjieff's visits, the apprentices did phy. The Struggle Within (1955), is reminis­ not realize that their style of life had been in­ cent, albeit in a watery way, of Gurdjieff's spired by the Institute for the Harmonious De­ observations. Fritz Peters concluded that the velopment of Man. There were times, espe­ activity at Taliesin "was only an imitation of cially during the 1940's, that Gurdjieff was the real thing—neither Olgivanna nor Mr. downplayed at Taliesin, but there were other Wright had whatever it was that Gurdjieff times, notably since 1950, that his influence had. . . . Imitations usually don't."*" has been obvious. Wright may not have recog­ nized or have been willing to admit the extent to which he was himself touched by Gurdjieff, "" Fritz Peters to author, August 19, 1974, referring for at Taliesin especially he stood in no man's to the Wrights' winter home near Scottsdale, Arizona; Nott, Journey, 151. shadow. But the spirit of Gurdjieff lives there '«> The Capital Times, October 30, 1950; for another sdll. performance see ibid., November 7, 1951. One Gur­ djieffian respondent felt that 1950-1951 was the high an anthology of her Capital Times columns of the point of Taliesin's history, perhaps because of these same name. On pages 210-211 she writes: "Mr. Wright performances and the Wrights' public association with and I both felt the loss of Mr. Gurdjieff, since, in the the late Master: interview. New York City, September past, we had spent much time with him when in Paris." 28, 1974. Peters to author, August 19, 1974. *" See Mrs. Wright, Our House, 275. This book is •1 Interview, September 28, 1974.

Society's Iconographic Collection? Courtesy of John Ahlhauser Catholic and Protestant Missionaries Among Wisconsin Indians: The Territorial Period

By Michael E. Stevens

.REED and exploitation have Ely, Sherman Hall, and Leonard Wheeler G-characterized much of white were active at various times at the La Pointe treatment of the American Indians. Yet on mission. Cutting Marsh, a Congregationalist the frontier, there was also a genuine concern missionary-physician with the ABCFM, taught for the Indians' well-being among a group the Stockbridge in the area near Green Bay. of men who gave up the security and com­ Methodists, too, were represented. The most forts of their homes to bring Christianity to active Methodist missionary was Alfred Brun- the West. At times misguided, often ethno­ son. As a circuit rider with headquarters in centric, and usually ineffective, missionaries Prairie du Chien, he preached to the Sioux, of different faiths nonetheless tried to help Winnebago, and Chippewa. Richard Cadle the Indians meet the challenges they would operated an Episcopalian mission at Green face as settlers pushed westward. Competing Bay; however it was discontinued during the for the Indians' allegiance were Catholic and territorial period. Preponderantly New En­ Protestant missionaries. Historians have often glanders, the Protestant missionaries who studied the activities of these groups separate­ worked among Indians in Wisconsin were all ly, but have neglected to compare the similari­ American-born.' ties and differences in their attitudes toward On the other hand, the Catholic priests who the Indians. The territorial period in Wiscon­ were active in missionary endeavors were born sin provides an opportunity to make such and grew to maturity in Europe. Frederick a comparison. Baraga and Otto Skolla, who worked at La In Wisconsin Territory, missionaries played an important role in Indian relations. The * Ayer, Ely, and Wheeler were born in Massachusetts, federal government not only allowed various Hall and Marsh in Vermont, Boutwell in New Hamp­ religious groups to assume responsibility for shire, Brunson in Connecticut, and Cadle in New York. Several ot the Congregationalist ministers had Indian education, but it also subsidized mis­ similar educational backgrounds. Hall, Boutwell, and sion schools. Several Protestant denomina­ Marsh studied at Dartmouth College and attended, tions were active among Wisconsin Indians. along with 'VVheeler, Andover Theological Seminary. The Congregationalists and the New School Several Indian preachers worked with the Methodists, Presbyterians co-operated in a major mission­ however they are not included here since the pur­ pose of this study is to compare varying white atti­ ary effort—the American Board of Commis­ tudes. Information on the Wisconsin missionaries can sioners for Foreign Missions, usually known be found in Alice E. Smith, The History of Wisconsin, as the ABCFM—which supported missionaries Volume 1: From Exploration to Statehood (Madison, in their work among the Chippewa in the Lake 1973), 152-161, 695-696; Lois Marie Craig, "The Role Superior region. Under ABCFM auspices of the Missionary on the Wisconsin Frontier, 1825-40" (M-.'V. thesis. University of Wisconsin, 1949), 34-68; Dic­ Frederick Ayer, William Boutwell, Edmund tionary of Wisconsin Biography (Madison, 1960).

140 STEVENS: TERRITORIAL MISSIONARIES

j^^^"^ #r u ^ ^ #f*\ -^ 1 ,-?

Society's Iconographic Collections ProteslanI missionaries Leonard H. Wheeler, Alfred Brunson, Cutting Marsh, and Richard Cadle.

Pointe among the Chippewa, came from the Protestants obeyed an unwritten rule against Austrian Empire. Samuel Mazzuchelli, a na­ competition among themselves, fearing that tive of Milan, traveled throughout the terri­ the different denominations would only con­ tory and preached to several tribes. Florimond fuse the Indians and hinder their conversion. Bonduel of Belgium and Theodore van den But a bitter rivalry did exist between Catho­ Broek of the Netherlands operated among the lics and Protestants. Protestant missionaries .Menominee and moved their headquarters as referred to the Catholic Church with phrases the tribe moved. With the creation of the such as "the delusion of the devil" and noted Diocese of Milwaukee in 1843, a Swiss priest, that they had "a more formidable foe to John Martin Henni, became bishop for the encounter in Catholicism tlian in heathenism entire territory. During these years in which itself."^ Reciprocally, Catholics lost no love Wisconsin pushed toward statehood, both over their rivals and disparagingly cited Pro­ Protestants and Catholics made serious efforts testants' failure to convert any large number to convert the Indians to their own forms of of Indians.'' But despite the competition, there Christianity.^ was a limited amount of co-operation at iso­ lated La Pointe. There, Frederick Baraga, -Frederick Baraga came to the United States in I:)elieving that the Catholic Indian children 1830 and worked in Michigan before establishing a should be taught to read and write but un­ mission at La Pointe in 18,35. He returned to Michi­ able to establish a local Catholic scliool him- gan in 1845. Otto Skolla succeeded Baraga at La Pointe in 1845. He moved to Keshena in 1853 and worked with the Menominee for the next four years. ^ Sherman Hall, La Pointe, to David Greene, Oc- Samuel Mazzuchelli, a Dominican, came to the U.S. toijcr 9, 1837, in William E. Culkin, "Early Protestant in 1828 and established a school at Green Bay in Missions in the Lake Superior Country," II: 198; 1831. Theodore van den Broek, also a Dominican, Hall, La Pointe, to Greene, August 9, 1838, ibid., II: arrived in America in 1832 and operated a mission 144. These are unpublished typescripts at the St. among the Menominee at Green Bay and Little Chute Louis County Historical Society, Duluth, Minnesota; lunil 1846. Florimond Bonduel succeeded van den a typescript copy is in the Archives-Manuscripts Divi­ Broek and stayed with the Menominee at various sion, State Historical Society of Wisconsin, Madison. locations until 1853. See Smith, History of Wisconsin, Hereafter this source will be cited as Culkin, "Mis­ 154-155, 157-158, 607; Peter Leo Johnson, Crosier on sions." the Frontier: A Life of John Martin Henni (Madison, ' "Father SkoUa's Report on His Indian Missions," 1959), 62, 141-145. in Ada et Dicta, YU: 262 (October, 1936).

141 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY WINTER, 1974-1975

Society's Iconographic Collections Catholic missionaries Frederick Baraga, Florimond Bonduel, and Samuel Mazzuchelli. self, resolved the problem by sending the chil­ aimed their efforts at "the civilisation and dren to the Protestant school on the condi­ instruction" of the Indians.* tion that the teacher would not attempt to Although the missionaries did not always convert them from Catholicism.^ precisely define civilization, an agricultural Although such co-operation was rare, Pro­ life was an important part of their concept. testant and Catholic missionaries agreed on Both Catholic and Protestant missionaries a number of things. They shared a common tried to promote farming as a livelihood for view of what they thought the Indian ought Indians. Alfred Brunson even suggested that to aspire towards and of the obstacles he had if the government were planning to remove to overcome; and all missionaries hoped to the Indians, it should relocate them where "civilize" the Indians. A Congregationalist at they could not survive by hunting, since such La Pointe defined this goal as "to induce them a move would be "an inducement for them to settle down and adopt the customs of civil­ to learn to cultivate the soil."^ Missionaries ized life, to become industrious and turn their favored agriculture because it would create attention to the useful arts."^ Cutting Marsh the stability and permanence necessary for claimed that he had designed a program "to the development of Christianity. Leonard elevate them in the scale of intellectual be­ Wheeler expressed this sentiment when he ings,—to induce them to abandon the pagan asked, "How can we expect anything like state and raise them to a level with civilised consistent piety where the members of a fam- men, and to all of the priveleges [sic] and enjoyment of such a state."'' Catholics also ' Cutting Marsh, Stockbridge, to Albert G. Ellis, December 3, 1846, in Letters Received by the Office of Indian Affairs, 1824-81, Record Group 75, Micro­ ' Frederick Baraga, La Pointe, to Bishop P. P. copy 234, Roll 319, National Archives. Hereafter cited Lefevere, July 1, 1842, in the Baraga Papers, mimeo­ as RG 75, Microcopy 234. graphed translation, Archives-Manuscripts Division, ^ Frederick Baraga, La Pointe, to Alfred Brunson, State Historical Society of Wisconsin; Hall, La Pointe, September 19, 1843, in RG 75, Microcopy 2.34, Roll 388. to Greene, .August 16, 1838, in Culkin, "Missions," II: ° Brunson, Prairie du Chien, to Henry Dodge, Jan­ 217. uary 24, 1838, in A Microfilm Supplement to the Ter­ " Thirtieth Annual Report of the American Board ritorial Papers of the United States; Wisconsin, 1836- of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (Boston, 1839), 48, Microcopy 236, Roll 40, National Archives. Here­ 150. after cited as Microcopy 236.

142 STEVENS: TERRITORIAL MISSIONARIES

ily herd together like horses, where there is as they now are; but they are in danger of no family government—no habits of industry becoming much more so, in consequence of —where a people live in filth and spend their their increasing intercourse with white peo­ time in idleness."i" ple."*^ The Catholic bishop of Milwaukee, Because of this desire to promote stable John Henni, agreed and reported that his agrarianism, missionaries disliked the policy missions were located so that they were "far of frequent removals and relocation to areas removed from the contaminating influences that were not conducive to agriculture. Sam­ of the outside world."^'' uel Mazzuchelli complained that the con­ In their condemnation of white influence, tinual uprooting of tribes made continuity in it appears on the surface that the missionaries mission work difficult.^i Another Catholic were rejecting civilization as corrupt. How­ priest, Florimond Bonduel, encouraged In­ ever, when they spoke of the negative effect dians' opposition to removal when the govern­ of whites, they were not suggesting that they ment offered the Menominee a piece of land themselves were debasing the Indian. Rather unsuitable for farming.'^ Alfred Brunson also they were referring only to certain segments complained of "the difficulty of civilising of the white population who hindered mis­ them while subject to frequent removal."'^ sionary efforts. Florimond Bonduel spoke of Despite the criticism of federal policy, mis­ fndian degradation coming from "close asso­ sionaries did not oppose the idea of removal ciations with a portion of our frontier men in itself. In fact, they supported the principle during the long period of half a century."^* of isolating the Indians in the West, provided The specific villain in the mind of the mis­ that the relocation were permanent. Alfred sionary was usually the trader. The reason Brunson agreed with most missionaries that for this distrust, according to Samuel Mazzu­ God willed white men to cultivate Wisconsin's chelli, was that "the poor Indians in their lands, and that the Indians should be moved, dealings with the white man, with the differ­ but he argued too that "before we can in ent traders who went there to exchange mer­ justice curtail their hunting grounds—their chandise for the pelts, had learned all evil most natural mode of obtaining subsistence— habits, theft, vengeance and a consuming de­ we should teach them to live as we do—by sire for strong drink."^^ The missionaries did cultivating the soil."^'* Missionaries based not view the trader as a bearer of civilization, their support of removal on the idea that but rather as one who was half-civilized him­ contact with whites had an ill effect upon self. the Indians. Jackson Kemper, the Episco­ The frontiersmen brought many vices to palian bishop, wrote that "The W[inneba- the Indians, but the worst in the eyes of the goe ] s a few years ago raised corn enough for missionaries was drunkenness. As might be themselves and to sell to the fort &c but since expected, Protestants of various denominations the whites have got among them they have severely condemned the use of alcohol among become degenerated and lazy—they drink and the Indians.2" However, Catholic missionaries are often in a starving condition."'^ Sherman Hall noted that "they are, indeed, wretched " Jackson Kemper, "A Trip Through Wisconsin in 1838," in the Wisconsin Magazine of History, 'VIII: 426 (June, 1925). " Thirty-eighth Annual Report of the American ™ L. H. Wheeler, La Pointe, to Greene, January 23, Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions (Boston, 1843, in the Wheeler Papers, Archives-Manuscripts 1847), 195. Division, State Historical Society of Wisconsin. " John Henni, Milwaukee, to Archbishop of Vienna, ^^ Samuel Mazzuchelli, Memoirs Historical and Edify­ December 18, 1845, "Letters of the Right Reverend ing of a Missionary Apostolic, translated by Sister Mary John Martin Henni and the Reverend Anthony Urba- Benedicta Kennedy (Chicago, 1915), 144-145, 152-153. nek," in the Wisconsin Magazine of History, X: 73 '^Johnson, Crosier on the Frontier, 146. (September, 1926). ^ Brunson, Prairie du Chien, to Dodge, January 24, " Bonduel, Lake Poygan, to William Medill, August 1838, in Microcopy 236, Roll 40. 18, 1847, in Microcopy 236, Roll 40. " Brunson, Prairie du Chien, to the Commissioner " Mazzuchelli, Memoirs, 47. of Indian Affairs, February 28, 1838, in Microcopy 236, "' For examples see Brunson, La Pointe, to J. Doty, Roll 40. August 1, 1843, in the Brunson Papers, Archives-Manu-

143 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HLSTORY WINTER, 1974-1975

termination, noting, "It is difficult to reach their hearts, or even their understanding with the truth. They seem almost as stupid as blocks. Yet they are far enough from being destitute of natural endowments."22 Some missionaries thought that they could rapidly change the Indians. A report from four Con­ gregationalist missionaries stated, "Could the whole country be operated on at once, a very few years would tell a marked change in their character and habits."^^ Similarly, Samuel Mazzuchelli believed that if the Catholics could isolate the Indians from Protestants and traders, they could succeed in making them into a well-ordered community. Never­ theless, he believed that the Indians were in Society's Iconographic Collections fact doomed.24 As far as the missionary was The Stockbridge mission being used as a blacksmith concerned, the Indians' only choice was be­ shop, about 1913. tween Christianity and extinction, and it seemed all too evident that the Native Ameri­ of all nationalities were equally vehement in cans were rejecting Christianity. their denunciation of liquor. The Belgian priest Bonduel listed the often repeated objec­ tions to alcohol as including "the state of mental Degradation into which they have LTHOUGH Protestant and fallen; hence that loathsome indifference or A'Catholi c missionaries shared stupid incapacity many of them manifest for many attitudes, they approached the Indians Rural or Domestic Industry; hence the loss of in varying ways. They were acutely aware of native Freedom which they experience, turned their differences, as one can see from their now into a mental slavery and which has made descriptions of each other. Sherman Hall these poor Indians the Subservient Creatures looked contemptuously at the Catholic con­ of bad men."2' For both Protestants and verts. He believed that they were Christians Catholics, the abuse of alcohol became a con­ in name only, arguing that "I have not been venient explanation for the Indians' condi­ able to learn from any of his [Frederick Bara­ tion and their nonacceptance of Christianity. ga's] converts that they know anything what The missionaries' view of the Indians' fu­ baptism means or why they are baptized. I ture was a mixture of optimism and pessimism. have no doubt I could have baptized them They were confident of the Indians' potential months ago, if I had taken the course he has. for conversion and acculturation, but had But none give the smallest evidence of piety, doubts about whether it would actually occur. and of course cannot be admitted to a stand­ Sherman Hall wrote extensively on this theme, ing in our church."^^ Conversely, Samuel arguing that "the idea which has been so Mazzuchelli thought that the Protestant stand­ prevalent, that it does no good to t[r]y to ards were too demanding and hence too ex­ civilize and christianize the Indians is [ejrro- clusive. He noted that "the Protestant method nefoujs." Despite this, he often bemoaned employed in the conversion of the savage to their failure to learn owing to a lack of de- Christianity supposes in them a degree of in-

scripts Division, State Historical Society of Wisconsin; ^^ Sherman Hall, La Pointe, to Aaron Hall, February Marsh to John Tawse, "Documents Relating to the 2, 1842, in Culkin, "Missions," III: 159. Stockbridge Mission, 1825-48," in Collections of the '^ William T. Boutwell et al., Pokegame, to Greene, State Historical Society of Wisconsin (Madison, 1900), March 6, 1843, in Culkin, "Missions," I: 306. XV: 176. '^ Mazzuchelli, Memoirs, 152-153. '^Bonduel, Lake Poygan, to Medill, August 18, 1847, ""Sherman Hall, La Pointe, to Greene, January 1, in Microcopy 236, Roll 40. 1836, in Culkin, "Missions," II: 131.

144 STEVENS: TERRITORIAL MISSIONARIES tellectual power whicli in general they do not possess; that is the ability to read the Scrip­ ture and to discover therein reasoning, those truths called fundamental truths. . . . The Catholic method requires of the savage only the giving up of vices and the will to believe in those doctrines which independently of mere reason, are learned without arguments or disputations, and even without books but simply by hearing."^'' Catholics and Protestants demanded differ­ ent levels of acculturation on the part of the Indians for their salvation. Protestant mis­ sionaries included more of the values of white civilization in their definition of Christianity than did Catholics. Because of this. Catholic missionaries could tolerate, or even accept as superior, certain aspects of Indian culture that History of American Mission were unpalatable to Protestants. The differ­ Missionaries and Indians preparing for a camp meeting. ence was one of degree, not of substance, since Catholics also were very active in the drive dition." Fle believed that his highest priority for Indian acculturation. was religious, for "when any are disposed to A key issue dividing Catholics and Protest­ listen, I deem it our first business to preach ants was the relationship between conversion to them the word of God." Nonetheless he and civilization. Did one precede the other? was careful to maintain the purity of his Robert Berkhofer has shown that although church and wrote that "we have frequently Protestant missionaries were divided on the given offence by refusing to baptize where we issue, much of the debate was theoretical, since had not satisfactory evidence of piety.''^" Pro­ they considered civilization and religion in­ testant missionaries may have differed over separable.^"^ For Protestants, religion was an the exact relationship between Christianity essential part of civilization. A Methodist and civilization, yet they all would have agreed missionary explained his tactics saying, "We with Cutting Marsh who proclaimed "that approach the aborigines by temporal good. civilization and Christianity united can alone The first thing we done [sic] for them was to save the Indian race from entire extinction."^' ploTv & then we mingled with these temporal Catholic missionaries demanded a lower benefits, instructions in morals & religion."2** level of acculturation from their converts. Similiarly, William Boutwell, a Congregation­ While they hoped that civilization would fol­ alist, reported, "You see therefore that agri­ low, it was not an essential part of their Chris­ culture 8c civilization are already leading the tianity. For instance, the Dutch priest van way &: beckon us to follow with the word of den Broek reported, "1 baptised 30 natives life."2" Desjjite this emphasis on accultura­ amongst whom are two chiefs, many of them tion, Protestant missionaries were careful not even voluntarily gave up the use of Spirits to separate it from Christianity. Sherman Hall and exerting their influence to induce others noted that "as soon as they become christians, to do likewise and I hope the process in civili­ they begin to improve in their external con- zation will augment, after I will have finished

™ Mazzuchelli, Memoirs, 124-125. "' Sherman Hall, La Pointe, to Aaron Hall, February -' Robert Berkhofer, Jr., Salvation and the Savage: 2, 1842, in Culkin, "Missions," III: 369; Sherman Hall, An Analysis of Protestant Missions and the American La Pointe, to Greene, April 4, 1843, ibid., II: .360; Indian Response, 1787-1862 (Lexington, 1965), 4-9. Sherman Hall, La Pointe, to Greene, June 22, 1842, '"* Brunson, Prairie du Chien, to J. R. Pointsett [Joel ibid.. It: 350. R. Poinsettl, April 8, 1839, in the Brunson Papers. "' Marsh to Tawse, "Documents Relating to the Stock- ''•' Boutwell, Pokegame, to Greene, March 8, 1843, in bridge Mission," in Collections of the State Historical Culkin, "Missions," I: 309. Society of Wisconsin, XV: 185. 145 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY WINTER, 1974-1975

den Broek reported that the Catholic Meno­ minee "lives separate from the sect of Meno- menees which retain their wandering habits."^'' Nonetheless, although Catholics tried to pro­ mote acculturation, in their eyes it remained a matter separate from that of being a church member in good standing. These different approaches to conversion reflect attitudes toward Indian culture. The Catholic missionary who demanded a lower level of acculturation was able to make favor­ able comments about the superiority of cer­ tain aspects of Indian life. While hoping to convert and acculturate the Indians, he also found customs which he wanted to preserve. Samuel Mazzuchelli greatly admired the na­ tives' reverence for their elders, noting that "old age is always treated with respect and cared for in all its needs, by the numerous rela­ Society's Iconographic Collections tives who never forget this duty; in this re­ 5(. Joseph Catholic Church, built by Father Frederick spect they might well serve as an example to Baraga in 1840 at La Pointe, Madeline Island. our own race." He also claimed that if he were to take an Indian to Europe, the Native the mission building."^^ y^jj (jgjj Broek ad­ American would see a land of laws, prisons, mitted the Indians to the church, hoping that executions, locked doors, armed men, arsenals it would lead to their eventual improvement, of munitions, and armies. After seeing this, not vice versa. Because of differences in theol­ the hypothetical Indian would respond that ogy, he did not have to be concerned about "the civilization brought to us poor Indians by maintaining the purity of his congregation as the Priest is far superior to that of Europe, were his Protestant rivals. Similarly, Samuel for from the moment we became Christians, Mazzuchelli argued that "in order to become disputes, feuds, acts of revenge, drunkenness, a follower of Jesus Christ, the savage, without immorality, murder were entirely banished; changing his mode of life has only to aban­ the people of our village live in peace, day don his superstitious practices, to believe the and niglit with no guards, tribunals and pris­ truths of the Faith, to perfect himself in those ons."^^ In this primitivistic passage, it is the ideas of morality already imprinted upon his Christianized Indian that Mazzuchelli praises. Soul by Almighty God, Himself, to do what Yet the qualities that the priest admires were is good and avoid what is evil." He main­ found more abundantly in Indian society than tained that they could "retain their own pe­ in white civilization. Another Catholic priest culiar customs, innocent in themselves in who visited the Chippewa for two weeks which they were trained." The Indians did echoed Mazzuchelli. He stated appreciative­ not have to live a stable agrarian life in or­ ly that the "very remarkable trait of char­ der to join the church for "the first means for acter in the Indians is that they never quarrel, civilizing the savage is Religion."^^ nor address insulting epithets to each other." He added that they do not use violent disci­ While they did not require it. Catholic mis­ pline on their children and that "in this latter sionaries worked hard to develop agrarian respect they have certainly an advantage over habits among the Indians. Although Catholic the white man, who has not yet discarded from Indians could continue to live with the tribe, his system of discipline the ferule and the it appears that they often lived separately. Van

'^ Annual Report of Theodore van den Broek for " Annual Report ot the Catholic Mission Schools, 1844, in RG 75, Microcopy 234, Roll 319. Microcopy 236, Roll 40. »3 Mazzuchelli, Memoirs, 146, 57, 149-150. •^ Mazzuchelli, Memoirs, 56, 147-149.

146 STEVENS: TERRITORIAL MISSIONARIES

The Episcopal mission at Green Bay. History of American Missions whip."''" Not only was praise directed towards concept of private property and that the In­ aspects of native culture, but missionaries such dians willingly gave away what they had; but as Bonduel told whites that the Christian In­ the two clergymen disagreed in their evalua­ dians were worthy models to imitate.^'' tion of this characteristic. Protestant mission­ Protestant missionaries did not find any aries attempted to teach the Indians the im­ unique qualities in Indian culture that were portance of frugality and saving. Hall com­ praiseworthy. When they did express admira­ plained that the Indians "have no idea of the tion, it was for those customs that mirrored value of property and never think of accumu­ white American civilization. When Alfred lating any beforehand." He added that a Brunson admired the democracy that he found "trait in their character which subjects us to among the Indians, it was because of its simi­ much trial and vexations is their habit of larity to American government.''* Unlike some begging. The most liberal man with them Catholic missionaries, Protestants did not urge is the most honorable. As they do not under­ whites to imitate aspects of Indian life. stand the value of property whatever they have The differing reactions to the Indians' con­ they divide with their friend till it is gone. ception of private property provides another They think every one else mean who will not illustration of the two attitudes. Both Samuel do the same thing."^^ The Catholic priest Mazzuchelli and Sherman Hall agreed that Mazzuchelli evaluated the same characteristic the Indians did not understand the white in a far different manner. He looked favor­ ably upon the Indian custom, noting that "in character there is much to give them the right "'J. J. Ducatel, "A Fortnight Amongst the Chip­ to reproach civilized nations—among whom pewas," in The United States Catholic Magazine and mine and thine is carried to such a degree as Monthly Review, V: 28, 93 (January and February, to create the necessity of too many laws, and 1846). ^ Florimond Bonduel, Tableau Comparatif Entre la Condition Morale des Tribus Indiennes de L'Etat du Wisconsin (Tournai, Belgium, 1855), 6. '"'Sherman Hall, La Pointe, to Greene, October, 1838, ** Western Christian Advocate, October 12, in Culkin, "Missions," II: 225-226.

147 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY WINTER, 1974-1975

conclusions. It would not be fair simply to generalize that Catholic missionaries allowed the Indians to retain their culture if they be­ came Christians while Protestant missionaries did not. Catholics actively worked to accul­ turate the Indians. In addition there were splits within Protestantism. For example, Congregationalists agreed with the Catholics and taught the Indians in their native tongue. Methodists on the other hand chose to oper­ ate their schools in English on the grounds that this would help the Indians deal with white society.'*^ The difference between Catholicism and Protestantism was primarily over the degree of acculturation that they de­ manded. Catholics were not cultural relativ­ ists. They had their own clear ideas about the propriety of certain actions and svibscribed to a code of absolute morality, and they were not willing to modify the essentials of their religion to fit Indian culture. Yet their theol­ Society's Iconographic Collections ogy allowed them to be more tolerant than Father Theodore van den Broek. Protestants of those things which were not essential to their definition of Christianity. transform the noblest sentiments of fraternal In addition to theology, there was still an­ love into humiliating egotism.'""' other factor that played a role in creating Hall and Frederick Baraga had a similar dis­ Catholic attitudes. The Protestant mission­ agreement. Hall was upset with the Catholic aries were American-born and had little dif­ missionary at La Pointe because he had given ficulty in equating American civilization with the Indians "numerous small presents such Christianity. On the other hand, Catholic as fish hooks, ornaments, shirts and other small missionaries were born and educated in Eu­ articles of clothing." He was concerned be­ rope. As foreigners in a country which consid­ cause the Indians appreciated presents of this ered their religion as alien, they could more sort, while they ignored his gift of agricultural easily accept a degree of cultural diversity. instruction. He complained that "one dollar They probably were conscious of pressures on expended to furnish them with some useless immigrant Catholics to conform and to be as­ ornament they would value more than ten similated into the mainstream of American expended to prepare the ground and furnish life. Encountering this atmosphere, they seed to plant, if they are to have the labour would not identify Christianity with white of taking care of the crop."*' Both Baraga and American civilization. In insisting that cer­ Mazzuchelli succeeded where Hall failed be­ tain aspects of Indian life were permissible or cause they were willing to deal with the In­ even superior, they were also asserting their dians within the natives' own cultural frame­ right to be different. Unfortunately for the work. The Catholic priests found cultural Indian, this dream of cultural diversity never diversity acceptable while for Hall it was un­ came true. thinkable.

" Mazzuchelli, Memoirs, 56. MORE complete study of Cath­ " Slierman Hall, La Pointe, to Greene, October 14, A olic and Protestant missionary 1836, in Culkin, "Missions," II: 149. activity is needed before a definitive compari­ "Brunson, Prairie du Chien, to Poinsett, April 8, 1839, in the Brunson Papers; Sherman Hall, La Pointe, son can be written. Yet based on events in to Greene, October 7, 1837, in Culkin, "Missions," II: Wisconsin Territory, one can draw tentative 198; Mazzuchelli, Memoirs, 70, 92, 98.

148 REVIEWS

STATE AND REGIONAL these areas has clear religious overtones, he offers much useful information about the con­ ditions in southern Wisconsin. Since he was A Pioneer Churchman: J. W. C. Dietrichson an orthodox Lutheran clergyman, it is not in Wisconsin, 1844-1850. Edited and with surprising that he gave considerable space to an introduction by E. CLIFFORD NELSON; trans­ the Mormons as he found them in Illinois, in­ lated by IVIALCOLM ROSHOLT and HARRIS E. cluding the beginnings of this religious move­ KAASA. {Travel and Description Series, Vol­ ment as he understood them. Dietrichson ume Vlll. Published for the Norwegian- stated that he intended the book to give an American Historical Association by Twayne insight into the conditions among the Nor­ Publishers, New York, 1973. Pp. x, 265. Illus­ wegians in America, as well as to provide an trations, notes, bibliography, index. $7.95.) account of his stewardship as a pastor. "The Koshkonong Parish Journal," trans­ In view of the coming sesquicentennial of lated by Harris E. Kaasa, a professor at Luther Norwegian migration to America in 1975, the College, is the formal record of Dietrichson's publication of A Pioneer Churchman takes on service as a clergyman in the Koshkonong special significance, because it offers a useful settlement in eastern Dane County, Wiscon­ description of some of the early Norwegian sin. Although this part of the book offers settlements in the Middle West, as well as a some information about conditions among firsthand account of some of the church-related the settlers, its chief value is the carefully events of that time. documented journal, year by year, written by The book is in two parts. "The Travel Nar­ Dietrichson concerning his work. He included rative," translated by Malcolm Rosholt, cov­ an account of the first worship services held ers Dietrichson's first year in America, 1844- at Koshkonong, and the steps leading to the 1845, and records a journey by him among the organization of the two congregations. As the Norwegian immigrants, especially in Wiscon­ years passed, he described the selection of sin and Illinois. The narrative begins logic­ trustees and other officers for the congrega­ ally with the arrangements for his ordination tions, the development of church schools, and in order to serve in America, followed by an in some detail the growth of a church library. enlightening description of the journey on Both parts of this book take up a law case the brig Washington to New York. Devoting in which Dietrichson was adjudged guilty of several pages to that city, he predicts that assault and battery, as the result of his remov­ "New York will be the most heavily popu­ ing froin the church an offending member. lated city in the world by the end of the Some readers may wish to learn more about century." Thence to Milwaukee and Wis­ this case by reading a manuscript report by consin. While Dietrichson's description of Harold Hanson, to be found among the papers

149 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY WINTER, 1974-1975 of the Ygdrasil Literary Society in the Archives- County is presented as reasonably representa­ Manuscripts Division of the State Historical tive of metropolitan areas in general. In Chap­ Society. ter 2 Curran defends his decision to limit the Also included is a report of the first effort study to Milwaukee County rather than en­ to organize a union of Norwegian Lutheran compass the entire metropohtan area and ex­ congregations, with a copy of the proposed plains why a historical approach is used. constitution. Chapter 3 provides historical background by A Pioneer Churchman joins several other classifying the county's municipalities into books offering translations of letters or diaries four groups roughly on the basis of the dates of early Norwegian clergymen or their wives of their establishment. Chapters 4 through 8 in America. Among them are Linka's Diary, analyze fiscal trends in each of the municipali­ The Strange American Way, The Diary of ties. Intermunicipality comparability is en­ Elisabeth Koren, Frontier Parsonage, as well hanced by using state government data on as some unpublished or untranslated accounts. equalized property values and equalized tax All of them have value and contribute to a rates. The per capita property tax base is better understanding of the times they de­ examined in Chapter 4. Chapter 5 discusses scribe. nonproperty resources which consist mainly The introduction by Professor E. Clifford of state shared taxes and state grants-in-aid. Nelson of Luther Theological Seminary gives Chapter 6 examines, by function and in total, an excellent historical introduction to the per capita local expenditures. Chapter 7 is book. The careful editing by Kenneth Bjork devoted to local, school, and county property of the Norwegian-American Historical Associa­ tax rates along with an examination of the tion has insured a translation which reads as total effective tax rate. Chapter 8 examines if the original author had written in English. the problem of inframetropolitan competition, The fifty-third book to be published by the while the final chapter discusses the implica­ Norwegian-American Historical Association tions of the findings and possible courses of continues the high standard of scholarship one action. has learned to expect from it. Property tax rates and spending patterns within Milwaukee County have shown a mixed GERHARD B. NAESETH pattern but some movement toward greater University of Wisconsin—Madison homogeneity, while property tax base differen­ tials have actually widened over the last fifty years. The disparity in per capita fiscal capac­ ity has been widened by Wisconsin's shared state tax system. Municipalities with a high Metropolitan Financing: The Milwaukee Ex­ concentration in either commercial and in­ perience, 1920-1970. By DONALD J. CURRAN. dustrial activities or large-lot, high-income (The University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, residential property have the most favorable 1973. Pp. xiv, 166. Tables, notes, index. per capita property tax base and benefit from $11.50.) high per capita shared state tax receipts. Bal­ anced communities like Milwaukee, with a Those looking for indications that metro­ high concentration of middle- and low-income politan areas can solve their fiscal problems residential housing are at a disadvantage. The internally will receive little encouragement realities of the fiscal situation have encouraged from this book. This study of fiscal trends local specialization and this seems likely to over the last fifty years within the politically continue. Localities favorably treated will not fractured but economically integrated Milwau­ willingly surrender this advantage. The ef­ kee metropolitan area suggests that the chances fect is to increase inframetropolitan competi­ for voluntary co-operation and co-ordination tion and make internal efforts to co-ordinate are almost nonexistent. metropolitan fiscal policy almost impossible. Curran defines fiscal disparities as differ­ Curran thinks that intervention from outside ences in tax resources, tax rates, and levels of the metropolitan area is the only way to pre­ government spending, usually presented on a vent the continuing fiscal deterioration of the per capita basis. The main question examined central city. Despite the fact that the state is whether these differences are narrowing or government has failed in the past to encour­ widening over time. Only if they are narrow­ age the economically integrated but politically ing is there hope for internal solutions to the fragmented units within the county to co­ metropolitan fiscal problem. Milwaukee ordinate their activities, he sees it as the major

150 BOOK REVIEWS

hope of enforcing the necessary co-operation fight to check the powers of Speaker Joe Can­ and co-ordination in the future. non, for example—are well known. Recogniz­ Curran has tried to develop figures that per­ able also is the type of rural progressive re­ mit intermunicipality comparisons, but prob­ former that Lindbergh epitomized: an indi­ lems remain that make some of the findings vidual who preferred agricultural and village questionable. Limiting the study to Milwau­ America to the world of factories and cities, kee County makes it more manageable, but a who attacked "special interests," who cele­ discussion of fiscal trends in the entire metro­ brated popular participation in government, politan area would have been useful without and who prided himself on his independence increasing the length of the book unreason­ from factional or party ties. Larson's achieve­ ably. The coefficient of quartile variation is ment is in clearly documenting Lindbergh's used to test for trends toward greater or less significant place within the familiar contours uniformity in the fiscal time-series and the of progressive politics and in pinpointing some author concludes that "this measure assuredly of the personal experiences and family and gives a more reliable picture than simple obser­ regional influences that shaped one man's re­ vation." (p. 40) Few readers will argue, but form commitments. alternative statistical measures would have Larson also calls attention to that element been more appropriate in some cases. To un­ within progressivism which tried to adjust tangle the impact of age, economic character, economics to fit larger social needs and ele­ population density, and other factors on tax mental justice, rather than trying to meet the rates, expenditures, and fiscal capacity, simple demands of modern organization and exper­ correlations were used; multiple regression tise. Lindbergh's case for banking reform, analysis would have been more appropriate. for example, did not emphasize efficiency and Despite these reservations, the book is an systematization. Instead, as Larson points out, important contribution to the growing litera­ Lindbergh wanted to "improve the distribu­ ture on the fiscal problems of metropolitan tion of wealth in the country, not just satisfy areas. It will be of interest to those concerned the operative needs of a banking and currency with past and present problems of state and system." local finance and urban areas in general. Stu­ As this biography makes clear, Lindbergh, dents of Wisconsin history will find the dis­ more than many of his reform-minded con­ cussion of the characteristics and results of temporaries, stressed the connections between Wisconsin's unique shared-tax method of hav­ economic systems, power, and the basic free­ ing state funds flow to local governmental doms of people. He persistently hammered units especially interesting. away at "an invisible government" that gave highest priority to the rights of property. Re­ RICHARD H. KEEHN minding Congress that "two per cent of the The University of Wisconsin-Parkside people own 60 per cent of all the wealth," he warned that "dollar plutocracy" threatened popular government. Accordingly, as Ida Tar- Lindbergh of Minnesota: A Political Biogra­ bell noted, it was Lindbergh who inspired the phy. By BRUCE L. LARSON. (Harcourt Brace Sixty-Second Congress's famous investigation Jovanovich, Inc., New York, c. 1971, 1973. Pp. of the "Money Trust." xix, 363. Illustrations, notes, bibliography, in­ It was primarily Lindbergh's fear that big dex. $14.50.) business would profit and that economic re­ forms would suffer that influenced his vigor­ In this solidly researched study, Bruce Lar­ ous opposition to America's entry into World son rescues Charles Lindbergh, Sr., from un­ War I. During the war, his association with deserved obscurity. Lindbergh, during his five the Nonpartisan League brought him special terms in Congress from 1906 to 1916, was per­ abuse for allegedly trying to "Russianize" and haps the most radical and independent of the "Kaiserize" the state; and in his unsuccessful Republican insurgents, and in Minnesota poli­ bid for governor in 1918 he was stoned, run tics he was a pivotal reform figure for two out of town, and even shot at. The New York decades. He emerges from these pages as a Times spoke for many of his critics when it man of immense integrity, who was particu­ described him as "a sort of Gopher Bolshevik." larly sensitive to the threat of organized wealth Lindbergh nonetheless remained active in to the rights of common citizens. third-party politics, supplying much of the Many of the events that Larson relates—the moving force behind the Farmer-Labor party

151 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY WINTER, 1974-1975 until his death in 1924. Indeed, according to ment patterns and the role of geography in Larson, he influenced the other major leaders the creation of living historical farms form of that coalition "more than any other early the grist for the opening papers. Three geog­ political figure." raphers challenge historians to look again Although Larson concedes that Lindbergh's at the landscape and land laws and to be less proposals were often vague, he demonstrates simplistic about the consequences of one upon convincingly that the Minnesotan imagina­ the other. Paul Gates follows with a master­ tively staked out advanced reform positions. ful essay on the current state of public lands Lindbergh recommended holding public ref­ research. He briefly summarizes work com­ erenda on patronage appointments, opening- pleted to date, then offers a penetrating and all House meetings to the public, ending the far-ranging analysis of remaining gaps and literacy test for immigrants, transforming unsolved problems. Among the many topics banks into clearinghouses, eliminating most in need of further attention Gates lists land interest charges, providing a system of na­ lawyers, farm tenancy, state land management tional public works, respecting the treaty policies, agribusiness lobbying activities, and rights of Native Americans, and letting wom­ the land disposal policies of land-grant rail­ en vote simply because it was wrong to deny roads, to name a few. half the population a basic right. Fearing Using a recent sample of rural households that workers were becoming "industrial in twenty northern states selected from the slaves," he supported an eight-hour day and 1860 manuscript censuses (published in this the right to strike. And, although he be­ volume on pp. 75-93) Robert Ankli, an econ­ lieved with most of his contemporaries that omist, reopens the old debate on farm-making Negroes were inferior, he lamented by the costs in the 1850's. He concludes that Clar­ 1920's that there was "too much racial preju­ ence Danhof's estimate of $1,000 could be cut dice." in half, although, as audience discussion at Lindbergh once asserted, "I am a radical the symposium revealed, either figure might because I oppose the few and stand for the apply depending on how the question is stated. masses." This commendable biography care­ Two agronomists provide an interdisciplinary fully and convincingly shows that he, more tone as they describe the early history of corn than most politicians, lived up to that claim. and wheat in the Middle West and the crucial role of agricultural experiment stations in LEROY ASHBY crop development. Jonathan Lurie focuses on Washington State University—Pullman the agrarians who raised those crops in his analysis of the antioption battle of 1890-1894. Ltirie concludes that agrarian political power in the late nineteenth century may have been Farming in the Midwest, 1840-1900. Edited more a myth than a reality, and he attributes by JAMES W. WHITAKER. (The Agricultural this political impotence to agrarians' confu­ History Society, Davis, California, 1974. Pp. sion about the issues and ambivalence about 220. Index. $6.00.) their goals. The much debated subject of farm tenancy During the past eight years the Agricultural receives fresh treatment in Donald Winter's History Society has sponsored four successful admirable study of lease terms in Iowa, 1860- symposia on American agricultural history. 1900. Rather than connoting a malfunction This book consists of twenty-one papers and within the economic system, farm renting, he comments presented at the third gathering in suggests, served an important and functional the series, the Symposium on Midwest Agricul­ purpose within the United States economy. ture, 1840-1900, held at Iowa State Univer­ An opposite theme, the activities of a large- sity in May, 1973. Typically the fare at such scale frontier landlord, is the subject of Homer conferences resembles an overly ambitious Socolofsky's absorbing study of William Scully, smorgasbord but, in this case, thankfully so. the controversial land baron from Ireland. Nineteenth-century midwestern agrictilture is On an allied theme Larry McFarlane com­ in need of a major regional synthesis and the pares Scottish and English farm mortgage in­ specialized studies published in this volume vestments in Iowa and Kansas, 1875-1900. He broaden the scholarly foundation for such an concludes that agrarian leaders were mistaken endeavor. The papers offer, in addition, many in their contention that alien investment was perceptive suggestions for future research. subverting the farm credit system. A need for new perspectives on rural settle­ In the concluding article Joseph Fitzharris 152 BOOK REVIEWS traces the early years of the Minnesota Agricul­ pamphlet on taxation Paine's ideas "and those tural Experiment Station and pinpoints some of Robert Morris happened to be similar." of the problems of administration. He sees Similarly, when New York state rewards Paine a close relationship between the station and with confiscated estates after the war, Edwards the farming population, although one might considers it a hero's due and does not men­ question how influential the station was tion that the gift came about only after as­ among ordinary farmers. siduous politicking by Paine or that Paine There is much here to stir thought on nine­ aspired to similar grants from all states of teenth-century farming. It is hoped that the the union. The only facts Edwards includes Agricultural History Society will publish in that Hawke omits are details of Paine's sex book form the proceedings of future symposia. life. Throughout his life Paine engaged more and younger prostitutes until in his old age he apparently abandoned sex altogether. Ed­ GERALD PRESCOTT wards offers no analysis of this behavior. The California Slate University, Northridge biography as a whole seems to rest on an "oh-my-goodness to think that he used to be a corset-maker" interpretation of Paine's bril­ liant and erratic career. GENERAL HISTORY David Freeman Hawke's book is fascinating in its accumulation and control of detail. Hawke roots Paine's breadth of vision in his religiously and educationally unrestricted Rebel! A Biography of Tom Paine. By childhood. He discovers in Paine's writings SAMUEL EDWARDS. (Praeger, New York, 1974. two overriding themes: an absolute hatred Pp. 304. Appendix, bibliography, index. for monarchy which Hawke ascribes to Paine's 19.95.) own frustrations as a customs officer in His Majesty's service, and an adoption of Amer­ Paine. By DAVID FREEMAN HAWKE. (Harper ica's process of revolution as a model for both and Row, New York, 1974. Pp. 600. Illus­ England and France, whose histories and po­ trations, notes, bibliography, index. $15.00.) litical structures made it impossible that they would reproduce their own versions of the With the bicentennial anniversary of Ameri­ American experience. ca's revolution looming large on the horizon, Hawke develops fully Paine's attraction to it is natural for historians to take on the life aristocrats both in America and in France, of Thomas Paine, one of the most exciting tells the story of his lonely imprisonment in and elusive of the American revolutionaries. Paris, and his generosity to all who needed Tom Paine, an Englishman, inspired the help. In his old age Paine's one support was colonists in 1776 with his pamphlet Common the infinitely tactful President Thomas Jef­ Sense and sustained them through the war ferson to whom he wrote long letters full of with his Crisis articles. With the coming of advice on the proper diplomacy for the United peace he returned to England and traveled to States to adopt towards France and England France for her revolution before coming home and the disposition of territories acquired to America to die poor and virtually unre­ with the Louisiana Purchase. Much of Paine's marked in 1809. advice was sound and often anticipated deci­ Samuel Edwards and David Freeman Hawke sions later made by the Supreme Court and approach Paine from two different perspec­ Jefferson himself. tives. Hawke is a noted iiistorian of revolu­ On page 327 Hawke opens a discussion of tionary America, Edwards a professional bi­ Paine's pamphlet. Agrarian Justice, published ographer with lives of such diverse heroes as in France in 1796, a work Hawke ranks as Peter Paul Reubens and Victor Hugo to his one of Paine's greatest essays. After reading credit. it, William Blake classed Paine with Jesus as When read in conjunction with Hawke's a worker of miracles. In Agrarian Justice book, Edwards' work turns out to be missing Paine declares: "The rugged face of society, vital details of Paine's history. Edwards is checkered with the extremes of affluence and apparently unaware that Paine took money want, proves that some extraordinary violence from Robert Morris for his writings during has been committed upon it, and calls on the latter part of the American Revolution. justice for redress." Paine here exposes the Thus on page 90 Edwards writes that in a contradiction between political equality and

153 decision to present their material chrono­ logically. Paine's life is spotted with high- points and long dull lulls between; months of being unable to write, of gossipy, unappre­ ciated visits to Gouverneur Morris, first in London and later in Paris, and finally an isolated, often bitter old age. By the time he manages to die all the reader feels is relief. Still, all in all, David Freeman Hawke has done Paine justice in a solid, even dense, ac­ count of the man and his times.

LINDA NEWMAN BOWLING University of Wisconsin—Madison

FLO: A Biography of Frederick Law Olmsted. By LAURA WOOD ROPER. (The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, 1973. Pp. xvii, 556. Illustrations, notes, index. $15.00.)

The chronicle of any man who undertakes, with some success, to harmonize the contraries Die Politischen von Thomas Paine of progression is likely to be enlightening. In Thomas Paine. our epoch of jading materialism it may also be inspiring. At our cost we continue to pre­ economic inequality. According to Hawke, sume an ineffable disparity between social util­ those who ran the world in the eighteenth and ity and individual art, and allow the claims of nineteenth centuries did not make the eco­ the former a secure ascendance. It is no won­ nomic adjustments necessary to correct this der, then, that the achievements of Frederick situation. Apparently Hawke does not see Law Olmsted seem heroically futile. that this contradiction, far from being a minor Olmsted's varied, itinerant professionalism flaw in the governments erected in the eigh­ is well-documented in Roper's biography. teenth century, was instead the cornerstone of Yet, the sheer bulk of her information, based nationalist capitalism as it emerged in the upon Olmsted's massive correspondence and United States. hundreds of published works (there are some Every source Edwards and Hawke quote 2,400 notes), frequently obscures what may who visited Paine was initially repelled by the most interest many readers—the motivations man's untidiness and personal ugliness. Yet of a uniquely imaginative and indefatigable invariably the visitor goes on to say his talk mind. was fascinating, charming, and informative. A factual account in strict chronology, such The contradiction in Paine between the bril­ as Roper has painstakingly provided, is doubt­ liance of his mind and the seedy lassitude of less indispensable to the study of a man who his life makes any biography of him frustrat­ was successively a seaman, farmer, journalist, ing. He refuses to fit into any appropriate abolitionist, U.S. sanitation commissioner historical model; fascinating, yet somehow re­ (during the Civil War), mining superinten­ pulsive and often drunk, he prods the his­ dent, landscape architect, and conservationist. torian to question the limits of his or her In every pursuit, Olmsted practiced an Emer­ conceptual framework. sonian talent for wedding values to actions. Edwards' book provides the reader with an Perhaps few men have so thoroughly incor­ appendix of twelve pages of excerpts from porated their ideas. Strangely, however, Olm­ Paine's writings and a slim bibliography. sted gave apparently little time to reflection Hawke's work includes illustrations, full foot­ upon himself as the agent of this process. It notes, and an extensive bibliography. Both is to be regretted that Roper does not compen­ biographies suffer from their authors' common sate by affording critical insights into her

154 BOOK REVIEWS subject; having studied and written about visionary "communicativeness," that influence Olmsted for over a generation, she is well might well make a hollow story. qualified to do so but instead she offers her own views seldom, almost as afterthoughts. THOMAS R. NEVIN Undue modesty does not, however, explain University of Wisconsin—Madison the absence of a bibliography: five other books on Olmsted have appeared since 1969, not to mention Olmsted's own publications and topi­ cal works which only the footnotes indicate. From Poor Law to Welfare State: A History of Social Welfare in America. By WALTER I. Roper's Olmsted emerges as a true anomaly, TRATTNER. (The Free Press, New York, 1974. the self-effacing genius. Free of the crusader's Pp. xii, 276. Bibliography, index. $9.00.) strident righteousness (as his famed news­ paper accounts of the antebellum South show), This survey of American social welfare his­ he had a disinterested dedication to what he tory is intended, primarily, as a textbook for called the "manifest civilizing effect" of "com­ undergraduates, especially those studying to municativeness" by which he understood and become social workers. This audience, and practiced the fusion of utilitarian and aesthe­ others with a general interest in this important tic purposes. Perhaps best illustrative is his facet of American culture, should find in the work as supervisor of a California mine, where book both a faithfulness to past reality and an he observed and recorded impressions of a insight into contemporary circumstances, traits frontier society in chaos. Only a community which characterize all good history. Around a made stable by the moral cohesion of mutual few clearly stated and frequently repeated needs and services could be called civilized. historical themes Professor Trattner builds a Olmsted enjoyed partial success in creating very readable account of the origins and evo­ conditions for that cohesion, but the occasion lution of "those social security, social service for his kind of social engineering in the in­ and health programs, activities and organiza­ dustrial, increasingly urban America of the tions, private and public, the primary purpose late nineteenth century was at best infrequent. of which was to promote the well-being of Against the inevitable machinations and de­ those individuals that society felt needed and vices of profiteers and bureaucrats, Olmsted's deserved help." work was often miscellaneous, though never desultory. For example, as Roper closely de­ Perhaps the most difficult achievement of picts, his struggle with corrupt machine poli­ this survey is the skillful integration of three ticians in the planning and execution of New levels of analysis into a single narrative: broad York's Central Park—a depressing case study social, economic, and intellectual trends af­ in the triumph of organized peculation—dis­ fecting the entire society; changes in the more tracted him at various times for nearly a limited, yet still diffuse, area of social wel­ generation. He was fortunate never to have fare; and developments within the social work conceived that what he designed as a peo­ profession. While the emphasis given to each ple's haven from the duress of crowded city level varies from chapter to chapter, through­ life, a refuge for aesthetic pleasure and moral out the book, Trattner consistently demon­ recreation (quaint words now) would become strates that "social welfare functions within the notorious resort of deviates. and is determined by the larger setting of which it is a part." Trattner's clear and suc­ Olmsted is now best and rightly known cinct summaries of the industrial revolution, as America's greatest landscape architect, but urbanization, the Great Depression, and other though we have the palpable legacy of his major historical forces and events will enable art in numerous parks, campuses, and on the nonhistorians to understand this fundamental grounds of the national Capitol, we do not insight. Trattner also sketches major social have the indispensable viewpoint (le mot welfare developments in England, which in juste in Olmsted's case) that made his works the nineteenth century frequently foreshad­ a moral enterprise. It is easy to cavil at the owed or influenced the American experience. language and ideas of such a man, but Olm­ In the area of social welfare ideas and prac­ sted had none of the regimental intent we tices Trattner finds three major shifts in mod­ ascribe to Puritans and suspect in Utopians. ern English and American experience. From Roper is perhaps merciful to omit any ac­ time immemorial until somewhere in the nine­ count of his architectural influence after his teenth century, poverty, misfortune, and de­ death in 1903. Without his peculiar, near pendence were viewed as natural features of

155 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY WINTER, 1974-1975 all social structures to be met with appro­ for the poor and dependent, it does have chap­ priate relief efforts. Gradually supplanting ters on the public health, child welfare, and this view, an individualistic and moralistic mental health movements. In all, the book explanation developed, and it led both to succeeds quite well in surveying and placing condemnation of the unfortunate and to ef­ American social welfare policies and practices forts to reform them. Bit by bit, beginning in their proper historical perspective. in the late nineteenth century, an environ­ mental explanation came to dominate most JOHN A. FLECKNER articulate statements about social welfare. So­ State Historical Society of Wisconsin ciety, in this view, had a responsibility for aiding the victims of unfortunate social ar­ rangements, for providing for the wants of all who suffered, and for creating social in­ A Legal History of Money in the United stitutions and arrangements which would re­ Slates, 1774-1970. By JAMES WILLARD HURST. duce human distress. (University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln, 1973. Pp. xvii, 367. Notes, bibliography, index. While there has been a general trend from $9.50.) the individualistic and moralistic approach to this reformist view, the shift has been accom­ It would be no exaggeration to say that panied by many debates, confusions, and ac­ over the last two decades James Willard Hurst tual reversals. Tensions between moralistic has had a greater impact in reshaping the charity organization workers and settlement study of American legal history than any oth­ house residents in the years around the turn er scholar. Both through his own writings, of the century stemmed in good part from this particularly The Grozulh of American Law: antagonism. The same stresses continued to The Lawmakers (1950); Law and the Condi­ plague the social work profession, which by tions of Freedom in Niiieteenth Century Unit­ the 1920's had developed special skills, infor­ ed States (1956); Law and Social Process in mation, training, and organization appropriate United States History (1960); Justice Holmes to its rising status. Most recently, the Nixon on Legal History (1964); Law and Economic Administration's Family Assistance Plan, the Growth: Lumber Industry in Wisconsin, virtues of which Trattner acknowledges, relied 1836-1915 (1964); and The Legitimacy of the heavily on training and employment, despite Business Corporation in the Law of the United a depressed job market and inability of most States (1970), as well as through the writings potential trainees to work. While fairly pre­ of those associated with him in what may now senting the several sides of these differences, be called the Wisconsin School of Legal His­ Trattner does not hesitate to recommend the tory (particularly Lawrence M. Friedman, directions he feels social work should follow. Robert S. Hunt, and Spencer L. Kimball), "The lessons of social welfare history," he Professor Hurst has probed new dimensions contends, show "that achievement of the pro­ of the evolution of legal relationships. Most fession's goals [entails] participation in so­ especially have he and his associates plumbed cial programming and change" and "a re­ a diversity of previously underexploited sponsibility toward society and public wel­ sources—statutes, cases, and administrative rec­ fare as well as towards individuals in need." ords to name a few—in the quest for an under­ Social workers who accept this verdict will standing of how Americans at various times find in Trattner's history a strong reformist and various places perceived the law and legal tradition to reinforce their own values. institutions, what their expectations were, The survey approach has obvious limita­ how effectively these expectations were satis­ tions. "There is little here that is new," Tratt­ fied, and the ways in which the legal order ner concedes in the book's preface; neces­ has functioned and shaped the course of sarily, the volume must rely on the mono­ American life. For the most part, what has graphs and studies of others. The book tends been common to these studies has been an to emphasize experiences in the largest cities effort to develop generalizations about the and to deal with broad, sometimes vague, cate­ American legal experience out of particulars, gories of people identified only as "reform­ usually case studies. Professor Hurst's new ers," "social workers," or "middle-class Ameri­ book on the legal history of money is in the cans." Theorizing and speculation about same genre and has its origins in the Roscoe broader, philosophical issues are at a mini­ Poimd Lectures delivered at the University mum. While the book focuses on welfare work of Nebraska in 1970.

156 BOOK REVIEWS

The study also bears a distinctive Hurstian ine subjects over and over, each time from impress—a highly abstract, philosophical, and the vantage point of a different policy per­ oftentimes abstruse approach to a practical, spective. TIius he marches the reader repeat­ down-to-eartli subject. This is an important edly through such questions as the ratio of book and a rewarding one, but the dividend gold to silver, the policies of the Second Bank comes only after repeated readings and trans­ of the United States, the Suffolk Bank system lations into concrete examples. Would that in New England, the safety fund, free bank­ Hurst had somewhere encountered early in ing, and clearinghouse systems in New York, his career one of those editorial giants like the emergence of national banking during Li via Appel who did so much to improve the and after the Civil War, or the establishment writing of history and who could coax from of the Federal Reserve System. One supposes authors the illuminating examples giving that a different arrangement cf the material flesh, meaning, and understanding to high- —a series of chronological chapters dealing flown abstractions. definitely with issues and policies as they Hurst begins by providing the reader with arose—would have resulted in a more effec­ a nine-page outline of the book (an analytical tive book. table of contents), follows this with a brief introduction, "A Prelude to Policy," which PETER J. COLEMAN deals with the period from 1774 to 1790, then University of Illinois at Chicago Circle develops the study through two extended treatises on "Functions of Law ancl Functions of Money," and "Allocations of Control over the System of Money." The first is more Society and Culture in America, 1830-1860. than a hundred pages long, the second more By RUSSEL BLAINE NYE. (Harper & Row, than two hundred, though each is divided New York, 1974. Pp. xiv, 432. Illustrations, and subdivided into sections and subsections. notes, bibliography, index. $10.00.) It would be presumptuous to attempt to summarize so complex a book, but it would Russel Nye's new book presents a compre­ be fair to say that Hurst describes, analyzes, hensive survey of the American mind in all and evaluates the trend over two centuries of its various manifestations during the ante­ for policy makers to gain an increasingly so­ bellum years. To Nye the period reveals a phisticated understanding of the nature of basic American preoccupation with the themes money and come grachially to the realization of nationalism, sense of mission, romanticism, that control over the supply of money and and progress which underlay the various in­ credit is a proper function of the national tellectual and reform efforts of the period. government. This realization came belated­ The reform impulse, for instance, although it ly, after more than a century and a half of was influenced by European and especially misunderstanding the nature of money and British action and theory, flourished on the hence both the issues and the policy questions. American scene because of American self- Moreover, given the American predilection to confidence in accelerating the pace of progress leave monetary matters wherever possible to as a part of the expressed need to implement the determination of market forces, there evangelical religion and to demonstrate to was little disposition at any level of govern­ the world an example of a society rapidly ment to ask fundamental questions about the approaching perfection. monetary costs of economic develojjment or In the American search for perfection, as to use monetary policy to shape the direction Nye reveals, very few aspects of society were or pace of economic change. This theme al­ left untouched by reformers. Abolitionism, lows the author to comment from the view­ women's rights, temperance, and amelioration point of a legal historian on the ways that of the lot of the poor were the more obvious issues were or were not perceived and on the areas of reform concern, but they were joined ways that the legal system evolved out of by Sabbath-holding, medical reform, the aboli­ limited perceptions of needs rather than any tion of flogging in the Navy, and other more overarching philosophy of how the legal or­ esoteric enthusiasms for change on the part of der could or should be developed on so vital concerned citizens. an issue. Nye, as was apparent in his earlier volume In this reviewer's judgment, it is unfortu­ in the New American Nation series, is very nate that Professor Hurst approaches the sub­ concerned with the relationship of literature ject in such a way that he is obliged to exam­ and society and he devotes several chapters of

157 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY WINTER, 1974-1975 the present work to an exploration of the any in-depth manner the differences even in various trends and currents of thought influ­ thought between North and South. encing poets, essayists, novelists, and histori­ Nye's study as a survey of American cultural ans during the period. His exposition of life and thought before the Civil War is ex­ transcendentalism is succinct and understand­ cellent and often superb, but those desiring a able as is his general discussion of the particu­ comprehensive account of American society lar manner in which American writers trans­ will have to look elsewhere. formed European romanticism for their own ends. As is befitting a biographer of George NORMAN LEDERER Bancroft, Nye devotes special attention to a Camden County College, survey of historical thought during these Blackwood, New Jersey years and the transition from the writing of patriotic, philosophical, and literary history to a more objective, "scientific" version of the past. All the Best Rubbish; Being an Antiquary's Nye's discussion of the visual arts is quite Account of the Pleasiires and Perils of Study­ positive in its emphasis on the American ing and Collecting Everyday Objects from the breaking away from a slavish dependence on Past. By IVOR NOEL HUME. (Harper and Row, European models in changing and adapting Publishers, New York, 1974. Pp. xiv, 320. Il­ earlier traditions to meet American needs. He lustrations, notes, bibliography, index. $10.00.) stresses for instance the manner in which American architecture took on new forms This fascinating book should delight both from that in Europe through the blending of lay and professional readers. Its anecdotal new technology and experimentation. Archi­ format is entertaining and informative as tecture was still basically European in design Hume, the director of the Department of derivation, but Americans were rapidly de­ Archaeology for Colonial Williamsburg, traces veloping an indigenous art form similar to the beginnings of antiquarian collecting in yet different from European precedents. Great Britain, along with the growth and de­ Besides reform, literature, and the arts, Nye velopment of his own collecting habits. The also devotes space in his work to excellent stories surrounding certain artifacts in public summaries of developments in education, museums and in Hume's own collection are medicine, health, invention and technology, told with skill. The questions—Where was religion and philosophy, providing in the pro­ it found? How old is it? Who owned it? cess a highly useful and compact encyclopaedic How was it used? What did it mean to its overview of American thought and culture owner?—are all answered using historical rec­ during the period. He also makes some effort ords such as military service rolls, contempo­ to analyze the position of blacks, Indians, and rary illustrations and city directories. The immigrants in American life and thought be­ subject material is never dull as the author fore the Civil War, but it is evident that Nye covers everything from dodos to barbed wire is somewhat out of his element in discussing with more than a few words on faked items. tltese topics with especially his section on the It is also a pleasure to note that almost every black American devoid of the revelations of item mentioned is illustrated (there are 129 recent scholarship. illustrations) usually on the same page as the The basic weakness of Nye's study is that discussion or descriptions. his title would lead the reader to expect a The breadth of topics also helps support discussion and exposition of the various Hume's contention that there is virtually noth­ groups and classes in American society that is ing which cannot or will not be collected by not forthcoming. The author makes no effort someone as certain supplies of articles (e.g., to analyze the position of the working and antique furniture) become depleted or their middle classes in society nor does he deal ex­ prices are driven above the means of most cept in a peripheral fashion with such topics collectors. At present, one sees individuals as social mobility, occupations, labor organiza­ collecting Avon bottles, or every kind of soft tion, or urbanism. Also, while Nye does point drink bottle made by a particular company, out that regionalism gained great strength in or photographs of every church in a state. All the South during and after the 1840's as op­ of these may satisfy their collectors as much as posed to the traditional view of nationalism, collections of antique furniture, French im­ the author does not come to grips with the pressionist paintings, and original Currier and import of this change nor does he analyze in Ives prints satisfy others.

158 BOOK REVIEWS

The author's advice to collectors is straight­ Even with this minor detraction (possibly forward and in my opinion right on target. idiosyncratic to the reviewer) I cannot recom­ If your collection is to ever be of value to any­ mend this book enough. It is the first book I one but yourself, publish it! If you have fin­ have read in some time which was both enjoy­ ished collecting in a certain area, try to find able and instructive. This is not a "how-to" a safe museum home for your treasures, but manual, but all tips and directions given are do not be surprised if the museum would only appropriate and reasonable. Perhaps the neo­ like a portion of them. Finally, if you cannot phyte collector will not know where to begin find a home for them, sell them and let other researching his autographed nineteenth-cen­ collectors acquire and enjoy your pieces. tury British soldier's powder horn, but a visit His advice to museums is no less pungent. to a large enough museum should acquaint Know your collections! The specimen that is him with a curator who may aid him. For traded or sold or otherwise disposed of may the noncollector, this book is a most enter­ be irreplaceable. Equally correct is that mu­ taining and diverting excursion escorted by seums should not collect only the rarest or a man whose knowledge of the everyday arti­ best in any particular area, for "taste and facts of Great Britain and colonial America fashions change with greater rapidity than is surpassed only by the ease and humor with ever before, and no museum that purports which this knowledge is presented. to preserve the art or industry of a nation can afford to leave gaps because they may JOHN R. HALSEY not be to the taste of a curator, any more than State Historical Society of Wisconsin they should deny those of us not 'gifted by nature to feel the difference' between master­ pieces and the 'inferior production of a mere Black Bondage in the North. By EDGAR J. imitation' the opportunity to see the fine MCMANUS. (Syracuse University Press, Syra­ alongside the not-so-good, and the mediocre cuse, 1973. Pp. xiii, 236. Illustrations, notes, beside the downright shoddy." (p. 272) bibliography, index. $9.95.) The book does have a dark side. The diffi­ culties the author faced from 1949 to 1957 With few exceptions, works on slavery in as the Corporation of London's only archeol- the United States have concentrated on the ogist trying to salvage two thousand years of generation preceding the Civil War. Recent­ London history while the city was rebuilding ly, however, as scholars have broadened the from the ruins of World War II—impossible focus of their study of slavery, several histor­ working conditions imposed by builders and ians have begun to devote more attention to a general lack of co-operation from other city the colonial period. While Gerald W. Mullin, officials—still confront archeologists in many Peter H. Wood, and Edmund S. Morgan have parts of the world including the United States. dealt imaginatively with slavery in the colo­ Fortunately the picture in this country is im­ nial South, Edgar J. McManus has concen­ proving due to recent legislation. trated on the North. His first book, a study I did not like the impression Hume gives of slavery in New York, is now followed by that archeologists are collectors of the very Black Bondage in the North, a useful if un­ artifacts they study. Some readers might find exciting survey of northern slavery from its themselves saying, "So that's where all that inception to abolition. In his preface the stuff they excavate ends up!" I am sure that author explains that "an attempt has been this is not what the author intended. I per­ made throughout to tell the story objectively sonally know of no North American archeolo­ with a minimum of generalization or interpre­ gists who collect arrowheads and prehistoric tation." Fortunately, this somewhat confused Indian pottery for their own pleasure or profit. notion of the relationship between objectivi­ Prehistoric artifacts which have been removed ty and generalization does not unduly con­ from their context (the site or level within strict McManus; despite his stated aim of pro­ a site) which gives them any importance they viding a "factual groundwork," his book is may have are merely examples of prehistoric full of generalizations, some of which are a art or craft. Archeologists are most interested good deal more convincing than others. in the former; collectors in the latter. His­ Although McManus correctly emphasizes torical archeologists may come by ceramics, the ubiquitous nature of colonial slavery, he glass, and furniture quite honestly from exaggerates the importance of the institution sources other than archeological digs. to most of the Northern colonies. The useful

159 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY WINTER, 1974-1975 population statistics presented in the appen­ Southern slaves were better off than their dix belie the author's assertions that "the slave Northern counterparts. The author's treat­ force everywhere made a vital contribution to ment of the reasons for the decline of slavery the Northern economy" and that slaves "pro­ is less satisfactory. At one point he suggests vided the basic working force that transformed that after 1770 Northerners imported few shaky outposts of empire into areas of perma­ slaves because slave raids had depopulated nent settlement." In Massachusetts in 1764, much of west Africa and consequently driven for example, blacks constituted about one per up slave prices. Later he declares that "the cent of the population, and many of them Revolution fatally undermined Northern were domestic servants. What does not emerge slavery. While ideology weakened the resolve clearly enotigh from McManus's account is of whites to defend the system, military opera­ that although slavery existed in all the colo­ tions ended the automatic subordination of nies, with a few exceptions (including parts blacks." Still later we learn that because of of New York and the Narragansett region of an increased supply of white laborers, slavery Rhode Island) the Northern colonies did not had simply become unprofitable, and that develop into slave societies, with economies "economic conditions" were more important based substantially on slave labor. Through­ than "Revolutionary ideology." Any one of out most of the North slaves were more a these is a plausible explanation, but a more luxury than a necessity. Surely this explains careful integration of them—and weighing of McManus's interesting revelation that be­ them against each other—would have been cause of the "personal inconvenience" in­ helpful. volved, slave "women with a record of fecun­ This book is, then, a welcome addition to dity were least in demand." Most Southern the growing literature on colonial slavery. slaveowners welcomed such inconvenience. Its chief merits are its sweep—this is the first Indeed, McManus argues that Northern general survey of Northern slavery—and its slavery was substantially different from attention to detail. Its chief faults are that Southern bondage. Not only did it exhibit it is not very imaginative, and far from lack­ "none of the systematic barbarism practiced ing generalizations or interpretations, con­ in the plantation colonies," but it was also tains too many that are not very carefully "more varied and complex," offering slaves constructed or supported. Black Bondage in much more personal freedom. "The system the North will not be the last word on the encouraged qualities of independence that subject, but it is a useful beginning. distinguished Northern slaves from their plan­ tation counterparts in the South," notes Mc­ PETER KOLCHIN Manus. "Frequently they were highly versa­ University of Wisconsin—Madison tile workers, with proficiency as blacksmiths, carpenters, and shoemakers in addition to their agricultural skills." Slavehiring was The Secessionist Impulse: Alabama and Mis­ common. The author convincingly shows that sissippi in 1860. By WILLIAM L. BARNEY. Northern slavery allowed blacks a degree of (Princeton University Press, Princeton, New independence and opportunity, but it is not Jersey, 1974. Pp. xv, 371. Maps, tables, ap­ clear to what extent this is evidence of a pendices, index. $14.50.) distinction between Northern and Southern slavery. Recent researchers have been find­ ing very much the same kind of independence In recent years the most viable controversy among slaves in the South, whether colonial in United States middle period historiography or antebellum. has involved the primacy of race or class in antebellum American life. Participants in McManus makes other generalizations that this "battle of books" are formidable and bril­ are suggestive but demand further elabora­ liant. For example, Eugene D. Genovese (The tion. His claim that nothing "could prevent Political Economy of Slavery and The World the disintegration of slave families" runs coun­ the Slaveholders Made) and Eric Foner (Free ter to the thrust of recent historical research, Soil, Free Labor, Free Men) are among those but may not be entirely unfounded. The very who emphasize the significance of ideology small size of slaveholdings and the surplus as an ultimate statement of class interests and of males must have made family life difficult values. On the other side scholars such as for most Northern slaves. In at least this re­ William W. Freehling {Prelude to Civil War) spect there is reason to believe that many and Steven A. Channing {Crisis of Fear) argue

160 BOOK REVIEWS

the importance of race as a dominant factor planter ideology and racial fear as prime mov­ in the sectional crises of nineteenth-century ers of the Southern mind, ambiguity remains America. William L. Barney's The Secession­ about means and ends in the secession process. ist Impulse: Alabama and Mississippi in 1860 Was race the visible tip of the larger iceberg is an attempt to fuse these themes of race and of ideology? Or was the planter ideology a class ideology into a new synthesis. The book veneer which covered the more fundamental is outstanding, both in terms of its interpre­ issue of racial subordination? The contro­ tative subtlety and of its depth of research. versy will continue. It will continue, however, Taken in conjunction with the author's re­ on a far higher plane thanks to the work of cent extended-essay book. The Road to Seces­ Professor Barney. sion: A New Perspective on the Old South, Barney's The Secessionist Impulse has opened EMORY M. THOMAS a "third front" in this lively historiographical University of Georgia conflict. Barney does three things very well in this book. First, he contends that the facts of economic life in Alabama, Mississippi—and by Frontier Regulars: The United States Army extension the lower South—were far from and the Indian, 1866-1891. By ROBERT M. sanguine in 1860. In contrast to the tradi­ UTLEY. (Macmillan, New York, 1973. Pp. xv, tional view of Southern well-being in the 462. Illustrations, notes, bibliography, maps, 1850's, Barney paints a lugubrious picture of index. $12.95.) an unsated land hunger and a nearly over- saturated labor market in slaves which boded During the past several years historians, for the planter class the imminent prospect journalists. Native Americans, and amateur of financial reverses and class conflict with the observers have written a massive amount of yeoman majority. Second, Barney makes the material on North American Indian-white vital connection between slavery, the agricul­ relations. The Great Plains during the last tural labor system, and slavery, the sine qua half of the nineteenth century has received non of racial subordination in the Old South. the greatest attention. Ralph Andrist, Dee Planters, he argues, employed more than the Brown, S. L. A. Marshall, and others have symbols, social status, and traditions of class presented varied interpretations of this period deference to maintain hegemony in the South. of extensive military conflict. They depended upon the realities of racial Robert M. Utley is director of the Office phobias and white fears of a restive black of Archeology and Historical Preservation of population to enforce their pretensions to the National Park Service and former presi­ leadership. Third, Barney conducts an ex­ dent of the Western History Association. haustive examination of the political process Frontier Regulars is his second contribution of revolution in Alabama and Mississippi. to Macmillan's Wars of the United States From this analysis of leadership, campaign series; Frontiersmen in Blue dealt with the rhetoric, and voter response in 1860 Barney period 1848-1865. His intimate knowledge of draws his conclusions. Secession was primarily the source material and his previous publica­ the work of young planters and lawyers "on tion record make Robert Utley well qualified the make," men who had the most to lose to analyze the controversial post Civil War from restriction or fundamental change in period. the slave-plantation society. These secession­ Before dealing chronologically with specific ists had hopes for their "way of life"; they conflicts, Utley presents six chapters that pro­ also had fears for their economy and their vide the reader with needed background on social system. The greatest of fears was for the United States military establishment. The slavery; the panacea was revolution. Ulti­ author is concerned with the Regular Army, mately, Barney contends, the secessionists led not Volunteers, and its relationship with Con­ fellow Alabamians and Mississippians to take gress and the American public. The attempt counsel of their fears instead of their hopes. to establish a military doctrine, combat strate­ "That was the crux of the Southern tragedy. gy, and organizational structure were im­ Her highest ideals had become inseparable mediate post Civil War problems. The im­ from the preservation of slavery." (p. 316) provement of weapons and the constant dif­ Like most important books. The Secession­ ficulty of transporting supplies and equip­ ist Impulse raises new questions by answering ment prevailed throughout this period. Al­ old ones. However hard Barney tries to link though the U.S. succeeded militarily Utley

161 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY WINTER, 1974-1975 concludes that "man for man, the Indian tary posts. The bibliography and footnotes warrior far surpassed his blue-clad adversary indicate the author's careful perusal of print­ in virtually every test of military proficiency." ed government documents and monographic Demonstrating an intimate knowledge of literature. the physical geography of the trans-Mississippi Although not written in Dee Brown's high­ West, Robert Utley discusses, in varying de­ ly readable and conversational style, Robert grees of detail, all major and many secondary M. Utley's Frontier Regulars is a more bal­ conflicts between Indians and the U.S. Army anced and historically accurate portrayal of from the Bozeman Trail to Wounded Knee. Indian-military conflict in the trans-Missis­ This study is not confined to the Great Plains sippi West. It should be read and repeatedly Tribes, however, but also includes struggles referred to by professional and amateur his­ of the Apache, Bannock, Modoc, Nez Perce, torian alike. Paiute, and Ute. The author's excellent scholarship is especially demonstrated in his DAVID A. WALKER concise portrayals of the Custer fight and the Mankato State College confrontation at Wounded Knee. Utley be­ lieves that the northern plains tribes were better prepared for war in the spring of 1876 than at any other time. They were "numer­ Lawyer's Lawyer: The Life of John W. Davis. ous, united, confident, superbly led, and emo­ By WILLIAM H. HARBAUGH. (Oxford Univer­ tionally charged to defend their homeland." sity Press, New York, 1973. Pp. xvi, 648. Il­ (p. 262) The U.S. military command did not lustrations, list of cases argued before the lose the war on the Little Big Horn, the Supreme Court, notes, index. $15.00.) Indians won it. Alexis de Tocqueville observed in the 1830's By 1890 the Army Regulars were less con­ in Democracy in America that the country's cerned with chasing Indians across the Great one real aristocracy was its lawyers. Cer­ Plains. The reservation system severely un­ tainly twentieth-century experience has borne dermined traditional customs, promoted fac­ out that observation. Many writers have de­ tionalism, encouraged agency corruption, and tected the core of an "American Establish­ brought starvation and misery to western ment" in the top New York and Washington tribes. A messiah, Wovoka, appeared out of law firms, and some of the most distinguished these conditions, preaching a peaceful doc­ public careers of the last seventy-five years trine that blended elements of Christianity have arisen out of success at the bar, as in with traditional native beliefs. The Teton the cases of Elihu Root, William Howard Sioux attached militant overtones to the Ghost Taft, Charles Evans Hughes, Henry L. Stim­ Dance that led to ultimate disaster. Utley son, Dean Acheson, and John Foster Dulles. concludes that "Wounded Knee was not de­ But the purest example of legal talent open­ liberate; overcharged emotions touched off ing doors to the highest offices and finest a bloodbath that neither side intended or honors was John W. Davis, who is chiefly re­ foresaw." It was not the deliberate and in­ membered as the Democratic Presidential discriminate slaughter intimated by Dee candidate who lost to Calvin Coolidge in Brown, nor was it the prepared battle that 1924. In fourteen years, Davis went from S.L.A. Marshall depicted. Instead, the con­ being an attorney in Clarksburg, West Vir­ frontation along Wounded Knee Creek must ginia, through two terms of influential service be labeled a "tragedy." This "more accu­ in the House of Representatives, five years as rately suggests the causes and progress of this Solicitor General of the United States, and most regrettable of frontier encounters." (p. two and a half years as Ambassador to Great 408) Britain, to become a candidate for the Demo­ Physically, Frontier Regulars is an attrac­ cratic presidential nomination in 1920 and tive and thorough piece of scholarship. Two finally nominee four years later. After his sets of photographs and sketches visually in­ defeat, he resumed the senior partnership of troduce the major U.S. military and Indian one of the biggest Wall Street firms, Davis, leaders, depict specific combat scenes, and Polk, Wardwell, Gardiner, and Reed, and for help to portray army life on the western fron­ the remaining thirty-one years of his life he tier. Fourteen maps are drawn with sufficient enjoyed undiminishing eminence as a leading regional focus to present needed details of practitioner and elder statesman of the Amer­ the terrain, transportation routes, and mili­ ican bar.

162 BOOK REVIEWS

Clearly, John W. Davis was a phenomenon. last argument before the Supreme Court as Even more remarkable than the rapidity of the advocate of segregation in the cases that his rise were two other features. One was that led to the Brown decision. Well-loved, uni­ he sought none of the positions which he took. versally respected, Davis remained, neverthe­ Rather, he struggled to avoid all of them ex­ less, a complete reactionary. cept the Solicitor Generalship. On several oc­ The major question about Davis is why he casions he declined offers of appointment to failed to play a better, larger role in twentieth- the federal bench, including a seat on the century American history. Harbaugh addresses Supreme Court in 1922, which carried with this question repeatedly and resourcefully, it a strong possibility of later succeeding to but his answers represent the one point at the Chief Justiceship. The other remarkable which I do not think that this biography feature of Davis's rise was that he owed every­ delves deep enough. Davis himself believed thing to his ability as a courtroom lawyer, that throughout his life he hewed faithfully with some assistance from a considerable but to the absolutist Jeffersonian states'-rights late-blooming personal charm and plain good viewpoint which he had absorbed in his youth. luck. Unlike most other lawyer-statesmen, he Harbaugh demonstrates, however, that he neither brought much to the law nor took strayed from that viewpoint first in a pro­ much away. He enjoyed almost no advantages gressive direction as a Congressman and So­ of wealth, social background, educational pres­ licitor General and later in a conservative tige, or political connections. He displayed no direction in defending wealth and property. special political gifts, felt relatively little en­ Harbaugh also exposes Davis's utter lack of gagement with social or economic issues, and appreciation for the biases in favor of property took scant interest in broader or deeper ques­ and social order inherent in law and the legal tions behind the making and executing of community. In the end, Harbaugh interprets law and justice. Davis was, as this book's Davis's shortcomings as stemming mainly from title aptly states, a "lawyer's lawyer." an unreflective, doctrinaire temperament and Perhaps the strongest point of this well- the environmental conditioning of big-time written, comprehensive biography is its recog­ corporate law. Undoubtedly, those elements nition that Davis owed everything to his su­ played a large part in shaping Davis's views perbly developed but narrowly defined legal and behavior, but a deeper problem, which talents. Harbaugh makes this perception the Harbaugh raises but hardly develops, seems central organizing principle and major inter­ to have undermined the great "lawyer's pretative theme of Lawyer's Lawyer. More lawyer." than two-thirds of the book treats Davis's legal Of the two sets of transgressions against his rather than strictly public career; over half professed Jeffersonianism, the more serious goes to the period after 1924, when he held one seems to have been, ironically, his mild, and sought no offices and devoted himself hesitant progressivism between 1910 and 1921. largely to his practice. This is a wise alloca­ Then Davis knowingly bent his convictions. tion of attention, because only by probing the In the chapters on these years, Harbaugh con­ attorney can one begin to understand not just stantly notes the gap between his private views this particular historical character but his in­ and public stands. One of his subordinates carnation of the American lawyer-statesman. in the Solicitor General's office explained the Harbaugh deftly explores how Davis's legal discrepancy by stating that "the government talents formed the basis for both his successes was his client. That's all." (90) Basically, and, more important, his failures. An overall Davis's problem was his conception of the role sense of incompleteness and misspent ability of the lawyer. Near the end of his life he lingers around Davis. After the 1924 election claimed that "the lawyer as a lawyer does not he played almost no constructive public role, erect or paint or build anything. He does not other than lending his prestige occasionally create. All he does is lubricate the wheels of and his involvement infrequently to cases in­ society by implementing the rules of conduct volving freedom of speech. He did not even by which the organized life of men must be take much interest in constitutional problems carried on." (23) The man knew himself, but or the organizational affairs of the bar. Most unfortunately "lawyer's lawyer" has a less flat­ of his energy and commitment went to op­ tering synonym—"mouthpiece." posing nearly all forms of political, social, and The ultimate failure lay less in Davis him­ economic change. He became an outspoken self than in the prevailing notion that legal defender of private wealth, and he made his talent constitutes a talisman for social and

163 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY WINTER, 1974-1975 political wisdom. Sometimes great lawyers treats the evolution of the Democracy from have made great statesmen, as in the cases of William Jennings Bryan to Woodrow Wil­ Root and Hughes in particular, but the key son, while Wilton B. Fowler continues the to those men's successes lay more in their atti­ story of American foreign policy. Melvin tudes toward law and its function in society Holli assesses the course of urban reform, and than in their skill as courtroom practitioners. James Penick, Jr., deals with three of the im­ In John W. Davis Americans got what they portant themes of the first conservation move­ deserved for their near superstitious reverence ment. In the concluding essay Thomas K. toward lawyers as such. This biography would McCraw analyzes the legacy of the entire era. have been more enlightening if Harbaugh had Space considerations do not allow full criti­ gone further into the limitations of the cism of every essay, but in general they are all "lawyer's lawyer." But he does present abun­ well-written, unusually analytical, and tight­ dant material for speculating on the problem, ly packed with information. Few of the au­ and the discussion of many of Davis's involve­ thors cite primary material in their footnotes, ments is fascinating and often, as in the sum­ but all of the essays seem to be founded on mer of 1974, timely. Davis appeared frequent­ research reported in recent scholarly mono­ ly before Congressional investigating commit­ graphs. It is interesting how much these schol­ tees, and as a member of the House Judiciary ars have influenced each others' thinking, as Committee in 1912 he participated in bring­ judged by the number of times they cite the ing articles of impeachment against a federal works of their fellow essayists. judge and prosecuting him before the Senate. At a time when law and lawyers monopolize The efforts by Fowler and Holli deserve the public mind, the life of one of the great­ further comment because they represent the est legal practitioners makes instructive and worst and some of the best parts of the book. sobering reading. Clearly in sympathy with the recent antire- visionist spate of foreign policy studies such as Robert Maddox's The New Left and the JOHN MILTON COOPER, JR. Origins of the Cold War, and William H. University of Wisconsin—Madison Becker's "American Manufacturers and For­ eign Markets, 1870-1900: Business Historians and the 'New Economic Determinists' " {Busi­ The Progressive Era. Edited by LEWIS GOULD. ness History Review, Winter, 1973), Fowler (Syracuse University Press, 1974. Pp. 238. argues with as little success as his cohorts that Footnotes, photographs, index. $9.95.) the "Wisconsin School" is wrong. Perhaps not all wrong, since United States foreign policy In the second edition of H. Wayne Morgan's was colored by and could at times be over­ The Gilded Age, Lewis Gould contributed an whelmed by idealism and economic ambition. essay on the Republican party's search for But nevertheless American diplomacy "never a national majority. Following in the foot­ lost sight of the fundamental concern of de­ steps of his colleague from the University of fense or of security." This restrictive policy Texas, Gould has edited the sequel to Mor­ of defense confining American interests large­ gan's volume. The Progressive Era gives eight ly to the Caribbean and Ear East arose logic­ younger historians a chance to contribute orig­ ally from what Fowler calls the "revolutionary inal essays on some of the significant prob­ consequences" of the Spanish-American War. lems confronted by reformers during the early Fowler draws his proof from the thrust of twentieth century. Very properly, for any U.S. action in Venezuela, Panama, Cuba, the sequel, the essays' authors address themselves Dominican Republic, Nicaragua, Haiti, Mexi­ to the main topics of concern of the earlier co, Japan, and China. In an interesting twist editions—foreign policy, the currents of of evidentiary logic. Fowler uses a standard thought, and the history of the Republican of corroborative proof long criticized by anti- and Democratic parties—and they identify and revisionists as the downfall of the "Wiscon­ analyze new issues. sin School." Even though in every case no Gould provides an introduction and a his­ disposition of sworn proof is available from tory of the Republicans under Roosevelt and the archives. Fowler claims that his interpre­ Taft. Stanley P. Caine discusses the origins tation stands "if we mean by strategy the cal­ of progressivism, and R. Laurence Moore fol­ culation ... of the barrier [s] across or lows up with an examination of the intellec­ through which the outward impulses of the tual trends of the period. John J. Broesamle United States could not prevail. . . ." But

164 BOOK REVIEWS

Fowler's interpretation does not stand be­ Hoover's attempts to make rational and to cause it has no place for statements like that introduce equity into the plethora of laws made in 1898 by Francis B. Loomis, a for­ governing veterans' affairs precedes the au­ mer Consul, then a diplomat, and a future thor's lengthy discussion and analysis of the Assistant Secretary of State: "We ought by administration's confrontation with the Bonus tariff and other trade concessions we obtain Marchers. Three chapters on the aftermath from Cuba, to make her commercially de­ of that sad affair conclude the book. Lisio's pendent upon us forever. I think it our des­ work is copiously documented and his re­ tiny to control more or less directly most all search in the pertinent papers of all the key of the Latin American countries. It is pos­ participants, the contemporary press, and oral sible to attain commercial ascendancy in them interviews with surviving contemporaries is in much the same way that England does in most impressive. China: that is by lending them money and administering their revenues." The major rea­ The President and Protest takes issue with son for Fowler's myopia is that he concen­ interpretations of Herbert Hoover's role in trates narrowly and selectively on the policy the Bonus March which have appeared in a objectives of the Navy, War, and State de­ number of works in recent years, most re­ partments, while denying any role in foreign cently and notably Roger Daniels, The Bonus policy to the Commerce Department. March: An Episode in the Great Depression (Westport, Connecticut, 1971). Lisio contends Melvin Holli on the other hand deserves that Hoover, in his quest to regularize veter­ much credit for his efforts. In a provocative ans' policies, had extended and expanded vet­ essay on the course of urban reform he restates erans' benefits. Not only was Hoover a friend his argument about the dichotomy of urban of the veteran, but also during the Bonus progressivism. The eventual success of struc­ March itself. Hoover secretly extended con­ tural reform championed by good government siderable aid to the protesting veteran in the supporters over social reform endorsed by en­ form of Army food, equipment, and medical lightened bosses led Holli to significant new services. The author argues, in perhaps his findings. Structural reformers score high in most controversial contention, that President ingenuity for transforming Mugwump morali­ Hoover himself did not perceive the Bonus ty into scientific efficiency. How these peo­ Expeditionary Force as a threat to public ple adapted a model from another discipline order or the government of the United States. (management sciences) and applied it to the Until federal troops pushed the BEF out of urban sphere makes fascinating reading. the District of Columbia, the President re­ Although the reader will not find many mained calm, restrained, and confident in his new interpretations in this volume, the image administration's ability to cope with the pro­ of the progressive era that emerges from the test. Only after the July 28 rout did Hoover book is considerably more complimentary to come to see the BEF as a conspiratorial group the reformers of that age than other images that actually threatened the government. This recently in vogue. As a general reference aid change of heart, Lisio laments, has led his­ and classroom text The Progressive Era will torians to misinterpret Hoover as "a mean most likely rival The Gilded Age in popular­ spirited, easily panicked bigot, more worried ity. about Communist rhetoric than about starv­ ing people." (p. 316) DONALD D. MARKS University of Wisconsin—Madison Professor Lisio's most impressive evidence shows that Secretary of War Patrick Hurley and Chief of Staff of the Army Douglas Mac- Arthur deliberately disobeyed Hoover's re­ The President and Protest: Hoover, Conspi­ strained orders to the Army. Hurley and Mac- racy and the Bonus Riot. By DONALD J. Lisio. Arthur used the soldiers to push protesters (University of Missouri Press, Columbia, 1974. and onlookers alike out of downtown Washing­ Pp. X, 346. Illustrations, notes, bibliography, ton, then systematically destroyed the BEF's index. $12.50.) makeshift camps. The rout of the BEF ap- peared to be the brutal act of a frightened The President and Protest is an analytical administration completely devoid of sympathy study of the Hoover Administration's dealings for victims of the Depression and oblivious to with veterans in general and the Bonus March the basic civil rights and civil liberties com­ of 1932 in particular. A review of Herbert mon to all Americans. But, Lisio argues, that

165 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY WINTER, 1974-1975 was not Hoover's intention. After the rout, Canada Before Confederation: A Study in however. Hoover did not repudiate his in­ Historical Geography. By R. COLE HARRIS subordinate Secretary of War and Chief of and JOHN WARKENTIN. (Oxford University Staff but publicly endorsed their argument Press, New York, 1973. Pp. x, 338. Illustra­ that the Army broke up a Communist-domi­ tions, notes for one chapter, bibliography, nated conspiracy seeking to destroy the gov­ maps, index. $11.50 cloth; $5.95 paper.) ernment. This was one source of historical misinterpretation. Let it be said right away that this is a good The other source. The President and Protest book. It is well written and admirably re­ posits, was the tendency for contemporary searched. The publishers should be congratu­ participants and journalists, and future his­ lated for their willingness to allow the in­ torians, to view the Bonus March in terms of clusion of an extensive number of maps and conspiracy. Hence, MacArthur, Hurley, and photographs which document some points of many others in Washington saw the BEF as analysis and illustrate others. a conspiratorial group dominated by Com­ There is, generally speaking, a paucity of munists. The Bonus Marchers and their lib­ monographs dealing with the historical geog­ eral journalist supporters saw Hoover's ac­ raphy of early Canada. What has been pub­ tions as a conspiracy to curry favor with the lished is largely the result of research by the electorate in an election year. Unfortunately, two authors, R. C. Harris and J. Warkentin, Lisio writes, most historians have adopted one and by A. H. Clark (general editor of the or another of these conspiracy theories. Lisio series in which this volume appears) of the attempts to use the conspiracy theory concept University of Wisconsin. Given the general as the vehicle to carry his argument but does dearth of secondary sources, the authors have so with no analytical framework. The reader undertaken a task that few others would have gets no definition of the conspiracy theory of accepted. This book is a bold attempt to history, apart from footnote references to provide "a comprehensive and deliberately Richard Hofstadter and David Brion Davis. provocative synthesis" of the historical geogra­ It is not clear whether Lisio's references to phy of Canada prior to 1867. "conspiracy" merely relate to the natural ten­ dency of opponents to impute evil intent to Two early chapters provide highly compe­ the actions of each other, or to some system­ tent summaries of "European Penetration" atic method of understanding the way so­ and of Acadia and New France. This second cial groups perceive their place in public af­ chapter covers the time period most thorough­ fairs as well as in history. ly analyzed in other studies and thus repeats for the most part the findings of Clark, Harris, In forcefully arguing his interpretation, and W. J. Eccles. On the other hand the more Lisio distorts many of Roger Daniels' argu­ modern chapters, particularly those dealing ments and assigns to his own views more with Ontario and Quebec, provide important authority than the evidence and his logic jus­ new material and ideas. The authors clearly tify. Except for their views on Hoover's state succeed in presenting a comprehensive syn­ of mind in July of 1932, there is little differ­ thesis of the period. ence in the general pictures presented by Lisio and Daniels. Basically, what Lisio fails But there are also some weaknesses. The to explain satisfactorily is Hoover's almost racial distribution of the English-speaking instant conversion from the calm, confident, population is largely ignored, and here, I restrained man depicted here to the outraged think, greater use could have been made of President who joined his dissembling Secre­ the findings of Ken Duncan. Rural emigra­ tary of War and Chief of Staff in perpetuat­ tion from all the colonies is only briefly men­ ing the myth of revolution. If Herbert Hoover tioned, and there is little hint of the large- was misunderstood by his contemporaries and scale movement of people taking place in by historians, the chief source of misunder­ rural and urban areas of all the provinces. standing was not any theory of conspiracy The adoption of political divisions as the di­ but the man himself who failed to comprehend viding point for chapters is sometimes unfor­ the meaning of leadership and statesmanship, tunate (e.g. the Ottawa Valley lumbering com­ and Lisio raises that issue only peripherally munity receives slight treatment, especially in here. the chapter on Ontario). But these are minor quibbles. JERRY M. COOPER However, I have two more major com­ University of Missouri—St. Louis plaints. First, there is a lack of co-ordination 166 BOOK REVIEWS

in the writing of the two authors which is dis­ well, and the early New Deal controversies turbing. Naturally the style varies; but surely into such finely balanced perspective, that they could have agreed as to what types of one leaves the book feeling that it contains coverage and analysis should be present in not a single false note. each chapter. Warkentin has a section on The events themselves speak with more mining in the Atlantic Region, but Harris than enough eloquence, and part of Freidel's ignores this industry for Quebec (e.g. copper triumph lies in his steadfast refusal to con­ south of the St. Lawrence) and Ontario (e.g. vert the whole into a vast melodrama. In oil at Petrolia, salt at Goderich, gold at Ma- consequence, his work lacks the thrilling rhe­ doc). Warkentin places greater emphasis on torical brilliance of Schlesinger's, but achieves cultural geography; and Harris' detailing of the overwhelming advantage of absolute re­ architectural developments finds no mention liability. There is no fervor here, no hero- of the topic by Warkentin for the Atlantic worship, no debunking of the opposition. Region. Warkentin deals with the Indian One cannot predict Freidel's treatment of spe­ population on the prairies, but the rest of cific episodes. Things do not automatically Canada's Indians are largely forgotten. turn out well. His Roosevelt has large flaws, As a historian reading a book produced by and makes major errors. He evades or post­ a somewhat different discipline, I had hoped pones vital decisions, as in the banking crisis to find suggestions as to new ways of looking of 1933. He blithely lies to subordinates and at this period of Canadian history. In part, Congressmen, to keep the loyalty of his in­ I did; there is particularly stimulating treat­ congruous coalition. He allows his short at­ ment of the urban landscape and the links tention span and unrelenting affability to between cultural growth and material devel­ promote needless, even disastrous misunder­ opment. But in part I was also disappointed, standings. As Freidel summarizes Roosevelt's for here I found the same gaps found in works sorry performance in the London Economic by historians—ignoring native peoples, ignor­ Conference, "He had created false expecta­ ing nonsettled areas (outside the prairies). tions, sent a wildly disparate delegation to This latter point is particularly disturbing. carry them out, given only sporadic supervi­ White men had penetrated and were exploit­ sion . . . , and then repudiated those who to ing (along with Indians already present) vast the best of their ability were trying to carry areas of northern Quebec and Ontario, La­ out his instructions." brador, the Mackenzie River Valley, the Peace River district, and the Yukon and Pelly River On the other hand, throughout the book, districts. Why is all this virtually ignored? which covers the period between the election However, what the book covers (and it deals of 1932 and the end of the Hundred Days in with a vast amount of information), it covers June, 1933, Roosevelt remains the consum­ well. We should be, and I certainly am, grate­ mately adroit politician. Meeting weekly ful to the authors for making such a book with his Cabinet, twice weekly with the press, available. It will be extremely useful to stu­ he was "a spectacular figure," who could dents of Canadian history and Canadian his­ magically end the nation's psychological de­ torical geography. pression in an instant, juggle domestic af­ fairs and diplomacy (the latter consuming a surprising proportion of his time), and keep J. G. SNELL nearly everyone happy and expectant of great University of Guelph things to come. A dominant theme of the period, and of this book, was the problem of whether the economic depression should be attacked primarily at home, or primarily in Franklin D. Roosevelt: Launching the New concert with other industrial powers. The Deal. By FRANK FREIDEL. (Little, Brown and campaign against Hoover had premised chief­ Company, Boston, Toronto, 1973. Pp. x, 574. ly domestic causes. Thus, in the long, tense $15.00.) interregnum, neither Roosevelt nor Hoover behaved creditably toward each other, or He makes it look so easy, like DiMaggio toward the crisis. Once in office, Roosevelt gliding under a fly ball, or Roosevelt him­ took "a tack toward nationalism" climaxed self winning one election after another. Mov­ by the scuttle of the London conference, and ing his epic narrative into the presidential directed most of his attention toward domestic period, Frank Freidel sets FDR's character so measures.

167 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY WINTER, 1974-1975

Here, he drew what he firmly but erroneous­ of Roosevelt and the New Deal, Freidel gives ly believed could be a rigid distinction be­ only a few hints of the full analytical judg­ tween his "regular" (balanced) budget, and ments one hopes will also come in later vol­ "emergency" federal expenditures to bring umes. "Any neglected group," Roosevelt recovery. Confidently affirming conflicting wrote in 1932, "whether of agriculture, indus­ ideologies, he set his motley coterie of subor­ try, mining, commerce, or finance, can infect dinates to work drafting legislation making our whole national life and produce wide­ possible all sorts of federal action. In the spread misery." But was the proper remedy process, he broke every rule of administrative to be found in neglecting none, and lending orthodoxy: "Drawing organization charts the state's power or assistance to all? In the was one of Roosevelt's favorite pastimes, even manifold programs foreshadowed by the Hun­ if he paid little attention to them once they dred Days, writes Freidel, FDR "was revers­ went into operation." Only in land use and ing the progressive inclusiveness of Theodore agriculture did he deserve the designation Roosevelt and Wilson, who wished to serve "planner," and although Freidel makes a all the people through giving favors to none. case that FDR's thought here was more sys­ To the desperate Americans of 1933, Roosevelt tematic than some of his academic critics have wished to dispense aid to all groups—but, and argued, he also quotes nonsensical Roosevelt- here was where much trouble began, to re­ ian pieties such as, "Land is not only the quire concessions and responsibilities from source of all wealth, it is also the source of each in return." This "trouble" lies at the all human happiness." A more thorough heart of many, perhaps most, of our domestic analysis of FDR as administrator and "plan­ agonies since the 1930's. ner" belongs in subsequent volumes. On the problem of pluralism, one of the THOMAS K. MCCRAW largest historical issues at stake in the study University of Texas at Austin

BOOK REVIEWS

Barney, The Secessionist Impulse: Alabama and Mis­ Hurst, A Legal History of Money in the United States, sissippi in 1860, reviewed by Emory M. Thomas 160 1774-1970, reviewed by Peter J. Coleman 156 Curran, Metropolitan Financing: The Milwaukee Larson, Lindbergh of Minnesota: A Political Biogra­ Experience, 1920-1970, reviewed by Richard H. phy, reviewed by LeRoy Ashby 151 Keehn 150 Lisio, The President and Protest: Hoover, Conspir­ acy and the Bonus Riot, reviewed by Jerry M. Edwards, Rebel! A Biography of Tom Paine, reviewed by Linda Newman Bowling 153 Cooper 165 McManus, Black Bondage in the North, reviewed by Freidel, Franklin D. Roosevelt: Launching the New Peter Kolchin 159 Deal, reviewed by Thomas K. McCraw 167 Nelson (ed.), A Pioneer Churchman: J. W. C. Diet­ Goidd (ed.). The Progressive Era, reviewed by Donald richson in Wisconsin, 1844-1850, reviewed by Gerhard D. Marks 164 B. Naeseth 149 Harbaugh, Lawyer's Lawyer: The Life of John W. Nye, Society and Culture in America, 1830-1860, re­ Davis, reviewed by John Milton Cooper, Jr 162 viewed by Norman Lederer 157 Harris and Warkentin, Canada Before Confederation: Roper, FLO: A Biography of Frederick Law Olmsted, A Study in Historical Geography, reviewed by J. G. reviewed by Thomas R. Nevin 154 Snell 166 Trattner, From Poor Law to Welfare State: A History of Social Welfare in America, reviewed by John A. Hawke, Paine, reviewed by Linda Newman Bowl­ Fleckner 155 ing 153 Utley, Frontier Regulars: The United States Army Hume, All the Best Rubbish; Being an Antiquary's and the Indian, 1866-1891, reviewed by David A. Account of the Pleasures and Perils of Studying Walker 161 and Collecting Everyday Obfecis from the Past, re­ Whitaker (ed.). Farming in the Midwest, 1840-1900, viewed by John R. Halsey 158 reviewed by Gerald Prescott 152 168 Boudreau, Richard O. The Garland House in West Salem. (La Crosse, Wisconsin, La Wisconsin Crosse Printing Company, 1973. Pp. 16. Illus. $1.00 plus stamped, self-addressed 5" History Checklist X 8" envelope. Available from the author, 2132 Winnebago, La Crosse, WI 54601.) Recently published and currently avail­ able Wisconsiana added to the Society's Libra­ Hamlin Garland, 1860-1940, was one of ry is listed below. The compilers, Gerald R. Wisconsin's most famous authors and jour­ Eggleston, Acquisitions Librarian, and James nalists. Probably best remembered today are P. Danky, Order Librarian, are interested in obtaining information on (or copies of) items his "Middle Border" books, especially his nos­ that are not widely advertised, such as publi­ talgic, autobiographic A Son of the Middle cations of local historical societies, family his­ Border, and his A Daughter of the Middle tories and genealogies, privately printed works, Border which was awarded the Pulitzer Prize and histories of churches, institutions, or or­ for biography in 1922. In February, 1972, the ganizations. Authors and publishers wishing Garland House was designated a national his­ to reach a wider audience and also to perform toric landmark by the United States Depart­ a valuable bibliographic service are urged to ment of the Interior. Author Boudreau's inform the compilers ot their publications, including the following information: author, sketch of Garland's life originally appeared in title, location and name of publisher, price, the La Crosse Tribune in November, 1971. pagination, and address of supplier. Write James P. Danky, Acquisitions Section. Brylm, Estella. Around the Coulees. (West Salem, Wisconsin, La Crosse County Coun­ tryman, 1973. Pp. 143. Illus. $6.42. Avaih Beaver, Wilfred E. [Cover title: 100 Years of able from the author. West Salem, WI Service: 1874-1974; Sparta Free Library, 54669.) Sparta, Wisconsin.] (Sparta, Wisconsin, 1974. Pp. 7. $2.00. Available from Monroe Out of twenty-one years of writing as the County Historical Society, P.O. Box 422, news editor of a weekly newspaper, Estelle Sparta, WI 54656.) Bryhn has compiled a scrapbook of her articles and columns on the Coulee region of western llie Young Men's Library Association was Wisconsin, particularly the eastern half of La founded in 1860, and in 1874 the name was &osse County. The articles emphasize church­ changed to the Sparta Free Library, the second es, cemeteries, and schools in the communities public library in Wisconsin. Wilfred Beaver's of West Salem, Neshonoc, Barre Mills, Min- short narrative is supplemented by a chronol­ doro, Farmington, Onalaska, Holmen, Bells ogy taken from the records of the library's (]oulee. Burr Oak, Bangor, Hamilton, Burns, board of trustees. Proceeds from the sale of and Cataract. this publication and the following pamphlet go to the Museum Building Fund of the Burnham, Guy Miles. The Lake Superior Monroe County Historical Society. Country in History and in Story. Browzer Americana Series Number One. (Ashland, Beaver, Wilfred E., and Frederick, Nancy. The Wisconsin, Browzer Books, 1974. Pp. 464. Origin of Sparta, Wisconsin. \ Cover title: Illus. S6.75. Available from Browzer Book The Beginning, 1854: Monroe County, Wis­ and Art Shop, 201 Second Street, Ashland, consin.] (Sparta, Wisconsin, Monroe Coun­ WI 54806.) ty Historical Society, 1974. Pp. 7. $2.00. Available from the author, 418 East Main Guy Burnham, 1860-1939, was an editor of Street, Sparta, WI 54656.) the Ashland Daily Press for many years during which he edited the Chequamegon column In the first in a series of studies of Sparta's dealing with regional history and other sub­ residents and pioneer families, the author has jects. From his interest in Indians and local made use of historical data gathered by Nancy history he wrote this book about the Chequa­ Frederick, the librarian at Sparta Senior High megon Bay area of Lake Superior, especially School. The pamphlet covers the early period the city of Ashland. The history of the region of Sparta's development as a result of lumber is presented in terms of economic, political, and clieap land, its establishment as Monroe and natural historical development. Separate County seat, and its incorporation as a city in chapters detail Indian history, the various in­ 1857. dustries (mining, shipping, lumber), persons

169 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY WINTER, 1974-1975 of local import, and President Coolidge's sum­ and the Door County peninsula is such a mer visit in 1928. Burnham's history, original­ place. The author presents a large amount ly published by the Ashland Daily Press in of evidence (early explorer's accounts, Indian 1930, is the first in a series on Americana is­ legends, later historical accounts) in an at­ sued by Browzer Books. tempt to discover the origin of Death's Door. The name appears to stem from the death of Clark, Giles F. Historic Tales of the Fox River many Indians who attempted to cross the Valley: Fox Tales. (Menasha, Wisconsin, straits to Washington Island in the seven­ Educational Enterprises, 1973. Pp. 71. Illus. teenth century. The remainder of the narra­ $5.95, hardcover; $2.95, paperbound. Avail­ tive traces other marine disasters in the area able from Educational Enterprises, P.O. over the last 200 years. Eaton's pamphlet, Box 512, Menasha, WI 54952.) originally published in 1967, contains an in­ dex and incorporates corrections and addi­ The relationship between the Indian tribes tions discovered since that date. of the area (Menominee, Fox, Winnebago, and Nottaways) and the waterways of the Fox Elile, Jerry E. Ehle. (Orfordville, Wisconsin, River Valley (Lake Winnebago, Butte des 1974. I Pp. 92.] Ihus.) Morts) are discussed in a series of articles. The emphasis is on historical events and personages A genealogy of the Ehle, Stewart, and such as the trial of Chief Oshkosh, Red Bird, Stoneall families and allied lines. Although and descriptions of Indian life before the ar­ no more copies are available for sale, persons rival of white men. The volume is extensively interested in these families may get in touch illustrated by a number of artists. with the author at 403 Gilford Street, P.O. Box 343, Orfordville, WI 53576. Duncanson, Michael E. Canoe Trails of Southern Wisconsin. (Madison, Wisconsin, Elkhorn, Wisconsin. Bethel United Methodist Wisconsin Tales and Trails, Inc., 1974. Pp. Church. Bethel Church Remembers: 1872- 64. Illus. $4.95. Available from Wisconsin 1972. (Elkhorn, Wisconsin, [Elkhorn In­ Tales and Trails, P.O. Box 5650, Madison, dependent], 1972. [Pp. 20.] Illus. $1.00. WI 53705.) Available from Bethel United Methodist Church, R.F.D. 4, Elkhorn, WI 53121.) Nearly one-fifth of Wisconsin is covered with water and provides a wonderful oppor­ A church chronology, list of ministers, and tunity for canoeists. Duncanson's booklet is photograhs make up this centennial anniver­ a guide book with maps to trails on nineteen sary pamphlet. rivers, all located south of Stevens Point. These rivers are not as wild as their northern Feider, Gary J. St. Nicholas Quasquicenten- counterparts, but do offer the chance to view nial; 1848-1973, A Supplement to the St. such unique features as the sandstone dells of Nicholas Centennial Book. (Random Lake, the Wisconsin and Kickapoo rivers. The Wisconsin, Times Publishing Co., 1973. author has traversed all of the routes described [Pp. 8.] Illus. 50f Available from St. and supplies information on navigability and Nicholas Rectory, Route 1, Random Lake, hazards. This is the third in a series of canoe Wf 53075.) trail guides for the state available from Wis­ consin Tales and Trails. The others are on The author has updated the history of St. north central and northeastern Wisconsin. Nicholas Catholic Church of Dacada, on the southern boundary of Sheboygan County, with Eaton, Conan Bryant. Death's Door, The notes on the pastors, a short history of the Pursuit of A Legend; A Part of the History community, and contemporary photographs. of Washington Island. (2nd rev. ed.. Stur­ geon Bay, Wisconsin, Bayprint, Inc., 1974. Jonkel, Mabel Schlender. Recollections of Pp. 35. Illus. $2.25. Available from the Columbia, Wisconsin. (Withee, Wisconsin, author, Washington Island, WI 54246.) Isaacs Printing Company, 1974. Pp. 76. Illus. $7.80. Available from the author, 421 Shipwrecks and dangerous waterways have Roblee Road, Baraboo, WI 53913.) long fascinated historians, but the problem of separating fact from fiction has hampered Columbia, deriving its name from the 1892- some efforts. The Death's Door or Porte des 1893 Columbian Exposition, was a town lo­ Morts passage between Washington Island cated southeast of Neillsville in Clark County. 170 WISCONSIN HISTORY CHECKLIST

While not found on most contemporary maps, While this column normally only notes re­ the site is reviving through the construction cently published items, the Maxson book is of summer homes. The first portion of the an extraordinary case. The Unitarian Society pamphlet is devoted to the history of Colum­ was active in Menomonie during the late nine­ bia's businesses, schools, and churches, while teenth and early twentieth centuries, and in the latter half details the lives of the town's 1893 published this volume of sermons by pioneer residents. Maxson (1852-1891), the group's minister for several years. The books languished in the attic of the library for the last eighty years Kenosha, Wisconsin. Saint Mark Church. and their existence only recently was brought Saint Mark Golden Jubilee: Rejoice in to the public's attention. Some of the subjects Hope; April 21, 1974. (Kenosha, Wiscon­ covered in the sermons are agnosticism, athe­ sin, 1974. [Pp. 32.] Illus. No charge. Avail­ ists, immortality, and individualism. The able from Saint Mark Catholic Church, 7117 thirty-three-page biographical sketch by Sim­ Fourteenth Avenue, Kenosha, WI 53140.) mons and the fifteen sermons provide addi­ A booklet celebrating the fiftieth anniver­ tional information on Unitarians in northern sary of St. Mark Catholic Church, with Wisconsin. sketches of priests, its school and societies. Meyer, Shirlene, and Wuennecke, Carol. The Kittleson, Dorothy. Brown Deer's 1972 Herit­ History of Delta, Wisconsin. [Cover title: age Almanac. (Brown Deer, Wisconsin, The History of Delta, Wisconsin; 50 Years, Brown Deer Historical Society, 1972. [Pp. 1924-1974]. (Delta, Wisconsin, 1974. Pp. 32.] Illus. $1.50 plus 50 cents for mailing. 19. $1.50. Available from Mrs. Shirlene Available from Mrs. Earl Kittleson, Presi­ Viskoe, R. 2, Box 268, Mason, WI 54856.) dent, Brown Deer Historical Society, Inc., 8035 North Grandview Drive, Brown Deer, This brief history commemorates the fiftieth WI 53223.) anniversary of Delta, a community of 168 per­ sons west of Mason in Bayfield County. Brown Deer, a northern suburb of Milwau­ kee, will celebrate its twentieth anniversary in Sander, Phyllis Baugh. Southern Sawyer 1975 and published this pamphlet in prepara­ County and X Is For Exeland. (Ladysmith, tion for the event. The historical society's Wisconsin, Parker Print Shop and Sta- Almanac contains a capsule history and walk­ donery, 1973. Pp. 60. Illus. $3.16. Avail­ ing tour guide to the city and a reproduction able from Parker Print Shop and Stationery, of a map of Granville Township (including 115 West Second Street, Ladysmith, WI Brown Deer) taken from the Illustrated His­ 54848.) torical Atlas of Milwaukee County, 1876. An informal history of southern Sawyer La Crosse County Historical Society. Heritage County, particularly the Chippewa River Val­ Tour of the City of La Crosse. (La Crosse, ley and Exeland, emphasizing the logging in­ Wisconsin, 1974. 1 sheet. Illus. Enclose dustry and early settlement. stamped, self-addressed envelope. Available from Mr. H. Corbyn Rooks, President, La Tobola, Thomas Henry. Cadotte Family Crosse County Historical Society, Box 404, Stories. (Cadott, Wisconsin, Cadott Print­ La Crosse, WI 54601.) ing, 1974. Pp. 145. Illus. $5.00. Available A walking tour guide to thirty-one sites of from the author. Box 96, Cadott, WI 54722.) historic and architectural interest in La Crosse. Jean Baptiste Cadotte, the son of a famous fur trader who settled on Madeline Island, Maxson, Henry Doty. Sermons of Religion established a trading post on the Yellow River and Life. With Biographical Sketch by near the site of present-day Cadott. Tobola Henry Martyn Simmons. The Sermons has compiled a variety of materials on the Ca­ Edited by James Vila Blake. (Menomonie, dotte family and related it to the history of Wisconsin, Unitarian Society of Menomo­ the community from the eighteenth century to nie, 1893. Pp. 334. $1.00. Available from the present. These materials include gene­ Elizabeth Pinkepank, Librarian, Mabel alogical research, recollections of residents, Tainter Literary, Library and Educational primary documents, and secondary historical Society, Menomonie, WI 54751.) accounts.

171 signment as a social work intern with the Brooklyn, New York, chapter of the Congress of Racial Equality, including information on the conflicts created by an influx of new, more militant members, presented by Mr. Feingold, Brooklyn, New York; miscellaneous Accessions papers, 1857-1901, of Ogden W. Fox, Baraboo, and Topeka, Kansas, consisting mainly of Services for microfilming. Xeroxing, and photo­ military documents from his Civil War ser­ stating all but certain restricted items in its manuscript collections are provided by the Society. vice as captain of Co. K, 14th Wisconsin Vol­ For details write Dr. Josephine L. Harper, Manu­ unteer Infantry, also including a genealogical scripts Curator. chart concerning the Fox, Brier, Clark, and Sawyer families, presented by William W. Fox, Berkeley, California; letter, 1972, written by Ruth Kaufman Friedlich, sister of George S. Kaufman, expressing differences with state­ Small Collections. Papers, 1965-1969, Robert ments in Howard Teichman's biography of Curvin, concerning the National Action Coun­ Kaufman, presented by Mrs. Friedlich, New cil of the Congress of Racial Equality, includ­ York, New York; memoirs of Ethel Hershey ing minutes of staff meetings, field reports Hall written in 1969-1972, in which she de­ and recommendations, and internal memo­ scribes her childhood in South Dakota, teach­ randa, presented by Mr. Curvin, Princeton, ing school in Montana, nursing in Minne­ New Jersey; one letter, January 15, 1919, from apolis, and farming in Ohio and South Da­ Sergeant [?] Domor to the Commanding kota, presented by Beverly Hall Middleton, Officer, Co. F, 339th Infantry, American Ex­ Madison; papers, 1950-1969, concerning con­ peditionary Force, containing a list of mien at cert pianist Myra Hess and consisting of let­ Kholmogory and at Pinega, Russia, presented ters written to her friend Edith Frank by by Patrick Quinn, Madison; inscriptions Miss Hess, her niece, and her secretary, a copied from Springbrook Cemetery, Pleasant memorial volume, a description of the Myra Prairie Township, Kenosha County, Wiscon­ Hess Trust, and a few miscellaneous papers sin, in 1972 by David Paul Dowse, presented and clippings, presented by Edith Frank, by Mr. Dowse, Kenosha; bound volume con­ Madison; papers, 1944-1947, preserved by taining a diary, 1833-1836, kept by Wincenty Carlisle V. Hibbard concerning relocation by S. Dziewanowski, a Polish refugee, during his Japanese-Americans, including minutes of a journey from Austria to the United States 1945 meeting of Madison residents consider­ and while working in New Jersey, Ohio, Illi­ ing how to encourage relocation to the Madi­ nois, and Wisconsin, plus prayers, poems, and son area, transferred from University Ar­ songs he had copied, in Polish with a partial chives; genealogy of the Hirthe Family, Ger­ translation, presented by Franklin B. Chap­ man immigrants to Washington County, trans­ man, Glendale, California; biographical in­ ferred from Archives; genealogical informa­ formation and drafts of articles by Abraham tion on the descendants of Thomas Holcombe, Epstein (1892-1942), a strong advocate of an immigrant to Massachusetts in 1630, loaned government old age pensions, unemployment for copying by Donald Holcomb, Hancock; benefits, and health insurance, presented by manuscript, 1972, entitled "Group Journal of Henriette C. Epstein, New York, New York; the Peripatetic Seminar on Environment- a picture album and a copy of a diary, 1963- Humanity Relationships," composed of short 1965, kept by Charles Michael Farmer while reports of observations and reactions by stu­ doing community development work as a dents on their walks around Madison and Peace Corps volunteer in Tamghas, Nepal, of a covering letter by Professor Francis D. presented by Mr. Farmer, Milwaukee; two Hole, presented by Mr. Hole, Madison; pa­ genealogies compiled by Helen Knutson Far- pers, 1834-1903, of Edwin Hurlbut, a Wis­ vour in 1972, one on the Gerard-Mueller consin editor, attorney, and politician, con­ family, 1835-1970, residents of Fond du Lac, sisting of correspondence, legal documents, and one on her paternal grandmother's Nor­ and printed material including an 1856 plat­ wegian ancestry including the names Rollang, form of Wisconsin's American party, a tem­ Knuteson, and Olson, presented by the Wis­ perance songbook and a Masonic handbook, consin State Genealogical Society; records, presented by Mrs. John Ryan, St. Paul, Minne­ 1966-1967, pertaining to David Feingold's as- sota; "Study Course on Socialism" compiled

172 ACCESSIONS by Harry W. Laidler in November, 1918, for McLaughlin, one prepared in 1922 on the the Intercollegiate Socialist Society, presented Rouse family and one prepared in 1965 on with the David Saposs Papers; genealogical the anncestry and descendants of George Mc­ charts of the Jaquish family, mainly in New Laughlin who came to Baltimore, Maryland, York and Wisconsin, prepared by Flora D. from Londonderry, Ireland, about 1828, pre­ Jaquish in 1970, presented by Mrs. Paul E. sented by Joy McLaughlin, Stoughton; cor­ Jaquish, Saginaw, Michigan; letter, 1862, by respondence, clippings, reports, and broad­ Lieutenant Daniel G. Jewett, Co. I, 4th Wis­ sides, 1969-1972, relating to the successful consin Volunteer Cavalry, about the battle of efforts to preserve the Gates of Heaven Syna­ Vicksburg, transferred from the Library; gogue, Madison, as a historical landmark, and reminiscences as told in 1915 by Mary Schaal its July 17, 1971, move to a site in James Johns, a German immigrant to Mayville in Madison Park, presented by Mrs. Norton 1848, recalling the hardships of her youth as Stoler, Madison; minute book of the Madison an orphan and of the years while her hus­ Boat Club, including a constitution and min­ band served in the Civil War, plus a genealo­ utes, 1870-1871, presented by Elizabeth Bailey, gy of the family of Johann Friedrich Schaal Williams Bay; three letters written to Phyllis compiled and presented by Norma Schaal Follensbee Mann in 1944 by her grandmothers Benisch, Madison; genealogical notes, 1962- in Wisconsin containing information on fam­ 1963, by Norma Hopson Jones on the de­ ily history and on early settlers' life in western scendants of John Hopson of Guilford, Con­ Nebraska, presented by Mrs. Mann, Fresno, necticut, presented by Mrs. Jones, Brookline, California; news releases, 1969-1973, issued Massachusetts; form letter, 1950, to the Madi­ by Emil Matalik, world and U.S. presidential son Jewish community written by a Madison candidate since 1962 and founder of United Jew, Saul Kasdin, describing his trip to Eu­ Nature's Organization, a group designed to rope and Israel, including detailed descrip­ solve the world's problems by eliminating re­ tions of Israeli cities and communities and ligions and controlling population growth, of Arab residents there, presented by Mrs. presented by Matalik, Lake Nebagamon; let­ Sidney Schwartz, Madison; drafts of articles, ters, 1944-1945, to Jean Merten, Long Island, 1972, by Walter Kaufmann, a German re­ New York, from her husband and friends con­ porter, about his experiences in the United taining reports on World War II and how it States while covering the trial of Angela Davis, was affecting their lives, transferred from including interviews with her foster family, Archives; scrapbook sheets including letters, her parents, a guard at San Quentin, the clippings, and occasional photographs and farmer who mortgaged his land for her bail, other items, 1921-1942, primarily concerning and with Miss Davis, presented by Carl Progressive party activities in Wisconsin, kept Braden, Louisville, Kentucky; two letters, by Hugo F. Muehrcke, chairman of the Ocon­ 1881, to L. J. Kelley, a photographer in Ma- to County Progressive party, presented by Mrs. sonville or Manchester, Iowa, one of which Leon Bond, Oconto; mimeographed papers, contains a detailed list of a photographic 1961-1964, of MaryLu Murphy concerning "outfit" offered for sale, presented by Mrs. the national Congress of Racial Equality, pre­ Chris Burmester, Reedsburg; transcript, Feb­ sented by Ms. Murphy, San Francisco, Cali­ ruary 16, 1918, of testimony in Superior Court fornia; letters, 1861-1865, from Julius A. of Dane County by F. W. Montgomery, W. Murray, Co. E, 6th Regiment and Co. K, 37th N. Parker, and E. J. B. Schubring, defendants Regiment Wisconsin Volunteer Infantry, pre­ in a suit brought by Robert M. La Follette sented by Neva Meggitt, Shawano; program contesting his expulsion from membership in submitted to the National Save the Miners the Madison Club on grounds of his alleged Union Conference, April 1, 1928, entitled pro-German sentiments, presented by the "Save the Miners Union from the Coal Oper­ Wisconsin Legislative Council, Madison; ators and the Corrupt Lewis Machine!" with genealogy prepared by Harold S. Langland of accompanying bulletins, removed from the Minneapolis, entitled "The Langeland Fam­ David Saposs Papers; letters, 1964, written ilies of Sunnylven, Sunnm0re, Norway", pre­ home by Eugene Nelson, a Yale student work­ sented by Lawrence Berge, Madison; tran­ ing as a SNCC volunteer on establishing a script of a 1958 interview made by C. L. community center in Mileston, Mississippi, Harrington with Joseph Lucius, an early em­ presented by Mrs. Harold Nelson, Evanston, ployee of the Wisconsin State Board of For­ Illinois; papers, 1891-1910, of the Northwest­ estry, presented by Ray Sivesind, Madison; ern Stone Company, Milwaukee, including two genealogies detailing the ancestry of Joy articles of organization, bylaws, chemical

173 WISCONSIN MAGAZINE OF HISTORY WINTER, 1974-1975 analyses of various stone samples, a payroll, Wisconsin, Illinois, and Michigan, presented newsclippings, and brochures on lumbering by Patricia S. Meier, Milwaukee; biograph­ and mining ventures in the western United ical information on Ephraim Shaler, military States, transferred from Archives; term book storekeeper at Ft. Howard, Wisconsin, 1839- kept by Byron Paine, Wisconsin Supreme ca. 1863, including a copy of an 1862 letter Court justice, including seven letters, 1854- he wrote describing his experiences in the 1859, 1865, from abolitionists Wendell Garri­ War of 1812, presented by Harrison Shaler, son and Charles Sumner, plus biographical Laguna Hills, California; reminiscences and information supplied by the donor, presented genealogical information on the Miller fam­ by Byron W. Paine, Milwaukee; genealogy ily, descendants of Joseph Miller (1818-1907), entitled "My Wisconsin Pioneers" compiled a German immigrant to Wisconsin, and on in 1972 by Evelyn Payne Parry and mention­ the Lauer family, descendants of Peter Lauer ing the family names Parry, Houghtaling, (1823-1897), also an emigrant from Germany, Crawford, Hartman, Parsons, Allen, Cochran written for the family by Alice Miller Shaugli- and Smith, presented by the Wisconsin State nessy, presented by the Wisconsin State Genea­ Genealogical Society; record book, 1906-1928, logical Society; miscellaneous papers, 1950- containing corporation registration materials, 1969, n.d., from Alice Shoemaker, a leader of bylaws, minutes, and stock ownership records the Wisconsin School for Workers, 1927-1938, of the People's Telephone Company of Dane presented by Miss Shoemaker, Fallbrook, County, presented by James McDonald, Madi­ California; "The Salzmann-Herbort Family son; a genealogical hsting of the descendants History, 1796-1970" compiled by Gladys Orht of Joergen and Johanne (Jonas) Kloss, Ger­ man emigrants from Pomerania to Kewaunee Slauson, a descendant of Henry and Maria County in 1855, compiled by G. A. Richard, (Herbort) Salzman, German immigrants to Jr., and including references to the family Arena, Wisconsin, in 1860, presented by Mrs. names Pilgrim, Tegge, Tess, Brandt, Dobbert, Slauson, Braintree, Massachusetts; one un­ and Burmeister, presented by the Wisconsin dated campaign song (supporting Dobbs and State Genealogical Society; article, 1907, by Carlson) and one letter, September 15, 1945, Peter Richards (1828-1919) about the presi­ to James P. Cannon of the Socialist Workers dential campaign of 1840 in which Mr. Rich­ Party from Max Schachtman, national secre­ ards participated, and a note by the donor tary of the Workers Party, discussing a pro­ about Richards' background, presented by posed unification of the two parties, presented Mrs. George Foster, LaGrange, Illinois; genea­ by Jack Alan Robbins, Mount Vernon, New logical information recording the descendants York; records, 1914-1919, of the Turtle Lake of Jeremiah (1791-1875) and Rebecca Ryan, Electric Light ir Power Company and the Sparta, copied from Bibles in the University Poynette Electric Company, both owned by of Wisconsin Rare Book Room; obituary for Perry Speed, presented by James McDonald, David Sager (1809-1894), an 1846 setder in Madison; letters, 1866-1902, to and from Liberty Prairie, Dane County, plus an auto­ Hans Spilde, a lawyer in Red Wing, Minne­ biographical note and an 1895 letter from sota, Madison, Wisconsin, and Tacoma, Wash­ his brother, presented by Helen Sager, Madi­ ington, including mainly letters between fam­ son; letters, 1861-1864, from Sergeant John ily members, many in Norwegian, reports on Weslie St. Clair, Co. K, 6th Regiment Wis­ the economic times and future prospects of consin Volunteer Infantry, to his family in the Tacoma area, and comments on work Juneau County, presented by Marlene Smith, done for the local Democratic party, loaned Wauwatosa; copies of records, 1849-1891, of for copying by Lawrence A. Spilde, Lodi; St. James Episcopal Church, Manitowoc, papers, 1895-1897, concerning the historical noting baptisms, and arrivals and departures interests of Gardner P. Stickney, Milwaukee, of families of the parish in the 1850's, pre­ including letters from Chrysostom Verwyst, sented by Mrs. William G. Larson, Manito­ lectures and notes, presented by Mrs. Hamil­ woc; minute book, 1874-1906, from the St. ton Ross, La Grange Park, Illinois; remini­ Mary's Catholic Total Abstinence and Lit­ scences written by Gretchen Searle Stone erary Society, Pine Bluff, Dane County, pre­ about 1972, in which she recalls her childhood, sented by Stephen J. Reilly, Madison; remi­ 1901-1917, on ranches near Ennis, Montana, niscences written in 1933 by Mary Woodxvorth plus genealogical information on the Searle San ford (1849- ? ) of her childhood as family, presented by Mrs. Stone, Minneapolis, daughter of a Baptist minister serving in Minnesota.

174 Ruth Davis Ruth H. Davis, whose cheerful, generous aid -will be remembered by three and a half generations of users of the Society's library, died December 7, 1974, in Madison. Born in Milford, Massachusetts, she received her B.A. from Keuka College, Keuka Park, New York, and after several years of library work entered the University of Wisconsin Library School in 1930. Upon her graduation the following year, she joined the Society's staff as assistant in the Reference Section under the late Mary Stuart Foster. Miss Davis, whose more than thirty-six years of devoted service spanned the administrations of three different Directors, was the last person to join the staff before the Society was put under Civil Service regu­ lations. In 1944 she was appointed head of the Government Publications Section and also became the compiler of the checklist, Wiscon­ sin Public Documents, making of that valuable reference tool a model of accuracy and com­ pleteness. In 1960 Miss Davis was appointed Service Librarian, in charge of the expanded Services Section, responsible for the circula­ tion and service of the general book collection, newspapers, and government publications. After her formal retirement in 1967, Miss Davis embarked on a busy career as a free­ lance indexer and researcher, thus becoming Society's Iconographic Collections one of the most frequent patrons of the insti­ Ruth Davis examining a book in the Society's govern­ tution she had served so long and fruitfully. ment documents stacks in 1952.

Magazine Index Available The annual index for Volume 57 (Autumn, 1973, through Summer, 1974) is being distributed. Curators, exchanges, schools, and libraries automatic­ ally receive copies. All other subscribers receive copies only on request. Indexes are mailed without charge; some are still available from previous volumes. Address: Magazine Index State Historical Society of Wisconsin Madison, Wisconsin 53706

175 tions, and he has been awarded fellowships by the Ford Foundation and the Wisconsin Colonial Dames. Contributors HELEN PATTON, a native of North Carolina, holds a bach- t^ elor's degree from George Pea- RICHARD C. HANEY, born in Stoughton, Wisconsin, in 1940, body College, Nashville, Ten­ received a B.Ed, degree from nessee, a master's degree from the University of Wisconsin- the University of Chicago, and Whitewater in 1963, and an '~*fc^ , . a Ph.D. degree in art education, j M.S. degree in 1964 and a received in 1965, from the University of Wis­ [Ph.D. degree in 1970, both in consin. She has taught at Western Carolina American history, from the University of Wis­ Teachers College, Cullowhee, North Carolina; consin—Madison. His dissertation, from which at Monticello College, Alton, Illinois, where his article is abstracted, was "A History of she was art department chairman; at Drake the Democratic Party of Wisconsin Since University, where she served as associate de­ World War II." A frequent book reviewer for partment chairman; and since 1952 at Racine, the Magazine, Mr. Haney has been an assistant Wisconsin, where she directs art education for professor of history at the Whitewater campus the Racine Unified Schools. Her article de­ since 1966, where he also serves as associate rives principally from her doctoral dissertation director of housing. His research and teach­ about Racine's school architecture from settle­ ing have focused primarily on recent Ameri­ ment to 1900. Miss Patton is in her second can history. In 1970 he worked both as a re­ term as a Racine alderman, and she wrote search aide to Chester Bowles, in connection Racine's landmarks preservation ordinance with Bowles's memoirs, and as an aide to Paul and chairs the community's Landmarks Preser­ Glad, author of the forthcoming volume five vation Commission. of the History of Wisconsin. ROBERT TWOMBLY, born in Boston, Massa­ MICHAEL E. STEVENS was born chusetts, received his Ph.D. degree in history in 1950 in Milwaukee, Wis­ from the University of Wisconsin—Madison consin, where he attended Mar­ in 1968. His dissertation resulted in the high­ quette University from which ly acclaimed Frank Lloyd Wright: An Inter­ lie received his bachelor's de­ pretive Biography, published in 1973 by Harp­ gree in history in 1972, magna er and Row. Mr. Twombly currently is a cum laude and Phi Beta member of the history faculty of the City Kappa. He holds a 1973 master's degree in College of the City University of New York, history from the University of Wisconsin- and he is a frequent book reviewer for the Madison, where he is a doctoral candidate and Magazine of History. For a photograph and a teaching assistant. His research interests are additional biographical information see the American colonial history and Indian rela­ Spring, 1968, issue.

176 TWO NEW PUBLICATIONS OF THE STATE HISTORICAL SOCIETY OF WISCONSIN

Madeline Island & The Chequamegon Region By John O. Holzhueter. A brief, accurate, and readable surve-y o£ 300 years' history of what has become one of Wisconsin's premier recreational resources. 64pp., paperbound, with maps and illustra­ tions. $1.00

Downriver: Orrin H. Ingram and the Empire Lumber Company By Charles E. Twining. A full-scale business biography of the Eau Claire lumberman whose association with Frederick Weyerhaeuser changed the face of northern Wisconsin. 340pp., hardbound, with a map and illustrations. $17.50

These and other publications of the State Historical Society of Wisconsin are available to members at a discount of 10%. The Purpose of this Society shall be

To promote a wider appreciation of the American heritage with particular emphasis on the collection, advancement, and dissemirmtion of knowledge of the history of Wisconsin and of the Middle West.

State Historical Society of Wisconsin Second-class postage paid at 816 State Street Madison, Wisconsin, and at Madison, Wisconsin 53706 additional mailing offices. Return Requested