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Chemistry of Spices This page intentionally left blank Chemistry of Spices Edited by Villupanoor A. Parthasarathy Indian Institute of Spices Research Calicut, Kerala, India Bhageerathy Chempakam Indian Institute of Spices Research Calicut, Kerala, India and T. John Zachariah Indian Institute of Spices Research Calicut, Kerala, India CABI is a trading name of CAB International CABI Head Offi ce CABI North American Offi ce Nosworthy Way 875 Massachusetts Avenue Wallingford 7th Floor Oxfordshire OX10 8DE Cambridge, MA 02139 UK USA Tel: +44 (0)1491 832111 Tel: +1 617 395 4056 Fax: +44 (0)1491 833508 Fax: +1 617 354 6875 E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected] Website: www.cabi.org ©CAB International 2008. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronically, mechanically, by photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owners. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library, London, UK. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Chemistry of spices / [edited by] V.A. Parthasarathy, B. Chempakam, T. John Zachariah. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-84593-405-7 (alk. paper) 1. Spices--Analysis. 2. Spice plants--Composition. I. Parthasarathy, V.A. II. Chempakam, B., Dr. III. Zachariah, T. John. IV. Title. SB305.C44 2008 641.3'383--dc22 2007043551 ISBN-13: 978 1 84593 405 7 Typeset by Spi, Pondicherry, India. Printed and bound in the UK by Biddles Ltd, King’s Lynn. Contents Contributors vii Preface ix 1 Introduction 1 V.A. Parthasarathy, B. Chempakam and T. John Zachariah 2 Black Pepper 21 T. John Zachariah and V.A. Parthasarathy 3 Small Cardamom 41 B. Chempakam and S. Sindhu 4 Large Cardamom 59 B. Chempakam and S. Sindhu 5 Ginger 70 T. John Zachariah 6 Turmeric 97 B. Chempakam and V.A. Parthasarathy 7 Cinnamon and Cassia 124 N.K. Leela 8 Clove 146 N.K. Leela and V.P. Sapna 9 Nutmeg and Mace 165 N.K. Leela 10 Coriander 190 V.A. Parthasarathy and T. John Zachariah 11 Cumin 211 Shamina Azeez 12 Fennel 227 Shamina Azeez v vi Contents 13 Fenugreek 242 N.K. Leela and K.M. Shafeekh 14 Paprika and Chilli 260 T. John Zachariah and P. Gobinath 15 Vanilla 287 Shamina Azeez 16 Ajowan 312 T. John Zachariah 17 Star Anise 319 B. Chempakam and S. Balaji 18 Aniseed 331 N.K. Leela and T.M. Vipin 19 Garcinia 342 K.S. Krishnamurthy and V.P. Sapna 20 Tamarind 362 K.S. Krishnamurthy, V.P. Sapna and V.A. Parthasarathy 21 Parsley 376 Shamina Azeez and V.A. Parthasarathy 22 Celery 401 K.S. Krishnamurthy 23 Curry Leaf 413 V.A. Parthasarathy, T. John Zachariah and B. Chempakam 24 Bay Leaf 426 V.A. Parthasarathy, T. John Zachariah and B. Chempakam Index 435 Contributors Indian Institute of Spices Research, Calicut – 673 012, Kerala, India Phone: 0091 – 0495 – 2731410, Fax: 0091 – 0495 – 2730294 E-mail: [email protected], Web site: www.spices.res.in Dr V.A. Parthasarathy, Director E-mail: [email protected] Division of Crop Production & PHT Dr B. Chempakam, Principal Scientist & Head E-mail: [email protected] Dr T. John Zachariah, Senior Scientist – Biochemistry E-mail: [email protected] Dr N.K. Leela, Senior Scientist – Organic Chemistry E-mail: [email protected] Dr K.S. Krishnamurthy, Senior Scientist – Plant Physiology E-mail: [email protected] Dr Shamina Azeez, Senior Scientist – Biochemistry E-mail: [email protected] Gobinath, P. E-mail: [email protected] Balaji, S. E-mail: [email protected] Sapna, V.P. E-mail: [email protected] Shafeekh, K.M. E-mail: shefi [email protected] Sindhu, S. E-mail: [email protected] Vipin, T.M. E-mail: [email protected] vii This page intentionally left blank Preface Spices are woven into the history of nations. The desire to possess and monopolize the spice trade has, in the past, compelled many a navigator to find new routes to spice-producing nations. In the late 13th century, Marco Polo’s exploration of Asia established Venice as the most important trade port. Venice remained prosperous until about 1498. Portuguese explorer Vasco de Gama sailed around Africa’s Cape of Good Hope to reach Calicut, India. He returned with pepper, cinnamon, ginger and jewels, and also deals for the Portuguese to continue trade with India. Spices impart aroma, colour and taste to food preparations and sometimes mask unde- sirable odours. The volatile oils from spices give the aroma and the oleoresins impart the taste. There is a growing interest in the theoretical and practical aspects of the inner biosynthetic mechanisms of the active principles in spices, as well as in the relationship between the biological activity and the chemical structure of these secondary metabolites. The antioxidant properties of herbs and spices are of particular interest in view of the impact of oxidative modification of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol in the develop- ment of atherosclerosis. A range of bioactive compounds in herbs and spices has been studied for anticarcinogenic properties in animals, but the challenge lies in integrating this knowledge to ascertain whether these effects can be observed in humans, and within defined cuisines. Research on the structure activity relationships in spice components has become an exciting field since these compounds play a major role in the culinary, indus- trial and pharmacological fields. Hence, we have attempted to compile all available information on the chemistry of spice crops such as black pepper, cardamom (small), cardamom (large), ginger, turmeric, cinnamon and cassia, clove, nutmeg and mace, coriander, cumin, fennel, fenugreek, paprika, vanilla, ajowan, star anise, aniseed, garcinia, tamarind, parsley, celery, curry leaf and bay leaf. To edit this book, we have used the current Indian expertise on spices and we have made every effort to collate all available information so that the book will be useful to researchers, industrialists and postgraduate students of agriculture, horticulture and phy- tochemistry. It will also be a very useful resource book for spice traders and processors. We are grateful to CABI for giving us the opportunity to edit this book and we are indebted to Ms Sarah Hulbert of CABI Head Office for her immense help in getting the book into final shape. She has answered an array of e-mails and strings of questions to help us in this ven- ture and we thank her for her patience and assistance. ix x Preface We appreciate the help rendered by Mr A. Sudhakaran, artist-cum-photographer of IISR, Calicut, Kerala, for designing the cover page. The help given by Ms T.V. Sandhya in typesetting the manuscript is gratefully acknowledged. We also thank the Director of the Indian Institute of Spices Research, Calicut, India, for providing photographs of the spices. V.A. Parthasarathy B. Chempakam T.J. Zachariah 1 Introduction V.A. Parthasarathy, B. Chempakam and T. John Zachariah Spices and herbs have played a dramatic vanilla and red peppers from the West Indies role in civilization and in the history of back to his Spanish supporters. Conflict nations. The delightful flavour and pun- developed over who would dominate this gency of spices make them indispensable prosperous trade. Wars over the Indonesian in the preparation of palatable dishes. In Spice Islands broke out between the expand- addition, they are reputed to possess several ing European nations and continued for medicinal and pharmacological properties about 200 years, between the 15th and 17th and hence find position in the preparation centuries. of a number of medicines. In 1780, the Dutch and English fought a war over the spice trade and the Dutch lost all spice trading centres. The Americans began their entry into the world spice race 1.1. Historical Perspective in 1672 (ASTA, 1960). From the beginning of history, the Many maritime routes were developed to strongest nations have controlled the spice India and China with an ultimate desire trade. The same is true today; the USA is to develop a spice route. In the late 13th now the world’s major spice buyer, followed century, Marco Polo’s exploration of Asia by Germany, Japan and France. established Venice as the most important In short, the trade in spices, usually trade port. Venice remained prosperous carried out along the many historic spice until about 1498. The Portuguese explorer, routes, has been one of the most important Vasco de Gama, sailed around Africa’s Cape commercial activities throughout ancient of Good Hope to reach Calicut, India. He and modern times. The importance placed returned with pepper, cinnamon, ginger and on spices is reflected by economic devel- jewels, and also deals for the Portuguese to opments that began early in many ancient continue trade with India. civilizations, where spices found applica- Rosengarten (1969) has presented a tions in food preservation, cooking and trad- very interesting history of spices. In 1492, itional medicine. Christopher Columbus arrived in America Asia still grows most of the spices that while searching for a direct western route to once ruled the trade, including cinnamon, the Spice Islands. Though he did not find the pepper, nutmeg, clove and ginger. However, Spice Islands, Columbus brought allspice, more and more spices are being planted in ©CAB International 2008. Chemistry of Spices (eds V.A. Parthasarathy, B. Chempakam and T.J. Zachariah) 1 2 V.A. Parthasarathy et al. the Western hemisphere, along with a wide resulting in lower world prices for pepper. variety of herbs and aromatic seeds. Brazil Vietnam, Indonesia, Brazil, Malaysia and is a major supplier of pepper. Guatemala is India are the major producers and export- a leading producer of cardamom.