Petronumbers: Oil Statistics and Changing Power Relations

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Petronumbers: Oil Statistics and Changing Power Relations Corso di Laurea magistrale in Relazioni Internazionali Comparate - International Relations Tesi di Laurea Petronumbers: Oil statistics and changing power relations Relatore Ch. Prof. Giovanni Favero Laureanda Angela Faloppa Matricola 810901 Anno Accademico 2012/2013 ABSTRACT Il petrolio è stato il motore dello straordinario sviluppo industriale ed economico del XX secolo, ma descriverlo semplicemente come una risorsa energetica è senza alcun dubbio riduttivo. Nel tempo, la proprietà e il controllo delle risorse petrolifere hanno coinvolto interessi economici, strategici e politici, comportando al tempo stesso un'evoluzione nel ruolo dell' “oro nero”, prima principale mezzo nel mantenimento della supremazia economica e dello stile di vita Occidentale, e successivamente simbolo della sovranità e dell'indipendenza dall'Occidente stesso dei paesi precedentemente oggetto della dominazione coloniale. Di conseguenza, i dati e le statistiche che descrivono alcune dei principali tratti del petrolio, vale a dire riserve, produzione e prezzi, acquisiscono un'importanza cruciale, in quanto possono diventare una misura del peso, attuale e potenziale, di un attore sulla scena internazionale; inoltre, un'analisi avente ad oggetto la loro evoluzione nel corso della storia può costituire un prisma interessante attraverso cui osservare il mutamento delle relazioni di potere dettate dal controllo di tale minerale nel tempo. Tuttavia, tale resoconto risulterebbe incompleto se non venissero considerati i concetti su cui tali dati quantitativi sono fondati e, di conseguenza, il contesto istituzionale in cui questi stessi concetti sono stati elaborati. Pertanto, il presente studio si propone di investigare come i dati e i concetti chiave riguardanti le stime delle riserve di petrolio, i livelli di produzione e i prezzi, non solo siano stati plasmati dall'evoluzione dei rapporti di forza e dall'emergere di particolari interessi istituzionali all'interno dell'industria petrolifera nel corso della sua esistenza, ma inoltre si siano tramutati in mezzi utili a perseguire quegli stessi interessi. Le riserve petrolifere appartengono al campo dell'incertezza fisica ed economica: non è infatti possibile sapere con esattezza quanto petrolio giaccia ancora nel sottosuolo, così come non è detto che eventuali depositi si rivelino sfruttabili da un punto di vista commerciale. Manca inoltre un sistema generale per la definizione e classificazione delle quantità stimate, anche se è possibile estrapolare degli elementi comuni dai vari frameworks esistenti, come ad esempio una generale suddivisione in riserve provate, probabili e possibili. Le stime vengono calcolate e riportate da attori differenti per ragioni differenti: compagnie petrolifere nazionali e private possono averne bisogno per esigenze di accounting interno, per ottemperare ad obblighi fiscali, o per ottenere dei prestiti; oltre a ciò, le riserve costituiscono la base sulla quale un governo può improntare le proprie politiche energetiche. Dati riguardanti le riserve petrolifere sono in aggiunta diffusi da annuari statistici, riviste specializzate e agenzie di consulenza operanti a stretto contatto con l'industria. Nel tempo, l'accuratezza delle stime delle riserve petrolifere e la precisione nell'attività di prospezione, volta a localizzare eventuali depositi di idrocarburi, sono cresciute esponenzialmente, grazie a maggiori conoscenze geologiche, all'enorme progresso tecnologico, e all'impiego di metodologie di calcolo sempre più meticolose. Un breve excursus dei più recenti dati statistici, rivela come il petrolio sia caratterizzato da una distribuzione geografica estremamente iniqua: l'80% delle riserve provate mondiali è concentrato nei dodici paesi che costituiscono l'Organizzazione dei Paesi Esportatori di Petrolio (OPEC). Non bisogna però dimenticare nell'osservare tali dati che essi risultano inevitabilmente caratterizzati da incertezze ed ambiguità intrinseche, le quali si vanno ad aggiungere all'oggettiva impossibilità di conoscere l'esatto ammontare delle riserve: spesso i concetti sono poco definiti, manca uno schema universale di classificazione, e i dati possono risultare sovra o sottostimati, o addirittura non essere riportati. Nonostante ciò, è proprio il carattere quantitativo delle riserve che le porta ad essere facilmente accettate come valide e che pertanto conferisce loro potere. Inoltre, non bisogna scordare che le stime sono degli artefatti, il prodotto di un processo che si svolge all'interno di una realtà sociale: la scelta delle metodologie da applicare per il calcolo, la decisione di attribuire validità ad un particolare set di informazioni, e la preferenza per un determinato output riflettono inevitabilmente il contesto istituzionale in cui la stima è creata. Tale contesto è plasmato dagli interessi istituzionali prevalenti, a loro volta influenzati da cambiamenti significativi nel più ampio contesto storico esistente in un dato momento. Lo sfruttamento commerciale del petrolio comincia solo a partire dal IXX secolo: la culla dell'industria petrolifera sono gli Stati Uniti d'America, ma ben presto il cuore della produzione mondiale di petrolio si sposta nel Medio Oriente, dove le majors occidentali costruiscono un impero basato sui concession agreements. Il petrolio che fluisce dalle concessioni è abbondante e a buon mercato, il connubio perfetto per trainare la crescita economica ed industriale dell'Occidente. Ben presto diventa chiaro che tale risorsa non ha un valore strettamente economico: il petrolio diventa un minerale controverso, su cui si concentrano considerazioni strategiche e politiche. Gli anni Sessanta e Settanta assistono alla disintegrazione del sistema delle concessioni, e all'emergere d un nuovo importante attore sulla scena petrolifera internazionale, l'OPEC. Il petrolio assume un nuovo significato: la sua proprietà, e soprattutto il controllo della sua produzione, due elementi che non coincidevano nel caso delle concessioni, diventano la chiave per affermare il proprio status di Stato sovrano e la propria liberazione dalla dominazione economica Occidentale. In tal senso, gli anni Settanta, marcati da due shock petroliferi, rappresentano l'era del dominio dell'OPEC; gli Stati Uniti, messi di fronte al picco della propria produzione di petrolio e a nefaste previsioni per il futuro, si ritrovano ad essere dipendenti dal petrolio mediorientale, e la sicurezza degli approvvigionamenti diventa l'obiettivo principale da perseguire. La crisi del 1973 ha però una conseguenza importante: i prezzi esorbitanti portano all'introduzione nel mercato di nuovi importanti produttori, collocati principalmente nel Mare del Nord, Alaska e Messico. L'influenza dell'OPEC risulta pertanto parzialmente ridimensionata, e verrà ulteriormente intaccata dal collasso dei prezzi del 1986. Dagli anni 90 ai giorni nostri, sebbene il Medio Oriente rappresenti tuttora il principale produttore mondiale di petrolio, l'industria ha cercato di sviluppare nuove aree e frontiere produttive: si tratta in particolare della regione del Caspio e delle aree offshore, il cui crescente sfruttamento è reso possibile da tecnologie sempre più sofisticate. L'evoluzione della produzione di petrolio è stata accompagnata dal parallelo emergere di differenti forme contrattuali nel corso del tempo, che hanno costantemente rispecchiato gli interessi degli attori dominanti e l'evoluzione dei rapporti di forza all'interno del panorama petrolifero internazionale. Nello specifico, le vaste concessioni, indubbiamente di stampo coloniale, hanno lasciato il posto nel corso degli anni Sessanta e Settanta, i più flessibili ed “equi” Production-Sharing Agreements, i quali prevedono la partecipazione diretta del paese esportatore all'attività produttiva, da un punto di vista sia pratico che finanziario. Inoltre, le grandi majors ricoprono sempre più spesso il ruolo di service providers, coordinando una moltitudine di operatori, i quali offrono alle compagnie nazionali e private i propri servizi altamente specializzati nel campo del field development. Allo stesso modo, i concetti e i regimi che hanno determinato i prezzi del petrolio nel corso delle decadi hanno costantemente rispecchiato le caratteristiche del sistema istituzionale circostante, e la transizione da un sistema di prezzi al successivo è sempre avvenuta in corrispondenza di importanti cambiamenti nel contesto economico e politico del tempo. Pertanto, i regimi di prezzo diventano l'immagine degli squilibri esistenti in un determinato momento storico, e degli interessi perseguiti dall'attore dominante. Quattro fasi possono essere identificate: nella prima, caratterizzata dal controllo delle majors occidentali, il regime di prezzo era costruito in modo tale da proteggere il petrolio americano dalla concorrenza del più economico petrolio mediorientale. A seguito del cambiamento nello status degli U.S.A da esportatori ad importatori di petrolio, la struttura dei prezzi si trasforma: l'obiettivo è assicurare una fornitura di petrolio abbondante e a basso costo, e viene raggiunto tramite il consolidamento degli accordi di concessione e l'imposizione di livelli di prezzo ufficiali (i cosiddetti posted prices); al tempo stesso, i costi fiscali derivanti dalla produzione di petrolio nei paesi ospitanti vengono incapsulati e bloccati attraverso apposite clausole. Negli anni Settanta, tale situazione viene completamente rovesciata: il nuovo amministratore dei prezzi del petrolio è l'OPEC, la quale esclude le compagnie occidentali da ogni decisione e adotta come obiettivo
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