01 02 03 PROLOGUE 04 05 06 Unprepared and Unprotected 07 08 09 10 Picture to yourself your Brother Citizens or Unfortunate 11 Countrymen in the Algerian State Prisons or Damned Cas- 12 tile, and starved 2/​3rd’s and Naked. . . . ​Once a Citizen of the 13 of America, but at present the Most Miserable 14 Slave in . 15 —​­Richard O’Brien, Diary, February 19, 1790 16 17 18 s ­ a f­ast-​moving ship approached the Dauphin off the coast 19 of Portugal, Captain Richard O’Brien saw no cause for 20 alarm. On this warm July day in 1785, America was at 21 Apeace, and there were many innocent reasons for a friendly ship to 22 come alongside. Perhaps it was a fellow merchant ship needing infor- 23 mation or supplies. Perhaps the ship’s captain wanted to warn him of 24 nearby pirates. 25 By the time O’Brien realized that the ship did not approach in 26 peace, it was too late. The ship was no match for the Alge- 27 rian vessel armed with fourteen cannons. A raiding party with dag- S28 gers gripped between their teeth swarmed over the sides of the N29

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01 Dauphin. The Algerians vastly outnumbered the American crew 02 and quickly claimed the ship and all its goods in the name of their 03 nation’s leader, the of Algiers. 04 Mercilessly, the pirates stripped O’Brien and his men of shoes, 05 hats, and handkerchiefs, leaving them unprotected from the burning 06 sun during the ­twelve-​­day voyage back to the North African coast. 07 On arrival in Algiers, the American captives were paraded through 08 the streets as spectators jeered. 09 The seamen were issued rough sets of native clothing and two 10 blankets each that were to last for the entire period of captivity, 11 whether it was a few weeks or fifty years. Kept in a slave pen, they 12 slept on a stone floor, gazing into the night sky where the hot stars 13 burned above them like lidless eyes, never blinking. Each night there 14 was a roll call, and any man who failed to respond promptly would 15 be chained to a column and whipped soundly in the morning. 16 Together with men of another captured ship, the Maria, O’Brien’s 17 Dauphin crew broke rocks in the mountains while wearing iron 18 chains Saturday through Thursday. On Friday, the Muslim holy day, 19 the Christian slaves dragged massive sleds loaded with rubble and 20 dirt nearly two miles to the harbor to be unloaded into the to form 21 a breakwater. Their workdays began before the sun rose and, for a 22 few blissfuly cool hours, they worked in darkness. 23 Their diet consisted of stale bread, vinegar from a shared bowl at 24 breakfast and lunch, and, on good days, some ground olives. Water 25 was the one necessity provided with any liberality. As a ship captain, 26 O’Brien was treated somewhat better, but he feared that his men 27 would starve to death. 28S “Our sufferings are beyond our expression or your conception,” 29N O’Brien wrote to America’s minister to France, Thomas Jefferson,

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two weeks after his arrival in Algiers.1 Those sufferings would only 01 get worse. Several of the captives from the Maria and the Dauphin 02 would die in captivity of yellow fever, overwork, and exposure, and 03 in some ways, they were the lucky ones. The ways out of prison for 04 the remaining prisoners were few: convert to Islam, attempt to es- 05 cape, or wait for their country to negotiate their release. A few of the 06 captives would be ransomed but, for most, their thin blankets wore 07 out as year after year passed and freedom remained out of reach. 08 Richard O’Brien would be ten years a slave. 09 America had not yet elected its first president, but it already had 10 its first enemy. 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 S28 N29

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9781591848066_Thomas_TX_p1-238.indd 3 7/23/15 2:33 PM 01 02 03 CHAPTER 1 04 05 06 Americans Abroad 07 08 09 10 It is not probable the American States have a very free 11 trade in the Mediterranean . . . ​the Americans cannot protect 12 themselves [as] they cannot pretend to a Navy. 13 14 —John ­Baker-​­Holroyd, Lord Sheffield, Observations 15 of the Commerce of the American States, 1783 16 17 18 n 1785, the same year Richard O’Brien was captured by pirates, 19 Thomas Jefferson learned that all politics, even transatlantic 20 politics, are personal. 21 IHe was a widower. The passing of his wife in September 1782 22 had left him almost beyond consolation, and what little comfort he 23 found was in the company of his daughter Martha then age ten. The 24 two would take “melancholy rambles” around the large plantation, 25 seeking to evade the grief that haunted them. When Jefferson was 26 offered the appointment as American minister to France, he accepted 27 because he saw an opportunity to escape the sadness that still shad- S28 owed him. N29

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01 Thomas Jefferson had sailed for in the summer of 1784 02 with Martha at his side; once they reached Paris, he enrolled his 03 daughter in a convent school with many other ­well-​­born ­English-​ 04 ­speaking students. There he would be able to see her regularly, but 05 he had been forced to make a more difficult decision regarding Mar- 06 tha’s two sisters. Mary, not yet six, and toddler Lucy Elizabeth, both 07 too young to travel with him across the sea, had been left behind with 08 their “Aunt Eppes,” his late wife’s ­half-​­sister. The separation was 09 painful, but it was nothing compared with the new heartbreak he 10 experienced just months into his Paris stay when Mrs. Eppes wrote 11 sadly to say that “hooping cough” had taken the life of ­two-​­year-​­old 12 Lucy.1 13 As a fresh wave of sorrow rolled over him, Jefferson longed for 14 “Polly the Parrot,” as he affectionately called his bright and talkative 15 Mary, to join his household again. The father wrote to his little girl 16 that he and her sister “cannot live without you” and asked her if she 17 would like to join them across the . He promised that joining 18 them in France meant she would learn “to play on the harpsichord, 19 to draw, to dance, to read and talk French.”2 20 “I long to see you, and hope that you . . . ​are well,” the seven-­ ​ 21 ­year-​­old replied. But she added that she had no desire to make the 22 trip, harpsichord or no harpsichord. “I don’t want to go to France,” 23 she stated plainly. “I had rather stay with Aunt Eppes.”3 24 Jefferson was undaunted and began to plan for her safe travel. 25 Having already lost two dear family members, he did not want to risk 26 losing Polly and looked for ways to reduce the dangers of the journey. 27 He instructed her uncle, Francis Eppes, to select a proven ship for 28S Polly’s crossing. “The vessel should have performed one [transatlan- 29N tic] voyage at least,” Jefferson ordered, “and must not be more than

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four or five years old.” 4 He worried about the weather and insisted 01 that his daughter travel in the warm months to avoid winter storms. 02 As for supervision, Polly could make the journey, Jefferson advised, 03 “with some good lady passing from America to France, or even 04 England [or] . . . ​a careful gentleman.”5 05 Yet an even more intimidating concern worried Jefferson: more 06 frightening than weather or leaky ships was the threat of pirates off 07 North , a known as the Barbary Coast. The fate of the 08 Dauphin and the Maria was a common one for ships venturing near 09 the area, where the ’s arid coast was divided into four nation-­ ​ 10 ­states. Running west to east were the Barbary nations , Tu- 11 nis, Algiers, and Tripoli, which all fell under the ultimate authority 12 of the , seated in ­present-​­day Turkey. 13 The Islamic nations of the Barbary Coast had preyed upon for- 14 eign shipping for centuries, attacking ships in international waters 15 16 17 The Barbary Coast 18

B l a c k S e a 19 CorsicCorsica Constantinople 20 Lisbon SardiniSardinia 21 22 Cádiz Málaga Sicilycily 23 Gibraltar Algiers Tangier TUNIS Crete Cyprus 24 e d i t e r r a M n e a n S e a 25 Tripoli Derna Alexandria ALGIERIA 26 MOROCCO Cairo 27 KILOMETERS 0 500 TRIPOLI EGYPT S28 MILES 0 500 N N29

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01 both in the Mediterranean and along the northwest coast of Africa 02 and the . Even such naval powers as France and 03 Great Britain were not immune, though they chose to deal with the 04 problem by paying annual tributes of “gifts” to Barbary ­leaders—​ 05 ­bribes paid to the Barbary states to persuade the pirates to leave mer- 06 chant ships from the paying countries alone. But the prices were 07 always changing, and the ships of those nations that did not meet the 08 extortionate demands were not safe from greedy pirates. 09 To the deeply rational Jefferson, the lawless pirates posed per- 10 haps the greatest danger to his sadly diminished family. He knew 11 what had happened to O’Brien and could not risk a similar fate for his 12 child. As he confided in a letter to brother‑in‑law Francis Eppes, “My 13 anxieties on this subject could induce me to endless details. . . . ​The 14 Algerines this fall took two vessels from us and now have twenty-­ ​­two 15 of our citizens in slavery.” The plight of the men aboard the Maria 16 and the Dauphin haunted ­him—​­if their hellish incarceration was ter- 17 rifying to contemplate, “who can estimate . . . ​the fate of a child? My 18 mind revolts at the possibility of a capture,” Jefferson wrote. “Unless 19 you hear from ­myself—​­not trusting the information of any other per- 20 son on —­ ​­that peace is made with the Algerines, do not send her 21 but in a vessel of French or English property; for these vessels alone 22 are safe from prize by the .”6 He knew those two countries 23 paid a very high annual tribute, thereby purchasing safe passage for 24 their vessels. 25 As a father, he could feel in his bones a fear for his daughter’s 26 safety. As an ambassador and an American, Jefferson recognized it 27 was a fear no citizen of a free nation embarking on an oceanic voyage 28S should have to endure. 29N

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01 A MEETING OF MINISTERS 02 03 A few months later, in March 1786, Jefferson would make his way to 04 London to meet with his good friend John Adams. Together they 05 hoped to figure out how to deal with the emerging threat to American 06 interests. 07 His waistline thickening, his chin growing jowly, fifty-­ ​­year-​­old 08 John Adams welcomed Jefferson into his London home. Overlooking 09 the ­tree-​­lined Grosvenor Square from the town house Adams had 10 rented, the two men sat down to talk in the spacious drawing room. 11 Adams was the United States’ first ambassador to Great Britain. 12 Just arrived from Paris after a cold and blustery ­six-​­day journey; Jef- 13 ferson was minister to the French government of Louis XVI. To Ad- 14 ams and his wife Abigail, their old friend looked different, as Jefferson 15 had begun powdering his ginger hair white. The stout New Eng- 16 lander and the tall, lean, ­forty-​­two-​­year-​­old Virginian might have 17 been of differentbreeds— ­ ​­but then, in the years to come, they would 18 often be of two minds in their political thinking as well. 19 Unlike most of the European diplomats they encountered, nei- 20 ther Adams nor Jefferson had been born into a tradition of diplomatic 21 decorum. Adams was a ­rough-​­and-​­tumble lawyer, the son of a yeo- 22 man farmer from south of Boston, known for a ­damn-​­all attitude of 23 speaking his mind. A man of quiet natural grace, Jefferson was learn- 24 ing the cosmopolitan ways of Paris but, at heart, he was a ­well-​­born 25 country boy, heir to large farms outside Charlottesville, a tiny court- 26 house town in central Virginia. Both men were novices in the game 27 of international negotiation, a game their country needed them to S28 learn quickly. N29

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01 When the Americans and British signed the Treaty of Paris in 02 1783, bringing to an end the Revolution, the United States’ legal sta- 03 tus changed in the view of every nation and world leader. No longer 04 under British protection, the fledgling nation found that its status 05 was lowly indeed. Adams’s letters to the British government tended 06 to go unanswered, and Jefferson’s attempts to negotiate trade treaties 07 with France and Spain were going nowhere. Now a more hostile in- 08 ternational threat was rearing its head, and Adams had summoned 09 Jefferson from Paris to discuss the danger posed by the “piratical 10 nations” of . 11 In earlier days, the colonies’ ships had enjoyed the protection 12 offered by the Union Jack; but because U.S. ships no longer carried 13 British passports, the British navy provided no protection against 14 pirates. The French, America’s wartime allies against the British, did 15 not protect them now that there was peace. Americans abroad were 16 very much on their own, especially in international waters. And be- 17 cause America had no navy to protect its interests, insurance for 18 American ships skyrocketed to twenty times the rate of that of Euro- 19 pean ships.7 20 The expense of insurance was insupportable, but America’s 21 economy could not afford to end trade on the high ; the Revolu- 22 tion had been fought with borrowed money, and repayment of those 23 debts depended upon ongoing international commerce. One key 24 piece of the nation’s economic health was trade with southern Eu- 25 rope, accessible only by sailing into the ­Mediterranean—​­and within 26 range of the . According to Jefferson’s calculations, a 27 quarter of ’s most important export, dried salt cod, 28S went to markets there, as did one sixth of the country’s grain exports. 29N Rice and lumber were also important exports, and the merchant

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ships provided employment for more than a thousand seamen. The 01 trade and employment were essential to the growing American econ- 02 omy, and Johns Adams thought the numbers could easily double if a 03 diplomatic solution in the Barbary region could be reached. 04 The American government had initially approved payment to 05 the North African nations. But the bribes demanded were impossibly 06 high, many hundreds of thousands of dollars when the American 07 treasury could afford only token offerings of a few tens of thousands 08 of dollars. Unable to pay enough to buy the goodwill of the Barbary 09 countries, America was forced to let its ships sail at their own risk. 10 Sailors like those on the Maria and the Dauphin had become pawns 11 in a very dangerous game. 12 On this day, Adams and Jefferson worried over the fate of the 13 Dauphin and the Maria. It had been nearly a year since the pirates 14 from Algiers had taken the ships and cargoes the previous July, and 15 now the regent of Algiers had made known his demand: until he was 16 paid an exorbitant and, it seemed, ever-­ ​­escalating ransom, the Amer- 17 ican captives were to be his slaves. 18 Despite their pity for the captives, Jefferson and Adams knew the 19 new nation couldn’t afford a new war or a new source of debt. They 20 understood that the cost of keeping American ships away from the 21 Barbary Coast would be greater than the cost of addressing the prob- 22 lem. That left the two Americans ministers, as Jefferson confided to 23 a friend, feeling “absolutely suspended between indignation and im- 24 potence.” 8 25 Yet neither Jefferson nor Adams could afford to remain para- 26 lyzed in the face of the danger. Not only had American families and 27 the economy been endangered, but rumor had it that the pirates had S28 also captured a ship carrying the venerable Benjamin Franklin, N29

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01 Jefferson’s predecessor as minister to France. (As one of his corre- 02 spondents wrote to Franklin, “We are waiting with the greatest pa- 03 tience to hear from you. The newspapers have given us anxiety on 04 your account; for some of them insist that you have been taken by the 05 Algerines, while others pretend that you are at Morocco, enduring 06 your slavery with all the patience of a philosopher.”)9 To everyone’s 07 relief, the reports proved false, but the scare brought the very real 08 dangers posed by the Barbary pirates too close for comfort. 09 Sitting in the London house, John Adams and Thomas Jefferson 10 batted around the idea of a negotiation that might break the impasse. 11 Adams had a new reason to hope that the Barbary rulers could be 12 reasoned with, and the two ministers set about deciding upon the 13 right approach. 14 15 16 “MONEY IS THEIR GOD 17 AND MAHOMET THEIR PROPHET” 18 19 A few weeks earlier, Adams had made an unannounced visit to the 20 Barbary state of Tripoli’s ambassador, freshly arrived in London. To 21 Adams’s surprise, the bearded Sidi Haji Abdrahaman had welcomed 22 him warmly. Seated in front of a roaring fire, with two servants in 23 attendance, they smoked tobacco from great pipes with ­six-​­foot-­​long 24 stems “fit for a Walking Cane.” Adams had promptly written to Jef- 25 ferson. “It is long since I took a pipe, but [we] smoked in awful pomp, 26 reciprocating whiff for whiff . . . ​until coffee was brought in.”10 27 Adams made a strong impression on the Tripolitans. Observing 28S his expertise with the Turkish smoking device, an attendant praised 29N

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his technique, saying, “Monsieur, vous êtes un Turk!” (Sir, you are a 01 Turk!”)11 It was a high compliment. 02 Abdrahaman returned Adams’s visit two days later, and Adams 03 decided his new diplomatic acquaintance was “a benevolent and wise 04 man” with whom the United States could do business.12 He believed 05 Abdrahaman might help broker an arrangement between the United 06 States and the other Barbary nations, bringing an end to the capture 07 of American merchantmen. Now reunited with his friend and fellow 08 American, he shared his plan with Jefferson and invited him to join 09 the conversation. 10 On a blustery March day, Adams, Jefferson, and Abdrahaman 11 convened at the house of the Tripolitan envoy. The conversation be- 12 gan in an improvised mix of broken French and Italian, as the Trip- 13 olitan envoy spoke little English. The discussion was cordial, and 14 Adams and Jefferson began to believe that a solution was in sight. 15 When the talk turned to money, however, the bubble of optimism 16 soon exploded. 17 Jefferson had researched the sums paid as tribute by European 18 countries, including Denmark, Sweden, and Portugal, so he knew 19 the going rate. But the gold Abdrahaman demanded that day was 20 beyond the reach of the United States: a perpetual peace with Trip- 21 oli would cost some 30,000 English guineas, the equivalent of 22 roughly $120,000, not counting the 10 percent gratuity Abdraha- 23 man demanded for himself. And that amount bought peace with only 24 one of the Barbary states. To buy peace in Tunis would cost another 25 30,000 guineas, to say nothing of what would be required to pay 26 Morocco or even Algiers, the largest and most powerful of the four. 27 The $80,000 that Congress had been ­hard-​­pressed to authorize for S28 N29

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01 an ­across-​­the-​­board understanding was no more than a down pay- 02 ment on what would be needed to meet the Barbary demands.13 03 Although he now despaired of an easy solution, Adams wasn’t 04 ready to stop talking. He could understand financial concerns, and 05 he was already beginning to realize what O’Brien would later say of 06 the pirates: “Money is their God and Mahomet their Prophet.”14 Yet 07 greed alone couldn’t explain the madness and cruelty of the de- 08 mands. Unsatisfied, the famously blunt Adams wanted a better an- 09 swer. While maintaining the best diplomatic reserve he could 10 ­muster—​­whatever their frustration, the American ministers could 11 hardly leap to their feet and walk out of the negotiations—­ ​­Adams 12 asked how the Barbary states could justify “[making] war upon na- 13 tions who had done them no injury.” 14 The response was nothing less than chilling. 15 According to his holy book, the Qur’an, Abdrahaman explained, 16 “all nations which had not acknowledged the Prophet were sinners, 17 whom it was the right and duty of the faithful to plunder and en- 18 slave.” 19 Christian sailors were, plain and simple, fair game. 20 Jefferson tried to make sense of what he was hearing. He was fa- 21 miliar with the Muslim holy book. He had purchased a copy of the 22 Qur’an during his days of reading law in Williamsburg twenty years 23 before but found its values so foreign that he shelved the volume with 24 books devoted to the mythology of the Greeks and Romans. This 25 conversation left him even more perplexed. The man who had writ- 26 ten that all people were “endowed by their Creator with certain in- 27 alienable rights” was horrified at Abdrahaman’s religious justification 28S for greed and cruelty. 29N Dashing Adams’s high hopes, Abdrahaman refused to play the

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role of “benevolent and wise man.” Despite the Americans’ horror, he 01 wasn’t apologizing in any way. He showed no remorse or regret. He 02 believed the actions of his fellow Muslims fully justified. 03 “Every mussulman,” he explained, “who was slain in this war- 04 fare was sure to go to paradise.” 05 To Abdrahaman, this was not complicated. In his culture, the 06 takers of ships, the enslavers of men, the Barbarians who extorted 07 bribes for safe passage, were all justified by the teaching of the prophet 08 Muhammad. “It was written in our Qur’an,” he said simply.15 09 When the meeting ended, the two American ministers, disheart- 10 ened and outraged, left ­empty-​­handed. They had found no solution, 11 no peaceful answer to protecting American shipping or freeing their 12 countrymen enslaved in North Africa. 13 14 15 THE PRICE OF PEACE 16 17 Their initial attempt at making peace foiled, Adams and Jefferson 18 began to plan their next approach. They agreed that the status quo 19 was not workable, but that’s where their agreement ended. 20 In the coming months, the two old friends would find they dis- 21 agreed about how to deal with the Barbary pirates. Adams remained 22 determined to continue the negotiations. The Americans should be 23 willing to pay for peace, he believed, even if they had to borrow 24 money to pay the tributes. “If it is not done,” he wrote to Jefferson 25 from London that summer, “you and I . . . ​ought to go home.”16 26 In Paris, Jefferson expressed another view. He did not wish to 27 “buy a peace,” as he put it. He did not trust the Barbary powers to S28 keep their word. At the same time, he did not think America could N29

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01 afford to stop trading with the Mediterranean. He believed in free- 02 dom on the seas, and he proposed a tougher position. 03 “I should prefer the obtaining of it by war,” he wrote to Adams 04 from France.17 Jefferson argued that America needed a navy to deal 05 with the pirates of the Barbary coast, to confront and destroy them. 06 He told Adams that justice, honor, and the respect of Europe for 07 the United States would be served by establishing a fleet in “constant 08 cruise” in Barbary waters, policing and confronting ships of the out- 09 law states as necessary. He argued that an armed naval presence 10 made budgetary sense. According to his calculations, establishing a 11 small navy would be less costly than the sum of the ransoms, bribes, 12 and maritime losses. 13 Adams disagreed. He believed that a war against the Islamic na- 14 tions would be costly and possibly unwinnable. It would certainly 15 require too large a military force for America’s budget. Opposing Jef- 16 ferson’s belief that a small navy could solve the problem, he told Jef- 17 ferson, “We ought not to fight them at all unless We determine to 18 fight them forever.”18 19 Despite their differences, the two men worked tirelessly to gain 20 the freedom of the enslaved sailors. They sent American agents to 21 conduct negotiations with the Barbary governments. Jefferson con- 22 tacted the Mathurins, also called Trinitarians, a Catholic religious 23 order that had worked to free Christian captives since 1199. All ef- 24 forts failed. O’Brien and his men remained in captivity, and eventu- 25 ally diplomacy between the United States and Algiers went quiet. 26 More than five years would pass before American negotiators would 27 return to Algiers to resume talks. During those years, several hun- 28S dred more Christian men, women, and children would join the ranks 29N

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of the imprisoned, as the pirates collected more ships, booty, and 01 slaves. 02 But the situation continued to trouble Jefferson deeply. Remem- 03 bering his fear for Polly’s safety, he sympathized with the terrible 04 worry and sleepless nights that American families endured on behalf 05 of loved ones who made a living on the sea. In a world where the Bar- 06 bary pirates roamed the eastern Atlantic and the Mediterranean, who 07 would they capture and enslave next? Would the next captives ever 08 make it home again, or would they die of disease or under the lash in 09 a foreign land? 10 The Barbary powers, with their mixture of greed, religious fa- 11 naticism, and self-­ ​­interest, would not listen to reason. They might 12 listen to force, but with no navy, the Americans could not bring 13 power to bear on the pirates. Both Adams and Jefferson were stymied 14 and returned to America without solutions, but they did not give up 15 entirely. Soon enough, Jefferson would confront the issue from a 16 fresh vantage. 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 S28 N29

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