An Understanding of Applications of NANO-Tech and NANO-Computing 1 2 K
ISSN 2319-8885 Vol.04,Issue.55, December-2015,
Pages:11784-11794
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An Understanding of Applications of NANO-Tech and NANO-Computing 1 2 K. J. SARMA , SMIEEE MREC, Kompally, Secunderabad, TS, India, E-mail: [email protected].
Abstract: This is the age of computing technologies, where in specialized software have evolved. For various specialized differing applications, different technologies are used. In the following an utmost modern technology of the 21 st century Nano- computing has been discussed. This paper is a review of the current state of nano-electronics and nano-computing technologies, and it also gives the prospects and the challenges that must be taken for the realization of solutions and applications.
Keywords: Nano-Computing, Nano-Technology, Types of Nano-Computers, Applications, Future Scope, Metal Oxide Semiconductor (CMOS) Transistors, Nano-Scale.
I. INTRODUCTION powers it. A channel opens periodically to the center of the Nano-computing deals with building computers whose protein alloying oxygen to pass from the outside and bind fundamental components measure only a few nanometers. with iron for transport throughout the body. In the next Such computers largely known as nano-computers, which decade more cleaner, stronger, lighter, and more precise have their circuitry is so small that it can only be seen through systems are likely to emerge. If we are to continue these a microscope. This field of Nano-computing is an emerging trends we will have to develop a new "post-lithographic" field of nanotechnology. Nano-computer is the logical name manufacturing technology which will let us inexpensively for a computer smaller than the microcomputer, which is build computer systems with mole quantities of logic smaller than the minicomputer, compared to original elements that are molecular in both size and precision and are (mainframe) computers. Nano (symbol n) is a unit prefix interconnected in complex and highly idiosyncratic patterns. meaning one billionth. Used primarily with the metric system, Industrial applications of Nanotechnology are perceived by this prefix denotes a factor of 10−9 or 0.000000001. It is Albert Franks[41 ] , as “ that area of science and technology frequentlyencountered in science and electronics for prefixing where dimensions and tolerances in the range of 0.1nm to 100 units of time and length. Three gold atoms lined up are about nm play a critical role” which with materials, devices, and one nanometer long. One-billionth (10-9): nanometer. There their applications, in areas such as engineered materials, are several ways nano-computers can be built, using electronics, computers, sensors, actuators, and machines, at mechanical, electronic, biochemical, or quantum technology the nano length-scale encompassing precision engineering as concepts. Nano-computers are thought to be made out of well as electronics; electromechanical systems (e.g. 'lab-on-a- semiconductor transistors (Microelectronic components), as chip' devices) as well as mainstream biomedical applications they seem to perform significantly less well when shrunk to in areas as diverse as gene therapy, drug delivery and novel sizes under 100 nanometers. Intel's 5 nanometer technology drug discovery techniques. outlook predicts 5 nm feature size is possible by 2022. The International Technology Roadmap (ITR) for Semicond- A. Applications of Nanotechnology uctors gives an industrial consensus on feature scaling Nanotech can be viewed as being part of an interdisciplinary following Moore's Law. It may be noted that a Silicon-Silicon area. Nanotech involves the work of scientists in chemistry, bond length is 235.2 pm, which means that a 5 nm-width physics, engineering, biology, computer science, and transistor would be 21 silicon atoms wide. Thus Nano- numerous related fields including medicine, to stain resistant technology is about building things atom by atom, molecule textiles and suntan lotions. On one hand, the DNA molecular by molecule. The goal of nanotechnology is to build tiny strands are the self-assembling templates for bio-sensors and devices called “nanomachines” built on a small scale. Atoms detectors, molecular electronics, and as the building blocks of placed precisely where we wish on a structure. all biological materials. On the other hand, some synthetic inorganic materials, such as carbon, boron-nitride or other All though we are yet to build a nanomachine, the principles nano-tubes or nano-wires, may also have similar and physical properties are based on atoms and molecules. In functionalities in some respects, but have exceptionally strong fact a protein in the human body could be thought of as a and stiff materials. It is the cross-correlation and fertilization machine that moves molecule. This is an oxygen pump used among many of the constituent disciplines enabling in red blood cells. The heat of other molecules around it technologies for molecular nanotechnology. Characteristics
Copyright @ 2015 IJSETR. All rights reserved. K. J. SARMA, SMIEEE of Computational Nano-Devices are going to be regular and contact decoder, Randomized mask-based decoder. [42 ] Crossbars are a promising structure for DNA. These are Randomized-Contact Decoders are Gold particles which are programmable and may be used to produce templates for scattered at random with a Probability of p ≈ 0.5 a particle wires, gates. Nanowires, Nanotubes, Carbon nanotubes between NW/MW pair. Particle(s) between a MW and a NW (CNTs) are being used in regular 2D arrays (Nantero). forms a FET. Mask-Based Decoder Using High-K Dielectric Semiconducting nano-wires (NWs) are prepared and Regions is high-K dielectric couples doped NW & MW each assembled fluidic-ally in groups and stamped on chips. NW given a code. Regions stamped or defined litho- Encoded NWs are Nano-wires Grown / Encoded by Chemical graphically. Ethical Considerations of Nanotechnology raises Vapor Deposition. Semiconducting NWs are grown from some very important issues. In the future, as more and more seed catalysts. Their diameters are controlled by seed. Fluidic nano-based technologies increase, scientists working on them Assembly of Encoded Nanowires of Random sample of coded are likely to encounter issues that will require sound ethical NWs are floated on a liquid, deposited on chip, and dried. deliberation and decision-making. A highly-efficient nano- NWs are self-assemble into parallel locations. Processes are processor that will be integrated into a system used to collect repeated at right angles called crossbar. The Crossbar and store massive amounts of personal data of unknowing Programmable molecules (PMs) at NW cross points form citizens.Modern transistors are engineering marvels, requiring contacts groups. hundreds of careful processing steps performed in ultraclean environments. Transistor is expected to reach a minimum size NW / MW junctions form FETs. NWs are controlled by in the future; therefore new techniques or structures will be mesoscale wires (MWs). Dense memories (1011 bits/cm 2) needed to continue advancements in both speed and storage- and circuits predicted. Multiple Simple Decoders reduce the size of computers (e.g.-Moore’s Law). number of NW types needed for aw1 aw2 aw3 awb Ohm. Nonvolatile RAM Crossbars of Carbon Nanotubes have Transistor Acts as a switch, or an amplifier of signals electrostatic attraction used to make contacts, repulsion Collector, Base, Emitter. “Artificial atom allows an electron breaks them. These are permanently nonvolatile memory to be contained inside operating on “wireless” principle, devices having speed comparable to DRAM / SRAM and versus other directions taken in nano-computing which uses have density comparable to DRAM, Unlimited lifetime and electrical fields, or the natural repulsion of electrons to immune to soft errors used in the LSI production line. The transmit signals. Nanoscience Technology Center Located at available architecture of Nano computers are of two ways. Research Pavillion Millions of dollars in funding Working The first approach simply increases existing machine with numerous organizations and industries Aerospace, resources - more or larger caches; more on-chip processors, Physics, Bio-molecular Science, Electrical and Computer direct multi-threading support (i.e. exploiting parallelism Engineering. Nanotech is popping up in academic institutions between concurrently running tasks rather than within a single all around the world. Until the mid-1990s, the term algorithm) and other similar techniques. The second "nanoscale" generally denoted circuit features smaller than approach uses modular and hierarchical architectures to 100 nm. As the IC industry started to build commercial improve the performance of traditional single-thread devices at such size scales since the beginning of the 2000s, architectures. Three main classes of parallel architectures the term "nano-computing" has been reserved for device based on the characteristics, applicable to the nano-computer features well below 50 nm to even the size of individual domain. They are highly regular, locally connected; molecules, which are only a few nm. Scientists and engineers peripherally interfaced, data-parallel architectures offer a are only beginning to conceive new ways to approach good match to the characteristics of nano-electronic devices. computing using extremely small devices and individual Data parallel architectures represent only a small portion of molecules. Contemporary digital computers use currents and the interesting problems in computer architecture and are a voltages in tens of millions of complementary metal oxide poor match for most general purpose computing problems.[ semiconductor (CMOS) transistors covering a few square 13,14] centimeters of silicon. If device dimensions could be scaled down by a factor of 10 or even 100, then circuit functionality NWs have s shells of m differentially etch-able materials; would increase 100 to 10,000 times. Such circuits would materials in adjacent shells are different. They form N = m consume far less power per function, increasing battery life (m-1)(s-1) NW types. Under each MW etch the s materials and shrinking boxes and fans necessary to cool circuits. Also, forming a NW shell sequence. N NWs are controlled by N they would be remarkably fast and able to perform MWs. 12 code words (and MWs) suffice to control 1,000 calculations that are not yet possible on any computer. NWs for w =10. Depending on the number of distinct NWs / Benefits of significantly faster computers include more simple decoder in each region be distinct. Metallic NWs accuracy in predicting weather patterns, recognizing complex Grown by Nano-imprinting Etch AlGaAs in an MBE block figures in images, and developing artificial intelligence (AI). saw tooth pattern impressed on soft polymer. Remove thin Potentially, single-chip memories containing thousands of layer of polymer Deposit NWs in gaps per lithography gigabytes of data will be developed, capable of holding entire Thickness. Addressing NWs with Lithographic Wires NWs libraries of books, music, or movies. are all the same. How can one NW in each dimension be activated? Two methods available which are Randomized
International Journal of Scientific Engineering and Technology Research Volume.04, IssueNo.55, December-2015, Pages: 11784-11794 An Understanding of Applications of NANO-Tech and NANO-Computing II. TYPES OF NANOCOMPUTERS perform such operations selectively among molecules taken A. Electronic Nanocomputers just a few at a time in volumes only a few nanometers on a The power, flexibility, and ease of manufacture of side. Chemical and biochemical Nano-computers would store conventional microelectronic two-state devices have been and and process information in terms of chemical structures and continue to be at the heart of the revolution in computer and interactions. Biochemical Nano computers already exist in information technology that has swept the world during the nature; they are manifest in all living things which are largely past half century. Starting in the mid-1960s, successive uncontrollable by humans. We cannot, for example, program generations of smaller transistors began replacing larger ones. a tree to calculate the digits of pi or program an antibody to This permitted more transistors and more computing power to fight a particular disease. In fact medical science has come be packed in the same small space. If computers are to close to this ideal in the formulation of vaccines, antibiotics, continue to get smaller and more powerful at the same rate, and antiviral medications). The work on the development of a fundamentally new operational principles and fabrication true chemical Nano computer similar to progress in genetic technologies such as Nanolithography will need to be engineering. Nonetheless, artificial fabrication or employed for miniature electronic devices. Electronic nano- implementation of this category of "natural," or bio-mimetic computers would operate in a manner similar to the way biochemically based computers seems far off because the present-day microcomputers work. More and more transistors mechanisms for animal brains and nervous systems still are are squeezed into silicon chips with each passing year; poorly understood. witness the evolution of integrated circuits (ICs) capable of ever-increasing storage capacity and processing power. D. DNA Computations Nanolithography is used to create microscopic circuits. It is A nano-computer that uses DNA (deoxyribonucleic acids) the art and science of etching, writing, or printing at the to store information and perform complex calculations. In microscopic level, where the dimensions of characters are on 1994 University of Southern California computer scientist the order of nanometers (units of 10 - 9 meter, or millionths of Leonard Adelman, who suggested that DNA could be used to a millimeter). This includes various methods of modifying solve complex mathematical problems. Adleman is often semiconductor chips at the atom ic level for the purpose of called the inventor of DNA computers. The steps taken in the fabricating integrated circuits (IC) [5 ]. Adleman DNA computer experiment: 1. Strands of DNA represent the seven cities. In genes, genetic coding is B. Mechanical Computers represented by the letters A, T, C and G. Some sequence of Nanotechnology pioneers Eric Drexler Ralph Merkle [12] these four letters represented each city and possible flight and their collaborators favor Nanocomputer designs that path. 2. These molecules are then mixed in a test tube, with resemble miniature Babbage engines. Mechanical Nano- some of these DNA strands sticking together. A chain of these computers that would calculate moving molecular-scale rods strands represents a possible answer. 3. Within a few and rotating molecular-scale gears spinning on shafts and seconds, all of the possible combinations of DNA strands, bearings. This idea originated in a 1959 by Richard Feynman, which represent answers, are created in the test tube. 4. pointed out that such tiny machinery was not prohibited by Adleman eliminates the wrong molecules through chemical any known physical principle. Once assembled, the reactions, which leaves behind only the flight paths that mechanical Nano-computer would operate a bit like a vastly connect all seven cities. The success of the Adleman , DNA scaled down, complex programmable versions of the computer proves that DNA can be used to calculate complex mechanical calculators that were familiar office tools in the mathematical problems. The goal of the DNA computing field period 1940 through 1970. The drawback is that the is to create a device that can work independent of human fabrication of nano-mechanical devices is likely to require involvement. Also a DNA computer could hold 10 terabytes "hand-made" parts assembled one atom or molecular subunit of data and perform 10 trillion calculations at a time. at a time using STMs in processes that are relatively slow. Mechanical Nanocomputers would use tiny moving E. Quantum Nano Computers components called Nanogears to encode information. Such a As a hypothetical machine a QC(involves quantum machine is reminiscent of Charles Babbage's analytical mechanics ) is supposed to perform calculations based on the engines of the 19th century. All the problems inherent in behavior of sub-atomic level particles and should be capable Babbage's apparatus, according to the nay sayers, are of executing several millions of calculations per second than magnified a million fold in a mechanical Nano computer. But the digital computer using qubits, which is a fundamental data Some futurists are optimistic about the technology, and have unit and many calculations can be performed simultaneously. even proposed the evolution of Nanorobots that could operate, A super computer trying to find one phone number in the data or be controlled by, mechanical Nano computers. base of all the world’s phone books takes a month which can be done in 27 minutes by quantum computer [5]. A Quantum C. Chemical & Bio-Chemical Computers Nanocomputer would work by storing data in the form of In general terms, a chemical computer is one that processes atomic quantum states or spin. Technology of this kind is information by making and breaking chemical bonds, and it already under development in the form of single-electron stores logic states or information in the resulting chemical memory (SEM) and quantum dots. The energy state of an (i.e., molecular) structures. A chemical nano-computer would electron within an atom, represented by the electron energy
International Journal of Scientific Engineering and Technology Research Volume.04, IssueNo.55, December-2015, Pages: 11784-11794 K. J. SARMA, SMIEEE level or shell, can theoretically represent one, two, four, eight, There are already prototype tools for experimenting with or even 16 bits of data. The main problem with this molecular configurations, such as Nano-CAD, a freeware technology is instability. Instantaneous electron energy states nano-design system including Java source code. One idea is are difficult to predict and even more difficult to control. An utility fog, where billions of submicroscopic molecular robots electron can easily fall to a lower energy state, emitting a each containing a nanocomputer are linked together to form a photon conversely, a photon striking an atom can cause one of solid mass. Controlled by a master nano computer, the robots its electrons to jump to a higher energy state. A quantum nano could alter their configurations to create any object you like. computer is supposed to be useful for breaking ciphers, Nanotechnology does come with one tiny drawback that if a statistical analysis, factoring large numbers, solving problems molecular machine goes haywire, and instead of building, in theoretical physics, solving optimization problems of starts demolishing the molecules around it? The world would several variables. Quantum Dots have highly promising quite literally fall apart. Nano computers, if they ever appear, outlook in nanocomputing. “Artificial atom,” allows an will be extraordinary things. But if, like most computer electron to be contained inside and Operates on “wireless” systems, they have bugs, they could also be very nasty indeed. principle, versus other directions taken in nano-computing. Use of electrical fields or the natural repulsion of electrons to IV. RESEARCH TRENDS transmit signals are in the making up. Nano-computing in How to build a business around this technology? What is the real life could be used for self assembling of consumer goods, opportunity? What is the product? Who is going to buy it? In developing computers billions faster, extremely novel other words, can nanotechnology live up to its fantastic type? inventions ( which are impossible today), safe and affordable If we start investing on a broad science right now, we will be space travel, reduce aging , death rate, reducing pollution able to position ourselves formidably in a wide variety of and automatic cleanup of already existing pollution, industries the material sciences, biomedical, telecommuni- molecular food synthesis to end famine and starvation, access cations and so on. The overall research activity at CDNC to superior education for every child on earth, reintroduction focuses on test and reliability issues in VLSI and nano of many extinct plants and animals and also in terra farming systems. The current research studies related to Nano and solar system. techniques are given below: In Nano-Computing the work on: Design and test III. CURRENT TRENDS & FUTURE SCOPE OF automation, defect and fault tolerance in emerging NANOTECHNOLOGY nanotechnologies, Crossbar array nano-architectures;’ A. Characteristics of Computational Nano Devices Quantum-dot cellular automata (QCA) should be studied. Each device is different. We must discover device In Dependable Computing – work on: Defect and characteristics and configureto provide required functionality. fault tolerant computing, Soft error reliability modeling When assembling different nano-objects, their locations can’t and mitigation, Software reliability, Testing aspects of be controlled. Learning to live with randomness and faults is computer systems, test generation algorithms and design essential. Understanding Crossbar Architectures: Contact for testability, Reconfigurable computing, Modeling, with nano-devices will be via big meso-scale wires (MWs). estimation and tolerance of noise in mixed-signal SoCs, Nano wire crossbars will achieve high density if each NW is Computer-Aided Design (CAD) of VLSI can be studied. not connected to a distinct MW. We need addressing schemes that “turn on” one NW in each dimension with few In System Biology Analysis of complex molecular pathways MWs. According to a group of researchers calling themselves in human disorders. Some of the active programs focused on the Nano computer Dream Team, have unveiled a the development of nano-wire devices, arrays and systems for revolutionary kind of computer, the most powerful ever seen. information processing are based on the bottom-up paradigm. Their nano computer will be made out of atoms. The Nano The Lieber group is a leader in design and realization of 2- computer Dream Team (2011) wants to use a techniques to and 3-dimensional circuits and nano-processors which offer build an atomic computer. Such a computer, they say can then unique opportunities and challenges compared to existing top- be used to control simple molecular construction machines, down approaches being explored by others today. which can then build more complex molecular devices, Nanowire Nanoelectronic Devices: Studies of ultimately giving complete control of the molecular world. nonvolatile or programmable nanowire devices, including The most promising idea is rod logic, invented by field-effect transistors (FETs) and resistive switches, that nanotechnology pioneer Eric Drexler [33]. Rod logic uses can be implemented in a cross-bar architecture. The stiff rods made from short chains of carbon atoms. Around particular emphasis pushing fundamental limits of the each rod sits a knob made of a ring of atoms. devices (e.g., how small?) and developing new modes of function[41]. The rods are fitted into an interlocking lattice, where each Nanowire Hierarchical Organization: Effective rod can slide between two positions, and be reset by a spring assembly methods are critical to bottom-up and hybrid made of another few atoms. The Dream Team will perform approaches for building nanocircuits. The Lieber group is these molecular simulation calculations using Meta committed to improving existing and developing entirely computing where each person's PC performs a tiny part of the new methods that can lead to the controllable assembly overall calculation, and the results are collated on the Web.
International Journal of Scientific Engineering and Technology Research Volume.04, IssueNo.55, December-2015, Pages: 11784-11794 An Understanding of Applications of NANO-Tech and NANO-Computing of nanowire building blocks in a material-independent smart materials for the hulls of spacecraft. These would be manner in two and three dimensions [16]. materials primarily composed of nanotube fibers with nano sized computers integrated into them. One idea is to create a Nano circuits and nano processors studies on nano wire- surface that will help transfer the aerodynamic forces working based circuits with the goal of demonstrating stand-alone on a spacecraft during launch. To equalize the surface programmable nano circuits and nano processor systems are temperature now, a spacecraft must be kept rotating and potential. To exploit the unique properties of programmable although a slight spin is good in maintaining the attitude of a nano wire devices, exploring scalable system architectures in craft sometimes it interferes with the mission plan, like when which both the locations and interconnections of nano devices a spacecraft is taking photographs or is in the process of are programmed post-fabrication. This type of architecture, docking with another craft, also now upon reentry spacecraft which is based on unit logic tile, leads naturally to nano- have to be oriented just right. With a smart material hull processor systems consisting of arrays of interconnected logic ablationing materials could be gathered in real time obviating tiles. Our major current effort is on developing the tiled any crucial departures in mission landing plans. Another architecture in 2D, although 3D nano circuits and processors avenue being investigated is a concept of nano robotics called represent definite future goals. "Swarms". Swarms are nano robots that act in unison like bees will act as a flexible cloth like material and being V. APPLICATIONS OF NANOCOMPUTERS composed of what's called Bucky tubes, this cloth will be as strong as diamond. This smart cloth could be used to keep astronauts from bouncing around inside their spacecraft while they sleep, a problem that arises when the auto pilot computer fires the course correction rockets[24] Still another application for the nano robot swarms, being considered, is that the smart cloth could be used in the astronauts’ space suits.
This material will not only be capable of repairing itself quickly or controlling the environment inside the suit but it will be able to communicate with its wearer what it is doing and what's going on outside the suit. On the planet Mars for example a suit made of smart cloth could extract oxygen from the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere for the wearer. The same suit could extract solar energy to power the suit. This suit would also literally be a life saver on Earth. Imagine a fire fighter wearing a suit that could extract Oxygen from the environment he is in. The Smart foam would be able to shape some of itself into a suit for the victim and begin to monitor the victims vitals and even be able to report to an onsite, or by wireless satellite communication, off site medic or doctor the condition of the victim including broken bones etc. The smart suit could even upon sensing a broken bone begin to reinforce and create on the spot a cast, a cast that would be able to act on the damaged bone so the victim could walk out on a broken leg. A space suit is nothing more nor less than an incredible space ship itself so this same smart cloth could be the super structure of a deep space probe replete with an on
Fig.1. board A.I computer capable of creating the science experiments needed enroot to its destination and capable of Nanotech can be viewed as being part of an interdisciplinary not only making changes in mission plans but creating even area. Due to it’s nature, nanotech involves the work of new experiments as they are needed or wanted. scientists in chemistry, physics, engineering, biology, computer science, and numerous related fields. [40] Another application of nanorobots would be in carrying out construction projects in hostile environments, for example A. Nanospace with just a handful, of self replicating robots, utilizing local Spacecraft are being launched, with hulls that are materials, and local energy it's conceivable that space habitats composed of carbon fibers which are a light weight high can be completely constructed by remote control so that the strength material. Some of the latest avenues being explored, inhabitants need only show up with their suitcases[29]. An that are more in the nano realm, in space science, include engineer or a team of engineers could check up on the construction of the habitat via tele-presents utilizing cameras
International Journal of Scientific Engineering and Technology Research Volume.04, IssueNo.55, December-2015, Pages: 11784-11794 K. J. SARMA, SMIEEE and sensors created on the surface of Mars by the nano bots September 2001 is considered a milestone. The June 15 and all from the comfortable confines of Earth. Then once the July 1 issues of Red Herring were also considered milestones. habitat is complete humans can show up to orchestrate the There were many scientific advances that led to the concept expansion of the exploration. Venus could be explored with of nanotechnology. Many contributors helped with the theory, nano robots too. Super Hulls could be fashioned by nano such as Feynman giving his speech or Drexler teaching a robots to withstand the intense pressures and corrosive gases course. Nanotechnology will have many more improvements of the venusian atmosphere, to safely house nano robot built in the future and will benefit our society 2) Identify two sensors and equipment. scientists or engineers that have made major contributions to this technical application which is fundamental related to B. Cancel Cancer cancer applications. Feynman declared that we should use the bottom-up approach instead of the top-down approach. The top-down Shuming Nie [43] has made a very major contribution to the approach would modify the shape and size of materials to field where medicine and nanotechnology meet. Nie’s work meet specific needs for assembly of these materials. The has shown that Nano particles can be used to detect cancer at bottom-up approach would produce components made of its early stages. The use of his latest technology on molecules single molecules held together by covalent bonds, which are that are linked with cancer may be the key to improved cancer much stronger than the forces that hold together macro- detection, which in turn will save thousands of lives. Nie’s components. By using the bottom-up approach, the amount of latest technology involves the use of quantum dots. His work information that can be stored in devices would be incredible. dealt with color-codes biological molecules, such as genes In 1974 that Norio Taniguchi created the term “Nano- and proteins, allowing doctors or physicians to see and technology” at the University of Tokyo, distinguished identify the exact location of selected molecules in the cells engineering at the micrometer scale from a new, sub- and tissues of a living person. This technology has to go micrometer level, which he called "nano-technology." In through several steps and series. The fluorescent quantum 1981, Gerd Binnig and Heinrich Rohrer invented the dots that conduct little electricity are implanted inside micron- Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM) at IBM’s Zurich sized polystyrene beads. The different colors are produced Research Laboratory and later created the Atomic Force because of the varying sizes and quantities of the dots that are Microscope in 1986. The investigation of nanotechnology embedded into the beads. Shuming Nie then attaches these expanded in 1985 when Professor Richard Smalley, Robert beads to biological molecules such as antibodies or proteins Curl, Jr., and Harold Kroto discovered a new form of carbon, and then applies them to cells and tissue samples in the which was a molecule of sixty carbon atoms. This super laboratory. These antibodies attached to the beads will then carbon has become one of a growing number of building hold on or stick to specific molecules. This makes identifying blocks for a new class of nano-sized products. Then, eleven the location and figuring out the number of these molecules years later, they won the Nobel Prize. that are present easier. This technique, when targeted at cancer cells, allows us to see whether or not cancer cells are It dealt with the concept of molecular manufacturing and present. However, Drexler cannot be given all the credit, for included a full-length examination of the possibilities of he learned from the best, Richard Feynman. Drexler was a nanotechnology. He proposed the idea of universal one-time student of Feynman. assemblers, robotic type machines, which form the basis of molecular manufacturing. Therefore, it will allow us to build Drexler is considered to be the founding father of anything atom-by-atom, molecule by molecule, using an nanotechnology, as we know it today because he had many “assembler” that is controlled by a computer to move the ideas concerning molecular engineering and manufacturing. atoms where you desire. As he began to explain this theory, The ideas of molecular engineering brought up by Drexler are he stated “In biology, enzymes stick molecules together in mentioned in a paper of his named “Engines of Creation.” new patterns all the time. In every cell, there are Linking every-day objects to atoms and molecules on a programmable, numerically controlled machine tools that molecular level may help us to understand Drexler’s concepts manufacture protein molecules according to genetic better. One can visualize an atom to be a physical object, such instructions. If you can build one molecular machine, then as a marble. A molecule which is quite complex is a clump of you can use it to build an even better molecular machine.” In atoms that are joined together or linked. This fairly complex the spring of 1988, Eric Drexler taught the first formal course molecule can be considered as a group of marble joining to be in nanotechnology while visiting Stanford University. He the size of a fist. According to the different chemical suggested the possibility of nano-sized objects that are self- properties of the various atoms, their bonds will “snap” and duplicating robots or nano-machines that would roam around “unsnap.” The molecule’s shape is formed similarly to how in the body killing cancer cells. Drexler received a doctorate children build toys with things like Erector Sets. The degree in the field of nanotechnology from MIT in 1991. In molecule’s functions and shape will be familiar things such as 1992, he published another book called Nano systems to levers, gears, motors, and pulleys. Drexler proposed the provide a graduate level introduction to the physical and supposition that a submicroscopic device could be created engineering standards of the field. The publication of an issue from some type of atoms. This device would have a robotic of Scientific American that focused on nanotechnology in limb controlled by a computer, that would be able to move
International Journal of Scientific Engineering and Technology Research Volume.04, IssueNo.55, December-2015, Pages: 11784-11794 An Understanding of Applications of NANO-Tech and NANO-Computing around atoms and position them exactly and precisely where many benefits to not just medicine, but to millions of people the robot wanted them to be. This type of robotic limb is living on this Earth. called an “assembler”. These “assemblers” are similar to enzymes in biology that adhere molecules together in new Since our device will allow doctors to single out only patterns all the time. If one of these molecular devices could cancerous cells, it will not destroy the healthy ones. This will be built, then that device could be used to build even better be a big progression in the treatment of cancer because one of ones. the most popular treatments for cancer was chemotherapy. In chemotherapy, radiation was would kill the cancerous cells in These molecular machines are made so precisely, down to the body, but the healthy ones would also be destroyed. the most minuscule details. Because their parts are so much This would leave patients tired and extremely weak. For smaller than the everyday things that we are used to, they are chemotherapy, a patient is required to visit a clinic everyday, a million times faster than the moving parts that we are which is very expensive. Once you’ve been treated, you’re familiar with. Even though a single nanomachine would be completely cured and there is no need to go back and forth. incredibly fast and precise, they could not be able to change With our new invention, many more people will be cured anything for something large like the human, due to the fact from cancer, leaving the population to dramatically increase. that nanomachines are so small. This is why many of these When the population rises, there will be overcrowding in a little nanomachines would be needed at the same time in world that is already overcrowded. There won’t be enough order to do something for a human being. The way we would food, water, or resources for humans to survive. In addition, get so many of these machines is by programming the there are thousands of chemotherapists who help with the machines how to reproduce or replicate themselves. One curing of cancer. These chemotherapists will most likely lose molecular machine alone can replicate itself in an expedient their job with the making of our invention. There is also the manner by with simply fuels and some other raw materials possibility that our machine will malfunction and even cause which can be found in the first machine itself. . This type of harm to the patient. This will cause enormous dilemmas robotic limb is called an “assembler”. These “assemblers” are because it is placing the patient’s life in grave danger. If the similar to enzymes in biology that adhere molecules together patient is injured or dies, the tragedy will most definitely in new patterns all the time. If one of these molecular devices affect the patient’s family and friends. could be built, then that device could be used to build even better ones. Drexler also came up with an idea on building C. Bio-Nanotechnology nanocomputers. His nanocomputers would not work Implications for Designing More Effective Tissue electrically, but it would have several mechanical parts in Engineering Materials-- Nanotechnology can be defined as motion. These computers would be reasonably quicker using materials and systems whose structures and components working than the computers of today. It will be faster due to exhibit novel and significantly changed properties by gaining the fact that the information inside the computer only has to control of structures at the atomic, molecular, and supra- move such tiny spaces. molecular levels. Although many advanced properties for materials with constituent fiber, grain, or particle sizes less Therefore, these nanocomputers will be able to understand than 100 nm have been observed for traditional science and one billion instructions a second. Drexler says, “Eventually engineering applications (such as in catalytic, optical, the whole integrated circuit technology base is going to be mechanical, magnetic, and electrical applications), few replaced.” The highly intelligent nanocomputers that were advantages for the use of these materials in tissue-engineering before mentioned can enact a most important role in many applications have been explored. However, nano-phase areas of medicine. Software composed of artificial materials may give researchers control over interactions with intelligence would allow surgical procedures to be incredibly biological entities (such as proteins and cells) in ways precise on a molecular level. The most interesting thing is previously unimaginable with conventional materials. This is that Drexler himself said that the simplest use of because organs of the body are nanostructures and, thus, cells nanotechnology in medicine would be the destruction of in the body are accustomed to interacting with materials that selective cells or other things in the body, which is akin to the have nano-structured features. Despite this fact, implants project our team has selected. We are using nanotechnology currently being investigated as the next-generation of tissue- to destroy only cancerous cells and not healthy ones. Describe engineering scaffolds have micron-structured features. In this in detail how the technical application the team selected light, it is not surprising why the optimal tissue-engineering impacts the problem outlined in Component One. The use of material has not been found to date. Over the past two years, Cancel Cancer will dramatically decrease the death rate of Purdue Univ. has provided significant evidence to the people all over the world. It will save many lives and raise the research community that nanophase materials can be designed hopes of infected patient’s families and friends. Cancel to control interactions with proteins and subsequently Cancer will replace chemotherapy and other means of treating mammalian cells for more efficient tissue regeneration. This cancer. Identify the limitations and benefits of using the has been demonstrated for a wide range of nanophase material technical application the team has selected to solve the chemistries including ceramics, polymers, and more recently problem. The nano-device that we plan to build will bring metals. Such investigations are leading to the design of a number of more successful tissue-engineering materials for
International Journal of Scientific Engineering and Technology Research Volume.04, IssueNo.55, December-2015, Pages: 11784-11794 K. J. SARMA, SMIEEE orthopedic/dental, vascular, neural, bladder, and cartilage complements micro seismic monitoring which more than applications. In all applications, compared to conventional adequately documents (location and amplitude) the elastic materials, the fundamental design parameter necessary to failure and stress concentration processes. increase tissue regeneration is a surface with a large degree of biologically-inspired nano-structured roughness. In this F. Airborne Gravity Measurement manner, results from the present collection of studies have Geophysical methods capable of measuring the acceleration added increased tissue-regeneration as another novel property due to the earth's gravitational field are amongst the earliest of nano-phase materials. applications of the geophysical sciences. Gravity surveying is one of the important techniques in modern exploration for D. Nanometrology nearly all mineral and petroleum industries. This method has Nano-metrology involves high precision measurement increased in recent times and will continue to do so in the techniques combined with nano-positioning systems to future as major advances in satellite positioning technology measure. Capabilities and applications in nano-metrology are provide cost effective access to surface surveys over much based on Differential Capacitance Micrometry. Current larger regions than previously possible. The exploration applications in Nano-metrology are related to Precision industry has recently renewed interest in large scale gravity Deformation Measurement Tectonics, Mining, Precision surveys and has developed a greater appreciation of the Displacement, measurement, and Gravity Gradiometer. The contribution of these data sets. The need for acquisition of Capacitance Micrometry technology was originally developed large gravity data sets at high speed over highly prospective in the mid seventies and uses relative position measurement areas is renewing demand for airborne gravity facilities within a locally defined reference standard. It can be capable of achieving measurements at accuracy suitable for configured to allow picometre resolution over a one hundred detection of small and lenticular mineral ore bodies. Gravity micron range or used at lower resolution over larger dynamic gradiometry provides a best opportunity to achieve accuracy range. The current measurement systems feature is related to and can be performed at sampling rates necessary for targets ratio metric resolution to approximately 1 in 108 of the of industry interest, on the order of a few hundreds of meters. selected range reference lengths. They are the Worst case non This project will develop an airborne gravity gradiometer linearity against laser reference of <10-5 over 0.4 of reference which will be capable of providing measurements from low range. The measurements are related to Large dynamic range flying aircraft at a rate and sensitivity suitable for the of 10mm - 100µm, Long term stability - high repeatability, detection of buried ore bodies down to a scale of active feedback for positioning, and no high vacuum approximately 300 m at burial depths of 200 m. The requirement. measurements will be integrated into other geophysical measurements from the same or other airborne platforms to E. Earth Strain Measurement enhance exploration capability. A Nano-metrics Instrumentation Application: Applicable for short and long term monitoring of mining induced strain The project aims at detection of geophysical significant variations at selected points at underground or open cut subsurface anomalies potentially associated with ore bodies or mining operations, to use the strain measurements, to predict hydrocarbon deposits by rapid vehicle mounted surface or rock mass response to mining like pit slope stability, airborne regional gravitational studies. The existence of subsidence etc. The Earth Strain Measurement Group gravitational anomalies depends directly on the presence of a provides precision strain monitoring systems for long term mass excess or deficit associated with the deposit. The monitoring of mining induced strain variations at selected magnitude of a typical anomaly relative to the unperturbed points on the mine plan. Instruments allow continuous gravity field is proportional to the total mass excess (or monitoring of tensor plane strain within the range of 10-3 to deficit), and is inversely proportional to the square of the 10-9. The technology was originally developed for earthquake distance from its effective centre and the point of observation. strain monitoring applications requiring extremely high It is not possible in principle to distinguish between the sensitivity, stability and dynamic range, and in mine scale accelerations acting on a body due to gravitational effects monitoring environments. This technique will be used to from those due to kinematic effects associated with changes measure loads induced in high wall mining or in the walls of of the body's velocity. Thus most gravity measurement is deep open pit mining, operations. Some of the Key performed from stationary platforms fixed to the earth advantages are the ability to measure the mine scale surface, and its precision is limited by vibration noise sources engineering induced strain response of large structures from common in the earth. The gravitational anomaly of an ore significant distances, that loads induced by slow creep body of density contrast 300 kg m-3 and of dimension say processes over large areas can be monitored, long term slow 200 m buried below a depth of say 100 m of overburden is deformations monitored with high reliability, and that elastic typically 2x10-6ms-2, which is 0.00002% of the normal Earth failure processes can be monitored. The operations can be gravity field. This relatively small effect is normally performed remotely without any disturbance to mining measured in units of micro gals ( mGal ), and would represent processes. Direct estimates of the effects of blasts on wall approximately 200 mGal. loading can be measured, as can the subsequent creep and slump processes. For mining applications strain monitoring
International Journal of Scientific Engineering and Technology Research Volume.04, IssueNo.55, December-2015, Pages: 11784-11794 An Understanding of Applications of NANO-Tech and NANO-Computing The measurements are subject to a wide variety of rotation frequency by the gradient being measured. These environmental influences, and measurements must be outputs are effectively differenced to produce a gradient. The performed relative to a standard point that is used regularly US Air Force GGSS (Gravity Gradiometer Survey System) during the survey as a fixed reference for the removal of drifts used two orthogonal pairs of accelerometers to produce two in the instrument. With great care, measurements over gradients. Three such systems mounted in mutually reasonable areas can be achieved to about 5 mGals, making orthogonal configuration provided six gradients, which is this technology appropriate for mapping regions of known sufficient to fully determine the gradient tensor. The system potential. The procedure is slow, and requires extensive of three gradiometers was initially stabilized by three gimbals information on local topography and geology by reason of the controlled by two 2-degrees-of-freedom gyroscopes and three fact that the normal variation of gravity with height is orthogonal accelerometers. When in use air-borne in a approximately 300 mGal per metre. The relative gravity specially equipped C-130 transport, navigation was performed instrument has in fact been used with great difficulty from by the autopilot using the inertial outputs of the measurement moving platforms and in particular from aircraft where platform. Gradients have been measured to a few tens of altitude control using for example precision radar altimeters Eotvos units under ideal conditions. Initially the CSIRO and pressure sensors to achieve vertical position to as little as system proposed will measure only the vertical gravity one metre still imposes limitations of the order of a few gradient. hundred mGals on the gravity data. Emphasis for large scale VI. CONCLUSION geophysical prospecting has moved towards gradiometry. Evolving nano-devices and nano-integration technology Measurement of the gradient of the gravity field over a known are going to greatly change how computers are designed, built baseline allows one to cancel out the accelerations due to the and used over the next two decades. The end of motion of the platform itself. Gradient measurements also Photolithography in 2001 ITRS (Roadmap) predicts within have some advantages in detection of boundaries of 10-15 years “most known technological capabilities will anomalies. The vertical component of the gradient above the approach their limits,” that Nanotechnology will replace ore body discussed above and measured from an aircraft at photolithography. Current nano-computing research involves approximately 300m is approximately 1x10-9 ms-2 per metre, the study of very small electronic devices and molecules, their which is 1 Eotvos. The Eotvos is a unit of gravity gradient, fabrication, and architectures that can benefit from their and 1 Eotvos corresponds to 10-9 s-2. inherent electrical properties. Nanostructures that have been studied include semiconductor quantum dots, single electron The gradient would be eight times larger at the earth's structures, and various molecules. Very small particles of surface. For a gradiometer, the vertical dependence of the material confine electrons in ways that large ones do not, so gradient is smaller than for a gravimeter, so that precise that the quantum mechanical nature of the electrons become control of aircraft altitude is not a critical issue. Useful important. The current research interests include architectural- gravity gradient data for exploration will require level and gate-level automatic test pattern generation, design measurements below the 1 Eotvos level. This will certainly verification and diagnosis, fault simulation and defect require active stabilization of the instrument platform for coverage evaluation, power estimation and management in displacements at a level of about 0.01ms-2Hz-1/2 vertical, VLSI, computer architecture, parallelization, and reliability. and rotations better than 10-5 rad s-1Hz-1/2. This is certainly Nano-electronics is an emerging area of electrical and possible on a quality stabilized platform. Many major computer engineering that concerns itself with the study of laboratories have been involved in gradiometer research over building electronic devices at nanometer dimensions. the last fifteen years. One major direction of this work has been towards superconducting gravimeters (relative and Future nano-computers could be evolutionary, scaled-down gradiometric) utilizing many somewhat exotic but benign versions of today's computers, working in essentially the characteristics of materials obtainable at liquid helium same ways and with similar but nanoscale devices. MC being temperatures. The instruments are essentially superconducting based on some new device or molecular structure is not yet versions of the spring or differential spring gravimeters where developed. Research on nano-devices is aimed at learning the the mechanical springs have been replaced by magnetic field physical properties of very small structures and then levitation. Stability is obtained by the inherent stability of determining how these can be used to perform some kind of persistent currents which support the superconducting proof computing functions. Ethical Considerations Nanotechnology mass. Commercial versions of the gravimeter with excellent raises some very important issues. A more and more nano- long term stability (5 mGal per year) and sensitivity better based technologies increase, scientists working on them are than a mGal are available but cannot be used from moving likely to encounter issues that will require sound ethical platforms. Another direction of research has produced deliberation and decision-making. The nano-computing instruments similar to the Bell Aerospace Rotating Gravity subfield is no different. Chemists can synthesize molecules Gradiometer. easily and in large quantities; these can be made to act as switches or charge containers of almost any desirable shape Generically these instruments consist of precisely matched and size. One molecule that has attracted considerable interest accelerometer pairs which are rotated about an axis to is that of the common deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), best produce outputs which are modulated at harmonics of the known from biology. Ideas for attaching smaller molecules,
International Journal of Scientific Engineering and Technology Research Volume.04, IssueNo.55, December-2015, Pages: 11784-11794 K. J. SARMA, SMIEEE called "functional groups," to the molecules and creating Scientists and Engineers establish relationships with nano- larger arrays of DNA for computing are under investigation. scientists and work towards solving these. In addition to discovering new devices on the nano-scale, it is critically important to devise new ways to interconnect these VII. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS devices for useful applications. One potential architecture is The Author expresses his heartfelt thanks to the authors of called cellular neural networks (CNN) in which devices are papers under references and the designers of the image on connected to neighbors, and as inputs are provided at the applications of nano- computing. edge, the interconnects cause a change in the devices to sweep like a wave across the array, providing an output at the other VIII. REERENCES edge. 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International Journal of Scientific Engineering and Technology Research Volume.04, IssueNo.55, December-2015, Pages: 11784-11794