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Employment, Politics and Working-Class Women in North East England, C

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Employment, Politics and Working-Class Women in North East England, C Durham E-Theses Employment, politics and working-class women in north east England, c. 1790-1914 Mood, Jonathan William How to cite: Mood, Jonathan William (2006) Employment, politics and working-class women in north east England, c. 1790-1914, Durham theses, Durham University. Available at Durham E-Theses Online: http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/2687/ Use policy The full-text may be used and/or reproduced, and given to third parties in any format or medium, without prior permission or charge, for personal research or study, educational, or not-for-prot purposes provided that: • a full bibliographic reference is made to the original source • a link is made to the metadata record in Durham E-Theses • the full-text is not changed in any way The full-text must not be sold in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders. Please consult the full Durham E-Theses policy for further details. Academic Support Oce, Durham University, University Oce, Old Elvet, Durham DH1 3HP e-mail: [email protected] Tel: +44 0191 334 6107 http://etheses.dur.ac.uk 2 Employment, Politics and Working-Class Women in North East England, c. 1790-1914 The copyright of this thesis rests with the author or the university to which it was submitted. No quotation from it, or information derived from it may be published without the prior written consent of the author or university, and any information derived from it should be acknowledged. Jonathan William Mood Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of History, University of Durham, 2006 A copyright of this thesis rests with the author. No quotation from it should be published without his prior consent and information derived from it should be acknowledged - 3 MAY 2007 ABSTRACT EMPLOYMENT, POLITICS AND WORKING-CLASS WOMEN IN NORTH EAST ENGLAND, C. 1790-1914 JONATHAN WILLIAM MOOD This thesis explores the issue of the economic and political agency of working-class women in North East England for the period c.l790-1914. In contrast to the national average, the North East was populated by more men than women in this period, whilst the dominance of industrial trades such as coal, shipbuilding, iron and steel, and engineering resulted in the lowest female employment rates in the country, as well as the highest marriage rates and the youngest average age at marriage. These trends are investigated in detail and would suggest that if anywhere women were to be powerless it was here. Yet, as this thesis shows, women in the North East were active constituents of local culture and politics, often through different means, and with alternative motives than has been claimed for localities where there existed high rates of female employment. The impact of structural changes in the political system during the latter nineteenth century is assessed and it is suggested that whilst many political organisations of this period involved a small number of working-class women in contemporary political debate they were generally unsuccessful at appealing directly on political issues of substance; the formal politics of this period did not always coincide with the politicisation of working-class men and women. This thesis aims to strike a balance between typical and atypical experiences by exploring the social climate of a large region rather than focus specifically upon potentially unrepresentative localities. 11 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This study would have not have been possible without funding from the Arts and Humanities Research Council and I gratefully acknowledge their support. The staff of various Record Offices and libraries provided valuable assistance in the completion of this thesis. I am especially thankful to the staff at John Rylands Library, Newcastle Literary and Philosophical Society, Newcastle University Robinson Library and the Salvation Army Archives, who were more than generous in their assistance. The generosity of Benjamin Beck in allowing access to his family papers and providing digital copies of manuscript material must also be noted. I am thankful for the assistance, support and friendship of too many people to name individually, but special mention should be given to Helen Berry for her kindness in reading early drafts of my work and providing invaluable encouragement. I am particularly indebted to the advice and guidance of my supervisors, David Craig and Andrzej Olechnowicz. I would have been lost without their shrewd criticism, insightful comments, careful readings and ongoing support. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Abstract 11 Acknowledgments iii List of Maps and Tables v Introduction 1 Chapter One: Industry and Population in the North East, c.1790-1914 7 Chapter Two: Rates of Female Employment and Standards of Living 38 Chapter Three: Strategies of Survival 85 Chapter Four: The Paid Employment of Females in the Countryside 122 and the Town Chapter Five: Political Activities and Community Protest 178 Working-Class Women and Accessible Politics: 185 Campaigns, Concerns and Complaints, c .1790-1870 Working-Class Women and Political Organisations, c. 240 1870-1914 Working-Class Women and Elections 273 Conclusion 296 Appendix 304 Bibliography 319 iv LIST OF MAPS AND TABLES MAPS 1.1 Map of England with Northumberland and Durham Highlighted Vll 1.2 Map of Northumberland and Durham Showing Principal Towns and viii Villages Mentioned in the Text 1.3 Percentage of Adult Females in Regular Paid Employment, 1851 1 ix TABLES 1.1 Comparative Statement of Population, 1801-51, Showing the 14 Percentage Increase of Population in Durham and Northumberland 1.2 The Increase of Males and Females in the Population of Durham and 16 Northumberland with Sex Balance of that Growth, 1801-1851 1.3 Females as a Percentage of the Population, Aged 15-40, in County 17 Durham, 1841 1.4 Females as a Percentage of the Population, Aged 15-40, in 17 Northumberland, 1841 1.5 Females as a Percentage of the Population, Aged 15-40, in England, 18 1841 1.6 Comparative Statement of Population, 1851-1911, Showing the 25 Percentage Increase of Population in Durham and Northumberland as Compared to England 1.7 Males as a Percentage of Population in County Durham and 25 Northumberland, 1851-1911, as Compared to England and Wales 1.8 The Increase of Males and Females in Durham and Northumberland, 29 with the Sex Balance of that growth 1851-1911 2.1 Percentage of Persons Over 20 Years Old Recorded as Occupied, 50 1841 2.2 Percentage of Persons Over 20 Years Old Recorded as Occupied 51 within Durham and Northumberland, 1841 1 Map 1.3 is reproduced with kind permission. Leigh Shaw-Taylor, 'The Occupational Structure of England 1750-1871. Introduction and Preliminary Conclusions', unpublished preliminary report of ESRC Funded Project. v 2.3 Percentage of Females Returned as Occupied in each Urban Sanitary 53 Districts of which the Population exceeds 50,000, 1881 and 1891 2.4 Estimated Percentage of Females Ten Years of Age and Upwards 55 Returned as Occupied, 1851 and 1891 2.5 Percentage of Married Women Recorded as Occupied, 1851 and 56 1911 2.6 Percentage of Females Aged Upwards of Ten Years Recorded as 57 Occupied in Aggregates of Urban and Rural Areas, 1901 2.7 Percentage of Females Ever Married, Categorised by Age, in County 61 Durham, Northumberland, Preston and England and Wales, 1851 2.8 Percentage of Unmarried Persons Aged 20 Years and Upwards in 63 the Districts and Unions and County Durham and Northumberland, 1851 2.9 Percentage of Females Ever Married, Categorised by Age in County 65 Durham (1), Northumberland (2), and England and Wales (3), 1861, 1881, 1901 2.10 Percentage of Women Ever Married Within the North East, aged 15- 67 54, in 1881 and 1891 2.11 Percentage of Women Ever Married in the Aggregate of Urban and 69 Rural Districts of County Durham, Northumberland and England and Wales Categorised by Age, 1901 2.12 Cost of Living in the Industrial Towns of the North East, 1908 82 3.1 Marital Status of Prisoners in Newcastle Gaol, over the age of 16, 99 1873 3.2 Age of Females in Newcastle Gaol, 1860 100 3.3 Estimated Number of Prostitutes in Leading Towns, 1839 108 3.4 Prostitutes and Brothels recorded at Middlesbrough and Durham 111 Borough 3.5 Statistics Relating to Female Prisoners over the Age of Sixteen in 114 Newcastle Gaol, 1872, with Particular Reference to those Returned as Prostitutes VI MAP 1.1 MAP OF ENGLAND WITH NORTHUMBERLAND AND DURHAM HIGHLIGHTED Northumberland Durham vii MAP 1.2 MAP OF NORTHUMBERLAND AND DURHAM SHOWING PRINCIPAL TOWNS AND VILLAGES MENTIONED IN THE TEXT Morpeth c----- Bedlington viii MAP 1.3 PERCENTAGE OF ADULT FEMALES IN REGULAR EMPLOYMENT, 1851 Percentage Active in Employment 15.01 - 20.00 20.01 - 30.00 30.01 - 40.00 40.01 - 50.00 50.01 - 60.00 ... IX INTRODUCTION Around town at night and saw nothing but wretchedness and misery in the poorer districts. The saying 'one half of the world does not know how the other half live', is very true, and people who would like to be made aware of this must just about midnight walk around the notorious and dirty quarters of our city. Dirty and ragged females are seen standing in m?tley groups. Filthy and obscene language is the rule, and not the exception. Lazy and ill looking creatures - the worst possible type of mankind - are loafing about or indulging in their greatest delight and pastime - a quarrel and fight. The sights are too disgusting and I got away from the foul atmosphere of the place, and was quite relieved by the pure midnight air of the suburbs. 1 This private diary entry of William Dunn, a young middle-class Newcastle man, is a fairly typical piece of observation and judgement upon the lives of working-class men and women in the Victorian era.
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