THE ACQUISITION of SLAVES Portuguese Exploration in The

Total Page:16

File Type:pdf, Size:1020Kb

THE ACQUISITION of SLAVES Portuguese Exploration in The CHAPTER TWO THE ACQUISITION OF SLAVES Portuguese exploration in the Atlantic in the fifteenth century her- alded a shift in emphasis in the African slave trade from the Sahara to the West African coast. As outlined in the Introduction, the slave trade focused first on Arguim and Elmina, but during the late six- teenth century Upper Guinea developed as the main centre of the trade. Meanwhile in the early seventeenth century the conquest of Angola laid the basis for the development of the slave trade in that region. It was thus during the period of the Portuguese asientos that Upper Guinea began to lose its dominance in the trade to Angola. Manuel Bautista Pérez acquired slaves from both Upper Guinea and Angola. He was personally involved in the acquisition of slaves in Upper Guinea on two slave-trading expeditions to the Coast between 1613 and 1618, but as far as we know he never visited Angola. Following these two expeditions he settled in the Indies and largely relied on agents in Cartagena to acquire slaves for him. Between 1626 and 1633 his agents in Cartagena purchased 2,451 slaves of which 48.4 percent came from Upper Guinea and 45.8 percent from Angola.1 Pérez’s early expeditions to the African coast were a learning process for the young slave trader and they gener- ated a considerable volume of papers that included not only trad- ing accounts but also many private letters. The evidence contained in these documents adds considerable detail to what is known about slave-trading operations on the Upper Guinea Coast in the early seventeenth century from the general observations of merchants, trav- ellers and missionaries. Because of the richness of this documenta- tion, the greater part of this chapter will discuss the acquisition of slaves in Upper Guinea. Since one of the aims of this study is to 1 AGNL SO CO Ca 20 doc 201 Slave purchases 1628, 1629, 1630, 1631, 1632, 1633 and ANHS VM Vol. 77–I fols. 31–32 (1633), Vol. 77–II fols. 155–156v, 158 (1626) fol. 267v (1628), Vol. 79 I fol. 116, (1626), fols. 141–141v., 153–153v., 161v. (1627), Vol. 79–II fols. 314v.–319 (1631). The origin of most of the remainder is unknown. the acquisition of slaves 33 examine how the experience of slaves in Africa, both prior to and during captivity, affected their survival in the Americas, the chapter will also provide a brief account of the way that slaves were acquired in Angola, before discussing the cost of slaves and the numbers exported from both regions. The Upper Guinea Coast The Portuguese did not establish slave-trading forts on the Upper Guinea Coast as they did on the Gold Coast; rather the asentistas sold licenses to acquire slaves to private traders, who obtained the slaves through contacts with resident Portuguese traders or lançados. The Portuguese residents lived in formal Portuguese settlements, which were increasingly fortified, mainly for defence against other Europeans, while the lançados, who were regarded by the Portuguese as outcasts and renegades and referred to as tangomaos,2 lived under the protection of African chiefs.3 Portuguese settlement of the Upper Guinea Coast had been pioneered by lançados, whose name is derived from lançar ‘to throw’ indicating that they had “thrown their lot” in with African society. Some lançados, became so integrated into African society that they wore African clothes and, where permitted by African social traditions such as by the Banhun, Biafada and Papel, inter- married with local women. African leaders regarded the lançados as ‘guests’ who were required to abide by their laws and had to fit in with the African way of life. In return for hospitality they were obliged to make various kinds of ‘gifts’, which in effect bought their protection and other advantages such as access to African exchange networks. This access meant that lançados played a vital role in secur- ing slaves for export.4 It is worth noting that not all groups on the Upper Guinea Coast welcomed lançados, or indeed, Europeans. Societies, where power was more decentralised, such as the Djola (Folupo), Balanta and Bijagó, were generally hostile to them.5 2 Rodney, Upper Guinea Coast, 74–93, Brooks, Eurafricans, 50–53; Hawthorne, Planting Rice, 58–67. 3 Rodney, “Portuguese Attempts at Monopoly,” 320. 4 Sandoval, Tratado sobre la esclavitud, 146. 5 Rodney, Upper Guinea Coast, 29, 82; Manuel Álvares, Etiópia Menor e descripção géografica da Província da Serra Leoa, trans. P.E.H. Hair (Mimeo: University of Liverpool, Department of History, 1990), chap. 12; Hawthorne, Planting Rice, 99–103, 123–25..
Recommended publications
  • Gold, Labor and Colonialism in the Late-Nineteenth Century Gold Coast
    Raymond E. Dumett. El Dorado in West Africa: The Gold-Mining Frontier, African Labor, and Colonial Capitalism in the Gold Coast, 1875-1900. Athens: Ohio University Press, 1999. xviii + 396 pp. $24.95, paper, ISBN 978-0-8214-1198-8. Reviewed by Andrew F. Clark Published on H-Africa (August, 1999) The later nineteenth century witnessed the capitalistic gold mining. He examines various his‐ most extensive and famous series of gold migra‐ toriographical questions and provides consider‐ tions in modern history. Gold rushes occurred in able new information on the topics of mining, la‐ different parts of the world, including California, bor relations, capitalism, and colonialism in Southern Africa, Australia, New Zealand, Alaska, southwestern Ghana. The high quality photo‐ and the southwestern Gold Coast of West Africa. graphs at the end of each chapter depicting both Each of the gold discoveries caused large migra‐ indigenous and expatriate gold mining are a valu‐ tions of prospectors, skilled laborers, engineers, able addition to the book. land speculators, share pushers and con artists Gold mining and trading predated the arrival who moved from one fnd to the next, bringing of Europeans. The Akan region was one of West with them various skills but all with one goal, Africa's major gold sources, along with Bambuhu profit. In this excellent account focused on the on the upper Senegal and Bure on the upper Wassa area of the southwestern Gold Coast, Ray‐ Niger, for the trans-Saharan trade. West African mond Dumett, who has published extensively on gold made its way to medieval and Renaissance the colonial period and on gold mining, explores Europe.
    [Show full text]
  • Colonialism and Economic Development in Africa
    NBER WORKING PAPER SERIES COLONIALISM AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN AFRICA Leander Heldring James A. Robinson Working Paper 18566 http://www.nber.org/papers/w18566 NATIONAL BUREAU OF ECONOMIC RESEARCH 1050 Massachusetts Avenue Cambridge, MA 02138 November 2012 We are grateful to Jan Vansina for his suggestions and advice. We have also benefitted greatly from many discussions with Daron Acemoglu, Robert Bates, Philip Osafo-Kwaako, Jon Weigel and Neil Parsons on the topic of this research. Finally, we thank Johannes Fedderke, Ewout Frankema and Pim de Zwart for generously providing us with their data. The views expressed herein are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Bureau of Economic Research. NBER working papers are circulated for discussion and comment purposes. They have not been peer- reviewed or been subject to the review by the NBER Board of Directors that accompanies official NBER publications. © 2012 by Leander Heldring and James A. Robinson. All rights reserved. Short sections of text, not to exceed two paragraphs, may be quoted without explicit permission provided that full credit, including © notice, is given to the source. Colonialism and Economic Development in Africa Leander Heldring and James A. Robinson NBER Working Paper No. 18566 November 2012 JEL No. N37,N47,O55 ABSTRACT In this paper we evaluate the impact of colonialism on development in Sub-Saharan Africa. In the world context, colonialism had very heterogeneous effects, operating through many mechanisms, sometimes encouraging development sometimes retarding it. In the African case, however, this heterogeneity is muted, making an assessment of the average effect more interesting.
    [Show full text]
  • LUXURY RETAIL SPACE in Chicago's Gold Coast
    LUXURY RETAIL SPACE in chicago’s gold coast The Opportunity 1,600 Sf of premier street level oak street retail with 400 sf basement storage included located within 100 feet of rush street and within steps of chicago’s iconic magnificent mile phenomenal co-tenancy with barneys new york, prada, tom ford, hermes among others chicago’s most prestigious shopping district Available immediately Gold Coast Trade Area within 1/5 mile radius 27 hotels 7,310 Hotel rooms 83,879 total apparel expenditures $147,792 Avg. household income 35.391 estimated populaton 83,879 daytime population GIBSONS BHLDN JOE & barneys HUGO’S new york FROG THE JUICE BAR NICO madewell OSTERIA TED WALDORF vineyard FRYE E. Delaware Pl. ASTORIA vines BAKER HOTEL SHINOLA lululemon STARBUCKS Talbott athletica hotel Salon hermes PRADA buzz BRUNELLO MARC CUCINELLI sofitel YVES JACOBS hotel SAINT versace armani LAURENT dior moncler LA INTERMIX PERLA aritzia bonpoint loro piana CHRISTOFLE Rag & Bone N. Rush St. tesla pomellato motors COS tory burch argo allsaints tea pnc lalique JIL SANDER george WOLFORD greene KATE SPADE escada del frisco’s patagonia harry winston christian louboutin buccellati VAN CLEEF sprinkles & ARPELS tom ford whitehall cupcakes DOLCE GAbbaba hotel chanel & the carolina herrera tremont athleta hotel sandro/maje fornetto graff marcus fig & olive mei barbour ditka’s pauL rebecca minkoff stuart vince bloomingdales razny jewelers E. Chestnut St. eskander trabert geneva seal church’s jimmy cho four seasons hotel swiss st. john FINE TIMING the 900 shops E. Oak St. mont blanc tods E. Walton St. marshall pierce & fourth company presbyterian max michael church mara kors gucci N.
    [Show full text]
  • Geographic Names
    GEOGRAPHIC NAMES CORRECT ORTHOGRAPHY OF GEOGRAPHIC NAMES ? REVISED TO JANUARY, 1911 WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1911 PREPARED FOR USE IN THE GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE BY THE UNITED STATES GEOGRAPHIC BOARD WASHINGTON, D. C, JANUARY, 1911 ) CORRECT ORTHOGRAPHY OF GEOGRAPHIC NAMES. The following list of geographic names includes all decisions on spelling rendered by the United States Geographic Board to and including December 7, 1910. Adopted forms are shown by bold-face type, rejected forms by italic, and revisions of previous decisions by an asterisk (*). Aalplaus ; see Alplaus. Acoma; township, McLeod County, Minn. Abagadasset; point, Kennebec River, Saga- (Not Aconia.) dahoc County, Me. (Not Abagadusset. AQores ; see Azores. Abatan; river, southwest part of Bohol, Acquasco; see Aquaseo. discharging into Maribojoc Bay. (Not Acquia; see Aquia. Abalan nor Abalon.) Acworth; railroad station and town, Cobb Aberjona; river, IVIiddlesex County, Mass. County, Ga. (Not Ackworth.) (Not Abbajona.) Adam; island, Chesapeake Bay, Dorchester Abino; point, in Canada, near east end of County, Md. (Not Adam's nor Adams.) Lake Erie. (Not Abineau nor Albino.) Adams; creek, Chatham County, Ga. (Not Aboite; railroad station, Allen County, Adams's.) Ind. (Not Aboit.) Adams; township. Warren County, Ind. AJjoo-shehr ; see Bushire. (Not J. Q. Adams.) Abookeer; AhouJcir; see Abukir. Adam's Creek; see Cunningham. Ahou Hamad; see Abu Hamed. Adams Fall; ledge in New Haven Harbor, Fall.) Abram ; creek in Grant and Mineral Coun- Conn. (Not Adam's ties, W. Va. (Not Abraham.) Adel; see Somali. Abram; see Shimmo. Adelina; town, Calvert County, Md. (Not Abruad ; see Riad. Adalina.) Absaroka; range of mountains in and near Aderhold; ferry over Chattahoochee River, Yellowstone National Park.
    [Show full text]
  • R17-00120-V06-N156-1897-04-02
    ~• Noname's" Latest and Best Stories are Published in This Library. I Ente1·ed as Second Class llfatter at the New Yo•·k. N. Y ., Post O.Utce, Octobe•· 5, 1892. coMPLETE } FRANK TOUSEY. PPnitsrrER, 3! & 36 NoRTH Mom~H: STREF.T. NEw YoRK. { J'HICE } Vol VI No. 156. { · New. York, April2, 1897. 1sSUED. SH:MI-MONTHLY. 5 CJCNTS. • • Entered acco1•ding to the Act of Congress, in the yeur 1897, by FRA.NTC TOUS!1:Y, in the office of the Librarian of Congress, at TVashington, D. C. or, Frank Reade, Jt·., Exploring the Sunken Reef of Gold With His New Submarine Boat. Under the Gulf of Guinea; By " NONAME." Quite accidentally Frank swung the hea.d of his ax against a corner of the reef. It shivered a fragment from this corner, and something :flashed upon Frank's gaze with dazzling brilliancy. .. Jericho!" he gasped. "What was that P" He brought the electric headlight on his helmet to bear upon the shining point. It was yellow ore which he beheld. 2 UNDER THE GULF OF GUINEA. The subscription price of t he FRA:\'K READE LIBRARY by the year is $2.i50 ; $1.25 per six months. post paid. Address FRANK TOUSEY, PuBLISHER,34 and 36 North Moore Street, New York. Box 2730. Under the Gulf of Guinea; OR, Frank Reade, Jr., Exploring the Sunken Reef of Gold With His New Submarine Boat. A MARVELOUS TALE OF THE DEEP SEA. • By "NONAME," Author ot "The Silent City," "The Black Mogul," ''Below the Sahara,'' "In White Latitudes;: etc., etc.
    [Show full text]
  • Was the Gold Coast 'Decolonised' Or Did Ghana Win Its Independence?
    Was the Gold Coast ‘decolonised’ or did Ghana win its independence? A resource for Key Stage 4 Key words: Empire, Liberty, Government, Ideas, Role of individuals in encouraging change, Africa, independence, decolonisation, nationalism, Ghana, Nkrumah In 1957 the British colony of the Gold Coast became the independent nation of Ghana. Did Britain grant Ghanaian independence or was this the result of the actions of Ghanaian nationalists, led by Kwame Nkrumah? Many historians see the post-World War Two period as one of British retreat from its empire. Britain was economically weakened and in debt to the United States, which opposed continued European colonialism. Although India achieved independence in 1947, Britain initially sought to compensate for the loss of its Asian colonies with increased economic intervention in its African ones: it also trained a new generation of African civil servants to replace their British counterparts. This has been characterised as a ‘second colonial occupation’. Influenced by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and the new United Nations, Britain was committed to decolonisation when African colonies were ready to rule themselves, but this was commonly imagined as taking 20, 30 or even 50 years. Meanwhile, a new generation of African nationalists wanted to mobilise a mass movement against colonialism, criticising older African political leaders who sought reform within colonialism rather than its overthrow. Kwame Nkrumah, who returned from studies in the US and Britain to the Gold Coast in 1947, supported protests by poverty- stricken ex-soldiers who had fought for Britain in WWII. In February 1948, these demonstrators were fired upon by British troops and riots broke out across the territory.
    [Show full text]
  • Africa and the First World War
    Africa and the First World War Africa and the First World War: Remembrance, Memories and Representations after 100 Years Edited by De-Valera NYM Botchway and Kwame Osei Kwarteng Africa and the First World War: Remembrance, Memories and Representations after 100 Years Edited by De-Valera NYM Botchway and Kwame Osei Kwarteng This book first published 2018 Cambridge Scholars Publishing Lady Stephenson Library, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE6 2PA, UK British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Copyright © 2018 by De-Valera NYM Botchway, Kwame Osei Kwarteng and contributors All rights for this book reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. ISBN (10): 1-5275-0546-4 ISBN (13): 978-1-5275-0546-9 TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgements .................................................................................. viii Introduction ................................................................................................. x De-Valera N.Y.M. Botchway Section I: Recruitments, Battlefronts and African Responses Chapter One ................................................................................................. 2 The Role of the Gold Coast Regiment towards the Defeat of the Germans in Africa during World War I Colonel J. Hagan Chapter Two .............................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • Using Historical Responses to Shoreline Change on Australia's
    Journal of Marine Science and Engineering Article Using Historical Responses to Shoreline Change on Australia’s Gold Coast to Estimate Costs of Coastal Adaptation to Sea Level Rise Daniel Ware 1,* , Andrew Buckwell 2 , Rodger Tomlinson 1 , Kerrie Foxwell-Norton 3 and Neil Lazarow 4 1 Griffith Centre for Coastal Management, Griffith University, Gold Coast Campus, Gold Coast, QLD 4222, Australia; r.tomlinson@griffith.edu.au 2 Griffith Business School, Griffith University, Nathan Campus, Nathan, QLD 4222, Australia; a.buckwell@griffith.edu.au 3 Griffith Centre for Social and Cultural Research, Griffith University, Gold Coast Campus, Gold Coast, QLD 4222, Australia; k.foxwell@griffith.edu.au 4 CSIRO, Land and Water, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia; [email protected] * Correspondence: d.ware@griffith.edu.au; Tel.: +61-755528389 Received: 26 March 2020; Accepted: 13 May 2020; Published: 26 May 2020 Abstract: Climate change impacts, sea level rise, and changes to the frequency and intensity of storms, in particular, are projected to increase the coastal land and assets exposed to coastal erosion. The selection of appropriate adaptation strategies requires an understanding of the costs and how such costs will vary by the magnitude and timing of climate change impacts. By drawing comparisons between past events and climate change projections, it is possible to use experience of the way societies have responded to changes to coastal erosion to inform the costs and selection of adaptation strategies at the coastal settlement scale. The experience of implementing a coastal protection strategy for the Gold Coast’s southern beaches between 1964 and 1999 is compiled into a database of the timing, units, and cost of coastal protection works.
    [Show full text]
  • Aquaculture Jeopardizes Migrating Oriental Storks Indigenous Rights To
    LETTERS Downloaded from The Oriental stork (Ciconia bo yciana) is threatened by human activities in its migratory stopover points in China. http://science.sciencemag.org/ Edited by Jennifer Sills and prevents them from finding enough REFERENCES AND NOTES food (4). As a result, the storks relocate 1. CITES, “Appendices” (2020); https://cites.org/eng/ to private fishponds, where they face an app/appendices.php. Aquaculture jeopardizes 2. BirdLife International, “Ciconia boyciana” (IUCN Red List increased risk of poisoning and poaching. In of Threatened Species, 2018). migrating Oriental storks 2019, 19 storks were poisoned in the Qilihai 3. Y. Yamada et al., Ecol. Res. 34, 277 (2019). and Caofeidian wetlands (8). 4. IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic, and Social Policy, “A reflection on protected areas in The Oriental stork (Ciconia bo yciana), The Oriental stork has been catego- serving wildlife migration: Endangered Oriental storks” once the most common bird of the Far rized as a terrestrial species under state (2019). East, is now listed in Appendix I of the protection (with a beneficial, economic, 5. W. Peng et al., Int. J. Ecol. 9, 108 (2020) [in Chinese]. 6. Z. J. Zhao, Avifauna of China (Jilin Science and Convention on International Trade in or scientific value) since 2000 (9), but Technology Press, vol. 1, 2001) [in Chinese]. Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and the species’ extremely limited population 7. “ Ninety percent of Caofeidian wetland was outsourced on November 5, 2020 and turned into fishponds” [China Biodiversity Flora (CITES) and classified as Endangered size indicates that this designation is not Conservation and Green Development Foundation on the International Union for Conservation enough.
    [Show full text]
  • PREMIER GOLD COAST RETAIL Unprecedented Redevelopment at Prime NEC of State & Cedar
    NEW SMALL SHOP DEMISING OPTIONSNEIGHBORING AVAILABLE PROPERTY One Hour Fire Rated Common Corridor +/-21'-7" +/-2'-2" +/-1'-6" +/-25'-10" +/-18'-0" +/-2'-4" +/-3'-0" +/-7'-1" +/-3'-0" +/-6'-5" +/-2'-9" +/-8'-0" +/-5'-1" +/-5'-0" +/-5'-5" Elevator One Hour Fire Rated +/-5'-0" +/-7'-3" Common Corridor +/-10'-7" +/-19'-5" +/-6'-5" +/-21'-5" +/-3'-0" Stair B Warby Parker +/-3'-8" Stair A +/-31'-9" +/-32'-10" GLASS FRONTAGE +/-5'-9" +/-3'-11" 31'-4" +/-27'-8" +/-28'-1" +/-28'-9" +/-24'-7" +/-47'-6" +/-40'-7" +/-41'-4" +/-46'-11" +/-45'-7" +/-29'-0" +/-7'-2" +/-28'-9" +/-7'-2" S T A T E S T R E E T 4'-7" +/-3'-8" Lease Out TENANT C TENANT D TENANT E 1,039 SF 2,280 SF 1,957 SF 1,342 SF GLASS FRONTAGE 17'-8" +/-3'-6" +/-3'-6" +/-9'-10" +/-9'-10" +/-26'-9" +/-25'-7" 4'-0 +/-3'-8" +/-3'-8" +/-3'-8" +/-5'-4" 1 2 " 1 4'-02" 15'-4" 4'-7" 27'-11" 4'-7" 27'-11" 4'-7" 15'-4" GLASS FRONTAGE GLASS FRONTAGE GLASS FRONTAGE GLASS FRONTAGE E C E D A R S T R E E T CONCEPTUAL RENDERING PREMIER GOLD COAST RETAIL Unprecedented redevelopment at prime NEC of State & Cedar Janika Brenner 312.275.3119 [email protected] Adam Secher 312.275.3130 [email protected] GOLD COAST RETAIL Located at the highly visible northeast corner of State Street & Cedar Street, this redevelopment offers retailers a unique opportunity to establish a presence in the heart of the Gold Coast.
    [Show full text]
  • The Introduction of Cocoa in the Gold Coast: a Study in the Relations Between African Farmers and Colonial Agricultural Experts
    Yale University EliScholar – A Digital Platform for Scholarly Publishing at Yale Discussion Papers Economic Growth Center 2-18-1966 The Introduction of Cocoa in the Gold Coast: A Study in the Relations Between African Farmers and Colonial Agricultural Experts Reginald H. Green Stephen Hymer Follow this and additional works at: https://elischolar.library.yale.edu/egcenter-discussion-paper-series Recommended Citation Green, Reginald H. and Hymer, Stephen, "The Introduction of Cocoa in the Gold Coast: A Study in the Relations Between African Farmers and Colonial Agricultural Experts" (1966). Discussion Papers. 9. https://elischolar.library.yale.edu/egcenter-discussion-paper-series/9 This Discussion Paper is brought to you for free and open access by the Economic Growth Center at EliScholar – A Digital Platform for Scholarly Publishing at Yale. It has been accepted for inclusion in Discussion Papers by an authorized administrator of EliScholar – A Digital Platform for Scholarly Publishing at Yale. For more information, please contact [email protected]. ECONOHIC GROi·lTH CENTER YALE UNIVERSITY Box 1987, Yale Station New Haven, Connecticut CENTER DISCUSSION PAPER NO. 1 ·- THE INTRODUCTION OF COCOA IN THE GOLD COAST: A ·sTUDY IN THE REL/1.TIONS BETl·lEEN J\FRIC/1.N FARMERS AND COLONI1\L AGRICULTURAL EXPERTS R.H. Green S. H. Hymer February 18, 1966 Note: Center Discussion Papers are preliminary materials circulated to stimulate discussion and critical cornrcent. References in publications to Discussion Papers should be cleaied with the author to protect the tentative character of these papers. ... .THE INTRODUCTION OF coco~ IN THE GOLD COAST: A STUDY IN THE RELATIONS BE'IWEEN AFRIC/1.N FAmIERS AtD COLONIAL AGRICULTURAL EXPERTS By R.
    [Show full text]
  • Atlantic Creoles and the Origins of African- American Society In
    From Creole to African: Atlantic Creoles and the Origins of African- American Society in Mainland North America Author(s): Ira Berlin Reviewed work(s): Source: The William and Mary Quarterly, Third Series, Vol. 53, No. 2 (Apr., 1996), pp. 251-288 Published by: Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2947401 . Accessed: 17/01/2012 17:13 Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected]. Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to The William and Mary Quarterly. http://www.jstor.org From Creole to African:Atlantic Creoles and the Origins of African-American Society in Mainland North America Ira Berlin N I727, Robert "King"Carter, the richest planter in Virginia, purchased J a handful of African slaves from a trader who had been cruising the Chesapeake. The transaction was a familiar one to the great planter, for Carter owned hundreds of slaves and had inspected many such human car- goes, choosing the most promising from among the weary, frightened men and women who had survived the transatlanticcrossing. Writing to his over- seer from his plantation on the Rappahannock River, Carter explained the process by which he initiated Africans into their American captivity.
    [Show full text]