National Strategy on Climate Change and Low Carbon Development for Rwanda Baseline Report  
  

Editor



Professor Sir David King FRS

Authors


Bernis Byamukama [email protected] Economics, Trade and Industry Dr Christian Carey [email protected] Transport Cities and the Built Environment Megan Cole [email protected] Energy Mining



Jillian Dyszynski [email protected] Climate Policy Dr Mathew Warnest [email protected] Agriculture Land Water

Expert Advisors

Dr Mick Blowfield (Industry and Commerce) Dr Nick Eyre (Energy) Dr David Frame (Climate Centre) Dr Rajat Gupta (Built Environment) Dr Claire Heffernan (Agriculture) Dr Cameron Hepburn (Economics and policy) Dr Oliver Inderwildi (Transport) Dr Mark New (Water) Dr Geoff Pearce (Water) Professor John Pickett (Agriculture) Ranjita Rajan (Management and enterprise) Dr Richard Washington (Climate Centre)

“The National Strategy on Climate Change and Low Carbon Development for Rwanda, including the production of this report, is funded by the Climate & Development Knowledge Network (CDKN) www.cdkn.org. Views expressed in this document are those of the Smith School of Enterprise and Environment and the Government of Rwanda and may not be shared by CDKN or partner organisations.”

University of Oxford Smith School of Enterprise and the Environment Hayes House 75 George Street Oxford OX1 2BQ United Kingdom

DOI 10.4210/SSEE.PBS.2011.0002 ISSN (Print) 2042-4035 ISSN (Online) 2042-4043

i Baseline
Report “The environment is our life-blood; indeed the real surprise is not that ministries of finance are now talking to ministries of environment – but that it has actually taken this long. Even when we look beyond agriculture, tourism, mineral wealth and fisheries, our economies depend critically on good environmental stewardship.” His Excellency Paul Kagame, President of Rwanda 2009

Smith School of Enterprise and the Environment ii iii Baseline
Report THE SMITH SCHOOL VIEW

“Our climate is changing and we are causing it to change. While developed countries struggle to reach agreement, many leaders in the developing world are striding forward, meeting challenging goals in order to reduce the impact on their nations, while continuing development. Rwanda is one such country. Under the leadership of His Excellency Paul Kagame, Rwanda has made remarkable progress in economic development. With the assistance of the Climate & Development Knowledge Network and the Department for International Development, through the Smith School of Enterprise and the Environment, significant steps will be made towards sustainable and robust development strategies. This can only be possible through the in-depth and continuing support of the Government of Rwanda, whose efforts will ensure this project succeeds in its aims. This baseline report is the first stage in a unique opportunity to create a low-carbon, climate-resilient development plan, taking Rwanda into a sustainable, and above all a prosperous, mid- century as a middle income economy.” Professor Sir David King FRS Oxford 2011

Smith School of Enterprise and the Environment iv v Baseline
Report VIEW FROM RWANDA

“The elaboration of a Climate Change and Low Carbon Development Strategy marks a significant turning point in the development paradigm Rwanda is contemplating. Sustainable development will indeed be effective only if articulated by climate resilient and low carbon economic growth. The extensive appraisal reflected in this baseline report provides appropriate grounds to effect a new planning framework that will proactively take into account recurrent shocks relevant to the impacts of global climate change. ” Honourable Minister Stanislas Kamanzi Kigali 2011

Smith School of Enterprise and the Environment vi vii Baseline
Report TABLE OF CONTENTS

The Smith School View iv View from Rwanda vi Table of Contents viii Executive Summary x

1. Introduction 1 2. Climate Policy 9 3. Economy, Trade and Industry 19 4. Energy 25 5. Mining 35 6. Transport 41 7. Cities and the Built Environment 49 8. Agriculture 55 9. Land 63 10.Water 71 11.Forestry 79 12.Conclusion 85

Acknowledgements 87 References 89 Acronyms and Abbreviations 95

Smith School of Enterprise and the Environment viii “The danger posed by war to all of humanity - and to our planet - is at least matched by the climate crisis and global warming. I believe that the world has reached a critical stage in its efforts to exercise responsible environmental stewardship.”

Ban Ki-moon UN Secretary General

ix Baseline
Report EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

This Baseline Report is the first step in the Agriculture, the source of employment for process of developing a National Strategy 80% of the population, is most at risk. on Climate Change and Low Carbon Rwanda is currently dependent on Development for Rwanda. It provides a hydropower for 50% of its electricity, snapshot of the country today and the making it vulnerable to changes in rainfall. planned initiatives that will take it forward, Regional planning of hydropower plants placing it within the context of climate has based maximum capacity on current change. Though many opportunities are river flows, which are likely to change. As highlighted, the aim of the report is to temperatures rise, diseases will spread provide the foundation for the next step posing health risks to the predominantly where detailed analysis will take place and poor population. Planning for the future in recommendations will be made. Rwanda needs to take all these changes Rwanda is a small, hilly, landlocked into account to become climate-resilient. country in East Africa with the highest The root cause of global warming, the population density in Africa. It has strong burning of fossil fuels, needs to be leadership and good governance, which addressed on a global scale. Rwanda, as have enabled it to develop rapidly: it has a Least Developed Country (LDC), is not experienced an average GDP growth rate required to cut its greenhouse gas (GHG) of 8.5% in the past five years. Rwanda’s emissions and currently is a net carbon collective vision for development is sink thanks to forest sequestration. embodied in Vision 2020, which seeks to However, GHG emissions are expected to transform the country from a subsistence rise as the country’s economy grows. agriculture economy to a knowledge- Rwanda is currently dependent on oil based middle income economy by 2020. imports for transport and 45% of electricity Export revenues are dominated by generation. Moving to a low carbon minerals, tea and coffee while services and economy would reduce vulnerability to oil agriculture contribute 81% of GDP. price spikes and improve energy security. Tourism has recently become the largest As an LDC, Rwanda has priority access to foreign exchange earner. As the population international climate finance: developing a grows and urbanisation and National Strategy on Climate Change and industrialisation increase, more and more Low Carbon Development will facilitate pressure is placed on the natural that process. resources in Rwanda, notably land, water This Baseline Report addresses various and forests. Limited infrastructure, sectors of the economy individually for the including the transport network, electricity specific purpose of gaining deeper insight. grid and water pipelines, hinders trade and But sectoral integration is crucial in the the provision of basic amenities. development of a national strategy, and Many initiatives are under way in Rwanda this will be a key component of the next to address these challenges but there is a stage. The project recognises the new challenge that needs to be addressed challenges of low capacity and funding. It – that of climate change due to global aims to build local capacity, especially in warming. Rwanda is highly vulnerable to the areas of climate finance and climate the impacts of climate change although data collection and analysis, and will lack of sufficient data means that regional contribute to the establishment of a climate change projections are uncertain. Climate Centre.

Smith School of Enterprise and the Environment x “We must use time wisely and forever realise that the time is always ripe to do right.”

Nelson Mandela

xi Baseline
Report 1. INTRODUCTION

Climate change poses the greatest global - Contribute to the implementation of a challenge of our day. It requires us to Climate Centre in Rwanda to improve reduce our dependence on fossil fuels and climate data and models for the region to learn to adapt to new climate-related Many developing countries have produced risks. For developing countries, poverty climate change strategies or action plans, alleviation and human development have including Bangladesh, Kenya and Zambia. become an even greater challenge. Oil Low carbon development studies are less importers like Rwanda will be exposed to common, however, with early movers price shocks, threatening energy security being Brazil, China, India, Indonesia, and economic growth. Decoupling a Mexico, Poland, South Africa, Guyana, developing economy from fossil fuels – low Costa Rica and South Korea. The studies carbon development – and climate- identify greenhouse gas (GHG) mitigation proofing key economic sectors is a priority potential, assess the costs and benefits of for stable growth. The Government of lower carbon growth pathways, examine Rwanda has recognised this and is financing sources and mechanisms to committed to addressing climate change address the additional costs, characterise with the same determination that it has appropriate policy support, and identify shown towards socio-economic projects and programmes that contribute development. Rwanda’s development to growth and development goals while vision is embodied in Vision 2020 which curbing GHG emissions[2]. Rwanda has aims to transform the country from a Least the opportunity to join this group of early Developed Country (LDC) to a middle- movers on low carbon development but income economy, with an income of 900 would be the first LDC to do so. This will USD per capita by 2020[1] . With real GDP position the country well to be eligible for growth rates of 8.5% in the past five years, international climate finance for mitigation Rwanda is on track to meet the Vision and adaptation. Key success factors in 2020 targets. However, this economic developing low carbon development growth has implications for Rwanda’s strategies to date have been[2]: impact on the environment, and it is vulnerable to climate impacts and oil price - Senior government leadership shocks. In consequence, the Government - Robust data and scientific and of Rwanda (GoR) has commissioned the economic analysis development of a National Climate - Stakeholder engagement Change and Low Carbon Development - Consensus building around priority Strategy for Rwanda. The strategy aims sectors to: Rwanda has started the process well, with - Develop a roadmap for future climate full support from His Excellency President resilient and low carbon economic Kagame and his Cabinet. Stakeholders in growth in Rwanda government, donor agencies, NGOs, - Build on existing climate change academia and the private sector have initiatives and opportunities that are been involved in the scoping phase of this currently being undertaken in relative project. This Baseline Report is a snapshot isolation in Rwanda of Rwanda, taken during a three-week - Provide a framework around which period in November and December 2010 detailed sectoral studies and by the Smith School of Enterprise and implementation plans can be built Environment (SSEE) research team, and - Develop local capacity in sourcing, aims to define the current and ongoing applying for and obtaining international projects. It was reviewed by the SSEE climate funding team of expert advisors, the government steering committee, and the funders,

Smith School of Enterprise and the Environment 1 Figure 1.1: Major features of Rwanda and its locality[3] CDKN and DFID. Owing to the rapid the Congo in the west. The geology of nature of development in Rwanda some of Rwanda is dominated by the Kibaran Belt, the information included in this study will which also underlies parts of Tanzania, already be out of date; this illustrates the Uganda, Burundi, DRC and Angola and is challenge of producing a national known to be widely mineralised, hosting framework in such a dynamic deposits of tin, tungsten, coltan, gold and environment. The objectives of this report semi-precious stones. With just over 10 are twofold: to refresh and expand the million people, Rwanda has the highest research team’s knowledge of Rwanda; population density in Africa at 370 people and to provide the foundation for the per square kilometre; the population is second stage of the project. The second growing at 2.8% per year (the global stage will involve detailed analysis of average is 1.16%) and is expected to current and potential opportunities and is reach 13 million by 2020 (figure 1.2)[4]. This explained in more detail in the final chapter is mostly due to a high birth rate (5.41) but of this report. also to incoming refugees and the Rwanda Today returning diaspora. The population is young, with over 41% under the age of 14, Rwanda is a small, landlocked country in but life expectancy is low (50.1 years equatorial East Africa covering 26,338 compared to a global average of 68.9 km2, bordering the Democratic Republic of years)[5]. Only 20% of the population lives Congo (DRC), Burundi, Uganda and in urban areas, and 44% of those are in Tanzania (figure 1.1). Rwanda is known as the capital city, Kigali. Rwanda was the “land of a thousand hills” as its terrain granted the United Nations Habitat Scroll is characterised by steep slopes and of Honour Award in 2008 for its urban green hills, upon which its predominantly projects improving the local environment, rural population survive on subsistence access to amenities and quality of life in agriculture. About 45% of land in Rwanda Kigali. It is one of the cleanest and safest is arable, with an estimated 22% forested cities in Africa. and 18% pastureland. Thanks to its Rwanda is a developing country with 56% altitude (950 to 4,500m ASL), Rwanda of its population living below the poverty enjoys a temperate climate and has a line. It has a Human Development Index bimodal rainy season with mean annual (HDI) of 0.385, ranking 152nd out of 167 rainfall of 1,028mm. This drains into two nations[6]. It has however achieved major river basins, the Nile in the east and

2 Baseline
Report Figure 1.2: Rwandan Population[4] significant economic growth in the past supply, transport systems and energy five years, and currently has a per capita supply all have significant regional impacts income of 560 USD, up from 200 USD in and cross-border collaborations are in 2000 when Vision 2020 was drafted. The place to ensure the success of vision is to transform Rwanda from a development strategies. subsistence agriculture economy to a knowledge-based society, with high levels Climate and Meteorology of savings and private investment, thereby Rwanda is located astride two key climate reducing the country’s dependence on regions, East Africa and Central Africa, external aid. The Economic Development with contrasting controls and drivers on and Poverty Reduction Strategy (EDPRS) climate. As a result the region is difficult to is a framework for the implementation of simulate in climate models, and climate Vision 2020 in the medium term[7], from projections are uncertain. Climate model 2008 to 2012. It aims to guide the actions scenarios show future increases in mean of the GoR, mobilise resources from annual temperature of up to 3.25°C for the donors and involve the private sector and region by the end of the century. Changes civil society. EDPRS addresses four cross- in rainfall are more uncertain, though most cutting issues, namely gender, social of the models show that rainfall will inclusion, HIV/Aids and the environment. increase. These projections are based on Rwanda’s commitment to its vision is downscaling of global climate models to a shown by its parliament, more than half of single station in Rwanda (Kigali Airport); whom are women. A new EDPRS II will be limited regional climate modelling has been formulated in 2012. carried out that captures Rwanda’s unique Along with Kenya, Tanzania, Burundi and regional setting and climatology. For Uganda, Rwanda is part of the East example, El Niño and La Niña phenomena African Community (EAC), which are associated with heavy rains and severe encourages the free movement of goods, dry conditions respectively, with impacts services, labour and capital and will varying considerably over space and time. promote private sector development in The intensification and relaxation of Rwanda. Attention to the sensitivity of synoptic systems determine the sources regional relationships, particularly of moisture injection into the country, along concerning the exploitation of resources, is with movement of the Inter Tropical key in ensuring regional security. Water Convergence Zone (ITCZ). Other factors

Smith School of Enterprise and the Environment 3 Figure 1.3: Variation of annual average temperature and rainfall at Kigali airport Station[8].

listed by the Rwandan Meteorological meteorological observations, with some Service as influencing the country’s rainfall records going back to the 1900s. This are[8]: historical data has yet to be added to - Subtropical anticyclones Rwanda’s digital data bank, and there is - Congo air mass opportunity for liaison with the Belgian - Inter-seasonal wave variation Technical Corporation (BTC) and Belgium - The Mascarene, Azores, St. Helena Embassy to investigate colonial era data. and Arabian high-pressure systems Between 1994 and 2009 there are - Regional topography, large water complete records only from the Kigali bodies (e.g. Lake Kivu), and large Airport station. Currently there are 13 forests synoptic stations and five automatic stations, which provide data at hourly Historical records show that there has intervals, along with 26 rainfall stations and been an overall rise in temperature and 38 more planned for installation. In reductions in annual rainfall[8] (figure 1.3). A addition to these stations, the Ministry of shift in the timing of rainfall seasons is Agriculture (MINAGRI) operates 88 rainfall being experienced in some regions, with stations for agro-meteorological purposes. significant impacts on rain-fed agriculture. For the last five years, there are good Climate Centre three-hourly, daily and monthly records of their observations. Observed climate data is essential for climate model development, and - Improved infrastructure and information particularly given the small size and unique are also important for the prevention and location of Rwanda - a sound early warning systems (EWS) that Rwanda is developing. This will in turn inform observational network is vital for downscaling climate forecasts and climate adaptation and future investment planning, change projections. This is required to as well as address root causes of integrate climate change into economic vulnerability. The establishment of a development planning. Prior to the 1994 Climate Centre will be an important step in this process and will be a focus of the next conflict, over 100 stations provided regular

4 Baseline
Report stage of this project. This will be with projected socioeconomic supported by Meteo Rwanda’s recent development and demographic change. designation as an autonomous agency, no The physical impacts and economic costs longer under the auspices of the Ministry of current climate variability and events in of Infrastructure (MININFRA). Rwanda are already very significant. The Adaptation country has high land use pressures coupled with erosion from steep slopes, Findings from the Economics of Climate along with floods and rains, and in some Change in Rwanda[9] study highlight the eastern regions there are desertification need for adaptation and disaster trends due to droughts. Extreme events prevention. The study shows that existing have had dramatic impacts across the key climate variability has significant economic economic sectors of agriculture, costs in Rwanda. Periodic floods and infrastructure and health. Factors droughts already cause major socio- contributing to Rwanda’s underlying economic impacts and constitute an vulnerability include: external shock that reduces economic growth. Major floods occurred in 1997, - High levels of poverty and low adaptive 2006, 2007, 2008, and 2009, when heavy capacity rainfall resulted in infrastructure damage, - High population density and shrinking fatalities and injuries, landslides, loss and land availability damage to agricultural crops, soil erosion - Reliance on rain-fed and low input and environmental degradation. In some agriculture for 90% of households regions of the country, particularly in the - Reliance on biomass energy east, periodic droughts (for example in - Severe land and resource degradation 1999/2000 and 2005/6) have undermined The GoR has responded to the unplanned agricultural production. Rwanda therefore environmental degradation with a number has a current adaptation deficit, and is not of projects, including a national tree- adequately prepared for existing climate planting scheme and wetland restoration, risks. To plan robustly for adaptation to for which Rwanda won the Green Globe future climate change, it will be critical to Award in 2010. take this deficit into consideration, along

Table 1.1: Greenhouse gas emissions in 2005 [11]

CO2 CH4 N2O NOx CO NMVOCs SOx CO2 eq Greenhouse Gas Sources (Gg) (Gg) (Gg) (Gg) (Gg) (Gg) (Gg) (Gg) Total National Emissions 531 71 10 14 2,327 42 18 5010.4 Energy (fuel combustion) 380 20 0 14 361 42 18 891.3 Energy Industries 45 - 0 0 0 0 0 - (petroleum) Manufacturing industries 28 - 0 0 0 0 1 - and construction Transport 274 - 0 7 17 3 0 - Other (residential - biomass) 34 20 0 7 344 38 17 - Industrial processes (cement 151 - - 0 0 0 0 150.5 and lime production) Agriculture - 49 10 0 9 0 0 3909.9 Land-use change and 0 0 0 0 1,957 0 0 10.9 forestry (LULUCF) Waste (disposal and handling) 3 - 0 0 0 0 47.25

Smith School of Enterprise and the Environment 5 Greenhouse Gas (GHG) -N2O from agricultural soils (57%) Emissions -CH4 from enteric fermentation in domestic livestock (19%) Rwanda has one of the lowest emissions -CH4 from residential energy from fuel per capita in the world, estimated at 0.65 combustion (8%) tonnes CO2/person (including land use -CO2 from road vehicles (5%) change), compared to a global average of The SNC recognises that there are 4.63 tonnes CO 2/person. In January 2010 uncertainties in the GHG emissions due to the GoR submitted its Second National inadequate representation, lack of basic Communication (SNC) to the UNFCCC data and application of emissions factors with a GHG emissions inventory for the for different conditions. The GoR has reference year, 2005 (Table 1.1). The recognised the need for the National majority of GHG emissions were CO2 Institute for Statistics to include climate (87%) at 531Gg, dominated by transport change and low carbon-related questions (52%) and industrial processes (28.5%). in the data collection process to improve Total CO sequestration was 9,000Gg and 2 confidence in the figures. land use change (conversion of forests and grasslands) was -545Gg making GHG emissions have shown an upward trend, from 2,896.34Gg in 2003 to Rwanda a net carbon sink. CO2 emissions from biomass and bunkers (aviation) were 5,793.45Gg in 2006, and have continued 7,228Gg and 17Gg respectively but are to increase as Rwanda’s economy has memo items only. The aggregate grown over recent years. In 2009 a Rapid Assessment of a National Energy and Low emissions or total CO2 equivalent, used for [11] measuring global warming potential, Carbon Path reported emissions amounted to 5,010.4Gg in 2005, projections for key sectors, as shown in dominated by agriculture (78%) and figure 1.3; these indicate that Rwanda’s emissions will increase by 50% by 2020 energy (18%). Nitrous oxide (N2O) and and that it will become a nett emitter in methane (CH4) are the most potent greenhouse gases contributing 62% and 2012. Owing to the rapid development in 26% of aggregated emissions. Four key the energy and other sectors in Rwanda, sources contribute 91% of aggregate these projections need to be revisited. emissions:

Figure 1.3: GHG emissions and sinks of Rwanda[11]

6 Baseline
Report Figure 1.4: GHG emissions and sinks of Rwanda[12]

Oil Reliance - Investment in alternative energy carriers, technologies, demand-side Rwanda imports all of its oil requirements measures, industry etc. of a magnitude for energy generation and transport, at a equivalent to potential losses cost of 210 million USD (2009 dollars) associated with forecasted high oil [12] which was 4.7% of GDP in 2008 . prices is sufficient to reduce oil Rwanda’s heavy reliance on imported oil dependency to acceptable levels. puts it at risk from oil price spikes, which - Postponing investment in measures directly impact GDP. An example of this that decouple oil demand from was the inflation spike from 5% to 20% in economic growth will increase the 2008 (figure 1.4). This was directly challenge of doing so in the future. attributed to the increasing global oil price, - International Climate Financing with inflation reducing to 2007 levels once Mechanisms the oil price crashed. Further development A wide-range of climate financing reliant on fossil fuels will only make Rwanda’s economy more susceptible to opportunities currently exists, or is under such price shocks. For a robust development, to address adaptation and development strategy, Rwanda’s economy mitigation in developing countries such as Rwanda. Mitigation financing through must be decoupled from oil. emissions trading schemes is the most A country’s vulnerability to oil prices is a advanced and well-known operational function of the degree to which it relies on mechanism; in 2008 the global market imported oil and its oil intensity, or the was valued at over 119 billion USD. amount of oil consumed per unit of Compliance markets, represented by the economic output. For example, using Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) 2010 oil prices, a hypothetical oil price rise under the UNFCCC, consistently make up of 10% would result in GDP losses of 99% of the total carbon market, with the approximately 1.5% in Rwanda, compared non-compliance or Voluntary Carbon to 0.55% in the USA. Owen and King Market (VCM) remaining very small. CDM [12] (2010) suggest the following key points : facilitates mitigation by developed - The cumulative cost of oil (direct and countries that purchase carbon credits indirect) to the Rwandan economy through projects in developing countries. could be about 30% of GDP over the Rwanda is currently facilitating period form 2010 to 2030. development and registration of CDM and, to a lesser extent, VCM projects, focusing

Smith School of Enterprise and the Environment 7 on energy and forestry (afforestation and developing countries. This presents an reforestation), with some (costly) potential opportunity to address the financial for waste sectors. Adaptation financing is barriers facing Rwanda’s climate action. less straightforward owing to the Outcomes of the Cancun Agreement that challenges behind adaptation as a are particularly relevant for Rwanda are concept and the delayed nature of summarised in table 1.2. Rwanda’s efforts negotiations. A wide array of funds have in forest conservation and prevention of emerged to help “fill the gap”, with degradation from communities and particular focus on developing countries, agriculturalists would likely qualify for least developed countries (LDCs) and support under REDD+ financing. small island developing states (SIDS). Developing countries have been requested Rwanda is receiving adaptation funding to prepare strategies, develop reference from a number of these sources (e.g. levels and create monitoring systems for LDCF). The official UNFCCC Adaptation REDD+ and should form part of Rwanda’s Fund (AF) released its first funds to strategy development. It is important to Senegal in 2010. Rwanda applied to note that the REDD+ currently omits non- register its National Implementing Entity forest sustainable land management such (NIE) in late 2010. Rwanda’s climate as agriculture and soil carbon change strategy may benefit from conservation, which require a separate designating adaptation investment plans mechanism. This is highly relevant to by key themes identified by the AF as a Rwanda, given its dependence on method of shaping priorities and efficiently agriculture, and has significant adaptation advancing funding applications across key co-benefits. There are a number of key sectors and ministries. issues regarding this funding strategy In the follow-up to the Copenhagen which are important considerations for Accord in 2009, the Cancun Agreement Rwanda: was concluded at the UNFCCC - It is unclear where this money will Conference of Parties (COP) in 2010. The come from, and whether promises of Agreement set out the operationalisation its delivery will be kept of funding for adaptation and mitigation in

Table 1.2: Key outcomes of the Cancun Agreement, December 2010, Cancun Mexico Negotiation issue Outcome Shared Vision To limit global average temperatures to a 2°C increase Finance 30 billion USD is set out for developing countries in the 2010-2012 period, rising to 100 billion USD by 2020. Call for creation of a Green Climate Fund through which a significant part of the finance would be transferred Mitigation Countries to define own mitigation actions, and creation of registry for developing countries to list Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions (NAMAs) Adaptation Provisions establishing a Technology Mechanism for immediate facilitation of technology development and transfer for adaptation, as well as a Technology Centre and Network (CTCN) Forestry Provide countries with guidance on reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation, and other sustainable land management practices (REDD+), with need for further clarifications and negotiations Monitoring, Reporting Strengthening developing countries’ reporting on mitigation actions and support of and Verifications (MRV) NAMAs. Legal Form The Cancun Agreement, like the Copenhagen Accord, does not cover the issue of the legal form of the post-2012 climate regime. This is postponed to COP-17 in Durban, South Africa

8 Baseline
Report - How the money is to be distributed is centres. Students who successfully contentious complete their upper secondary education - Ensuring the money is spent effectively can either enroll at an integrated will be both difficult and likely to intrude Polytechnic Regional Centre to obtain an on the governments of recipient A1 Diploma, or they can proceed to higher nations, and jeopardise democratic education to obtain an A1 Diploma in three decision making years or a bachelor’s degree after four or - The funding may not be made ‘new five years. Graduates can continue to the and additional’ to ODA masters and PhD levels. Despite the significant uncertainty, the Rwanda has nearly achieved the second international community is making Millennium Development Goal of universal progress towards climate finance for access to primary education, and strongly developing countries. By developing a values university education. In order for the national strategy on climate change and country to achieve its ambitious goals low carbon development, Rwanda will capacity still needs to be built across all improve its eligibility for funding. levels. Technical and vocational training is Education and Capacity essential for the implementation and maintenance of infrastructure Education is essential for development developments, new technologies and and is therefore a key focus area for the young industries. New university degrees Government of Rwanda. According to the are also needed to develop new growing Education Sector Strategic Plan sectors in the economy such as mining, IT 2010-2015, the mission of the Ministry of and tourism. The new challenge of climate Education is to transform the Rwandan change also calls for new skills in data citizen into skilled human capital for socio- collection, analysis and modelling. Some economic development of the country by of these issues are being addressed by ensuring equitable access to quality the GoR, with graduates sponsored to education focusing on combating illiteracy, study overseas and experts brought in. promotion of science and technology, But as Rwanda’s economy grows, its critical thinking and positive values. human capacity needs to grow with it. Education in Rwanda is organized into two different levels, basic education (pre- primary to lower secondary school) and post-basic. On completion of nine years of basic education, students can proceed to upper secondary education, technical secondary schools or to vocational training

Table 1.3: Education in Rwanda (2010) Number of Number of Education Level Institutions Students % Female Enrollment Pre-primary School 1,369 96,934 51.7 6.10% Primary School 2,510 2,299,326 50.7 95.40% Lower Secondary 298,799 51.8 22.60% (O-level) 1, 399 Upper Secondary 126,788 48.1 School (A-level) Technical and 75 29,217 44.9 Vocational Training University 29 62,546 44

Smith School of Enterprise and the Environment 9 “All across the world, in every kind of environment and region known to man, increasingly dangerous weather patterns and devastating storms are abruptly putting an end to the long-running debate over whether or not climate change is real. Not only is it real, it's here, and its effects are giving rise to a frighteningly new global phenomenon: the man-made natural disaster.”

Barack Obama

10 Baseline
Report 2. CLIMATE POLICY

Rwanda’s development and environment market activities[5] context creates a unique interplay 2010 - Second National Communication between the risks posed and the (SNC) completed, including a stand-alone opportunities provided by climate change. mitigation strategy, the Carbon Policy and High levels of poverty and reliance on an updated emissions inventory [6] vulnerable agricultural systems, along with low levels of industrialisation and other 2010 - National Implementing Entity (NIE) carbon-intensive activities, underscore this application submitted to access dynamic. As climate risks increase, international resources under the [7] Rwanda’s development path will largely UNFCCC’s Adaptation Fund determine the extent of its future Under the SNC, priority sectors for vulnerability and resilience. adaptation activities include water Rwanda has priority status for protection resource management, agriculture, forest against negative impacts of climate management, and health. Recommended change as a Least Developed Country actions for the 2011 to 2015 period are (LDC) under the United Nations complementary and, in many cases, Framework Convention on Climate identical to six broad priority adaptation Change (UNFCCC) and Kyoto Protocol. options highlighted in the NAPA: Rwanda has adopted principles of - Integrated Water Resource sustainable growth, along with climate Management (IWRM) change adaptation and mitigation, as - Early warning and agro-meteorological national priorities. Steps taken to address information systems with rapid climate risks and low carbon development response mechanisms opportunities include national policy - Promotion of non-agricultural income measures, awareness raising activities, generating activities institutional capacity building, and project- - Promotion of intensive agro-pastoral based activities[1, 2, 3]. activities - Introduction of drought-resistant National Policy Measures and species Strategies From these options, seven projects were Rwanda has been engaged in climate identified as urgent to address cross- issues since 1992 and has made good cutting impacts to improve the adaptive progress with national policy and capacity of populations, vulnerable sectors environmental strategies. The following and ecosystems[6]. The Priority NAPA timeline summarises Rwanda’s progress: projects are[4]: 1992 - participation in the Rio Conventions - Land conservation and protection of 1998 - UNFCCC ratified vulnerable regions 2003 - Kyoto Protocol ratified - Establish hydro-meteorological information and early warning systems 2005 - Initial National Communication - Development of irrigated areas by (INC) submitted to the UNFCCC[3] gravity water systems in drought- 2006 - National Adaptation Programme of vulnerable zones [4] Action (NAPA) completed - Support Districts of vulnerable regions 2009 - Climate Change and International in planning and implementation related Obligations Unit (CCIOU) established to conservation, water harvesting, within the Rwanda Environment intense agriculture and new crop Management Authority (REMA), varieties overseeing its Designated National - Increase adaptive capacity of Authority (DNA) to coordinate carbon “Imudugudu” in vulnerable regions by

Smith School of Enterprise and the Environment 11 the improvement of drinking water, across sectoral strategies aligns closely sanitation, alternative energy services with stated development objectives of the and promotion of non-agricultural jobs Economic Development and Povery - Increase food security and modes of Reduction Strategy (EDPRS) 2008-2012 medicine distribution and sensitise to for optimal utilisation of natural resources, stocking and conservation of and commitments to protection of agriculture products environmental resources under Vision - Preparation and implementation of 2020. Under the EDPRS, explicit woody combustible substitution measures to address climate include an national strategy to combat incentive framework for implementation of deforestation and erosion the NAPA and to develop Clean The SNC specifies that actions identified in Development Mechanism (CDM) project the NAPA constitute primary policy opportunities. In line with this, guidelines guidance for informing Strategic Sector and recommended indicators are under Plans (SSPs). In this context, the SNC also development to institutionalise Strategic highlights the need for coverage of a Environmental Assessments (SEAs) and number of cross-cutting issues amongst Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) sectors: that consider sector-specific climate risks and resilience[7]. - Technology transfer - Research and systematic observation The GoR, in partnership with UNDP/UNEP, (hydrological, meteorological) is in the process of operationalising a - Information on research programs (e.g. National Fund for the Environment, KIE, KHI, ISAR/NUR, KIST) FONERWA. A scoping process is under - Education (especially tertiary), training way, strongly considering merging it with and public awareness similar funds that are operational or in the - Capacity building (government pipeline, including the National Fund for departments, universities, research Forestry and National Fund for Water, institutions, etc.) respectively. Joined with environment and - Information and networking (especially climate change, FONERWA’s revised in East African Community) scope would channel resources to four programmatic areas for accelerated SNC and NAPA recommendations sustainable development and underscore Rwanda’s overall environmental mainstreaming[9]. implementation strategy of mainstreaming climate activities through sector While the modalities and financing development strategies and budgets. This structure of FONERWA are in discussion, approach has been actively promoted with flexibility arrangements could allow the technical support from the Rwanda Fund to receive earmarked bilateral Environment and Management Authority resources from development partners and (REMA) under the Ministry of Lands and international climate funds (including the the Environment (MINELA). Consolidation Adaptation Fund and Green Fund), and to of NAPA and SNC priorities and sectoral facilitate public-private partnerships. An mainstreaming are illustrated in the five- example would be the promotion of year Environment Sub-Sector Strategic special loan products for environmentally Plan, highlighting the need for spatial and friendly technologies with microfinance thematic information, an institutional institutions. Standardised eligibility criteria framework, capacity development and and centralisation of oversight and public-private partnerships to address fiduciary risk within MINECOFIN – possibly climate change[8]. under a representative board of trustees – would also create a strong institutional Rwanda’s goal of climate mainstreaming

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Report framework for catalysing support for MINELA, in addition to special units such environmental mainstreaming. as the DNA and NIE under REMA. The Comprehensive analysis of the FONERWA MINELA and REMA (highlighted in red) framework is ongoing in work led by have led policy development, institutional UNDP/UNEP and REMA to explore capacity building, and demonstration Environment and Fiscal Reforms (EFR) pilots. Major initiatives, such as National under the Poverty Environment Initiative Communications to the UNFCCC and the (PEI)[9]. This process will be key not only to NAPA, involve close engagement of other development of a National Climate key ministries, agencies, research Change and Low Carbon Growth Strategy, institutions and development partners. but to achieving more elaborate strategic This is in recognition of the cross-cutting outcomes planned for the revised EDPRS. nature of climate change and its importance as a development issue[18]. Human Capacity, Stakeholder Although Rwanda has successfully Mapping and Engagement initiated stakeholder-led efforts for climate As human development lies at the heart of policy formulation and sectoral guidance, sustainable economic growth, capacity signifi cant coordination and building is recognised as central to implementation challenges have arisen in Rwanda’s national development objectives recent years, due in part to increasing and will be a key element of a national international attention to climate change. climate strategy. Initial scoping work There is an apparent lack of identified a wide range of stakeholders communication and awareness among actively engaged in Rwanda’s climate stakeholders regarding their respective policy development. Stakeholders are activities. This appears to be largely a broadly grouped into government, result of poor communication between development partners, research diverse and independently funded actors, institutions and private actors. designing and implementing initiatives without adequate background scoping of Other key ministries include MINICOFIN, existing activities, often undertaken in MOH (Ministry of Health), MININTER parallel. (Ministry of Internal Security), and the National Land Centre (NLS) under In the case of some stakeholder groups,

Smith School of Enterprise and the Environment 13 Table 2.1: Previous and ongoing climate change related activities

Issue Activity Awareness raising Host of Climate Change and Human Rights conference (2008)

Host of Climate for Development – 3rd Ministerial conference under Africa’s Finance for Development initiative

Regular radio and television programming, and print media coverage of climate issues Projects/ research Economics of Climate Change in Rwanda (SEI, 2009)

Reducing vulnerability to climate change by establishing early warning and disaster preparedness systems, and support for integrated watershed management in flood-prone areas in the Gishwati ecosystem (UNEP/UNDP LDCF, 2010-2013)

Approaches to climate change adaptation in Africa (AAP)– building a comprehensive national approach in Rwanda (UNDP/JICA, 2010-2011)

Regional GEF/UNEP initiative to climate-proof energy sectors in Rwanda, ACCESA country study (IISD/ACTS/KIST)

Decentralisation and Environmental Management Project (DEMP) (UNDP/REMA) Phase II (2008-2013), community-based district environmental management and planning

Building Capacity for Sustainable Land Use and Management in Rwanda (GEF/ RADA/TerrAfrica)

Kirehe Watershed Management Project (Eastern Province) under MINAGRI/ IFAD with adaptation component (soil and water conservation, irrigation and water harvesting) Project for Forest Management in Rwanda (PAFOR) for Gishwati area reforestation Nile Transboundary Environmental Action Project (NTEAP) to protect Nile Basin ecosystems through IWRM methods (GEF/International Waters/UNDP/World Bank, others)

CC-DARE pilot projects on adaptation (Phases 1 & 2) with Nile Basin Discourse Forum (NBDF), NTEAP, & RENGOF with focus on ecosystem resilience

Pilot adaptation activities in Nyabihu District, building capacity and raising awareness Land and Biodiversity Conservation Project in Gishwati area

MINAGRI Gishwati area rehabilitation, revising Gishwati land-use master plan

“Partners in Agriculture and Environment” Bigogwe Sector for LDCF implementation (SGP/GEF, 2009- 2011)

Rehabilitation activities for Rugezi wetland and Rubaya District

MINALOC climate proofing of Vision Umerenge Programme (VUP) Economics of adaptation in Rwanda’s coffee sector (IIED/NUR/SEI/GCAP, 2010/11)

Transboundary Agro-Ecosystem Management Project for the Kagera River Basin (FAO, TerrAfrica, GEF)

Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES), Gishwati (WCS, REMA, 2010/11)

Adaptation in Rwanda’s coffee sector and gender issues (CARE, 2010/11)

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Report the situation is gradually improving. For Lastly, there are very low levels of example, in September 2010, Rwanda’s institutional and private capacity and low 31 development partners (DPs), excluding awareness of climate change issues and NGOs and private foundations, agreed to responses, particularly at sub-national a division of labour with Sweden (SIDA), (District and lower) levels. the FAO and UNDP leading on Current Project Initiatives and environment issues. In December 2010, further progress was made with the Implementation signing of a Sector-Wide Approach A wide array of adaptation and mitigation (SWAP) MOU between the GoR and project initiatives are currently under way, development partners to improve or in the pipeline, in Rwanda (Table 2.1). In coordination and support to the general, these activities have been Environment and Natural Resource (ENR), designed and implemented exclusively for in which climate change is identified as a either adaptation or mitigation. [10] key sub-sector . Nevertheless, strong synergies or co- Nevertheless, to date project origination, benefits between many adaptation and funding, and information sharing for LCG activities are widely recognised, and climate initiatives has been relatively ad integrated approaches of interest are hoc and poorly coordinated. This being explored by stakeholders (e.g. FAO, highlights the importance of improved REMA). coordination and cooperation, particularly Predominant “win-win” activities for related to DPs, under the process of adaptation and low carbon growth relate NCCLCG strategy development and joint to improved land management and more implementation. The need for improved sustainable agriculture, including soil and DP-GoR coordination has particular water conservation, ecosystem protection relevance to other stakeholder groups, and rehabilitation. These activities promote including research institutions and civil system resilience to climate shocks, and society, which are active in policy also conservation and/or sequestration of formation and implementation, and largely GHGs in soils, ground cover and forests, supported by donor/public resources. as well as reducing fossil fuel-based Scoping work also found the private power through renewable generation. sector to be the least engaged in climate Despite such co-benefits, potential policy formulation and initiatives. However, conflicts may arise between adaptation the electricity and water utility (Reco- and LCG, for example, increased mineral Rwasco) is more actively engaging in fertiliser use on highly acidic soils, ecosystem protection activities to ensure marshland reclamation and increased sustainable water regulation, while indirect reliance on hydroelectric power under engagement is increasing through private reduced rainfall regimes and increased entry into renewable energy markets[19]. water demand. Facilitating enhanced private sector Adaptation Projects awareness of low carbon growth opportunities is the mandate of Rwanda’s Ongoing and planned adaptation project DNA under REMA, while the Rwanda initiatives in Rwanda can be generally Development Board (RDB) also plays a classified under capacity, financial, key role in informing potential investors. technical and research and development Nevertheless, analogous efforts in investments in a handful of integrated awareness raising and facilitation of private thematic areas linked to environmental sector investment in adaptation activities policy and management. The various are a clear gap area. investment types, thematic areas, and special topics are highlighted in figure 2.1,

Smith School of Enterprise and the Environment 15 Figure 2.1: Example investment types, themes and special topics under current adaptation project initiatives though not exhaustively. A vulnerability and analysis of synergies with mitigation DRR approach has largely been taken by activities, modelling energy system project initiatives, analogous to the NAPA/ vulnerability, transport, the built SNC methodology and recommendations. environment and flooding, municipal water This affords priority focus to low-income and sanitation, among other health-related and highly vulnerable groups in areas risks (e.g. malaria, bilharzia, malnutrition, prone to extreme events and climate heat stress) and key sectors are not related hazards, namely floods, droughts adequately covered under current project and landslides. Across projects, different considerations. Finally, awareness raising, themes and topics are covered, with communication and information sharing project scopes varying considerably by need to be supported more as key sector specific or economy-wide issues, or thematic areas. specific geographic areas of interest. Two UN-led initiatives are particularly Ad hoc coordination to date has led to notable for their high levels of apparent duplication of efforts. coordination, along with their Development of early warning and comprehensive approaches to adaptation. improved meteorological observational This is due in part to the integrated systems illustrates this as the FAO/ institutional framework mandated by the MINAGRI, World Bank, UNDP, and UK “One UN” initiative. The Approaches to Hadley Centre, among other project climate change Adaptation in Africa originators, aim to improve the capacity or Programme (AAP) in particular has strong infrastructure of Meteo Rwanda, each linkages with NCCLCG strategy work, as under separate initiatives[11,12,13]. These the overall objective is to build a parallel efforts are also notable given that a comprehensive national approach to primary objective of the NCCLCG strategy adaptation in Rwanda[14]. The project is is to establish a Climate Observatory in funded by JIKA, and implemented through Rwanda. UNDP and REMA (2010-2011). The UNEP/UNDP project establishing an early Overall, activities overlap significantly warning and disaster preparedness across themes and investment categories. system, and integrated watershed It is also evident that innovative sources of management in flood-prone areas in the financing and trans-boundary issues are Gishwati ecosystem, will link with AAP as not widely covered in these major a pilot initiative. This work is a follow-on adaptation initiatives. In addition, in-depth project based on top NAPA

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Report Table 2.2: Vulnerability areas across geographic priorities

Ruhango- Karongi- Nyaruguru- Muhanga- Bugesera Gisagara Huye Rutisiro Ngorororero Nyabihu Nyanza Nyamagabe Kamonyi Food √√√√√√ Security Poverty √√√√√ Nutrition √√ √ Drought √√√ √ risk

*Food security: Together, these strata account for 36% of the population and 65% of all the food insecure. Poverty: These account for 25% of the population and 45% of all households with a poor food consumption score (FCS). Nutrition: Including wasting and stunting (Rubavu included). Drought risk: Areas most frequently reported (noting Nyagatare-Gatsibo-Kayonza should be monitored). climate change. The National Institute of recommendations, and is supported by Statistics of Rwanda (NISR) and its the Least Developed Country Fund partners have completed a 2009 (LDCF) [12]. Comprehensive Food Security and The AAP and LDCF projects present Vulnerability Analysis (CFSVA) and excellent opportunities to inform and Nutrition Survey[15]. These data establish a complement recently initiated baseline of poverty, overall vulnerability discussions to ‘climate proof’ Rwanda’s and nutrition insecurity, analysing key Vision 2020 Umurenge Programme trends over time and across geographic (VUP), a flagship programme of the regions. This is critical for identifying EDPRS. VUP has three components priority intervention areas where increased underpinned by sensitisation and training climate risks will lead to greater exposure [11] : of already vulnerable populations and - Direct support - cash transfers to the groups. Four priorities were explored in poorest households that cannot work analysing geographic priorities: food - Public works - employment to the security; poverty; malnutrition; and risk of poorest households who can work drought. These are highlighted in table 2.2 - Financial services - a savings and according to key regions, each with credit infrastructure that will reach the different vulnerability characteristics that poor need to be taken into account when The goal of a revised VUP would be to planning interventions. ensure that accelerated reduction of Among surveyed communities, three extreme poverty and achievement of livelihood profiles were identified as being MDGs in targeted Imirenge is carried out especially vulnerable: in a climate-resilient way. This highlights - Agriculturalists - low income that accelerated sustainable (dependence on agriculture, low development is of primary importance production diversity) for reducing vulnerability, mainstreaming - Agro-labourers (manual and seasonal, environment at sub-national levels, and paid in cash or kind, and agriculture) promoting climate-resilient development. - Marginal livelihoods (e.g. assistance, Further Vulnerability-Based remittances, hunting/gathering, Intervention Areas transport) High levels of socioeconomic Significantly, the proportion of female- vulnerability coupled with climate risk headed households is highest among the exposure lead to low adaptive capacity marginal livelihood group (19%), to existing climate variability and future agriculturalists - low income (18%) and

Smith School of Enterprise and the Environment 17 agro-labourers (17%). National Communication updated In 2006, the previous CFSVA and Nutrition emissions inventory, discussed in Survey period, 7% of households were background information in Chapter 1. considered as having a poor Food In order to address its growing emissions Consumption Score, and 28% had a and harness benefits of low carbon borderline FCS, compared to 4% and 17% development paths, Rwanda established a in 2009, respectively. This improvement Designated National Authority (DNA). may reflect a general trend towards better Under the DNA, institutional arrangements food security. However, poor production in include an operational DNA Steering late 2010 may undermine this progress. Committee, specially nominated Technical The strata with the highest proportion of Committees to review each new project, households reporting poor FCS are and a National Secretariat to coordinate Nyabihu (9.5%), Ngororero (9.5%) and project approval and international Nyaruguru-Nyamagabe (8.4%), located engagement. Priority is generally given to along the Crete of the Nile line that runs facilitation and oversight of Clean from North to South in Rwanda. Development Mechanism (CDM) projects, Multivariate analysis of underlying causes with regulated markets preferred to of vulnerability and food insecurity unregulated Voluntary Carbon Market [17] included: (VCM) activities . - Less than 0.1ha of agricultural land Three primary areas have been identified (36% of poor FCS) and prioritised by Technical Committees - Female headed households as offering the most opportunity for carbon (comprising 21% of poor FCS) market development in Rwanda: - Presence of a chronically ill person - Energy efficiency and renewable (22% of poor FCS) energy Surveyed communities also frequently - Agriculture, forestry and livestock identified general poverty (37%), access to - Waste management clean water (34%), education (29%), There are currently 25 projects in the health infrastructures (22%) and other pipeline for development in Rwanda, and infrastructure needs including roads and these are mainly in the energy and forestry markets (29%) as structural problems sectors. There is one registered CDM requiring infrastructure, social services, project, the RECO Compact Fluorescent and job/employment opportunities. These Lamp (CFL) distribution project. Ongoing represent key intervention areas for the projects are: priority geographic strata indicated above Ongoing projects with carbon credit for reducing underlying vulnerability, food buyers: insecurity and low adaptive capacity to - D-light rural lighting program climate and commodity shocks. Such - Clinton Foundation forestry project interventions have synergies with ongoing - K-Light project adaptation projects and programmes. - Nuru Design Lighting Programme Mitigation Policy and Projects - Rwanda National Biogas Programme - Rwanda 19.95MW Small and Micro In 2009, a Rapid Assessment of a National Hydro Project Bundle Energy and Low Carbon Path carried out - Water treatment systems for rural by SEI found that total national emissions Rwanda (Mugonero Esepan, are currently very low in Rwanda and, Rwaesero, Nyagasambu) thanks to forest sequestration, Rwanda is - Water treatment systems for rural currently a net sink[16]. This finding is Rwanda (Shyira and Fawe) supported by results of the 2010 Second - Reco Compact Fluorescent Lamp

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Report (CFL) – Only registered CDM project improving and facilitation of private sector Ongoing project idea notes without carbon investment in carbon credit opportunities credit buyers: is increasing. There is limited effort on adaptation and very low levels of - Contour Global Lake Kivu methane gas institutional and private capacity and project with MININFRA awareness of climate change issues, - 27.5 MW Nyabarongo Hydro Power particularly at sub-national levels. There Project are significant areas of overlap across - KCC Solar Public Lighting PIN adaptation project initiatives, particularly Additional high-potential projects within related to improved observational and the energy sector include micro- and pico- early warning systems. This highlights the hydropower, solar and thermal power, importance of accelerated sustainable biogas recovery from domestic, development for reducing vulnerability, institutional, and industrial waste, energy- mainstreaming environment at sub- efficient cookstoves, energy efficiency in national levels, and promoting climate- buildings, and biofuel alternatives. resilient development. It is also important Forestry is another high-potential area for to identify priority intervention areas where carbon credit development in Rwanda. increased climate risks will lead to greater Activities are currently under way by the exposure of already vulnerable populations Clinton Foundation, ICRAF, VI-Life and and groups. Sustainable land and water others, exploring the development of management, ecosystem protection and carbon credits through increasing soil rehabilitation afford significant co-benefits carbon stores, agroforestry and other for objectives of both climate resilience activities. The GoR has also established and low carbon growth. Current carbon capacity in the newly formed Ministry of credit development initiatives are in very Forestry and Mining (MINIFOM) and the early stages under Rwanda’s DNA, and National Forestry Authority (NAFA) to begin afford limited coverage of agriculture and assessing carbon credit opportunities in transport sector emissions. the forestry sector. Although Rwanda has made progress in facilitating low-carbon development, it is clear that the country’s highest-emitting sectors of agriculture and, increasingly, transport pose particular challenges. This warrants national debate as part of the NCCLCG strategy development process, as well as reaffirming internationally the need to include agriculture and land management under regulated carbon market offsets – which stand to benefit Africa greatly and have adaptation co- benefits. Summary Rwanda has a number of climate change initiatives under way. FONERWA is a highly promising framework for mainstreaming climate action in Rwanda. Public and development partner engagement and coordination in climate activities are

Smith School of Enterprise and the Environment 19 “In order to ensure sustained progress, it is important to emphasise thorough planning and implementation so as to rapidly facilitate total socio-economic transformation as stated in the country’s Vision 2020.”

Hon. Vincent Karega Minister of Infrastructure

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Report 3. ECONOMICS, TRADE AND INDUSTRY

Rwanda has made remarkable progress from 0.47 to 0.51 between the last two since the tragedy of the 1994 genocide. household surveys. The economy will After a period of reconstruction from 1994 need to grow by at least 8% per annum to to 2000, the country articulated its long- significantly reduce poverty and attain the term development path, Vision 2020. The Vision 2020 targets. vision sees Rwanda as a middle-income Economic Profile economy of 900 USD per capita and positioned to become a regional service Growth hub by 2020. To realise this growth GDP at current prices was estimated at ambition, the GoR is committed to 2.992 billion RWF in 2009 and attained a facilitating the emergence of a strong and real growth rate of 11.5% in 2008. The modern private sector, which will drive growth rates have however been very growth, competitiveness, economic volatile, reflecting the country’s vulnerability diversification and export promotion. So to changes in climate as well as far, much progress has been made in international finance and trade (figure 3.1). establishing a stable, macroeconomic The real GDP growth rate dropped from a environment with an average real Gross high of 11.5% in 2008 to 6% in 2009 Domestic Product (GDP) growth rate of owing to the global financial crisis. After a 8.5% for the last five years. Reforms in bumper harvest in 2008, seasonal justice and ‘doing business’ regulations changes in weather conditions negatively have led Rwanda to emerge, for two affected crop harvests in 2009. A successive years, as a top global reformer combination of the financial crisis and bad in the ease of doing business; and the weather eventually led to a general decline country is on track to meet the MDG in real GDP in 2009. targets by 2012 in education, health and gender equality. But despite Rwanda’s Rwanda’s growth is largely driven by the impressive growth rate and committed services sector, which accounts for 44.6% leadership, 56% of the population lives of the GDP (table 3.1). The leading below the poverty line. Income inequality is services include wholesale and retail trade very high and the Gini coefficient increased (12.9%), real estate and business (9.6%) and transport communication and

Figure 3.1: Growth trends 2005-2010 (Source: National Institute of Statistics)

Smith School of Enterprise and the Environment 21 Table 3.1: The structure of the economy: growth and share of GDP (Source: National Institute of Statistics) Average Annual % Growth % Share of GDP 2000-2006 2006-2009 2000-2006 2006-2009

GDP 6.4 8.4 100 100 Agriculture 4.8 5.6 36.4 35.1 Industry 6.4 8.5 14.2 14.2 Services 8.1 11 38.0 44.6

business (7.5%). The agricultural sector is registered taxpayers (as at end June the second most important sector and 2010). The main source of domestic tax contributes approximately 36.4% to the revenue is PAYE and VAT with a combined total GDP, 27.8% of which is food contribution of 11% of GDP. Taxes on production. The sector is a principal international trade contributed only 1% source of employment for nearly 80% of and non-tax revenue 0.5%. Rwanda’s the population. There is limited capacity to mobilise its domestic revenue diversification into manufacturing. Industry is constrained by the extent to which its contributes only 14.2% to GDP of which economy is not monetised - 80% of the 7.3% comes from the construction sector. population is engaged in informal The export base is narrow with tea, coffee subsistence agriculture - and also by its and minerals contributing two thirds of the entrance to the COMESA and East African total export revenue. Evidence shows that Community (EAC) free trade area, which over the last ten years there has been has the permanent impact of reducing limited structural transformation (table 3.1). revenue collection from international trade These structural constraints mean that taxes. The medium term fiscal policy Rwanda is very vulnerable to global objective is to increase revenue collection commodity prices, climate change and the from the current rate of 12.5% in 2010 to external debt crisis. The economy is 14.3% of GDP in 2012. The current total heavily biased towards climate-sensitive spending and net lending is 25.8% of activities and could hinder economic GDP. The donors’ contribution is 13.2% of growth if no disaster risk reduction GDP and the remaining 0.1% was strategies are incorporated into the current borrowed from both external and national plans. The heavy dependence on domestic sources. The Rwandan agriculture, and in particular food authorities recognise the country’s production, is of concern as this sector is vulnerabilities to low government revenue, highly sensitive to climate change shocks. narrow export base and severe The increasing share of the construction bottlenecks in infrastructure – and have sector in the national economy is also a embarked on a programme of scaling up concern because of the potential investments in projects that enhance vulnerability to extreme events. productivity in agriculture (the Crop Intensification Programme) and mobilising Government Finance private investments in the service sector Rwanda is still an aid-dependent and industry. In the short to medium term, economy. In 2010, the country financed its however, the country will continue to seek budget from its domestic revenue sources for aid to finance its development agenda. by 12.5% of GDP and the revenue-to- GDP ratio has remained fairly elastic Clean Energy Technology and Tax (12%-13%) for the last four years. The tax Policy base is still narrow with only 42,538 Energy-related imports - which include

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Report energy saving lamps, solar and water unfavourable weather conditions and shifts heaters, wind energy systems, LPG in international markets. Year-on-year equipment, equipment for biogas, export growth is not keeping pace with kerosene for domestic use, premium and import growth. The total import receipts gasoil - are exempted from VAT and for 2009 (1,025 million USD) and projected import duty, in order to encourage the imports for 2010 (1,146 million USD) are conservation of energy and promote the four times larger than 2009 exports (193 use of clean technology and thus protect million USD) and projected exports for the environment. The current levy on 2010 (240 million USD) respectively. gasoil is a specific tax of 283 RWF per litre Energy products contribute significantly to and 250 RWF for premium with this tax the import bill (16%); other important policy. Companies engaged in projects imports are capital goods (30%), that promote clean technology are offered consumer goods and intermediate tax incentives. products. Fossil fuels (mainly gasoil and The Balance of Payments lubricating oils) account for 95% of energy imports, estimated at 203 million USD in Rwanda currently has an unfavourable 2010. Rwanda will continue to experience balance of payments (BOP). The current deterioration in the balance of trade if it account deficit, including official grants, is does not reduce its reliance on fossil fuels 7.9% of GDP. The main export products for its domestic energy requirements. are minerals, coffee and tea (figure 3.2) which account for 74% of the total export Trade, Commerce and Industry earnings (estimated at 240 million USD in Trade, commerce and industry fall under 2010). Tourism has emerged as the the private sector development cluster. leading service export and in 2009 the The Ministry of Trade and Industry sector earned 175 million USD more than (MINICOM) and the Rwanda Development tea, coffee and minerals combined Board (RDB) are the two lead government together (141 million USD). The earnings agencies responsible for implementing from these products are subject to policies and programmes for private sector frequent fluctuations arising from development. The key objectives of private

Figure 3.2: Value of Rwandan Exports

Smith School of Enterprise and the Environment 23 sector development are to grow exports diversification. These include the Kigali by 15% of GDP in 2012 and reduce the convention complex (a five star hotel and a BOP deficit, and to enhance the business convention centre, intended to develop climate. business tourism), a canopy walk Export Promotion and launched in Nyungwe national park in October 2010, expansion of Rwanda Air, Diversification involving acquisition of more planes to A key priority of the government is to serve a rising number of tourists, and a exploit opportunities for higher export number of other private sector led eco- revenues. The Rwandan Development tourism projects. The tourism sector is Board (RDB) has completed a vulnerable to climate change as it relies on comprehensive export strategy and action attractive ecosystems. plan to improve export growth and reduce dependence on coffee, tea and minerals. ICT Sector The export strategy aims for a target of The ICT sector is considered as a flagship 889 million USD by 2015. The focus of the for the country’s economic prosperity and strategy is to increase the value added to a tool for transforming the Rwandan the existing export sectors and to develop economy into a knowledge-based new products and services centred economy. The National Information and around six clusters: dairy processing, Communications Infrastructure (NICI) plan horticulture, business outsourcing (using IT is meant to deliver this vision by 2020. The as an enabling tool), home décor and NICI plan aims to create a core fashion, specialised tourism and hides and infrastructure for a high speed broadband skins. The strategy also seeks to address by building high capacity fibre optic lines bottlenecks to make local products more by May 2011 (the Fibre backbone project), competitive, both locally and for export. providing broadband wireless technology to up to 100,000 users by mid 2010 (the Current Status of Export Priorities Wibrowimax project) and connecting The constituents and value of Rwandan Rwanda to undersea fibre optic cables by exports are illustrated in figure 3.2. As well 2013. These projects will increase as the exports covered in the relevant broadband access and reduce purchase sectoral sections the following areas are costs by 90%. The national backbone also important areas of the Rwandan project is on track and will make Rwanda economy. one of the most connected countries in Tourism Africa. Tourism is extremely important to the Special Economic Zones Rwandan economy and is quickly The special economic zone (SEZ) has emerging as a top foreign exchange been established in Gasabo district on a earner. The latest figures in 2009 indicate 277 ha piece of land to link Rwanda to the that tourism revenue (174 million USD) rest of the World in trade, manufacturing was greater than combined earnings for all and logistics. This has involved the the traditional exports for coffee, tea and expropriation and relocation of companies minerals (141 million USD). Rwanda aims from Gikondo industrial park to the new to be a premier ecotourism destination on site at Masoro in Gasabo. The new site for the African continent, offering products in the SEZ has a developed infrastructure for gorilla trekking, bird watching, canopy cleaner industrial production with a central walks, national parks and cultural tourism. sewage system for managing the toxic So far a number of projects are being waste and a planned green belt for implemented to support the growth of the mitigating against adverse environment sector and enhance product effects. The SEZ is therefore an integral

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Report part of Rwanda’s drive to attract investors Rwanda in the ease of doing business to a by guaranteeing land that has a well position of 58 out of 183 countries and the developed road, energy and water second most consistent reformer of infrastructure. business regulations in the world. The Challenges and Opportunities achievements in doing business were particularly in simplifying business The access and cost of energy is a big registration, getting credit, registering impediment to the competitiveness of property, enforcing contracts, trading Rwandan firms. The cost of electricity is across borders, protecting investors, 0.21USD/kWh, which is the highest in the paying taxes and dealing with construction region (and double that of Kenya at permits indicators. Other reforms in 0.12USD/kWh). Because Rwanda is governance are helping to improve landlocked, transport costs are also high: perceptions of Rwanda as a country with the average cost per tonne/km is 165 low levels of corruption. Transparency USD compared to 95 USD for the region. International’s Corruption Perception Index There is a significant skills gap in most (CPI) in 2010 places Rwanda at 66th out areas of expertise, particularly for of 178 countries in the world. The political technicians and managers. Firms also cite will to fight corruption and the ease of access to finance as a major constraint to doing business are important ingredients business development: private sector for attracting foreign direct investment. credit was estimated at 16.5% of GDP in 2010. However, there are a number of opportunities that could be exploited to grow the trade and industry sector. The government is currently implementing six strategic investment projects which will alleviate the critical infrastructural constraints to increasing and diversifying exports of goods and services, thus helping Rwanda’s progress towards a knowledge-based service economy. These are: - Electricity Access Roll-out project - Core ICT infrastructure - Regional railway - Bugesera Airport - Rwanda Air expansion - Kigali convention complex - Enhanced Business Climate The country has implemented a range of policy reforms and institutional changes that have greatly improved the business environment. Such reforms are particularly important for making Rwanda the preferred destination for investors. The recent reforms were recognised by the International Finance Corporation (IFC) when it upgraded its assessment of

Smith School of Enterprise and the Environment 25 “Energy is a basic requirement for all Rwandans, whether for cooking, lighting or other services and devices. MININFRA is committed to exploring modern and sustainable sources of energy, thus increasing access to energy and ensuring the country follows a green development path... By working together, we can make sure Rwanda promotes and maintains its reputation for being an environmentally friendly, innovative and sustainable developing country.”

Hon. Eng. Coletha U. RUHAMYA Minister of State in charge of Energy and Water

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Report 4. ENERGY

Energy is a crucial ingredient for economic Table 4.1 Key targets for the Energy growth and development and is an enabler sector[2] for achieving the Millennium Development Goals. The Government of Rwanda (GoR) Current aims to strike a balance between energy Goal status 2012 target 2017 target for economic growth and energy to further Electricity 84.7MW 130MW 1,000MW social objectives and poverty reduction. capacity

Currently only 10.5% of the population has Electricity 10.50% 16% 50% access to electricity, with the majority access relying on woodfuel[1]. Rapid population Electricity 175,000 475,000 1,200,000 growth has put pressure on resources, connections increasing prices of energy. From the Biomass 86% 65% 1950s Rwanda relied solely on energy hydropower for electricity generation, but low dam levels in 2004 forced the GoR to [2] rent diesel power plants. Today Rwanda foreign investment . The key challenges has 95MW of electricity generating are funding, lack of local skills and capacity, 50% from hydropower and 45% insufficient regulation. As climate change from oil-fuelled power[1]. This oil increases the vulnerability of developing dependence makes Rwanda vulnerable to countries, it is important that Rwanda oil price shocks and places significant develops low-cost, robust, renewable demands on foreign exchange reserves. energy options to ensure its future Reliance on hydropower makes Rwanda development. vulnerable to changes in rainfall. Since Current Status 2004 the GoR has invested in alternative energy sources (natural gas, solar PV, Rwanda’s primary energy source is micro-hydropower, geothermal, peat) to biomass, providing 86% of energy used, improve energy security and energy while petroleum products account for access. Oil exploration is under way and 11%, used mainly in transportation, and there are plans to build a gas-to-liquids energy for electricity contributes a mere [2] plant which will allow Rwanda to reduce its 3% of the energy balance (figure 4.1). dependency on imported oil. The GoR has Rwanda has the second lowest electricity ambitious energy targets (table 4.1) and consumption per capita in East and aims to reduce its energy costs to attract Central Africa, at 44kWh per person per Figure 4.1: Energy balance in Rwanda[2]

Smith School of Enterprise and the Environment 27 Table 4.2: Current and planned electricity generation capacity in Rwanda[1]

Installed Capacity Available Capacity % Installed Planned New Source (MW) (MW) Capacity Capacity (MW) Domestic Hydro 26.25 22.9 31% 47.5 Regional Hydro 15.5 14.5 18.30% 164.97 Micro-hydro 0.7 0.7 0.80% 50 Domestic Thermal 27.8 27.8 32.80% 20 Rented Thermal 10 10 11.80% - Solar PV 0.25 0.25 0.30% 8 Methane 4.2 1.8 5% 300 Geothermal - - - 310 Peat - - - 100 TOTAL 84.7 77.95 100% 990.47

year[3]. Electricity generation (table 4.2) is and lime production)4. Oil-fuelled power dominated by large hydropower plants in plants emitted 8.5% of total CO2 while the north-west and south-west and residential use of biomass produced 28% thermal (oil-fuelled) power plants near of methane emissions. As the energy Kigali. In 2008 the sector expanded to sector has changed in the last five years, include methane from Lake Kivu, solar these figures do not reflect the current photovoltaic (PV) and micro-hydropower. energy sector and need to be updated. The national grid consists of 383km of Power demand is expected to increase to high voltage lines and 4,900km of medium 600MW in 2017, by when the GoR plans and low voltage lines, with a significant to have increased the capacity to proportion in Kigali. Electricity access has 1,000MW through geothermal, methane, improved from 4.0% in 2007 to 10.5% in hydropower and peat, and by extending 2010, mostly in urban areas. The current the national grid by 2,100km (700km of retail price for domestic consumers is high voltage and 1,400km of medium 112RWF/kWh (0.21USD/kWh) while large voltage)1. The total cost of expanding the commercial and industrial consumers pay generation and distribution capacity is 5 105RWF/kWh (0.19USD/kWh), despite billion USD. Table 4.1 shows the current GoR subsidies. An Electricity Tariff Study and future electricity generation for produced in January 2011 highlighted that Rwanda and figure 4.2 maps out the Rwanda is one of the few countries that current national grid and power source does not have multiple tariff categories locations. and recommended four new consumer categories. The study suggests that Woodfuel and Charcoal operating costs could fall in 2011 and The most common source of energy in 2012 as hydropower replaces rented oil- Rwanda is woodfuel, produced on fuelled plants, but would rise in 2013, so plantations ranging from small household electricity prices are likely to remain the woodlots to large-scale state and private same. According to the Second National plantations. Many Rwandans depend on Communication, energy from fuel burning the sale of accessible and affordable contributed 17% of GHG emissions in woodfuel and charcoal for their livelihoods. Rwanda in 2005 (table 1.1), but this To address concerns regarding includes transport and industry (cement deforestation, the Ministry of Infrastructure

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Report Figure 4.2: National grid and power sources[2]

(MININFRA) developed the Biomass Initiative, and therefore has the option to Energy Strategy (BEST) in 2008. The main import hydro-electricity from further afield. impact of burning biomass on climate is Hydropower is a clean source of energy through land use change though it also but is vulnerable to changes in rainfall and causes air pollution and therefore health regional politics. Four of the regional plants problems. are located on the Rusizi River, the outlet for Lake Kivu, and together will utilise its Hydropower full capacity by 2017. Projected changes Hydropower is currently produced in four in climate need to be taken into account domestic plants in the north-west, two before plans are finalised. regional plants in the south-east and five micro-hydro plants. The GoR aims to Oil-fuelled Power Plants create 300MW capacity hydropower by Since 2004 Rwanda has used rented or 2017 through two new domestic plants, domestic oil-fuelled power plants to three regional plants shared with Burundi, supplement hydropower, and has now Tanzania and DRC, and micro-hydro become dependent on them - and hence power1. A Hydropower Atlas published by is exposed to oil price shocks. The largest MININFRA in 2007 identified 293 potential oil-fuelled power plant is the Jabana sites with a combined capacity of 96MW. Heavy Fuel Oil (HFO) power plant which Over 50 potential sites for micro- replaced rented AGGREKO generators in hydropower (100kW-5MW) were identified, April 2009 and supplies 20MW to the with 17 sites under construction. There are national grid. Other plants include the at least 172 pico-hydro (<50kW) potential Jabana diesel power plant (7.8MW) and sites and 21 existing sites, though the the rented Gikondo power plant (10MW) sub-sector has not been developed yet. It which uses light fuel oil (LFO). An is ideal for remote communities who can additional 20MW of oil-fuelled power use it to recharge batteries or mobile generation is required to meet the phones. Rwanda is a member of the East immediate power needs and provide African Power Pool and the Nile Basin back-up in the future. These plants use

Smith School of Enterprise and the Environment 29 high carbon fuels and account for most of jet fuel, kerosene and diesel. A feasibility the GHG emissions in the energy sector. study has shown the potential for using methane to manufacture 400 tonnes of Current Initiatives fertiliser per day[2]. Methane is a medium Methane Gas carbon energy source but if released into Lake Kivu contains 250 billion m³ of CO2 the atmosphere is a potent greenhouse and 55 billion m³ of methane gas, gas. Currently, the CO2 extracted with the continuously generated from volcanic methane is returned to Lake Kivu; activity and organic decomposition. It is however, it could be used to produce estimated that 700MW can be supercritical CO2, which is used as a continuously produced from methane for solvent in the chemical and at least 55 years[5]. The resource is equally pharmaceutical industries, for example for decaffeinating coffee. shared between DRC and Rwanda. Kibuye Power Plant in Rubavu supplies up Liquid Petroleum Gas to 3.6MW to the national grid, with plans The GoR is promoting the use of LPG as a to upgrade to 50MW (figure 4.3). The substitute for biomass to reduce Rwanda Energy Company has a 50MW deforestation and air pollution. Recently concession and is currently operating a the GoR passed a new law to waive the 1.3MW pilot plant. ContourGlobal’s import duty and VAT for LPG, making it KivuWatt plant will supply 25MW from affordable in urban areas. The GoR is early 2012 and upgrade to 100MW in developing LPG guidelines and standards, 2013. A joint venture between the DRC aiming to increase consumption from 360 and Rwanda for a 200MW plant is being tonnes to 3,500 tonnes per year by discussed. The Industrial Development 20171. Group will build a gas-to-liquid plant to process 100 million m³ of methane per Solar year, producing 5,000 barrels per day of With daily average of 8 hours of sunshine, Figure 4.3: Kibuye methane platform Rwanda has the potential to produce 4.8-5.5kWh/m2 of solar-generated power per day[6]. Rwanda already houses the largest solar plant in Africa, Kigali Solaire (figure 4.4), with a capacity of 250kW, which feeds the national grid. It is owned by Stadtwerke Mainz, which plans to expand the installation to 1MW. The company donated 50 small-scale solar plants of 1kW each for remote off-grid health centres and schools. The GoR has an off-grid solar PV programme for all public buildings more than 5km from the national grid, aiming for 1MW solar PV capacity by 2012. MININFRA and KIST are developing Solar Kiosks where consumers can charge batteries using solar power at kiosks in their village[7]. The GoR plans to install solar water heating in at least 70,000 households, hotels, health centres, schools, and hospitals by 2012. The GoR recently secured funds that will form a

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Report Figure 4.4: Kigali Solaire grant and credit programme for electricity estimated that at least 30MW can be consumers to buy solar systems. Solar obtained from waste to energy. energy is clean and in effect renewable, is Peat well-suited to remote areas and is a common source of carbon credits in Rwanda hosts over 48,000ha of peat with developing countries. GoR targets could the potential to produce 155 million tonnes be more ambitious though the of dry peat of varying quality[2]. Peat is manufacture of solar panels needs to be used as a fuel in community stoves, brick factored into a low carbon analysis. making, the production of charcoal and briquettes and in the cement factory, Waste to energy Cimerwa, where peat has replaced 60% of Biogas digesters (figure 4.5) provide a HFO used8. Peat is currently being mined simple renewable source of energy for at Gishoma, Rwabusoro and Nyirabironde. rural households and institutions, which The GoR aims to produce 100MW of use it for cooking and lighting. The power from peat by 2017: this would National Domestic Biogas Programme require about 1,500ha of peat, depending (NDBP) was initiated in 2007 with a total on the thickness and quality[1]. The production target of 15,000 units by 2012. composition of peat determines its GHG Although the GoR subsidises the emissions when it is burnt but it is a high installation, uptake has been slow as the carbon energy source. It also has land use investment costs are high and only change implications. households with two cows or more are Biofuels viable for biogas. The GoR plans to install 220 biogas digesters in public buildings. Rwandan dependence on imported MININFRA is investigating the potential for petroleum products has led to research on landfill methane production or other biofuels. The Institute of Scientific and gasification techniques yielding methane. Technological Research (IRST) published a This will be integrated into the overall solid draft biofuel policy in July 2008 and waste management strategy. It is established a biofuel laboratory in Kigali

Smith School of Enterprise and the Environment 31 Figure 4.5: Biogas Digesters at Rulindo High School which can produce 2,000 litres of biodiesel identified a 400km2 sedimentary basin daily. In March 2010 IRST successfully under Lake Kivu which may have oil tested a 100% biodiesel bus, the Rwanda potential. An oil supply would improve Biodiesel Express, which emits 48% less Rwanda’s energy security and could carbon monoxide than a conventional provide a new export revenue stream; diesel-engined bus9. The German however it is a high carbon energy source. Biomass Research Centre produced a A petroleum exploration policy and act has biofuel potential study in January 2010. been drafted by MININFRA and is awaiting As a result, Eco Positive and Eco Fuels revision and validation. Global plan to operate a large jatropha Geothermal plantation on 10,000ha of marginal land Rwanda hosts two prospective areas for and degraded hilltops near Akagera geothermal energy exploitation, the National Park that will aim to produce 20 Volcanoes National Park and the faults million litres of biofuel annually. In February associated with the East African Rift near 2011, the German Institute for Lake Kivu. Rwanda aims to produce Development (GIZ) produced a study on 310MW of power from geothermal energy the potential of sustainable liquid biofuel by 2017 with the possibility of an increase production in Rwanda which was less to 700MW. MININFRA plans to drill optimistic[10]. exploration wells and build a 10MW pilot Oil Exploration plant in 2011 followed by a 75MW power Oil exploration has been ongoing since plant by 201311. There is potential for off- 2007 by Vanoil Energy Ltd, which holds grid geothermal energy that could include exploration rights to the 1,631km2 oil and heating greenhouses (e.g. Oserian flower gas concession in north-western Rwanda, farm in Kenya[12]), agricultural processes known as the East Kivu Graben. The Kivu (steam-to-bake, e.g. tea) and cooking. Graben may be linked to Uganda's Geothermal exploration is very expensive Albertine Graben which has an indicated and funding needs to be secured to oil reservoir of 1 billion barrels. Vanoil develop the resource, though operating

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Report costs are relatively low. A geothermal crucial to implementing and monitoring exploration law is being drafted by the energy efficiency. GoR to aid private sector participation, and MININFRA is working with the local Potential Opportunities university to raise awareness of the future East Africa Power Master Plan skills and technology requirements for In March 2005, the East African geothermal energy. Community (EAC) produced an East Africa Wind Power Master Plan (EAPMP) which A Wind Atlas and wind potential study was covered the planning, economic analysis produced in December 201013. The and required investment for expansion of results show that there is weak wind the generation and transmission system power potential in Rwanda, with average for the region. A key outcome of the study wind speeds ranging from 2.4m/s to was the formation of the Eastern Africa 4.3m/s and capacity factors of less than Power Pool (EAPP) in November 2006 as 13%. Wind power is a clean renewable a specialised institution of COMESA for energy source, but as remote off-grid electrical power for Eastern Africa. The hybrid wind/diesel installations are the only EAC and EAPP are in the process of likely economically viable option, it developing a Regional Power Master Plan becomes high carbon. and Interconnection Code which will expand on the EAPMP to include Rwanda Energy Efficiency and Burundi (not part of the EAC in 2005) Energy efficiency has two obvious benefits and update key planning criteria. The of reducing the cost of energy and regional plan will map out low cost power reducing the energy demand, which development through generation and increases net supply and therefore energy transmission projects to cater for the security. It also reduces carbon emissions. region’s power needs for the 25-year The use of energy efficient electrical horizon from 2013 to 2038. The appliances is actively promoted by the partnership with the EAPP will enable the GoR while electricity for heating is EAC to identify sources of cheap electricity discouraged. The GoR is considering from ten east African countries to introducing energy labelling and energy complement local resources[14]. efficiency standards for imported electrical Low Carbon Planning appliances and is distributing over 800,000 compact fluorescent lights Rwanda’s strategy of energy diversification (CFLs). Energy efficient strategies include is important for energy security but it could the efficient use of petroleum products also facilitate low carbon development. It and electricity in agriculture, energy audits is important to consider the climate for industrial users, upgrading or replacing impacts for each energy source and the energy inefficient equipment and possible funding sources available for technology, a National Electricity Network mitigation. The Netherlands Development audit to identify measures for network Organisation (SNV) is in the process of strengthening, and the inclusion of energy obtaining voluntary credits for Rwanda efficient requirements in building from the NDBP but other sources of regulations. The GoR plans to raise carbon credits are hydro, solar, wind, awareness through regular programmes methane and geothermal energy. The and continuous dissemination of energy source for electricity consumed by information[2]. As the biggest source of the various industries in Rwanda will energy is biomass, there could be a larger largely determine their emissions and focus on efficiency of cooking stoves. hence be their primary focus for mitigation. Energy usage data collection is also These factors need to be taken into

Smith School of Enterprise and the Environment 33 account alongside the political, economic, damage infrastructure and woodfuel social, technological and environmental plantations, reducing electricity and aspects of the energy sector. Key criteria biomass supply. As it develops, Rwanda that contribute to the feasibility of has the opportunity to build a climate- exploiting each energy source are listed robust energy system. It is already doing below: this partly by investing in a diverse range of energy supply sources, especially - Capital cost renewable energy, and by expanding - Operating cost linkages with the East Africa region. Other - Time to delivery methods of increasing resilience are - Ease of use technical adaptation (reinforcing - Reliability/availability infrastructure and equipment and - Land use impact appropriate siting of equipment) and - GHG emissions operational adaptation (disaster - Water resource impact preparedness planning, managing energy - Regional context demand and investing in energy efficiency) ESMAP and the World Bank are 16. These approaches can be included in developing a comprehensive toolkit that GoR policies to ensure that they are aids low carbon electricity sector planning implemented. It is important that Rwanda using a ‘learning-by-doing’ approach. It is quantifies the predicted impact of climate being piloted in Nigeria and Morocco from change so that it can incorporate 2010 to 2012 and could be used in other adaptation into its energy planning countries from 2013. The approach will process. Training of engineers, technology support the development of objectives and transfer from more advanced nations, supply-demand forecasts and the research and development programmes, identification of options for low carbon and raising public awareness are also development. The toolkit will document crucial to ensuring that Rwanda’s the approaches, methodologies and development is not hindered by climate available tools to aid low carbon power change. sector policy and regulation development, Government Policy and Targets investment decisions and low carbon technology choices[15]. In 2008 the GoR produced a National Energy Policy, which is an update of its Climate Change Impacts 2004 Energy Statement. It specifically With current growth, GHG emissions from covers the long term development of the energy generation will rise though the electricity sector, household energy emissions intensity should decrease as requirements, gender sensitivity, and hydropower, methane and renewable Rwanda’s commitment to private sector energy expand and replace rented high participation. The policy is complemented carbon oil-fuelled power. With the range of by the National Energy Strategy which energy options available, the GoR can covers the period to 2020. MININFRA is in prioritise projects that will result in a low the process of implementing a detailed carbon development pathway. strategy for the period 2008-2012 - the The direct impacts of climate change will Energy Sector Strategic Plan - and an affect the energy sector in terms of supply, Energy Strategic Plan for 2011 to 2017 demand, costs and reliability. The most has been drafted. An Electricity Master important impacts would be extreme Plan was produced in December 2010. weather such as storms, floods and The policy objectives are: droughts which could increase or decrease hydropower supply and may

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Report - To ensure the availability of reliable and policy from MININFRA. MININFRA works affordable energy supplies for all closely with many other government Rwandans ministries as well as RDB, OGMR and - To encourage the rational and efficient REMA. use of energy Active development partners are the World - To establish environmentally sound and Bank, African Development Bank, Belgian sustainable systems of energy government, Netherlands government, production, procurement, European Union, French Development transportation, distribution and end-use Agency, Japan International Cooperation The strategy shows that high rates of GDP Agency (JICA), Opec Fund for International growth are only going to be possible for Development, Arab Bank for Economic Rwanda if based on activities with low Development in Africa and DFID. NGOs energy intensity, locally produced such as SNV and CARE work in the electricity and an oil price below 100 USD biogas and biomass sub-sector and per barrel ARED, a local association that represents - Under the EDPRS17 there are four renewable energy companies, is working energy sub-programmes each with its on implementation. Involvement from the own target for 2012. These are: private sector is encouraged and RECO is - Increased access to electricity
outsourcing work on the distribution - Reduced cost of service and network to local private sector companies. introduction of cost reflective tariffs All of these stakeholders form an Energy - Energy diversification and security Sector Working Group, a quarterly - Strengthening the governance coordination and decision making forum framework and institutional capacity co-chaired by the GoR and the World Bank. Stakeholder Mapping Summary The key stakeholders for the Energy sub- sector are the Ministry of Infrastructure Rwanda’s current reliance on hydropower (MININFRA), the national utility the and oil-fuelled power makes it vulnerable Rwanda Electricity Corporation (RECO), to climate change and oil price shocks. previously known as ELECTROGAZ, and Current GHG emissions are low, the Rwanda Utilities Regulatory Agency contributing 15% of national CO2 (RURA). RECO is responsible for emissions and 28% of national methane transmission and distribution but off-grid emissions in 2005. Rwanda has an schemes and independent power impressive programme to expand and producers are encouraged. The diversify its energy sector which will introduction of competition within the improve its energy security and aid poverty electricity industry is a long-term policy alleviation. The GoR is investing in a large goal. RURA was created in September range of energy sources that vary in 2001 to regulate the public utilities and in carbon emissions from clean renewables May 2008 an Electricity Directorate and a like solar to high carbon options like oil. Gas Directorate were formed[18]. In 2009 The majority of the large energy resources the National Energy Development Agency are in the west of the country and have (NEDA) was created and an Energy, Water land use or regional impacts. For the and Sanitation Authority (EWSA) was country to follow a low carbon approved in December 2010. An Energy development pathway, these options need Development Directorate will be set up in to be thoroughly assessed for economic, EWSA which will take over the social and environmental costs and responsibility of implementing energy benefits.

Smith School of Enterprise and the Environment 35 36 Baseline
Report 5. MINING

The mining industry in Rwanda is in a state estimates of cement and lime production of transition, recently privatised and in 2005[2] (table 1.1). As the industry moving from a regional trading industry to grows, it has the opportunity to develop in a local extraction and exporting industry. a low carbon way. This is largely As the largest export earner, it plays a dependent on the type of energy used in significant role in the economy and is a key mining and processing, but water use and focus area for the Government of Rwanda energy efficient technologies and methods (GoR). It provides employment to over also play an important role. 35,000 people and earned almost 60m Current Status USD, 30% of export revenue, in 2009. The main exports are cassiterite (tin ore), The first geological map of Rwanda was wolframite (tungsten ore) and coltan published in 1926, and mining began in (tantalum ore) with small amounts of gold 1930[1]. After independence, the GoR and sapphires. The industry is dominated created a public mining company, by small-scale and artisanal miners (ASMs) SOMIRWA, by combining all existing while the larger companies trade more mining companies to strengthen the than they mine, including ores from industry. In 1985 SOMIRWA went eastern DRC. The current focus is on bankrupt and in 1989 another public exploration and the GoR aims to triple company, REDEMI, was established to production and increase revenue by 10% continue mining and exploration. There by 2015[1]. The key challenges are lack of was slow growth from 1994 but intensive ore reserve knowledge and of local privatisation of state-owned mines from technical and business skills. The mining 2006 increased productivity while high industry is vulnerable to global price commodity prices boosted the sector. shocks and storms and fl oods, Rwanda is underlain by the Kibaran Belt exacerbated by climate change. which extends into Tanzania, Uganda, Opportunities for product diversification Burundi, DRC and Angola and is known to and mining services are therefore very be widely mineralised. Rwanda is currently important for the stability and growth of mining cassiterite (tin ore), coltan (tantalum the industry. Rwanda could position itself ore), wolframite (tungsten ore), gold and as a regional mining services hub and sapphires (figure 5.1). In 2008 Rwanda contribute to achieving Vision 2020. The produced about 5% of the world’s only record of GHG emissions are tantalum and 4% of global tungsten[3]. Figure 5.1: Mineral deposits and potential target areas[4]

Smith School of Enterprise and the Environment 37 Figure 5.2: Mineral Exports in USD, 1998 to 2009 (Source: RDB, 2010)

Mining concessions have been privatised and are now owned by ten companies, with one Mining is the largest export earner in concession in the process of being Rwanda, bringing in up to 94 million USD privatised. There are two large long-term annually (figure 5.2) and is a key focus private concessions mining wolframite. area for the GoR[4]. Export revenues are Land use conflicts are dealt with at district highly dependent on global commodity level. prices, which increased over the past five years (dropping only during the global Quarrying financial crisis). There has been a similar Quarries in Rwanda extract aggregates, pattern with domestic production and silicon sands, dimension stone and clay export volumes. Exports are dominated by and are used to produce cement, tiling cassiterite, contributing 6,477 tonnes of and concrete. They are classified into three [5] the total 8,401t exported in 2010 , while categories[1]: local production is dominated by wolframite (Figure 5.1). There are nine - Small quarries (<1ha) - managed by companies - predominantly owned by districts foreigners - with processing operations in - Quarries > 1ha - managed by Rwanda, having a processing capacity of MINIFOM and exploited for industrial use only 2,735 tonnes of concentrate per month[4]. - Government-owned quarries - permits Two smelters exist, one in Kigali and one to manage these quarries are issued in Rubavu, but they are not operational for a specific period via MININFRA due to the high cost of electricity in when there is an activity of public Rwanda. GHG emissions are not interest e.g. construction of roads measured or recorded for the industry but the largest sources of emissions are likely The quarrying industry is relatively to be CO2 from mineral processing and undeveloped, with aggregate quarrying transport. being dominated by large international construction firms. The majority of value- There are four types of mining permits – a added construction materials are two-year prospecting licence, a four-year imported. Rwanda has three cement exploration licence, a five-year mining factories, the largest of which is Cimerwa, licence and a thirty-year concession. There which produces 100,000 tonnes per year are 323 prospecting, exploration and but plans to expand by 600,000 tonnes mining licenses and 161 permit holders in per year to meet domestic demand. A Rwanda[5]. Twenty government

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Report large granite manufacturing plant is due to Certification start operating from May 2011. The only A Trading Chain Certification Process is reported GHG emissions for the mining under way in partnership with the industry are estimates for 2005 of energy Germany Institute of Geosciences and used in cement and lime production. Natural Resources[9]. The requirements for Together they are thought to have certification include transparent declaration produced 151Gg of CO 2, 28% of the of production and trading, fair [2] national total . Construction materials in remuneration and safe working conditions Rwanda that can be used in their primary for all employees, contribution to social, state or processed include amphibolite, economic and institutional development granite, quartzite, volcanics, dolomites, and continual improvement of clay, kaolin, sand and gravel. environmental performance. There is an Regional Resources opportunity to include low carbon The countries bordering Rwanda are rich development in the environmental in minerals and gemstones[6]. They host performance part of this process. Because metal deposits of gold, copper, cobalt, tin, of the conflict in the DRC, the United tungsten, coltan, silver, iron ore, lead and States has recently issued a law requiring gemstones including ruby, sapphire, certification of mineral exports from the tsavorite, aquamarine, cordierite, emerald, region. In response OGMR has started tourmaline, tanzanite, diamond, amethyst, tagging mineral exports. garnet, spinel, beryl and citrine. They also Opportunities have quarries for limestone, sand, stones, As the mining industry is under-developed clays, granite, soda ash and marble for there are many opportunities not only in construction materials. There is very increased production but also in limited processing of ore, with some downstream processing, diversification, copper and cobalt smelting and minor import substitution and mining services. production of steel and lead. Mineral With significant investment there could be resources have significant regional a fourfold increase in production and development implications and should be export revenues within the next ten years, part of ongoing initiatives in regional reaching 16,000 tonnes and 240 million integration. USD annually[10]. High fixed investment Current initiatives costs, limited knowledge of reserves, high energy costs and lack of certified Exploration personnel are barriers to foreign The lack of detailed ore reserve investment in the sector. Before these information has led to a focus on opportunities are taken forward, low exploration. Recent geophysical work[7,8] carbon pathways should be mapped out. identified 21 potential target areas (PTAs) Mining can not only be a driver of shown in Figure 5.1. Four have been development, but of climate-resilient low chosen for detailed survey and mapping, carbon development. and the GoR is hoping to develop the Downstream Processing areas through public private partnerships. Five large companies are exploring for The limited capacity for mineral processing gold while other metals identified by in the region provides an opportunity for OGMR for exploration include chrome, economic growth in Rwanda. The GoR uranium, zinc, lead, copper, thorium and plans to develop a mineral processing lithium. Gemstones identified for centre, encourage gemstone cutting and exploration are tourmaline, opal, amethyst, polishing enterprises, revive tin smelting topaz, corundum, chiastorite and agate. operations and support smelters and

Smith School of Enterprise and the Environment 39 Table 5.1: Potential mining and manufacturing diversification Mined Product Estimated Resource Manufactured Product

Sand 6.5 million tonnes Glass Manufacturing Bricks, Roof Tiles, Ceramics (e.g. Fine Clays 4.5 million tonnes Insulators, Porcelain, Paint) Limestone, Kaolin, Gypsum 2.9 million tonnes Lime, Chalk, Fertiliser, Concrete Talc Unknown Cosmetics Dimension Stones - Granites, Marble, Abundant Tiles (stone cutting and polishing) Amphibolites, Schist, Siltstone Gemstones - Emerald, Tourmaline, Beryllium, Topaz, Sapphire, Chiastolite, Unknown Jewellery Amethyst, Opal, Agate, Flint

modern concentration plants. With proper already manufactured in Rwanda, but ore production supply and infrastructure, production could be increased. This would smelting activities could increase annual however increase domestic GHG revenues by up to 5 million USD, reaching emissions as cement production and lime 10 million USD by 2020. Recent large production are carbon-intensive investments of 57 million USD have been processes. made in granite cutting and polishing, Mining Services sapphire processing and a ceramic plant. Mineral processing, especially smelting, is The mining services market generated 19 the highest user of energy in the global million USD in 2010. Rwandan companies mining industry. Rwanda, with its many provide basic services such as mineral renewable energy options, could ensure analysis, logistics and site surveys while that even if energy use increases, GHG international providers specialise in highly emissions do not. technical services including mining engineering, validation and training[10]. Diversification With investment, the services market To reduce vulnerability to global could increase to 53 million USD by 2020, commodity price fluctuations, the industry with 29 million USD going to local service could diversify its construction materials providers, and could become a regional and gemstones. MINIFOM and OGMR hub. The GoR plans to build the Kigali have identified a number of opportunities Mineral Campus in 2014; this will include a shown in Table 5.1 above. The benefit Kigali Gem Cutting and Design Centre, would come not only from the new cooperative treatment stations, private products that could be sold domestically processors and refineries, training centres, or exported, but also from the creation of financing facilities, investment promotion a service industry. and business incubation. Local expertise Import Substitution in geology, mine engineering, and metallurgy is currently extremely limited, Rwanda has seen a rapid rise in exports however, with only 40 scientists in the and imports over the last few years. Of country. The industry will need 80 specific interest for the mining industry are scientists and 300 technicians over the imports of construction materials and next five years. The GoR plans to send fertilisers, worth some 150 million USD in Rwandans overseas for training, develop 2008. This presents a significant local degrees in geology, mining and opportunity for import substitution, as metallurgy and set up mining related Rwanda possesses many of the necessary technical training courses. The services raw materials. Cement, tiles and bricks are

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Report Figure 5.3: Five strategic pillars of the 2009 Revised Mining Policy provided could be expanded to include energy. Water demand will increase as the technical and financial advice on climate sector grows: the principles of reduce- resilience and low carbon development. reuse-recycle need to be embedded early On-site power generation on. Climate change will affect the mining Mining operations are often in remote sector in terms of costs, efficiency and areas away from the national grid. This disrupted production. The most important limits their ability to mine and process ore direct impact will be floods and storms and the level of technology and which can halt mine production, damage mechanisation they can employ. Micro- infrastructure, cut electricity supply and generation of renewable energy (e.g. solar hinder transport. PV, micro-hydro) on site could boost production while reducing GHG emissions. Government Policy and Targets The GoR could consider incentives to A Mineral Policy was written in 2004 but, promote this as it would reduce energy with the rapid development of the industry, demand and emissions. a revised Mining Policy was adopted in Biofuels February 2010. A Mining Law[11] was published in April 2009 using international A large expense and contributor to GHG standards, and provides the framework to emissions in the mining industry is create a competitive industry. This was transport. In Rwanda, the majority of followed by four ministerial orders[12] transport is of ore to processing plants or for export. Second and third generation gazetted in October 2010. Royalties are biofuels could in time replace conventional charged for mining companies - but not diesel to reduce the industry’s emissions. for small scale miners - at the rate of 2% for rare and base metals, 3% for gold and Climate Change precious metals and 8% for precious The GHG emissions of the mining sector stones. The Mining Policy proposes the are currently unknown though it is likely creation of a mining development fund, that the largest sources are CO2 from which will receive a share of royalty mineral processing and transport. As the payments to finance strategic public industry grows, more energy intensive investments in the mining sector. methods are likely to be used for drilling, There are two EDPRS targets for the blasting, loading, hauling and processing. mining sector[13]: Emissions will depend on the energy - Increase mineral exports by 250% from sources used and the level of energy 38 million USD in 2005 to 106 million efficiency employed. Electricity from the USD by 2012 national grid is expected to be a mix of energy from fossil fuels and renewable

Smith School of Enterprise and the Environment 41 - Increase employment from 25,000 to domestic large scale mining projects are in 37,000 by 2012, of which 20-30% the exploration stage, trading operations should be women are larger than mining activities. Artisanal The strategy for achieving these targets is miners are encouraged to form to promote private sector participation, cooperatives to improve capital, increase mineral mapping and exploration production, governance and technology. and improve the capacity of small miners. The Federation of Mining Cooperatives More recently, MINIFOM has set targets of (FECOMIRWA) was established in tripling production and increasing revenue December 2009 to support cooperatives by 10% by 2015. The Mining Policy has in management, training, health and five strategic pillars with associated targets safety, promotion to investors and buyers [15] for 2020, shown in figure 5.3. The GoR is and environmental conservation . It encouraging investors through import tax comprises four unions - UCOMIMU, exemptions, accelerated depreciation of UCOMIGABU, UCOMIRU and RUMICU - assets and access to services. While the each of which is made up of several industry is still young and starting to cooperatives that operate in specific implement new legislation there is a districts. A total of 22 cooperatives mine window of opportunity to embed principles coltan, cassiterite and wolframite from of climate-resilience and low carbon over 90 mines. The Rwanda Investment development. Regular measuring and and Export Promotion Agency (RIEPA) reporting of energy use, GHG emissions facilitates the strengthening of the and water use is required and monitoring supporting industry institutions of the and evaluation of the impact of the mining sector. The Private Sector industry should be put in place. The GoR Federation (PSF) represents the interests could include consideration of energy and of the private sector, including mining, and water efficiency in the requirements for is discussing setting up a Mining mining licences and concessions. The Roundtable. A Minerals Investors Forum GoR is enforcing Environmental Mitigation operates in Kigali. Plans for the industry and these should Summary include climate change mitigation. The mining sector in Rwanda is in a Stakeholder Mapping process of transformation after recent The two key government stakeholders are privatisation and a focus on increasing the Ministry of Forestry and Mining domestic production. The industry is a (MINIFOM), which has responsibility for driver of economic growth as it provides setting policy and preparing legislation, thousands of jobs and brings in about and the Office of Geology and Mines in 30% of Rwanda’s export revenues. The Rwanda (OGMR) which is responsible for GoR sees it as a focus area and aims to implementing policy and regulation but triple production and increase revenue by also provides technical supervision, 10% by 2015. Rwanda could become a promotes sector growth and coordinates regional hub for mining services, activities[14]. contributing towards Vision 2020. The GoR has the opportunity to establish The private sector is diverse, ranging from climate resilient and low carbon principles large international firms to individual into the industry from an early stage. artisanal miners, with different levels of Renewable energy sources and energy investment, production, performance and and water efficiency are key to minimising social commitment. In March 2011, 311 impact. GHG emissions, energy use and mining permits and 12 quarrying permits water use should be measured and were operational, owned by 161 different reported. companies or individuals[4]. As most

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Report 6. TRANSPORT

Mobility is an essential component of transportation, keeping prices high and human civilisation. Efficient multi-modal reducing the competitiveness of Rwandan transport systems promote the growth of exports. Whilst not separately accounted cities, of global trade and of the economy for, GHG emissions from transport are in general. Usually reliant on petroleum approximately 13% of Rwanda’s total products, transport can be carbon emissions. Local pollution is a concern intensive. The average US citizen, a due to the age and condition of the member of the most mobile nation on Rwandan fleet. Ozone levels exceed both earth, generates 5.2 tonnes of CO2 per US and Japanese environmental year through transport alone[1]. Rwanda, standards. with its landlocked position in the African Rwanda is served by some 14,000km of continent, mountainous terrain and rapidly roads, giving it one of the highest road expanding population and economy, is densities in Africa, at 0.53km/km2[2]. susceptible to a carbon-intensive Approximately a third are classified roads expansion, and is reliant on foreign (~4,700km), which fall under the sources for its energy supply. However, jurisdiction of Ministry of Infrastructure because its road fleet is small, Rwanda is (MININFRA); the remainder are unclassified not locked into a transport system and roads. Classified roads are further thus has the opportunity to choose separated into National Paved Roads systems that will meet future demands. (NPR) and National Unpaved Roads (NUR) Current Status (~2,900km), with the remaining classified roads (~1,800km) defined as District Transport in Rwanda is currently Roads (DR). Maintenance of the national dominated by internal combustion engined road network falls under the remit of the (ICE) road transportation, both for Ministry of Infrastructure where as the passengers and cargo. National and district roads are the responsibility of the international transportation are dominated district[3] by the road sector; a limited volume of . The unclassified roads are gravel people and materials are moved by water rural or feeder roads and urban roads, which fall under the jurisdiction of the and air. This has a significant effect on prices in Rwanda, as lack of modal various communes and city councils. The competition and demand for imported fuel quality of the roads is highly variable. keep transport costs high. Currently over Nearly 75% of NPR are of good or 40% of the cost of goods is attributed to passable condition, but only 20% of

Figure 6.1: Rwandan Road Fleet Mix 2008[4]

Smith School of Enterprise and the Environment 43 District Roads qualify for this grade. The costs. Linked to this is a study on Rwandan vehicle fleet consists of 13,305 improving pavement durability through vehicles (figure 6.1) - mainly motorcycles better selection of materials. Other studies (58%), with two-axle vehicles (cars, jeeps include proposals to switch from left hand and pick-ups) also a significant portion drive to right hand drive vehicles, as well (33%)[4]. No rail currently operates in as a number of regulation and road safety Rwanda; waterborne transport is limited to programmes such as vehicle inspection some irregular services on Lake Kivu. Air systems, construction guidelines, road transport is mainly handled by Kigali signage and sensitivity to road safety International Airport, though Kamembe campaigns. Airport in the southwest also has some There are also a number of ongoing rural regional flights. There are five other road programs, both Government and airports in Rwanda; these are unpaved, NGO-based, as well as rural transport and handle either private or small civil systems such as the coffee bike, a project flights. Kigali airport handles about to provide coffee farmers with long [5] 300,000 passengers a year (2008) and is wheelbase bicycles that increase their the main hub for RwandAir, the national productivity[8]. carrier with a fleet of five small to medium- sized aircraft operating in the Eastern, As a relatively low cost and readily accessible option, expansion of the road Central and Southern African regions. Destinations served by direct flights network offers an egalitarian transportation include Brussels, Amsterdam and Dubai mode with low barriers to entry. as well as regional centres such as Land - Rail Nairobi, Johannesburg and Dar-es- Rwanda currently has no rail systems in Salaam. operation though there is a project to link Current Initiatives Rwanda to Dar-es-Salaam via Isaka[9]. This multi-national project, funded through the Land - Road African Development Bank, will link the The main focus of the Rwandan Transport Rwandan capital Kigali and the Burundian Development Agency (RTDA), the city of Gitega with Isaka, Tanzania by a government agency in charge of transport new line which will continue to Dar-es- in Rwanda, is the development of road Salaam by a standard gauge replacement infrastructure. As of 2011 there are forty- of the current Tanzanian Railway eight road maintenance and rehabilitation Corporation metre (1,000mm) gauge line. programmes ranging from widening and This will result in approximately 1,500km improvement of national roads to the of standard gauge line, which will be relaying of urban and rural roads[6]. These operated by diesel tractive power. projects are in varying states of The route within Rwanda will also provide implementation. The hilly terrain of access to the planned airport at Bugesera. Rwanda, and the levels of precipitation, The 3.6 billion USD project is currently make constructing and maintaining roads undergoing the tender process for the a major challenge, absorbing a significant second design stage. As with road portion of budget and aid finances. transport, the infrastructure requirements In an aim to reduce road maintenance of rail are a challenge in Rwanda's terrain, costs, RTDA is carrying out an axle load as is the management of a multinational monitoring programme[7]. Excessive axle project. However a heavy rail system offers loading has a significant impact on the life a method of transporting large volumes of of road infrastructure, leading to increased goods, such as mining products, road maintenance and vehicle operating

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Report efficiently, opening a possible opportunity Burundi to Lake Victoria. It expected that for a significant export earner. the system would be used primarily as Air international transport to the Lake Victoria area, and beyond through transportation To expand capacity of Rwanda’s air systems in Kenya and Tanzania. services, and with the aim of operating an East African Hub in Rwanda, a new airport Potential Opportunities at Bugesera is being planned. It is There are a number of potential expected that first phase construction will opportunities for low carbon transportation be completed in 2016 and full capacity of systems in Rwanda. over 1 million passengers annually will be reached by 2025[10]. Plans are currently at Labour-based Technology the 90% design stage and investors are There are still a high percentage of being sought for a public-private manually operated transport systems in partnership model, which has recently Rwanda, with bicycles and walking being gone to tender. To take full advantage of the transport modes of choice outside the opportunities available in the global Kigali. These systems have few or no market place, good air access is vital, barriers to entry, and are widely available. facilitating the flow of knowledge and high One such system is the coffee bike, which value goods. However, air travel is provides coffee farmers with long- expensive in economic and environmental wheelbase bicycles to allow them to get terms, and has high barriers to access. their products to market sooner. They thus receive a higher price, resulting in Water economic benefits. There is a lack of A highly efficient mode of transport, beasts of burden: these could offer a waterborne services are limited by significant increase in productivity in rural Rwanda’s land-locked status. The two areas, with minimum infrastructural and main possibilities for water navigation in environmental costs[8]. The cost of animals Rwanda are the use of Lake Kivu and and the challenges of endemic disease (if [11,12] navigation on rivers . any), as well as education on animal Lake Kivu offers an opportunity to expand husbandry and management of waste waterborne transport both within Rwanda products, would need to be addressed. and internationally with the DRC. Currently One waste option is the use of Biogas an ad hoc unscheduled passenger service digesters, which produces methane for runs between the three main ports, heating and lighting. These are covered in Cyanguou, Kibuye and Gisenyi, a distance more detail in the energy sector. of approximately 90km. Commerce is Infrastructure limited to fishing and some transportation by a local brewery (Bralirwa) between its The current road infrastructure varies from plant in Gisenyi and warehouses in Kibuye high speed, highly engineered asphalt and Cyanguou. A feasibility study was surfaces to cleared dirt roads which suffer undertaken in 2009, and identified a from wash outs and restrict both speed market for 120 passengers and 15-20 and vehicle type. While fully engineered tonnes of cargo daily, to be transported by roads are the best option from a two mixed-use vessels. Similar systems transportation point of view, the cost is have previously been used both on Lake prohibitive, the recently completed Kivu (1977-88) and on other great lakes. Musanze to Gisenyi road cost 575,000 RWF (€715,000) per km[13]. A cheaper A study is currently ongoing into the option is the application of labour-based possibility of making the River Akagera technologies. Rwanda’s labour based navigable. The Akagera flows from

Smith School of Enterprise and the Environment 45 systems are generally unsuitable for developing countries[15]. Biofuel A number of biofuel projects are under way, in Rwanda, covering first and second-generation biofuels, produced from food and non-food biomass respectively. The ability for biofuels to be ‘dropped-in’ to current technology, with little or no alteration, is an attractive opportunity, as is the energy security and the export potential. The widespread use Figure 6.2: Algal fuel bioreactor of biofuels has a number of challenges, intensive local development program particularly land use pressures, water (HIMO) was launched in 2003 with the aim needs and fertiliser use. Third generation of creating employment and generating biofuels from algae biomass offer promise, revenue by utilising local resources. a but are currently at pilot plant scale (figure 12.5km rural trial connecting three rural 6.2) and will require a meaningful scale-up centres at a cost of approximately to allow mass market penetration[16]. 5,000,000 RWF per km[1]. There are trade HEV/BEVs offs between access and levels of The use of Hybrid Eclectic Vehicles (HEV) maintenance, with water ingress and run- and Battery Electric Vehicles (BEV) is off being of a particular but improved road championed in the developed world as a surfaces improve transport efficiency and low carbon transport solution. The drive therefore reduce emissions and reliance for Rwanda to provide electricity on external energy supplies. Secondary generation from renewable resources infrastructure, such as street lights, makes these technologies an attractive signage and traffic flow improvements can proposition, offering low carbon transport also offer significant savings in fuel use and energy security. There are a number of and transport costs. problems with the use of HEV/BEV Pneumatic vehicles in the Rwandan context; Pneumatic or compressed air vehicles electricity generation is currently supply (CAV) utilise an onboard store of high constrained, and neither electrical nor road pressure air to drive a pneumatic motor. In infrastructure is suitable[17]. the developed world, CAV do not compete Mass Transit with gasoline or electric vehicles in terms As Kigali accounts for 10% of Rwanda’s of environmental and economic metrics, population, and is growing rapidly, it is but could offer a lower cost answer to necessary to investigate the options for a urban transport in Rwanda[14]. reliable low-carbon mass transit system to Hydrogen prevent the city becoming like the smog- Seen as a possible replacement for ridden and gridlocked cities, characterised Internal Combustion Engines (ICEs) in by a car based development, that are developed nations, hydrogen fuel cells are seen in the US and elsewhere in Africa. unlikely to have any impact in Rwanda. There are a large number of options for The high initial cost of the devices and the mass transit, including biofuel and biogas high level of technology needed to fuelled buses as well as electrically maintain them, as well as the issue of powered systems such as trams and hydrogen supply, means that fuel cell trolley buses[18].

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Report Figure 6.3: Hybrid Lighter-than-air Vehicle (Source: Lockheed-Martin) Biogas/Natural Gas introducing emissions standards for With significant reserves of methane in vehicles, enforced by either bans or Lake Kivu and the possibility of a increased taxes, to induce users to nationwide network of biogas digesters purchase lower-emission vehicles. Similar processing human and animal waste, methods can be used to control other there is an opportunity for large scale use transport characteristics, such as vehicle of biogas power transport, as widely used size, but there are issues to be overcome in Sweden, Switzerland and Germany. before such policies can be implemented. Biogas sources would have to be For example the road network in Rwanda scrubbed of various additives and the currently requires large vehicles, which due carbon emissions addressed[19]. to their size and weight have high fuel consumption. Efforts to reverse this Hybrid Lighter-Than-Air through a combination of infrastructure Another option is the utilisation of hybrid improvements and education of lighter-than-air technology (figure 6.3). consumers would offer significant gains in These combine airship and aircraft emissions in the long term, assuming a technologies to produce a low energy, low business as usual case where Rwanda infrastructure transport system. Currently followed developed country trends. Such in the development stage, such craft methods are usually low cost compared to should be available within five years, and other, technology based options, but can will offer a low cost and low emission still require significant investment[16]. transport system which can operate from Climate Change small clearings. Vehicles in the region of 20 tonnes are expected, and will be able to As an infrastructure-based system, operate in the international context[20]. transport is particularly susceptible to climate change. Increased precipitation Behavioural Management can lead to flooding, land slips and wash A number of policies, based both on outs, which cause significant damage to command and control and on incentives, infrastructure, with resulting heavy financial have been introduced to change in the penalties in both lost productivity and behaviour of the public by encouraging the repair and maintenance costs. Excessive use of mass transit. Examples for temperature variation can cause damage opportunities in Rwanda include to road surfaces and metallic structures,

Smith School of Enterprise and the Environment 47 with rail systems and bridges being as a significant issue to be overcome, as particularly vulnerable. Climate change are a number of constraints: also adds a significant level of risk in the - Geographical and climate constraints planning phase of projects. Past measures - Multitude of physical and non-physical of unexpected climatic events have now barriers along international routes become unreliable, leading to difficulties in - Over-dependence on a single mode designing future-proof transport systems. (road) with little multi-mode competition Designing transport systems to withstand - Poor historical maintenance of greater climatic variations also leads to transport infrastructure resulting in poor increased cost and complexity. condition Operation of transport systems is also - Low standards in vehicle condition vulnerable to climate change. Variation in - International transport dominated by precipitation levels impacts on the safety foreign transporters, which reduces of transport and can prevent operation in competitiveness and security the case of aerial systems. Again systems - Lack of financial, institutional, design and procedures to offset these challenges, and implementation capacity such as education campaigns or improved - The legal and regulatory framework is air traffic control measures, are costly. lacking in the present and future Predicting the level of intervention required context is also difficult, leading to a greater level of To overcome these issues and achieve the variability in the success of such climate vision of a low-cost, high quality transport change adaptation projects. sector, five strategic axes have been Indirect impacts of climate change could identified for implementation: also have signifi cant effects on - The private sector to play a more active transportation systems. Rapid changes in role in development demand on transport networks could - Support from the decentralised entities leave countries with inadequate transport in the management of the sector systems for many years - as such systems - Local community participation in have lead times in the decades - or with management and maintenance of the expensive white elephants, produced for sector demand that has reduced or disappeared - A system that can react to the and saddling governments with debt. opportunities and the challenges of the Government Policy and regional context - Reinforcement of the capacity, both Targets institutional and human, that will build a The current transport policy in Rwanda is viable transport sector framed by the 2008 document ‘Transport - The document also sets out a Sector Policy’. It identifi es the framework for achieving this within the Government’s vision for the transport current framework of political sector as to gain ‘cost effective and quality orientation and reform programmes services with due regard to safety and initiated by the government. environmental concerns’. A number of key A number of planning tools impact on issues within the transport sector are transport, including Vision 2020, the identified and it places the transport sector Economic Development and Poverty within the national, regional, socio- Reduction Strategy (EDPRS), the National economic and socio-political contexts. Investments Strategy (NIS), and the The excessive cost of transportation at Medium Term Expenditure Framework. national and international level is identified EDPRS and Vision 2020 frame the medium and long-term development goals

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Report of Rwanda. Both documents identify the - The Corridor based COMESA/EAC/ poor state of infrastructure, high cost and SADC Joint Aid for Trade Programme restricted access to services as key - The EAC Railway Development Master obstacles to achieving the objectives in Plan development. The NIS proposed over 120 - The IGAD Transport, Energy and Water billion RWF to be invested by the public Programme under the (JAM sector between 2002 and 2010 in Programme) rehabilitation of the transportation system. These programmes work on co-ordinating, Rwanda is a member of three regional developing, maintaining and standardising bodies: the Common Market for Eastern transport systems across the region, and and Southern African States (COMESA), impact either directly or indirectly on the East African Community (EAC), and Rwandan transport systems. the Economic Commission of Central Other references include the Millennium African States (ECCAS). The policies Development Goals (MDG) and the Sub- aligned with these organisations also Saharan Africa Transport Policy (SSATP) impact on the transport sector in Rwanda. Millennium development goals are The COMESA treaty charged member measurable goals and targets for states to undertake co-ordinated and combating poverty, hunger, disease, complementary transport policies and environmental degradation and establish and expand links to further discrimination against women. They were physical cohesion between member defined in 2000 at the United Nations states. The aim of this is to increase inter- Millennium Summit, and, while not directly state mobility. The five main aims of the mentioned, transport is a key sector in the articles referring to transport revolve achievement of these goals. around improving transport infrastructure and service, but the most important SSATP is a broad partnership of 35 statement is to ‘grant special treatment to countries, eight regional economic landlocked member states’ of which communities and fifteen public and private Rwanda is one. The EAC and ECCAS sector regional and sub-regional organisations. It promotes the follow similar veins on harmonisation of transport policy, improvement of development and implementation of sound infrastructure, cross border co-operation, transport sector policies and strategies, in security and service. Rwanda is also part support of sustainable economic growth of the Northern Corridor Transit Agreement and poverty reduction among its partner countries. SSATP is currently in its second (NCTA), which was set up in the late 1980’s to facilitate trade through the port development plan, focusing on policy of Mombasa, safeguarding access to the development. This includes strengthening sea. links between transport strategies and SGPRS, strengthening transport There are also a number of programmes performance monitoring, assessing rural running within the eastern and southern transport, sustaining reforms in road states region which impact on Rwanda’s management and financing, improving transportation links with the region and on urban mobility for the poor and facilitating regional transport: transit transport. - COMESA Transport and Stakeholder Mapping Communications Strategy and Priority Investment Plan (TCS/PIP) Public Sector - SADC Infrastructure Master plan The Ministry of Infrastructure is responsible Development for the transport sector in Rwanda, with three organisations directly involved in

Smith School of Enterprise and the Environment 49 transportation. The main agency is the specialised in specific goods, allowing Rwanda Transport Development Agency them to capture a small but profitable (RTDA), established by act of parliament in niche. The main form of public transport in January 2010, to oversee the transport Rwanda is the various taxi services, sector. Other bodies are the Rwandan Civil including the ‘moto’ (motorcycle based Aviation Authority (RCAA) and transport), ‘twegerane’ or shared taxi ONATRACOM. ONATRACOM, a national (Toyota Hi-ace minibuses) that are both bus service, runs a fleet of 205 buses on privately and publicly owned, and the car 172 routes, including regional and inter- taxi. regional routes. The majority of the fleet is Aid Agencies, NGOs and Funding operated in the rural areas. RCAA, the Bodies national aviation administrator, also provides the traffic management in Many development organisations operate Rwandan airspace. RwandAir is a joint in Rwanda and a number of these have venture between the Rwandan direct roles in the development of Government and Silverback Cargo transport infrastructure. Recently the Freighters and operates a five aircraft fleet. World Bank and EU have both funded large-scale rehabilitation of national roads Private Sector in Rwanda, while aid agencies such as The transportation sector is dominated by USAid have plans to develop rural routes private companies, from design and as part of their rural development plans. construction to service providers. International companies dominate the Summary design and construction of large With a transport system largely dependent infrastructure projects. The recent road on road transportation and fossil fuels construction projects have been designed there are a huge number of opportunities and constructed by external companies: to diversify the transport system in for example the rehabilitation of RN4 Rwanda. This offers Rwanda a number of between Ruhengeri and Gisenyi was opportunities: to improve its energy carried out by STRABAG Construction security; to reduce its susceptibility to Company, and the current rehabilitation of economic shocks; and to become a the Kigali to Ruhengeri section is managed regional if not global player in the by China Henan International Corporation application of advanced transport Group. Rwandan construction companies methodologies. There are a number of are limited to rural, non-engineered roads challenges facing transport in Rwanda: the owing to their limited experience and terrain and climate, characterised by hills capacity to manage large projects. and intense bursts of precipitation, makes The service sector in transportation is split constructing and maintaining transport between Rwandan and foreign infrastructure an expensive proposition; to companies, particularly those from other develop and implement huge nationwide east African countries such as Kenya and transport systems quickly and effectively is Tanzania. Whilst the Rwanda transport difficult without appropriate institutional fleet has grown since deregulation in capacity and tools; and there is a risk of 1994, larger companies (+100 vehicles) lock-in to inappropriate and inadequate from Kenya and Tanzania control the long- systems with high social, economic and distance transportation industry. They environmental costs. However with strong have higher levels of utilisation and lower governance and a clear vision it is possible operational costs, so can out-compete the to achieve a transport system that Rwandan companies, tend to be of a accelerates economic development in an much smaller scale (<5 vehicles) and have environmentally sound and climate- conscious process.

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Report 7. CITIES AND THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT

Housing is a basic human right. The Current Status Government of Rwanda (GoR) recognises that providing affordable shelter with Urbanisation in Rwanda currently stands access to basic facilities and services is at 18% and is increasing at a rate of 4% [1] key in improving the quality of life of its per annum . By 2020 is expected that citizens. Urbanisation is itself a driving over 50% of the population will be living in force for economic development, creating urban centres. Kigali, by far and away the a market for services and products as well largest city, representing 44% of the urban as centres for employment. The current population, illustrates the challenges faced practice in urban developments, or cities, by cities and the built environment in is unsustainable. Cities depend on a Rwanda. Holding a central location in multitude of sources for supplies, most Rwanda, Kigali comprises of three districts being truly global in their reach when it (figure 7.1) built over, and constrained by, a comes to demands for raw materials and number of hills. Kigali has grown, fuelled services. This leads to contemporary cities by the return of refugees, both from the having an ecological footprint many times 1994 genocide and previous out-bursts of their own area, far beyond what is violence, and this has led to large sustainable. It is possible to develop unplanned and under-served sustainable cities by minimising energy neighbourhoods. Secondary centres are and resource use through strong unable to attract returnees, as they are governance and engagement with the unable to provide solid bases for [2] public. This is a challenge faced by employment or economic services . Rwanda with increasing pressure from Unplanned developments are estimated at returning refugees, population growth and 8,500 to 10,000 units annually in Kigali, [2] increasing urbanisation. representing 90% of buildings in the city .

Figure 7.1: Map of City of Kigali Districts

Smith School of Enterprise and the Environment 51 Figure 7.2: Unplanned settlement in Kigali These unplanned areas, built using There is also a large disparity in the built impermanent materials and populated by environment across Rwanda. The poorest low-income and vulnerable groups, are rural families use one-room huts with seeing increases in both load factor and grass roofs, while modern glass-and-steel extent (figure 7.2). This increases pressure buildings are being built in central Kigali. on already limited services, such as Traditionally, impermanent materials such sanitation and waste management. Water as wood, reeds, straw, clay soil and supply is provided by Rwasco, and termite nest soil were used to construct consists of treated river or groundwater, Rwandan dwellings. Colonisers and though connection to the network is missionaries introduced adobe, burnt limited. Sanitation is provided by septic brick, tiles and corrugated iron sheet, tanks or pit latrines, though some materials and technology that still provide independent sites have water treatment the majority of Rwandans with their works[3]. Solid waste is collected by private dwellings. Post independence, the built haulers and is dumped at the rate of 120 environment consisted of traditionally built to 200 tonnes a day at a landfill at Nyanza dwellings in rural areas and colonial [4]. The site is unlined and does not have a technology of low, medium and high leachate control system, which leads to status dwellings in urban areas. pollution of the local environment. The hilly Current Initiatives terrain of Rwanda also causes challenges as it constrains urban development, A number of masterplans have been promoting urban spread (across hill tops created for various urban environments. and valley floors) increasing costs of Two have been completed for Kigali, one a transport and service provision. Efforts in conceptual plan by Oz Architecture of rural areas have centred on the regrouping Denver in 2007[6], the other a detailed of the traditionally dispersed rural district plan by Surbana of Singapore settlements[5]. The creation of these (2009) giving details of the future central imidugudu was undertaken to allow for business district (CBD) of Kigali, in more efficient use of rural space for Nyarugenge District[7]. The conceptual agriculture, increasing output and focusing masterplan identifies growth areas to the development funds on to the highest north-east and south and suggests a population areas. graded approach to building density from

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Report low-density suburban and semi-rural areas [5]. This method utilises semi-aerobic (40 people per hectare) to high density decomposition and is suited to Kigali’s surrounding the CBD (250 people per waste thanks to the very high organic hectare). It recommends that further urban content (~70%) of the collected waste. It growth of Kigali be defined by the natural has a number of advantages over the features of the area. The use of a current landfill method including collection decentralised urban growth model, based of leachate, control of gas venting and a around the transport nodes of a regional lower cost option to aerobic-type landfills. multi-mode transportation network, would Other programmes include solar water- allow for the preservation of slopes and heating, subsidised by the Government, wetlands, giving a green belt and urban and rainwater harvesting on public farming opportunities, as well as flood buildings. Rural projects include Ecosan protection. Where informal communities toilet systems to manage human waste, are located, they recommend upgrading and low cost housing materials, based on rather than replacement, and the creation banana stems composite systems bonded of clustered services producing walkable with organic adhesives, being developed communities. The plan also recommends by Kigali Institute of Science and the development of a new city centre Technology. clustered around new university and Potential Opportunities information centres. Citywide infrastructure is recommended with high levels of Cities connectivity to the electricity, water and Creating sustainable cities is a challenge. sewerage system. The very nature of cities, as concentrations The detailed plan for Kigali CBD in of human settlement, creates demand for Nyarugenge concentrates on producing a inputs and produces significant volumes of modern glass and steel based city, very waste in a concentrated area. Both inputs similar in appearance to Singapore. The - resources to feed and maintain the city plan encircles Kigali City, in a multi-lane structure - and the waste produced in the ring road and requires a sixteen-story form of gases, solids and liquids must be minimum on developments. The plan transported and processed, with the follows the earlier conceptual masterplan associated costs in economic and and approaches the challenge with a environmental terms. To make a city truly holistic view. A multi-mode transport sustainable, these processes must be system is proposed, centred around a bus minimised by efficient use and sourcing of rapid transit system. Waste management inputs, therefore reducing, and where is a mixture of environmental treatment possible reusing waste. zones, biogas digesters and solid waste Inputs to a city system can be classified disposal systems. as: goods, such as materials and Secondary urban centres also have agricultural products; energy, which can developed masterplans with Karongi, be in the form of electricity, fossil fuels or Rusizi, Rwamagana, Nyagatare, Gakenke, biomass; and water. There are other inputs Nyamasheke, Kibeho, Rubavu, Musanze such as population and finance, which and Kayonza completed and Nyamata also affect the sustainability of a city, but and Byanza still ongoing. MININFRA also as neither population growth nor has a number of building and rehabilitation economic growth is to be curtailed, these projects covering public buildings. can be discounted. The efficient use of UNDP, assisted by Fukuoka University, is these inputs can be managed in many investigating the possibility of utilising the ways, through efficient planning and Fukuoka method to process Kigali’s waste technology and through education and behavioural management. Efficient building

Smith School of Enterprise and the Environment 53 practises, design and maintenance can gases are difficult but not impossible to ensure the minimum amount of building turn into useful inputs. Methane released materials is used. High density urban from the decomposition of waste would planning and integrated transport systems normally be vented to the atmosphere. can minimise energy used for This can be captured and utilised in transportation while energy efficiency buildings as a heat and light source, a programmes in building services, such as process already used in Rwanda. low energy lighting and efficient cook- Built Environment stoves, reduce energy and material use. Key to the sustainability of cities is the built While efficient use of inputs should result environment. The efficient use of energy in the minimum amount of waste, this within structures goes a long way towards waste can be reused and recycled and reducing the ecological footprint of a city. turned into an input, again increasing the While close to the equator, Rwanda’s sustainability of a city. Liquid waste altitude gives a temperate climate. Building consists of grey (domestic waste water) design can take advantage of this in a and blackwater (effluent). Greywater, number of ways, reducing the need for where separated from blackwater, can be secondary services such as heating and simply recycled on-site for use for irrigation air-conditioning: or in toilet systems reducing the demand on white water supplies which is energy - Passive solar design which takes intensive to create and supply. Blackwater, advantage of seasonal variations in or water tainted by pathogens, must be solar energy heavily processed. One option for - Thermally massive buildings which take blackwater processing is the use of biogas advantage of the diurnal range digesters. This uses anaerobic digestion to - Well insulated buildings that minimise produce methane gas and a liquid temperature fluctuations digestate, which is then used as fertiliser. - External protrusions that shade walls, There is a minimum feed level for effluent minimising energy gains (~50kgs a day) to keep the process viable, The choice of construction materials also which equates to approximately two cows. has an impact on the environment in terms Higher technology options are also of the carbon cost of their manufacture. available such as membrane filtration, Concrete, glass and steel are energy- which can process much higher levels of intensive materials and should be used throughflow, but with associated costs. carefully, minimising the carbon cost of the Solid waste can be processed in a number construction. Current housing stock could of ways. Reuse and recycling of non- also be made more efficient, using solar organic materials can be very efficient and water heating, good insulation, and can also help with employment, for rainwater harvesting, all of which help to example the methods used in Cairo. One reduce energy demand. Retrofitting is of the worlds largest cities, Cairo reuses however often an expensive and difficult and recycles most of its solid waste. option. Processing is handled by the Zaballen, a Climate Change 10,000 strong community of coptic christians, with support from the city Climate change impacts cities and the authorities. Recycling and re- built environment significantly. The manufacturing activities provide a waste infrastructural elements are vulnerable to management program and an income extreme climatic events, and will require stream for development programmes. careful design to withstand future climate Organic waste can be processed to risks; existing housing stock may become produced fertiliser and methane. Waste unsuitable; with retrofitting expensive and

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Report difficult; and the demands on the services land management tools for the urban of a city may change, causing excessive setting, promotion of grouped settlements, pressure or resulting in expensive ‘white upgrading informal settlements, revision of elephants’ that are a drain on resources. standards and legal requirements, Government Policy and assisting local communities in developing financial resources and the building of Targets technical capacity. To implement these There are a number of government programmes a national, provincial and policies in Rwanda relating to cities and district level institutional framework will be the built environment. created. The implementation of these The National Urban Housing Policy for policies is dependent on increasing the funding available for the housing sector Rwanda is guided by a number of from tax revenue, government funds and principles, foremost of which is the basic the private sector. The creation of urban right of Rwanda’s citizens to housing and to access to potable water and adequate planning legislation is a priority to ensure a sanitation. Housing has to be inclusive to coherent and functional level of urban development. all income ranges, allowing access to basic infrastructure and services while In order to implement infrastructure remaining sustainable and with reduced projects MININFRA has developed a environmental impact. Urbanisation is National Construction Industry Policy, recognised as a driving force for economic which is aimed at developing the national development and having other construction industry so the private sector socioeconomic benefits. The document can take an active part in Rwanda’s identifies eight constraints on the housing development. The construction industry sector: has in important role to play in developing - Lack of adequate land and basic cities and the built environment in Rwanda. It also has a more general infrastructure economic development by providing - Lack of basic urban data various levels of employment in the - Lack of housing standards and lack of town planning construction and maintenance of key - Small percentage of registered land infrastructural systems. The current construction industry is constrained by owners number of problems including: - Lack of financial resources for resettlement of expropriated people - Insufficient project continuity due to - Lack of planning and management inadequate affirmative public polices tools - Insufficient access to finance and credit - Lack of adequate financial resources - Inadequate human resources in the for the local communities public and private sector - Lack of human and materials resources - Unfavourable conditions for accessing To meet the sectoral aim of alleviating donor credit poverty and promoting economic - Lack of a database for performance indicators development, the GoR intends to execute various policy actions in the areas of urban To combat these issues a number of housing, urbanisation and in related areas actions will be implemented including such as standards in construction and developing professional bodies and materials, monitoring and works. education courses to improve capacity, Programmes to achieve this include a city application of labour-based technology, planning project for secondary urban providing access to equipment, credit and centres, collection of basic urban data, multi-year contracts to registered

Smith School of Enterprise and the Environment 55 contractors. It is expected that these implement the necessary projects. The measures will result in a national National Human Settlement Policy construction industry by 2020, supported implemented an institutional and a legal by strong public bodies, regulated and framework as the initial foundation for competitive with international contractors. developing the settlements of Rwanda. Vision 2020 addresses cities and the built Stakeholder Mapping environment by aiming to have 30% of the population living in planned cities with A large variety of stakeholders are heavily access to basic infrastructure to ensure involved across the sector. The key public sustainable development. It also states body involved in cities and the built that by 2010 all cities will have an Urban environment is MININFRA, through the Master Plan and Land Use Master Plans. Directorate of Planning and Urban The construction industry also contributes Development and the Directorate of to economic development. Housing, Planning and Urban Heritage of the State. The specific aim of these bodies EDPRS emphasises planning and is the organisation and improvement of the development of urban and rural current system of human settlements for settlements in conformity with the criterion sustainable socioeconomic development. of environmental viability through the There are also regional and district reorganisation of national space. The planning bodies as well as city planning urban environment must be based on authorities such as Kigali City Council. strategies that stimulate economic activity. Private sector bodies include consultants, The Kigali Economic Development architects, construction and maintenance Strategy aligns Kigali's development with companies and service providers. NGOs Vision 2020 and emphasises global such as the World Bank, UN-HABITAT, competitiveness, promotion of business GTZ and African Development Bank are and industries and improved quality of life. also involved in a number of joint projects The National Investment Strategy places with the public sector. These include the emphasis on the support of the private resettlement projects, waste management, sector for infrastructural investments. This and sanitation as well as policy will be aided by the development of Urban formulation. Master Plans and the provision of basic Summary infrastructure on allotted sites, opening them up to investors. With so little in the way of existing housing stock that has access to basic amenities Rwanda’s Building Control Regulations are there is a great opportunity in Rwanda to the standard reference for the regulation of create a system that produces sustainable building design and construction and buildings and cities in both rural and urban cover the whole range of the building environments. Key to these will be the process, from planning approval to redevelopment of unplanned settlements, structural design, services and the design and application of energy maintenance. efficient housing designs and standards The National Human Settlement Policy and the creation of urban areas which (2004) identifies the challenges facing the minimise their ecological footprint. The housing sector which, following years of challenge is to provide the volume of underinvestment, has been significant construction required, in a sustainable strain because of returning refugees. It way. This is to be achieved against a identified seven major issues relating to backdrop limited funds and capacity to high demand, lack of resources to provide develop the sector. housing and the lack of human capacity to

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Report 8. AGRICULTURE

Agriculture is the foundation of Rwanda. Table 8.1: Total exports to neighbouring countries Recognised as the engine for May to April 2009/2010[1] development, it contributes more than 36.7% of GDP (2010), employs more than Value of Export % Share of Total 80% of the workforce and supplies 90% of (USD million) Exports the nation’s food and nutritional needs. Bovine Cattle 5.735 12.22 Efforts to improve rural livelihoods and (live) alleviate poverty place agriculture at the Goats (live) 4.715 10.05 centre of Rwanda’s strong progress Paraffin 4.454 9.49 towards achieving Millennium Development Goal 1[1]. Ensuring the Dried beans 2.292 4.89 sector’s resilience against existing and Maize flour 2.067 4.41 future climatic change, and external Irish potatoes 1.884 4.02 economic fluctuations, is a national Raw milk 1.702 3.63 concern for long-term development. The Ground nuts 1.611 3.43 GoR’s primary goal is to transform the Beef meat 1.422 3.03 sector from subsistence scale to mass production, ‘making the most with the Dried fry of 1.278 2.73 available resource’. Mitigation and Tanzania emission reduction opportunities lie in; The scarcity of available land, a highly improved and sustainable production leached soil profile, and an extreme methods, crop selection, modernisation, undulating topography are the key land consolidation and protection, limitations to production. Rwanda has agroforestry, agro-ecological extension, about 1.5 million ha of arable lands, 90% improved land and animal husbandry and of which is steep hillside area susceptible collaborative management. For to landslides. Up to 81% of arable lands is horticulture, this has meant improving now sustainably managed with the remit quality not quantity. for addressing arable land degradation Direct improvements can be achieved by; vested with MINAGRI. The rich volcanic improving rural infrastructure and feeder soils of the North-West and numerous roads, enhancing soil fertility and yields, marshland regions across the country offer post harvest storage and handling, water the best yields. Fertiliser use is currently harvesting and irrigation. Key exports are limited due to socio-economic blockages tea and coffee contributing over 80% of – knowledge, though access and use is agricultural exports combined[1]. growing. Modern practice and Rwanda exports approximately 46.6 mechanisation is low for similar reasons. million USD (27.680 million RWF), of which Intensification, urbanisation, settlement, 57.9% is agricultural related goods and investment, improved environmental livestock to its four cross border conservation of wetlands and sensitive neighbours, of which 80% is traded with areas have reduced the availability of DRC (table 8.1)[1]. productive lands. Rwanda’s agriculture is the most Low carbon growth options have not yet pressured, complex and vulnerable sector gained traction though many opportunities to climatic change. Causal impacts are exist. To ensure Rwanda’s future and variance in Rwanda’s diverse climatic sub- growth potential, it is necessary to create regions, moderate bi-annual wet-dry low carbon agricultural development, in seasons, uneven rainfall and increasing harmony with a national vision that episodes of extreme drought and flood. secures Rwanda’s biodiversity, economy,

Smith School of Enterprise and the Environment 57 Figure 8.1: GHG emissions from Agricultural sector

investment and export potential, and the highly volatile, both in supply volumes and improved livelihood of its population. value. Both coffee and tea production Current status declined 18% and 6% respectively and coffee prices fell 4% in the previous year. It Agriculture contributes 40.25% of is expected that revenue from tea will Rwanda’s total GHG emissions from a reach 68 million USD for the current year. number of sources (figure 8.1). Soil erosion In turn, coffee estimates have been revised costs the country 1.4 million tonnes of down to 50 million USD (from 68 million fertile soils per year. Agricultural USD) due to production challenges in the intensification demands high inorganic unusually long dry season in key districts fertiliser inputs and expansion of organic in 2010[3]. In an effort to increase the value input methods. The increased application of exports, more than 10% of Rwanda’s of mineral fertilisers will have an impact on coffee is now fully washed adding value water pollution, nutrient loading, and and raising international demand from potential emissions of nitrogen (N) gourmet roasters and retailers such as compounds. Emissions from cattle are StarbucksTM. expected to be offset by sequestration resulting from crop intensification Livestock practices. GHG emissions from inland Beef production requires substantial land water bodies and the impact of radical for grazing and contributes to erosion, soil terracing require analysis and investigation. degradation and adverse impacts on Agriculture data is reliable to the extent of water supply. The bulk of dairy production the capacity to accurately record in milkshed areas is via commercial cut- quantities and movements of product. As and-carry systems. Animal and land such there is a recognised weakness in husbandry methods need to be advanced the available figures reported across and sufficiently controlled to preserve recent reports[2]. limited grazing lands. Annual animal production in 2008 was estimated at Tea and Coffee 97,981 tonnes of milk, 39,126 tonnes of Following minerals, coffee and highland meat, 2,432 tonnes of eggs, 7,612 tonnes tea are the leading export commodities for of fish and 1,499 tonnes of hides and Rwanda. However, these commodities are skins[4]. However, these rates do not meet

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Report Figure 8.2: Tea plantations in the West Province the needs of the population. Consumption concentrate, highlighting the sub-sectors in Rwanda is 13 litres of milk per person vulnerability to water availability. Poor rural per year and 75% of that is consumed in infrastructure and roads has a major rural areas. Meat consumption is 4.8 kg impact with predominant transport per person per year[4]. Beyond dominant method via bicycle. Prolonged exposure to investments in the dairy sub-sector, further hot sun, poor secondary roads and policy formulation and analytical work is corrugated pathways leads to further required to develop the emerging livestock spoiling of product[4]. and animal husbandry related sub-sectors Dairy is a high energy and high water namely meat production, leather materials, demand sector. Wood and in part fisheries and beekeeping. charcoal, is still the predominant energy Dairy source used in domestic milk preparation Acknowledged as a young and fast for consumption. As processing is modernised, the demand for energy growing industry, Rwanda currently produces approximately 160 million litres increases for the homogenisation and of fresh milk. About 62 million litres are pasteurisation processes, storage, and for consumed on the farm and up to 35% of chilled transportation to and from plant. In raw milk product is spoiled before modern systems, in other settings, water demand for quality forage for livestock, reaching market or processing centres[5]. Of the bulk of raw diary milk production, wash down in dairy and in processing 48% is produced in the Eastern districts plants is estimated as much as 1,000 litres via traditional and extensive grazing and per 1 litre of milk product. Low animal 52% produced elsewhere throughout the nutrition and limited access to water for quality forage is an issue in Rwanda. High country. The two major milk basins are the Gishwati in the West and Umutara in the acidity of the raw product is reported. East. Critically, information on water Introduction of improved breeds, resources in both basins is limited. insemination programs, and animal Production falls by as much as 60% in the husbandry extension is improving the quality, and value of milk production in dry season attributed to decreases in available fodder and imported Rwanda. Poor transport and storage

Smith School of Enterprise and the Environment 59 diversification, capitalising on Rwanda’s regional and international competitive edge of climate, altitude and water resource. Challenges include availability of adequate land to achieve the required economies of scale, knowledge of proper cultivation methods, export procedures and requirements such as laboratory testing and standards development[3]. Energy demand is also a concern for production, fresh transport especially floriculture’s demand for air transfer, and the transport of inputs. Variability of rainfall is also a risk to the sector impacting yield and quality. Cereals and Staples Agricultural intensification is still MINAGRI’s top priority, constituting almost 80% of the Ministry total budget expenditure. Intensification has focused on crop Figure 8.3: Rice paddies in West Province cultivation and encouraging the production of crops suited to the different agro- methods are clear contributing factors. climatic regions of Rwanda, including Cheese and yogurt production appears maize, rice, Irish potatoes, cassava, less affected. Cheese quality remains wheat, beans, soya beans, and bananas. relatively high with adequate fat content. Farmers are also encouraged to pool their The ‘zero grazing-movement of livestock’ resources by forming cooperatives. Food EDPRS target requires water to be security has improved greatly in delivered to each farm with the recent 2009/2010. Key CIP crops have livestock assessment calling for detailed significantly increased in aggregate hydrological, groundwater and hydraulic production and yield development. For investigation of the primary milk producing example, maize has recorded a yield areas[5]. development of 211% from 2007 to 2010 [1]. Horticulture Rwanda’s horticulture sector includes Current Initiatives fruits, vegetables and flowers for both Progress in the agriculture sector is domestic and export markets. Given acknowledged as steady with good Rwanda’s potential, current exports from progress towards MDGs, Vision 2020 and the sector are low at about 2.5 million EDPRS targets. Rapid progress and USD contributing about 5% of GDP. success has been achieved under the However, horticulture (defined as fresh and programmes of the agricultural ornamental flowers, fruits, vegetables and transformation strategic plan initiative shrubs) is one of the world’s largest traded (PSTA II)[7]. The high sectoral growth rate industries, generating around 57 billion of 7.7% in 2009/2010 is accredited to the USD (2004) annually, with Sub-Saharan Crop Intensification Program (CIP) that has Africa contributing only 5% to this trade[6]. seen a rise in the use of fertilisers, There is high potential for growth in the improved quality of seed, and, through sector through value addition and land consolidation, improved planting

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Report Figure 8.4: Agriculture in North Province techniques with the assistance of mitigation measures identified in the IPCC implementing agencies such as the 4th Assessment report that could be Rwandan Agricultural Development considered to address these sources. Authority (RADA). Strong progress has Whilst measures on the whole are low or been achieved in areas of soil erosion, negative cost, the issues come with land terracing and marshland development respect to implementation, particular with projects such as the Land Husbandry, across a sector that is often fragmented, Water Harvesting and Hillside Irrigation with the prevalence of smaller farms and (LWH). Notably production exceeded smallholders. estimates in 2009/2010 over the last three Cropland Management growing seasons, although this is in part, attributed to favourable rainfall. Production - Nutrient management, particularly with increased 9.5% over the previous year[1]. respect to method and timing of The leading agricultural development fertiliser application, to improve N use initiatives and priority areas are: efficiency. - Reducing levels of tillage or introducing - Crop intensification zero tillage farming practices. Soil - Land and animal husbandry disturbance tends to stimulate carbon - Water storage and harvesting losses through enhanced - Irrigation and community based decomposition and erosion. watershed management - Water management. Increased or more - Agricultural transformation, effective irrigation can enhance carbon modernisation and extension, land storage in soils through increased consolidation yields and residue returns. - Post harvest storage and transport - Rice management. Reduce CH4 - Agricultural finance, crop based credit, emissions through various practices agricultural insurance including draining and using alternative - Export market development rice varieties. - Investment promotion - Agro-forestry is the production of - Potential opportunities livestock or food crops on land that There are potential options for reducing also grows trees for timber, firewood, emissions in Rwanda’s agricultural sector or other tree products. identified by the Stockholm Environment Institute (2009)[2]. There are a range of

Smith School of Enterprise and the Environment 61 - Returning cropland to alternate land Other Measures cover, thus increasing the carbon - Management of organic/peaty soils. storage in soils / vegetation. Due to the high storage of carbon in Grazing Land Management and such soils, use of these soils for Pasture Improvement agriculture can lead to CO2/N2O emissions in particular. This is because - Grazing intensity (and timing) can soils are drained, which aerates the influence the removal, growth, carbon soil, favouring decomposition. allocation, and flora of grasslands, and Emissions can be reduced by practices therefore affects the level of carbon such as avoiding row crops and tubers, accrual in soils. avoiding deep ploughing, and - Increasing productivity by application of maintaining a shallower water table. fertilisers. This can increase yields and The most important mitigation practice carbon storage, though it can also lead is avoiding the drainage of these soils to N2O emissions offsetting some of in the first place or re-establishing a the benefits. high water table. - Nutrient management – as mentioned - Restoration of degraded lands, which above for croplands. may lead to enhanced carbon storage. - Reducing biomass burning, as this can Such measures have strong synergies lead to CH4 emissions from with adaptation. combustion, reduce the albedo of the - Improved manure management. Animal land surface, plus contribute to climate manures can release significant change through different indirect ways. amounts of N O and CH during - Introduction of legumes or grass 2 4 storage, but the magnitude of these species with higher productivity, or emissions varies. Methane emissions carbon allocation via deeper roots, has from manure stored in lagoons or tanks been shown to increase soil carbon. can be reduced by cooling, use of solid Livestock Management covers, mechanically separating solids - Improved feeding practices, for from slurry, or by capturing the CH4 example, feeding more concentrates, emitted. The manures can also be normally replacing forages. Although digested anaerobically to maximise concentrates may increase daily CH4 retrieval as a renewable. methane emissions per animal, Climate Change emissions per kg feed intake and per kg-product are almost invariably Agriculture is an important sector to reduced. Rwanda. The sector is crucial in - Specific agents and dietary additives – transforming Rwanda to middle-income a wide range of specific agents, mostly status. Periodic floods and droughts aimed at suppressing methanogenesis, (extreme events) already cause major has been proposed as dietary additives socio-economic impacts and reduce to reduce CH4 emissions. economic growth in Rwanda. Major flood - Longer-term management changes events occurred in 1997, 2006, 2007, and animal breeding. Increasing 2008, and 2009, where high rainfall productivity through breeding and resulted in infrastructure damage, fatalities better management practices, such as and injuries, landslides, loss and damage a reduction in the number of to agricultural crops, soil erosion and [2] replacement heifers, often reduces environmental degradation . In some methane output per unit of animal regions of the country there have also product. been periodic droughts, for example in 1999/2000 and 2005/6. Seasonal yield

62 Baseline
Report losses have been directly attributed to - Sustainable management of natural climatic variances e.g. coffee estimates resources, water and soil husbandry – reduced by 26% in 2009/2010 and 852,000ha of additional land protected significant Maize losses were experienced against soil erosion, using radical and in the Eastern districts for the second progressive terracing, 70 new valley 2010 growing season. dams and reservoirs constructed. The impacts of these events are - Agricultural intensification promotion of economically significant. The most severe both crop and livestock – proportion of of the recent events was the 2007 flood. households with livestock to rise from The study has estimated costs of this 71% to 85%, and improvements event were 4 to 22 million USD (equivalent towards eradication of epidemic animal to around 0.1 to 0.6% of GDP) for two diseases, under the GIRINKA ‘One districts alone, accounting for costs of Cow per Poor Family’ program, RADA household damage, agricultural losses and has distributed 30,453 cows to fatalities[2]. However, wider economic numerous families, from a level of costs are associated with damage to 3,500 in 2006. Inorganic fertiliser inputs infrastructure, water system and to increase from 11% to 40%, and contamination, soil erosion and direct and improved seed use to rise 24% to indirect impacts to individuals and the 37%. labour force. The range of potential effects - Marshland reclamation – reclaimed and the high importance to the economy area to increase in 2012 from 11,105ha and livelihoods mean that this sector is a to 30,000ha. priority for future consideration. Further - Irrigation development – area under research and early actions must be a irrigation to increase in 2012 from priority of Government. 15,000 to 24,000ha, with hillside area irrigated expanded to 1,100ha (from Government Policy and 130ha), with legal provisions set for Targets water user associations and riparian rights. The agriculture sector is recognised as - Supply and use of agricultural inputs – having the leading potential to contribute increase in 2012 to 56,000MT fertilizer to achieving MDG1 to alleviate poverty usage nationally (increased from 14 through sectoral growth and increased MT), production of 14,000MT of productivity, modernisation and founded seeds (increased from 3,000 development. Agricultural growth fell to MT), crop intensification program 4.8% in 2001-2006, half of that registered expanded. in 1996-2000 (9.5%)[1]. It is essential to - Food and nutrition security and increase and maintain agricultural vulnerability management – Average productivity to ensure Rwanda meets its availability per day increased in 2012 annual growth target of 7-8%. from 1,734Kcal to 2150Kcal, 49g to In the Government budget cycle for 55g of protein, 8.8g to 23g of lipids, 2011-2012, the key policy areas are to additional measures include expanding ensure growth for exports and incomes, the food and nutrition security develop human resources and living monitoring system, and establishing conditions, and to ensure good 1000 hermetic storage facilities to an governance and public accountability. operational level. EDPRS 2008-2012 and the MINAGRI Target Indicators are included in the agriculture investment strategy (2010) calls Rwanda 2020 Vision for the agriculture for increased targets for: and agribusiness sector, and are detailed in table 8.2.

Smith School of Enterprise and the Environment 63 Table 8.2: Vision 2020 Indicators for Agricultural Sector

Vision 2020 Indicator Situation in 2000 Target in 2020

Population of Rwanda 7,700,000 13,000,000

Urban population % 10 30

Agricultural population % 90 50

Poverty % less than 1 USD/day 64 30

GDP per capita in USD 220 900

Growth rate of Ag sector 96

Modernised Ag lands % 350

Use of fertilizers Kg/Ha/yr 0.5 15

Financial credits for Ag sector % 120

Access to clear water % 52 100

Ag production Kcal/day/person % of needs 1612 2200

Avail of proteins/person/day % of needs 35 65

Road network Km/Km2 0.54 0.60

Access to electricity % 235

Protected lands from erosion % 20 90

Non-Agricultural jobs 200,000 1,400,000

Stakeholder Mapping supply for the predominantly rural population. Climate change risks The lead agencies of MINAGRI function as associated with agricultural production the implementation units for the PSTA II. have a direct and acute impact on the The Rwandan Agricultural Development security of rural livelihoods. External Authority, the Rwanda Animal Resources economic fluctuations including energy (oil) Development Authority, Institut des prices and market vulnerabilities impact Sciences Agronomiques du Rwanda Agriculture’s contribution to the economy. constitute the Rwanda Agricultural Board, Continued intensification, enhanced and OCIR-Café, OCIR-Thé and Rwandan production and processing such as coffee Horticulture Development Authority are washing, milk and associated dairy sub- organised under the National Agriculture sector development and with the Export Board. The creation of the expansion potential of horticulture, will Agriculture Sector-Wide working group mean that the vitality of the sector will has been instrumental in harmonising remain as a key contributor growth. activities and contributing to a shared Agriculture is the most pressured, complex vision with the effective collaboration of and vulnerable sector to climatic change. implementing agencies, donors and Developing a mitigation strategy in tandem support agencies, and key stakeholders. with an adaptation strategy is essential to Summary ensure Rwanda’s agriculture remains productive, secure, and more resilient, and Agriculture is an important sector in moves towards being an energy efficient Rwanda, with security of production sector in the future whilst coping with directly tied to poverty alleviation. climate impacts. Agriculture is a leading contributor to the national GDP (over 36.7%), and the primary source of food and nutrition

64 Baseline
Report 9. LAND

Rwanda has a very limited land resource. headway in addressing the need to Attributed to the high population density, formalise ownership. For the land that has land is scarce with high competition for records, it is for the most part recorded in land use experienced throughout the the existing paper-based system that in its country. The land area of Rwanda is just present format is unable to provide a 24,688km2 with 45.6% arable lands, complete view of all ownerships and their 10.3% permanent crops, and 44.2% other geographic location, thus making it difficult use. Competition for land is likely to for planners or investors to identify intensify in the decades to come, in available lands for development. Planners consideration of an 18% urban population and administrators of land are effectively increasing at a rate of 4.2%. It is expected blind, restricting their ability to quickly that over 50% of the population will be make decisions based on multiple urban dwelling by 2020. Competition lies interests on land, to consider in renewed priorities for intensive environmental scenarios, or to readily agriculture, commercial and industrial identify current use or the responsible development, rapid urbanisation, authority in control. Until the land agroforestry and biomass demand, information is made electronic and in a expansion of mining activity, and greater usable format, competing interests in land recognition of the need to protect will go unchecked and land use Rwanda’s regionally and internationally demarcation will remain problematic. significant ecosystems including wetlands, Optimal land use will not be achieved and the volcanoes national park, and remnant encroachment on sensitive areas will montane forests. continue. High density leads to high fragmentation of In order to help overcome problems in land holdings. The majority of the land has identifying available land in the meantime been under small holdings with the (prior to the completion of titling and land national average land parcel size of system modernisation), the GoR has 0.35ha. It is estimated that over 8 million moved to allocate areas for development land parcels are available in the country for such as the Special Economic Zones for just 10 million people. Given the commercial and industrial development fragmentation, assembling land for and agricultural lands earmarked for land intensive agriculture, industry and business consolidation and intensive cropping. development is likely to be relatively Geographic Information System difficult and costly. (GIS) in Support of Monitoring and Current Status Observation Land Availability At present, land information in Rwanda is segmented, scattered across different Until recently, the majority of land in ministries and agencies. Sharing Rwanda was un-demarcated, un- information is difficult whilst data remains registered and thus not ready for formal mostly paper based. There is an emerging transaction. The majority of lands held understanding in Rwanda of the potential were informal or under customary benefits of an integrated, multi-purposed individual ownership and remained largely Land Information System (LIS) supported undocumented according to government by available ICT and GIS technology. A statistics. The lack of established and number of key initiatives are underway by reliable titles had greatly increased the risk the GoR, including the National Land of private transactions. The land tenure Tenure Reform Programme and Land regularisation programme that Tenure Regularisation (LTR) Programme, commenced in 2005 is now making strong the Land Administration Information

Smith School of Enterprise and the Environment 65 Figure 9.1: Directives for sustainable land use planning

System, and preparation of the National National and District Planning Land Use and Development Master Plan. Given such a limited land resource, These are important building blocks of a perhaps the most important national viable LIS to aid land use management. priority is to ensure a sound, integrated The potential is for GIS-enabled and participatory approach to planning, monitoring of environment: climate, water, zoning and land development approvals. soils, agriculture, and integrated planning In response, the NLC have prepared the utilising the national framework GIS National Land Use and Development datasets as a backdrop as part of a Master Plan with the assistance of national Rwanda Spatial Data Swedish consultancy firm SwedeSurvey[1]. Infrastructure (RSDI). This will enable The national master plan, approved by consistency and harmonisation of sectoral Cabinet on the 19th January 2011, sets data for accurate and detailed modelling of the national scale plan of current and cross-sector trends and impacts. Regional future planned land use activities and data can also be introduced to obtain a priorities across the country. The master view of entire catchments, to plan for plan sets the framework for local potential hazards, or assist in weather authorities to prepare more detailed district forecasting. Incorporating health and plans to establish zoning for building and demographic data, placing social trends in construction, agricultural development, a spatial context, can greatly enhance the urban centres and conservation areas. The optimal placement of services. Real time plan features management strategies for sensor data can also be incorporated for ecosystems, population distribution and early warning and decision support development of networks for rural and systems. urban settlements, social services and

66 Baseline
Report infrastructure, and conservation of and there is an understandable reluctance protected areas such as wetlands. to approve industrial uses in the absence In addition to the master plan, draft laws of sound land use planning. For example, relating to land usage and development the existing Gikondo industrial zone, now were also approved in January 2011. The under a relocation program, was next tasks in line with NLC’s efforts to established entirely in a sensitive wetland establish a comprehensive national area. It is perhaps an object lesson in what planning framework include the can happen in the absence of an preparation of the Urban Development integrated approach to land use planning. Plan and the Area Action Plan. Until now, Approach to Sustainable Land there has been little opportunity for Management national and district authorities to The National Environmental policy and the adequately plan for, and monitor, a new Organic Land Law address the need for course, or vision, of development and and principles of sustainable land growth within their respective management. Any land policies and communities. Thus, it has remained procedures to be designed must aim at difficult for environmental and natural supporting both efficient and sustainable resource management priorities to be use of land. Business interests must be assessed against the growing activities of promoted within the overall land policy agriculture, industry, mining and frame, taking into account other important urbanisation. Changes in land use or social and environmental objectives. development approvals remained a largely Sustainable land management is a priority ad-hoc process. The City of Kigali (KCC) of IWRM (Integrated Water Resource has prepared a robust Conceptual Master Management) related programs for the Plan with assistance of United States transboundary basins including the Kagera based firm OZ Architecture in 2006-07 and Congo basins with targets for (approved by Parliament in 2008). In prevention of land degradation and soil addition, KCC commissioned OZ to erosion and nutrient replacement. For complete four Sub Area Plans (2 in these activities to succeed, establishing Gasabo District and 2 in Kicukiro District) the current land use and responsible with guidance for detailed sub district authority is necessary. There are three planning. KCC together with Nyarugenge main categories of land type which are District (location of the CBD area) engaged important to understand in approaching Singaporean firm Surbana in 2008-09 to sustainable land management and land develop a 2030 Vision for the CBD. use change: Considerations of climate change and low carbon growth will have an impact on the - Public Land – land held and occupied proposed plan and will need to be by the national and sub-national assessed in terms of transport options, governments and their respective energy use, planned infrastructure and instrumentalities and used for public environmental impacts at the National and purposes only, e.g. roadways and District levels. government buildings. - Private Land – land held by national To the extent District plans exist today, and sub-national governments and many, particularly in the rural districts now their respective instrumentalities but require updating in relation to National are made available for private use. Land Use and Development Master Plan. - Individual Land – land held and Without generally applicable land use occupied by citizens and legal entities plans all industrial development has in the under some form of private tenure, past been addressed on an ad-hoc basis including ownership and long term

Smith School of Enterprise and the Environment 67 Figure 9.2: Terrain in the West Province

lease. Individual land includes both have to deal with land reforms, with both statutory and customary forms of redistributive reforms and land tenure tenure. reforms to make sure that the population (both men and women) enjoy the same Ideally, land use and ownership maps rights on land, to improve the value of the (detailing the above land classifications) land, to promote investment and to would be available to enable planners and contribute to sustainable land use and policy makers to readily identify land management. managers, owners, and users. However, until land regularisation is completed this Land reform is an engine of development information remains mostly paper based, and plays an important role in enhancing and difficult to integrate with for example; peace, stability and equality if undertaken socio-economic data, or soils, agricultural in a participatory and orderly manner, and or environmental datasets. plays an important role in the process of poverty reduction. Land formalisation Land Tenure System and allows access to credit (against the land), Regularisation encourages land improvement, enables The approach to land tenure varies from efficient collection of property revenue via country to country. In Rwanda, it includes district taxes and transfer fees, in turn, forms of freehold tenure, state leasehold enabling government authorities to fund and community-based tenure (legally and action sound land management recognised indigenous tenure and practices and undertake detailed planning. community-based). Improper land use and Land Ownership, Land Use, Land management systems lead to erosion and deteriorating land quality, while rural Use Change productivity remains at low subsistence Land tenure regularisation has expanded levels. Any agricultural transformation to all 30 districts. At end of November efforts to overcome land fragmentation 2010, about 3.2 million parcels had been

68 Baseline
Report demarcated and adjudicated with title – land registration process as agreed at the 41% of the projected 7.9 million parcels in 2010 Kivu Retreat. Whilst it will be 1-2 the whole country. More than 91% of years to yield benefits, the result will be a parcels have been completed for Kigali complete view of land ownership in City. All three central districts of Kigali are Rwanda and system improvements expected to be completed and cover at offered by electronic document least 50% of the remaining 27 districts by management with eventual connectivity June 2011. The remaining parcels should across districts and stakeholders. [2] be completed by June 2012 . Modernisation of the Land Administration Kirehe district is now almost complete (in Information System (LAIS) is being led by terms of demarcation and adjudication) the NLC with the assistance of Dutch having received additional assistance to Kadastre to support a suite of reforms to accelerate titling through the community promote investment and facilitate business watershed management KWAMP by streamlining the land registration program. Title issuance is expected to be system The LAIS is a parcel-based system completed by June 2011. Until recently, of electronic land records enabled by several western districts were progressing advanced GIS and web-based database slowly due to a lack of aerial photography technologies. The system has the potential [2]. Updated detailed imagery is essential to contain existing data such as the for efficient land identification and existing cadastral records and maps that demarcation. More than 95% of Rwanda are stored at the NLC, Kigali City town hall has been captured by high resolution and the District Land Offices of Kigali City. aerial photography, an important resource/ The National Land Use and Development tool for determining land use, and land use Master Plan led by NLC with assistance of change, and for the monitoring of Swedesurvey for national spatial planning, ecosystems. was released for appraisal in early 2010[1]. Agricultural Land Consolidation The plan will guide land users on the appropriate usage with aim to address the Agricultural intensification efforts under CIP existing pressures on land and protecting have enabled farmers to take more profits the ecosystem. The plan will assist land at market and increase their yield[3]. Land users in making the most of Rwanda’s consolidation, focusing production of limited land resources for the benefit of the particular crops in designated areas, has nation. NLC are also collaborating with the enabled farmers to consolidate and work Centre for GIS (CGIS) at the National together, with cooperatives, to produce University of Rwanda (NUR) who maintain higher amounts and be more connected a LIS of nationally important land and to markets. The results have been environmental data. Existing data within substantial and are the main catalyst the sectoral line Ministries, Government behind the current levels of high growth. agencies and private institutions is also Such productivity increases have enabled being collated. Rwanda to move away from being a country considered to be food insecure. Building upon NLC’s successful Land Tenure Regularisation programme Current Initiatives (systematic land parcel mapping, Land tenure regularisation via and titling is ownership determination and land provided for by the Organic Land Law, registration) pilot programme in making it mandatory for all land in the 2007-2008, a ramped up programme country to be registered. The Strategic commenced in early 2010 with strong Road Map for Land Tenure Reform (2008[4] support by DFID and other multi-donor was recently geared-up to accelerate the partner agencies (SIDA, EU, etc.).

Smith School of Enterprise and the Environment 69 Potential Opportunities Climate Change The lack of clear and stable land use Increased competition for land resource planning and zoning regulation in Rwanda will continue to grow with increased has restricted the ability of district pressures from intensive agriculture and authorities to plan for a sustainable future livestock. Encroachment on sensitive that protects environmental, social and areas persists until land reforms are economic needs and ambitions of the completed. Poor or limited access to land community[5]. National spatial planning is and productive arable lands contributes to now being addressed by the introduction urbanisation. Industrialisation further of the National Land Use and competes for the limited land resource. As Development Master Plan. The master the labour force shifts from subsistence plan now requires implementation by land agriculture to processing and related authorities and subsequent manufacturing roles, the land demand for preparation of detailed district plans that housing changes. Higher density urban will dovetail the master plan. development will become increasingly The explanatory notes of the National necessary. Land Use and Development Master Plan If the changing demands and use of land by SwedeSurvey in 2009 call for increased is not managed by a rigorous planning and development of the detailed planning zoning regulatory framework, impacts in process within local authorities, capacity real terms are escalated uncontrolled development of planning officers, and development, increased energy demand greater use and exploitation of GIS in the and emissions, inefficient transport planning process. Currently, within the systems, over burdened water and District Development Plans (DDP), existing sanitation systems leading to reduced conditions are listed in table format, where livelihoods, environmental degradation, as a spatial representation would be far continued loss of biodiversity, food more meaningful. Issues such as insecurity, poor air quality and health urbanisation are not addressed in the 30 impacts. DDPs and the opportunity to encourage Government Policy and rural urban centres/regional cities is being lost. Targets The demographic data for the districts is Land regularisation efforts have been re- inadequate. Instruments such as the invigorated in 2010 through multi-donor Rwandan Household Living Conditions assistance. Current targets set completion Survey (EICV) and other census data of the City of Kigali’s three districts early in should be integrated and refined to the 2011 (already over 91% complete) and full socio-economic conditions within each regularisation achieved by mid-2012[2]. district. Agriculture data for the districts is The agricultural lands consolidation is now also inadequate. Agriculture is a primary supported by Cabinet decree in March economic driver in Rwanda and has an 2010 to address land fragmentation and important influence for the rural areas of to allow farmers to work in cooperative the districts. However, the analysis of arrangements to optimise land use and agricultural capabilities of each district is market potential through increased not well developed. Specific data on the production. Furthermore, the area of existing agriculture production and agro- marshlands to be reclaimed is to increase ecological/economic potential should be by 2012 to 30,000 ha for agricultural use included in the analysis of land use which increases the production potential planning and expenditures. of farmer’s across the nation. About 81% of arable land is now sustainably managed

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Report against soil erosion which substantially District Government, the Mayors and exceeds the EDPRS/CPAF target for District Councils (30) are responsible for 2009/2010[3]. day to day implementation of land allocation and development control Stakeholder Mapping policies. Guided by the National Land Policy and District Land Bureaus, are the line Organic Land Law, responsibility for land agencies responsible for implementing use planning and land administration is planning and development controls. They today divided among several agencies and also serve as the district land registrar, [5] levels of government : providing cadastral (survey and deed Ministry of Environment and Land plans) and registration functions. (MINELA) is the direct supervisor of the NLC and has several important mandates Summary in land matters under the Organic Law. The recent promulgation by Cabinet of the The Ministry is responsible for National Land Use and Development environmental compliance and establishes Master Plan and associated land use the rules and procedures for environmental legislation is an important step in impact review of land development establishing a robust framework for projects. integrated land use planning. Land National Land Centre (NLC) headed by a regularisation through titling is expected to Director General, is a responsible agency be completed in one to two years. Priority of MINELA. It is the main counterpart for now is the preparation of detailed District the ongoing work of systematic land titling, Development Plans, preparation of the development of the national land Urban Development Plan and Area Action information system, and development of Plan, together with continued regulatory the national spatial plan. NLC has ongoing reforms and development of capacity to responsibility for management and support the planning and zoning maintenance of the land registry, which it framework. Without formal land carries out through five provincial land arrangements, limited access to credit registrars and the district land bureaus, contributes to a poverty “lock”. Unequal and for oversight of leasing of state and distribution of land will lead to increased district private land. potential for conflict in the future. Uncontrolled land use change will lead to Ministry of Agriculture (MINAGRI) is taking further loss of Rwanda’s unique natural an active role in development of agriculture and cultural heritage. Ultimately, optimal and agribusiness, addressing land land use is not achieved, impacting degradation, and addressing agricultural Rwanda’s development and growth land issues. potential. Rwanda is now making positive Ministry of Infrastructure (MININFRA) has headway in addressing sound responsibility, through its Department of management of its most limited resource. Planning and Human Settlements, to develop land use planning, the lack of which is seriously impeding development of Rwanda land markets and stagnating sound urban and rural development. National Land Commission is a high level land policy forum for the senior stakeholders in government to consider proposed developments.

Smith School of Enterprise and the Environment 71 72 Baseline
Report 10. WATER

Water is an abundant resource in Rwanda Kagera Basin with a vast potential for development. The The Kagera River Basin is made up from water resources mainly constitute lakes, territories of Burundi, Rwanda, Uganda rivers, marshlands and groundwater. The and Tanzania and feeds into the Nile lakes cover a greater area than the rivers system. The total catchment area of the for the surface water resources. Due to its Kagera River basin is some 60,000km². relief and its location in the African Great The Kagera is the largest of the 23 rivers Lakes region, Rwanda has a very dense that drain into Lake Victoria and it delivers hydrological network. This network is 34% of the annual river inflow to the lake. divided (figure 10.1) into two main The lower Kagera Basin is one of the most drainage basins; the Nile Basin to the east important areas in Africa for agro- covering 67% of the land area in Rwanda biodiversity and food production. The and delivering 90% of Rwanda’s national natural resources of the Kagera River water resource; and the Congo Basin to Basin support the livelihoods of some 16.5 the west which covers 33% of the land million people in Rwanda and area and contains the remaining 10% of downstream. The majority of these people national waters all of which drain into the are rural and depend directly on farming, Congo River via Lake Kivu[1] . herding and fishing. However, the resource Both water needs and water utilization bases for water and ecosystems are have increased in Rwanda as facing increasing pressures as a result of intensification in the agricultural and rapid population growth, agricultural and industrial sectors has increased water livestock intensifi cation. This is demand. Other competing sectors that are characterised by progressive reduction in contributing to increased water utilization farm sizes and unsustainable land use and include domestic and hydro-power management practices. There are two generation water requirements that have rainfall seasons across the Kagera Basin, increased without the corresponding rise the longer southeasterly monsoon bringing in the national water stock development. rain between February and May, and the The increasing population has raised shorter north-easterly monsoon from pressure on water resources resulting in September to November. The months of reduced per capita volume of available June, July, and August are generally dry. water per year.

Figure 10.1: River Basins in Rwanda

Smith School of Enterprise and the Environment 73 Table 10.1: Water Balance for 1993, 2000 and projected 2020 (million m3/year) Year 1993 2000 2020 (low) 2020 (high) Consumption Household 31 36 108 396 Industry 15 12 36 132 Agriculture 722 102 306 1122 Sub-total 768 150 450 1650 Supply Total Resources 5000 6300 6300 6300 Treated Waste 00415 Water

Water Balance/ 4232 6150 5854 4665 Deficit

Average rainfall over the basin amounts to resources and the water consumption some 1,000 to 1,200mm per year with through domestic, industrial and high average rainfall up to 1,800mm per agricultural uses. Table 10.1 illustrates the year in the western mountain ranges in large surplus of freshwater resources, and Rwanda and Burundi, with a descending highlights the apparent potential for gradient towards the east down to 800mm expansion and economic development of per year. The average annual temperatures water consuming sectors[1]. are 15-18°C in the westernmost and Recent studies established projections for north-western mountain range, and up to the 2020 water balance determined on the 22°C in the central part[2] . assumption that water consumption will Congo Basin vastly increase in line with infrastructure The Congo Basin of Central Africa, is the development and improved delivery to world’s second largest river basin by domestic, industrial and agricultural sectors. Based on the annual renewable discharge (average discharge of 3 42,000m3/s). Angola, Cameroon, the water resource of 6,300 million m per Central African Republic, the Republic of year, the vast water surplus may enable Congo and the Democratic Republic of the system to be expanded by a factor of Congo constitute 92% of the Congo up to 40 when compared to the 2000 figures[1] Basin’s total surface area of . 3,691,000km2. In 2005, the total Groundwater in Rwanda is primarily within estimated basin population was over 77 the vast alluvial aquifers adjacent to major million inhabitants[3]. The Congo Basin is rivers. Lesser amounts of groundwater can one of the world’s richest in terms of water be found within the fractured bedrock of resources and biodiversity. About 33% of porous volcanic rock. It has been Rwanda’s land area (about 8,140km2) is in estimated that the total available the Congo River Basin, but this represents groundwater resources of Rwanda have a less than 0.002% of the basin’s total area. renewable extraction rate of approximately 3 [4] Water Balance 66m per second . Rwanda’s water balance is impacted by Water Demand from Agriculture the nation’s high population density, and The agricultural sector is the largest its reliance on subsistence farming consumer of water in the country. practices. Intensification of agriculture and Rwanda’s agriculture is mainly rain-fed increasing urbanisation and with some supplementary irrigation for rice industrialisation are placing further from dams. The use of groundwater in this demands on the water resource. The sector has not been explored. With water balance for 1993 and 2000 shows agricultural intensification and food the estimates for available fresh water security strategies in place, it is certain

74 Baseline
Report Figure 10.2: Mutobo River that withdrawal by the agriculture sector the “Caisse Sociale” housing estates in will increase. Information on how much Kacyiru and Kagugu. The rest of the water is used for agriculture is not readily buildings have individual sewage treatment available – as water is utilised before it systems that allow for the percolation of reaches the river system. the treated effluent into the ground Sanitation through leaching pits. This kind of localised handling of waste raises risk of Open defecation has practically been groundwater contamination through eradicated and most of Rwandan malfunctioning and/or inefficient waste households have built on-site private treatment systems. The main cause for sanitation facilities. Although only about this situation is the absence of centralized half comply with the international or sewage treatment networks for urban standards for an improved sanitation and peri-urban settlements[6]. facility. Very few Rwandan households have flush toilets. The country has not Industrial Pollution invested in collective (water-borne) Many of Rwanda’s industries do not have sanitation systems for urban areas, except efficient waste treatment facilities in place three small sewerage systems in Kigali for and the resulting poorly treated effluent about 700 households. Major hotels, ends up in streams and marshlands. Even hospitals and some industries have with a small number of operational installed their own treatment systems. A industries as compared to other cities in conventional sewerage and treatment the region, this unchecked pollution has system for Kigali is in the planning considerably contributed to the process. Studies have estimated deterioration of water resources in the sanitation coverage at 45% (rural 44%, Gikondo, Nyabugogo and Nyabarongo urban 54%) in 2008[5]. marshlands in Kigali[6]. Industries are a Domestic Waste Water major contributor to water pollution mainly through the release of untreated effluent in Most of the buildings in the urban areas streams, rivers and marshlands. Rwanda are not connected to centralised waste is addressing this issue through the water treatment systems or facilities, with regulatory role of REMA, continued the exceptions of high standing residential development of industrial and waste water areas in Kigali namely Nyarutarama and standards by the Rwandan Bureau of

Smith School of Enterprise and the Environment 75 Standards (RBS), and the recent (which share Lake Victoria) as well as establishment of land use and Burundi and Rwanda which have both development laws and planning controls. recently joined. EAC has established the Lake Victoria Basin Commission (LVBC) to Current Initiatives manage the entire basin area, including Transboundary Water Resource the Kagera. Important linkages are also Management found with the Environmental Programme and Action Plan of NEPAD (New Water and related resources management Partnership for African Development) and in both of the Kagera and Congo Basins’ NEPAD’s Comprehensive Africa Agriculture is being carried out through application of Development Programme (CAADP) for Integrated Water Resources Management integrating sustainable land management (IWRM) principles. IWRM as defined by the in agriculture and natural resource Global Water Partnership[2,7] is “a process management. which promotes the coordinated development and management of water, A recent initiative which commenced in land and related resources in order to 2009/10, the FAO/GEF funded Kagera- maximise economic and social welfare in TAMP project, supports the adoption of an an equitable manner without integrated ecosystems approach for the compromising the sustainability of vital management of land resources in the eco-systems”. The pinnacle regional policy Kagera Basin which will generate local, document is the 2008 Kagera Basin national and global benefits including: Monograph[2]. restoration of degraded lands, carbon sequestration and climate change There are recent calls for strengthening mitigation, agro-biodiversity conservation IWRM with ecosystem services[8]. There and sustainable use and improved are 263 transboundary river and lake agricultural production. Kagera-TAMP basins around the world, and about 300 aims to help reinforce and make the transboundary aquifers. Transboundary respective NAPAs operational and lakes and river basins account for an contribute to effective harmonised estimated 60% of global freshwater flow implementation of UNCCD, CBD, and are home to 40% of the global UNFCCC and related conventions across population. The large majority of carbon the basin[9]. emissions from land degradation and deforestation take place in transboundary Potential Opportunities basins, the same regions of highest The IWRM approach requires enhanced biodiversity value and threats of institutional connectivity that improves biodiversity loss. linkages between the natural sciences, the The Kagera river basin is managed and social sciences and public health priorities supported through the Nile Basin Initiative together with engineering innovation and – Nile Equatorial Lakes Subsidiary Action public policy to overcome fragmentation of Programme (NBI-NELSAP) which in water governance[8]. addition to Kagera countries includes the Localised approaches of community DRC, Kenya, as well as downstream watershed management are required to nations Egypt and Sudan. in addition to dovetail regional initiatives to connect strategic linkages with key agencies such bottom up and top down IWRM efforts as MINAGRI, REMA, NMS and CGIS NUR. with citizens, establishing heterogeneous The East African Community (EAC) networks of water management across provides a framework for extensive Rwanda integrated with the national and political cooperation and integration, district planning and construction/ among Tanzania, Uganda and Kenya development approval processes.

76 Baseline
Report RBS is the peak National body for - Development of improved means for standards development with powers to water conservation and storage define and maintain national standards, - Development of public awareness quality assurance and metrology. They are programme to improve uptake and establishing definitive standards for water innovative water conservation and wastewater quality, and introducing techniques and pollution prevention guidelines for re-use of wastewater - Introduction of gravity irrigation effluents in activities such as mining, especially in suitable areas industry, agricultural production and Climate change impacts and processing. vulnerabilities Priority efforts lie; in improved integrated monitoring and observation of climate and Climate change models for the region the water balance, detailed assessment of predict increasing rainfall in humid areas, water availability and groundwater lower rainfall in dry areas and extended reserves in comparison with increasing drought periods. Concern lies in the demands across water drawing sectors; potential influence on the movement of the increased aid to districts of vulnerable seasonal rain-belts across the region. regions to prepare and implement Predictions of climate change impacts in measures of water conservation and the Kagera basin are contradictory (as with storage; public sensitisation and models for other areas) but are largely in awareness of innovative water accordance with wider studies on conservation techniques and pollution anticipated impacts of climate change in prevention as part of extension efforts; East Africa. Attributed to the uncertainty realisation of irrigation in gravitated for Rwanda are the lack of robust rainfall parameters from water flows in priority and and temperature data, in part due to past vulnerable regions. conflict, and largely to the factors of low Future work needs are suggested to capacity and minimal infrastructure of the include: country’s observatory functions. - Improved monitoring of climate The livelihood of Rwanda’s predominant rural population is acutely vulnerable to - Improved monitoring of water climate change, as they tend to live in the resources highest risk areas and lack the economic

Figure 10.3: Lake Kivu

Smith School of Enterprise and the Environment 77 and social resources and capacity to cope The National Water and Sanitation Policy, with current climate variance and adapt to in harmony with MDGs objectives and longer term changes. Local economic and Vision 2020 targets, states that all of the social conditions in many parts of the population will have access to potable Kagera Basin have already driven poor water and to sanitation services. The people to marginal areas and forced them policy takes into account regional and to over exploit natural resources to international commitments related to support their livelihood[9]. IWRM and environment. The National Land Policy addresses the use, Government Policy and conservation and management of Targets marshlands. Rwanda is a signatory to the COMESA Summary treaty for regional trade and Commerce, and for transboundary natural resource Rwanda is endowed with substantial management and protection. freshwater resources. To that extent, regular rainfall patterns and low usage Countries sharing the Kagera Basin have base has, until now, not promoted water all adopted various national strategies and storage and water monitoring as a action plans that address sustainable necessity. There is a clear gap of management of natural resources, observatory data and monitoring biodiversity conservation, agriculture, framework for Rwanda’s water and forests, desertification and climate change climate. The challenges of rapid population mitigation. Ratification of the Convention growth, increased urbanisation and to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) in the industry, environmental degradation and late 1990s by the four countries, and pollution are leading to accelerated subsequent development of National depletion and degradation of the available Action Programme (NAPAs) for its water resources. Any significant increase implementation, has led to raised in Rwanda’s water demand will impact awareness at national to local levels of the downstream nations, primarily the close links between degradation and beneficiaries of the Kagera basin and poverty. riparian states of the Nile. However, the The Rwanda Government has confirmed management of Rwanda’s water and that reversing land degradation and natural resources is complex and involves biodiversity loss in the Kagera basin is a cross cutting issues spanning all sectors, top priority in view of the serious impacts and demands the participation of national on resources and livelihoods. In addition to and regional stakeholders. There is need environmental conservation, Kagera TAMP for a review of the water management actions should improve crop and livestock structures that will be required at production and forestry and thereby Rwanda’s transboundary management improve income and food security[9]. level to mitigate the future potential for The National Environmental Policy calls for difficulties in international water budgeting. the economic and social sectors: to use Transforming the national reliance on water without endangering the rainfall, particularly rain-fed agriculture environment, to improve the conservation must be a priority reflected in sectoral of wetlands, and to integrate development planning and public environmental aspects into development infrastructure spending. Low quality policies, planning and all activities production and fluctuation in yields is undertaken at local to national levels in a stagnating Rwanda’s development and participatory manner. growth potential.

78 Baseline
Report 11. FORESTRY

The present and future extent of forest Since the 1960s, Rwanda’s natural forest coverage in Rwanda is central to cover declined by an estimated 65%[1]. sustainable development and climate This dramatic decline was particularly change considerations. With an estimated evident in the period following the 1994 86% of Rwanda’s energy provided by conflict as returnees and refugees sought biomass, forest resources are under refuge and cleared land in protected increasing pressure from a growing areas. Although natural forests are under population and shrinking land availability. continuous pressure from encroaching The balance of current supplies with communities, improved park management growing demand, energy access and and the creation of buffer zones has affordability are of primary importance for helped to stabilise the situation. an energy secure future. In terms of Nevertheless, sustainable management of climate adaptation and low-carbon a continuously increasing fuel wood deficit development pathways, management of and land scarcity remains a significant Rwanda’s forests also represents an challenge. opportunity for synergies. Current Status Sustainable forest management and rehabilitation remain at the heart of Forest cover Rwanda’s development strategies for In 2007, a satellite-based mapping conservation, transformation of agriculture, exercise with ground truthing was energy and the rural sector. In recent completed to establish a baseline of years, numerous studies and inventories Rwanda’s forest and woodlot coverage[3]. have been carried out to establish a Due to resolution constraints, only areas comprehensive baseline of natural and with a surface of 0.5 hectares or higher, managed forests, and tree cover. crown coverage of more than 20% and Understanding dynamic linkages with tree height of greater than 7 metres were agriculture, energy, water and mining considered. Inventory results indicate sectors are also integral to the ongoing coverage of around 240,746 ha in, or reformulation of national policies and approximately 10% of the surface of strategies. national dry lands. The coverage includes 80,000 ha of humid natural forest,

Figure 11.1: Forest coverage 2007.[3]

Smith School of Enterprise and the Environment 79 consisting mainly of two blocks in the Rwanda’s economy and energy supply protected areas of Nyungwe National Park needs. In 2007, the value of firewood and in the southwest and Volcano National charcoal was on the order of US$122 Park in the northwest. Other national million, or 5% of GDP[4]. In terms of reserves include the forests of Gishwati charcoal, the supply chain is not only a and Mukura, the savannah and gallery source of rural employment, but also a key forest of the Akagera National Park and income generating opportunity as farmers remnants of gallery forests and savannas consider trees as a crop from which they of Bugesera, Gisaka and Umutara. Forest can earn income and respond to market plantations dominated by non-native signals. In addition, work by GIZ in 2008 species including eucalyptus, pine and found that Rwanda may well be the only other young plantations and coppices country in Africa where the relation occupy roughly 115,000 ha, with the between charcoal and deforestation no remaining coverage consisting of smaller longer exists as virtually all charcoal is areas of dry forests, bamboo and bush produced from planted trees on private land. and community lands. Significantly, small woodlots, scattered As highlighted in background work for the agroforestry and other managed trees Biomass Energy Strategy (BEST) in 2008 below 0.5 ha were not included in the [4], fuelwood (including charcoal) is a vital inventory. According to the National and appropriate source of energy in Forestry Policy, these forest resources Rwanda for the time being due to the represent and additional 222,520 ha following attributes: equivalent to conventional forests. - Affordability: All convenient alternatives Moreover, the official forest coverage of (electricity, LPG, etc) and others Rwanda is estimated at 21% of the (methane from Lake Kivu) are country area, consisting of 8% natural and significantly more expensive 13% manmade forest[1] . - Secure: It does not depend much on Fuelwood and Charcoal sector external influence or foreign exchange The production and use of fuelwood and - Green and renewable: It is a renewable charcoal is of critical importance to source of energy that can be utilised in

Figure 11.2: Coverage by forest type[3]

80 Baseline
Report a clean, efficient and climate ‘neutral’ - Total investments, including equipment fashion. and rehabilitation of plantations, were Nevertheless, Rwanda faces a serious estimated at 119 million USD, of which woodfuel deficit, which directly impacts a direct public contribution of $52.5 the availability and affordability of biomass million is public, 42.4 million USD energy including charcoal. In work carried private, and 24 million USD from out in 2005 by the FAO Woodfuel improved taxation system and valuing Integrated Supply/Demand Overview environmental benefits. Mapping (WISDOM), it was found that Current Initiatives 42% of Rwanda’s rural population is in high deficit of woodfuel energy needed to In recent years project initiatives in the meet basic needs, with 39% in medium- forestry sector have increased with funding from key development partners, including high deficit[5]. Thus, the majority of the population is currently struggling with a governments of Belgium and the Netherlands. Investments are primarily deficit of subsistence energy and the gap focused on reforestation activities, as well between supply and demand is widening as capacity building at central and District each year (see figure). This has significant levels within public and private forests. implications for the charcoal sector in particular as more efficient and improved PAREF II supply and demand side management As a continuation of the PAREF I would reduce deficit burdens. To address afforestation initiative, the Belgian concerns regarding deforestation and over Technical Cooperation (BTC) in partnership exploitation, the Ministry of Infrastructure with Rwanda’s National Forestry Authority (MININFRA) developed a Biomass Energy (NAFA) is supporting the PAREF II initiative. [4] Strategy (BEST) in 2008 . The strategy The Dutch Cooperation also provides has three key elements: support. The project aims to support the - Reducing biomass consumption GoR’s overall framework of the National through efficient stoves and improved Forest Policy, and objectives of the EDPRS charcoal-making techniques and Vision 2020 by achieving the following - Substitution of alternative energy intermediate results: sources for biomass - Institutional capacities at the - Producing more biomass through decentralised level are reinforced in the increasing production of woodfuel field of reforestation and forestry resources management - To support this strategy, a woodfuel - Afforestation of 10,000 ha created and/ mapping exercise was done in 2009 or rehabilitated in the 9 selected

Figure 11.3: Imbalance between needs and sustained yield of wood in Rwanda, from 1960 to 2009[1]











                
  
 

  
  
   
 




Smith School of Enterprise and the Environment 81 Districts (7 in the Western Province and Vi-LIFE is a Swedish NGO working in 2 in the Northern Province) and Rwanda as a chapter of the Lake Victoria required mechanisms for their rational Regional Environmental and Sustainable management put in place Agriculture Productivity Programme - Valorisation of wood energy is (RESAAP). Project activities are focused improved. on increased farm productivity using Through PAREF I & II, a total of 15 Districts sustainable agroforestry practices and will be covered with investment of roughly local business development through 13 million Euro between the period of improved civil society organisations and 2008 and 2012[2]. marketing among small-scale farmer. CATALIST and SEW RESAPP activities are being carried out in 25 administrative sectors distributed in 3 Another major forestry programme districts namely Gicumbi and Rulindo in underway in Rwanda is the CATALYST the Northern Province, and Gasabo in the project supported by the Netherlands Kigali city area[7]. Directorate General for Development Cooperation (DGIS). CATALIST stands for Other Projects and Research “Catalyze Accelerated Agricultural In addition to the above initiatives, Intensification for Social and Environmental significant work in the area of forestry and Stability” and covers the Great Lakes sustainable land management is being region of central Africa, including 6 carried out by a number of national and Rwandan Districts (Burera, Rulindo, international institutions. These include: Bugesera, Nyanza, Nyamagabe, and - World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF) Nyaruguru). The project started in 2009 conducting agroforestry and SLM pilot and focuses in part on tree planting on work with the Rwanda Agricultural private land, complimenting PAREF work Development Authority (RADA) which intervenes on public lands. Project - Rwanda Agricultural Research Institute activities are also oriented around (ISAR) work on seedling research, establishing and/or strengthening the production and dissemination for capacities of farmer and agro-input dealer reforestation activities organisations. Activities are carried out by - Rwanda Institute for Scientific and staff from the organization IFDC working Technological Research (IRST) with and through farmers’ organisations, conducting work with planting of among other partners. Jatropha for biofuels production A sister project to CATALIST is the - Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS) Sustainable Energy through Woodlots and and other organizations in the Albertine Agroforestry in the Albertine Rift (SEW) Rift researching the sensitivity of project. Also started in 2009, the goal of ecosystems and biodiversity to climate SEW is to decrease competition for land change, and possible adaptation use between energy and agricultural measures production by improving wood production, Potential Opportunities use and income from woodlots and agroforestry plantings. Project Within the forestry sector, there are a beneficiaries include fuel wood-producing number of opportunities with regard to farmers, charcoal producers and other promoting climate resilience and low stakeholders of the commercial wood carbon planning. Strong synergies exist value chain, and consumers of energy between adaptation and mitigation from wood who will benefit from stabilised measures in particular. Activities such as fuel prices[6]. reforestation of degraded land and watersheds, agroforestry, and other SCC – Vi-LIFE Agroforestry

82 Baseline
Report sustainable land management practices - Undertaking scientific research for contribute to retention and regeneration of promotion of innovation, maintenance soils and carbon sequestration, while of sustainability and competitiveness, supplying food (including fodder), fuel and and ensuring progressive improvement fibers that promote income generation, in forestry policy and practice food security and climate resilience. - Monitoring and assessing forest health Provisioning and regulatory services of and factors affecting it as a basis for natural and manmade forest ecosystems strategic responses to potential threats are already nationally recognised of sustainability opportunities for sustainable development Climate Change that additional financing from international While human-induced pressures in the adaptation and mitigation funds can form of land-use change, overharvesting, support. This support is available in the overgrazing by livestock, fire and form of the Adaptation Fund, LDCF, Green introduction of new species are leading Fund, and Afforestation/Reforestation threats to forest ecosystems, climate activities from the Clean Development change constitutes an additional threat. Mechanism (CDM) under the UNFCCC, as Changes in rainfall regimes and increased well as the Voluntary Carbon Market (VCM) temperatures may exacerbate and other financing mechanisms, some of disturbances such as fire, pests, drought, which Rwanda is currently benefiting from and heat waves that negatively impact (e.g. LDCF). In addition, work is being forest provisioning and regulatory carried out by a number of institutions functions. However, understanding such including the World Bank’s Global impacts remains a challenge as land-use Environment Facility (GEF) to realise change and vegetative feedback modeling opportunities for biodiversity conservation is in very early stages[8]. Improved and climate resilience. understanding and monitoring of these In addition, significant opportunities for impacts in the Rwandan context is supporting adaptation-mitigation synergies essential, particularly in light of endemic exist in the improved management of biodiversity and forest ecosystems that are Rwanda’s National Forestry Fund, as part sensitive to climatic factors. of institutional and financial frameworks for environment and climate financing. Government Policy and Preferred options highlighted in Rwanda’s Targets revised National Forestry Policy provide a In recognition of the economic and valuable guide for initial actions that would environmental benefits of sustainable benefit from technical analysis of carbon forest management, the GoR has worked [1] credit opportunities in particular : to reform and restructure the policy and - Re-surveying all Classified Forests with management of Rwanda’s natural and a view of rationalising boundaries manmade forests. The Ministry of Mining - Undertaking afforestation and and Forestry (MINIFOM), and its reforestation initiatives to expand the implementing agency, the National Forest country’s forest cover Authority (NAFA), are leading this process. - Supporting the local authorities to In line with Vision 2020 and EDPRS, manage forests Rwanda is committed to environmental - Development of management plans for protection, diversification of energy all Classified Forests; and 10-year sources, erosion prevention, and reduced management plans for Districts as woodfuel consumption and provided under the draft Forestry Law implementation of a reforestation strategy. The major objective of the EDPRS for the

Smith School of Enterprise and the Environment 83 forestry sector is to provide an adequate issues including the charcoal sector, as and sustainable supply of forest products well as the Ministry of Agriculture and manage forestry resources for poverty (MINAGRI) that uses agroforestry alleviation by income and employment techniques for improved land generation. To realise this objective, management and the Ministry of Lands Rwanda has adopted a National Forestry and Environment (MINELA) working in Policy that aims at ensuring present forest ecosystem restoration and biodiversity cover is well managed and increased to conservation. Key development partners 30% of country total area by 2020[1]. In operating in the sector include addition, revision of the 1988 Forestry Law governments of Belgian and the is underway. Implementation of the Netherlands. Public work is complimented Forestry Policy will be carried out in by activities of national research and accordance with the activities detailed in teaching institutions including ISAR, IRST, the National Forestry Strategy[9] by KIST, and ISFM, among others. Relevant government and development partners private actors include organisations such with the following objectives: as Vi-Life, ICRAF, IFDC, WCS and the - Increase forest and agroforestry Clinton Foundation working in forestry, resources in order to meet the national agroforestry, biodiversity/conservation and needs in timber and non-timber forest carbon development projects. In addition, products and services for public, owners of private forests, tea factories personal and commercial uses. (e.g. Sorwathe), timber and charcoal - Manage forests to optimize economical supply chain companies play important as well as ecological functions such as roles in the sustainable management and soil erosion control, climate regulation productivity of forests. and biodiversity conservation in a Summary sustainable manner. Rwanda’s forest resources present both a - Provide institutional support to forestry significant challenge and opportunity for actors in order to improve the quality of products and services renders by these sustainable development, climate reliance and mitigation considerations. Improved actors. management has largely stabilised natural - Other key policies and initiatives to forests and protected areas, fuel wood achieve these objectives include demands of a growing population observance of National Tree Planting Week and improved management constrained by scarce land resources pose a daunting structural limitation to the National Forestry Fund in support of sustainability, availability and affordability of implementation activities. forest provisioning and regulatory services. Stakeholder Mapping Opportunities exist to improve the A wide range of actors are involved in efficiency and extent of resources, it is Rwanda’s forestry sector. The Ministry of clear that alternative energy sources will Mining and Forestry (MINIFOM) oversees be needed in the future. Financial support government activities in the sector and for adaptation and carbon project supervises the work of the National development in the forestry sector provide Forestry Authority (NAFA), which has the possible opportunities in the sector. responsibility of coordinating forest Although issues of additionality and other management and agroforestry technical considerations may limit the development. In addition, key government feasibility of the latter under compliance ministries with activities linked to the carbon markets, synergies between sector include the Ministry of Infrastructure adaptation and mitigation activities are (MININFRA) that works in biomass energy strong and warrant further investigation.

84 Baseline
Report 12. CONCLUSION AND NEXT STEPS

This Baseline Report illustrates the July 2011 with a Strategy launch. Nine dynamic and rapidly changing picture of months is a short time to develop a development in Rwanda. A highly national strategy and more work will be motivated and focused government is, required after July 2011, both on with the assistance of donors, NGOs and implementation and further data gathering private companies, moving rapidly towards and analysis. the targets laid out in Vision 2020 of Stakeholder Engagement becoming a middle-income country by 2020. The sectoral reviews show that Although a large number of stakeholders wide-ranging opportunities are currently contributed to the Baseline Report, being explored in Rwanda. There is demonstrated by the list of however a need to review the options, to acknowledgements, there are further ensure that those chosen not only individuals and groups who can contribute promote the development of Rwanda in to answering these questions. Similar the most efficient way but also protect the studies in other countries show that environment and reduce the country’s stakeholder engagement is crucial for vulnerability to economic shocks. The successful strategy development. This is a choices must also be analysed with core value for Rwanda, shown most respect to their resilience to the predicted obviously in Vision 2020, and is a core climate changes due to man-made GHG component of this project. Any emissions. stakeholders who wish to be involved are invited to contact the research associates, This will be done during the next stage of whose email addresses are listed at the the study, involving the following front of this report. components: Sectoral Review and Integration - Stakeholder engagement - Sectoral review and integration Following the completion of the baseline - Report climate finance options report, the research associates, with input - Contribute to the establishment of a from the expert advisors and stakeholders Climate Centre will develop ‘Sectoral Working Papers’ which will cover the following areas for - Strategy development each sector: Figure 12.1 shows the simple timeline of - Vulnerabilities and Opportunities for the project which started in November climate compatible development 2010 and will be completed at the end of - Focus areas and options analysis

Figure 12.1: Project timeline 25th 24th 2nd 15th November January May July 2010
2011
2011
2011

Sectoral Project Baseline
Working Strategy
Launch
Report
Papers

Smith School of Enterprise and the Environment 85 Table 12.1: The Strategic Framework

Focus Areas Polices and Stakeholders Timescale Measurables Sources of hhhhhhhhhhh Actions hhhhhhhhhhhhh hhhhhhhhhhhh hhhhhhhhhhhhh Finance WHY WHAT WHO WHEN HOW

- Review of global best practice will be reviewed and compiled into a - Strategic framework (table 12.1) separate report which will form an Sectors will be reviewed in an integrated appendix to the National Strategy. way so that recommendations on use of Establishing a Climate Centre resources can be made. Education and There is insufficient climate data for health were not covered in detail during Rwanda which prevents the development the Baseline Report, but their importance of reliable climate models and hence was recognised and they will be included climate projections. These are essential if as separate sections in the next stage. Rwanda is to incorporate changes in The Working Papers will be delivered on climate into its economic and social May 2nd when the project will enter the planning. Work is already being done by consultation phase where the ideas and the UK Met Office and MIT in Rwanda, opportunities discussed will be shaped and the Smith School aims to work with into realistic options that can be them to establish a Climate Centre. A implemented in Rwanda. The research separate report detailing the requirements associates will develop a roadmap for for a Climate Centre will form an appendix implementation, including other work to the National Strategy. programmes that will be required. This will be used to develop the draft National Strategy Development Strategy document by mid-June. The work done on Sector Working Papers, Access to Climate Finance roadmaps, consultation will contribute to the development of the Strategy. One of the most important barriers to Opportunities to learn from previous development in Rwanda is funding. national climate change and low carbon Progress on climate finance for developing development studies will be exploited. The countries has recently been made at the strategy will present a vision for Rwanda in international negotiations in Cancun in 2050. It will be guided by principles and December 2010. For Rwanda to capitalise pillars determined by the government of on this opportunity, local capacity in Rwanda. It will address adaptation and sourcing, applying for and obtaining mitigation as well as energy security and international development finance needs will seek to enable Rwanda to be a global to be developed. There are other financing leader in climate change and low carbon opportunities including carbon credits, development. especially for energy projects, and these

86 Baseline
Report ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Steering Committee Bernard Byiringiro Hon. Minister Stanislas Kamanzi Bob Nkuranga - MINELA Bonaventure Nzeyimana Hon. Minister Agnes Kalibata Boniface Nsabimana - MINAGRI Bragante Daya Hon. Minister Vincent Karega Brian Frantz - MININFRA Candide Nyirahategekimana Hon. Minister Christophe Bazivamo Carl Wesselink - MINIFOM Caroline Kayonga Hon. Minister Coletha Ruhamya Carpophore Ntagungira - MININFRA - Energy and Water Charles Karemangindo Hon. Minister John Rwangombwa Charles Nyirahuku - MINECOFIN Charles Twayigize Hon. Minister Monique Nsanzabaganwa Christer Kjorneberg - MINICOM Claude Bizimana Hon. Minister Dr Charles Murigande Co Meijer - MINEDUC Concorde Bazinaziki Hon. Minister Dr Richard Sezibera Cornelius Nandyal - MOH Courtney Blodgett Hon. Minister Gen Gatsinzi Marcel Cyprien Gatete - MIDIMAR Cyprien Gatete Hon. Minister James Musoni Damien Munyarugerero - MINALOC Denis Rugege Dr Rose Mukankomeje Diego Zurdo - REMA Dominique Owekisa Francis Gatare Domitille Uwizeyimana - Office of the President Eduard Mbonigaba Elias Ê Baingana Stakeholders Elvine Binamungu The following list acknowledges all the Emile Habimana stakeholders that the research team was able Emmanuel Grosjean to meet with over the brief scoping period for Emmanuel Nsabimana this report. There are many more stakeholders Ephrem Rutaboba that the team would like to meet with in the Eric Mvuyarukato next stage of the project. Ernest Ramuni Eugene RUTAGAAMA Abraham Atta Ogwa Eugene Rutagama Aime Mpambara Eugene Rwibasira Aime Muzola Eunice Njoroge Aime Tsinda Euphrem Rutaboba Alain-Joseph Ntenge Eva Paul Alastair Sussock Fabien Nshimiyimana Alex Kabuto Faouzi HAMMAMI Alexis Mulisa Fidele Uwizeye Alfred D. Byegero Francis Gatare Alison Cambray Francis Kayumba Alphonse Mutabazi Francois Naramabuye Anaclet Ndahimana Francoise Kayigamba Anastase Rwigema Frank de Laat Andrea Hestermann Frank Kanyesigye Andrew Kanyonya Fred Smiet Anecto Kayitare Freddy Butoto Annette Sylvie Frederick Addo Abeade Annie Kairaba Froduald Munyankiko Anthony Ehlers Fumihiko Suzuki Antoine Ruvebana Gakumba Jean Bosco Antony Simm Gatanguriya DEICOLE Arthemon Nsengiyumva Geofrey Kyatuka Arumugam KATHIRESAN Gerard Hendriksen Bernard BYIRINGIRO Gili Nossan

Smith School of Enterprise and the Environment 87 Giuseppe Dacanto Martin Kahanovitz Gregoire Minani Martin West H. Kisioh Maxmillien Usengumuremyi Hamiss Bizimana Michael Biryabarema Higiro Gervas Michel Masozera Hortence Baho Michelle Ntukanyagwe Ian Hookham Mike Hughes Ingabire J. Francoise Nelson Lujara Innocent Kabenga Nick Buckley Isibo Teta Nicolas Schmids Issa Korera Niyibizi Mbanzabigwi Jacqueline Nyirakamana Noeline Raondry-Rakotoarisoa Jacques Detery Obald Hakizimna Jahan Chowdhury Oleg Moiseev James Joughin Oliver Machiels Jane Lichtenstein Papias Karanganwa Janvier GASASIRA Pascal Ledroit Jean Baptiste UWIZEYIMANA Patrick Kabanda Jean Bosco Gakumba Patrick Samafa Jean Businge Peter Hamburger Jean Claude MUSABYIMANA Philbert Kabanda Jean Gapusi Philippe Munyaruyenzi Jean Jac Pierre Ilunga Lutamba Jean Ntazinda, Raphael Mpayana Jean Perre Ruhira Raphael Rurangwa Jean-Malic Kalima Regine Umubano Jean-Yves Saliez Reverien Harindintwari Jeanette Mutesi Robert Ford Jeanne Francoise Ingabire Roger Steinkamp Jeremy Hawksworth Rosemary Mbabazi Jo McDonnell Rudasiawa Abdul-aziz Johannes Widman Samuel Mporanzi John Bosco Lyadema Sezikeye Simo Kamuzinzi John Ntaganda Samafara Simon Lapper John Primrose Sion McGeever Jolly Dusabe Stephen Onacha Jordi Cadilla Falco Steve Palmer Joseph Nyirimana Sumit Manchanda Jules R. Siedenberg Thaddee Gashumba Justin Rusandazangabo Theogene Habakubaho Kagoro David Timoth Kayumba Kanakuze Valens Tom Rahilly Katrien Meersman Tony Polatajko Kayumba Francis Toshikazu Mito Kenny Leung Twagira Elias Mathaniya Laetitia Busokeye Uwe Mades Laura Collinson Valens Kanakuze Laurent Gashugi Vincent Kalimba Laurent Kananura Yuri Mito Liberal Seburikoko Yussuf Uwamahoro Lindsay Wallace Zetsugaku Kurita Loraine Ronchi Lydia Rama Bwakira Mahabubul Bari Makoto Ishizuka Marie Christine Gasingirwa Mario Merchan Mark Cyubahiro Bagabe Mark Priestley Martin Gasasira

88 Baseline
Report REFERENCES

Chapter 1 8. Ministry of Land and Environment (MINELA), 1. Government of Rwanda, Rwanda Vision 2020, Environment Sub-Sector Strategic Plan, Kigali, Rwanda, 2000. 2010-2014, 2010. 2. Project Catalyst, Low Carbon Growth Plans - 9. Operationalisation of National Fund for Advancing Good Practice, ClimateWorks Environment (FONERWA) in Rwanda, 2010. Foundation, 2009. Rwanda Environment Management Authority (REMA), supported by the Poverty Environment 3. The World Factbook 2009. Washington, DC: Initiative (PEI). Central Intelligence Agency, 2009. 10. SWAP, 2010. Sector wide approach (SWAP) 4. Population Division of the Department of Memorandum of Understanding for Environment Economic and Social Affairs of the United and Natural Resource sector management. Nations Secretariat, World Population Prospects: December 2010. The 2008 Revision, http://esa.un.org/unpp, 11. Akamurase, Alex. Social Protection Specialist, 5. World Bank Development Indicators Rwanda World Bank. Interviews taking place between 19 data bank. http://data.worldbank.org/country/ November – 10 December 2010. rwanda. 2010 (Accessed 10 January 2011) 12. LDCF, 2010. Reducing vulnerability to climate 6. UNDP, Human Development Indicators, http:// change by establishing early warning and hdrstats.undp.org/en/countries/profiles/ disaster preparedness systems, and support for RWA.html (Accessed 10 January 2011) integrated watershed management in flood- 7. GoR MINECOFIN, 2007. Economic Development prone areas in the Gishwati ecosystem (UNEP/ and Poverty Reduction Strategy. UNDP LDCF, 2010-2013). 8. Rwandan Meteorological Service, http:// 13. Mito, Toshikazu, 2010. Project Coordinator, www.meteorwanda.gov.rw/, (Accessed 10 UNDP. Interviews taking place between 17 January 2011) November – 17 December 2010. 9. SEI, Economics of Climate Change in Rwanda, 14. Africa Adaptation Program (AAP), 2009. 2009 Supporting Integrated and Comprehensive Approaches to Climate Change Adaptation in 10. SNC, 2010. Second National Communication on Africa – Building a comprehensive national the United Nations Framework Convention on approach in Rwanda. UNDP 2010-2011. Climate Change. Republic of Rwanda. 15. The National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda 11. SEI, Rapid assessment of a National Energy and (NISR), Comprehensive Food Security and Low Carbon Path for Rwanda, 2009. Vulnerability Analysis (CFSVA) and Nutrition 12. N.A. Owen and D.A. King, The cumulative impact Survey, 2009. of high oil prices on the economy of Rwanda, 16. SEI, 2009. Economics of Climate Change in Smith School of Enterprise and the Environment, Rwanda study. 2010. 17. Ntazinda, Jean, 2010. CDM-DNA Capacity Chapter 2 Reinforcement Project of Rwanda. Interview 9 1. Economic Development and Poverty Reduction December 2010. Strategy (EDPRS) 2008-2012, 2007. Republic of 18. Mutabazi, Alphonse, 2010. REMA. Interviews Rwanda. taking place between 17 November – 17 2. Rwanda Vision 2020, 2000. Republic of Rwanda. December 2010. 3. Initial National Communication to UNFCCC, 19. Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES), 2005. workshop. Hosted by the Wildlife Conservation 4. National Adaptation Programme of Action Society (WCS) and REMA, 17 -18 December, (NAPA), 2006. 2010. Musanze, Rwanda. 5. DNA, 2011. Designated National Authority (DNA) Chapter 3 of Rwanda webpage (http://www.rema.gov.rw/ 1. National trade policy, Ministry of Trade and dna/). industry, June 2010. 6. SNC, 2010. Second National Communication on 2. Doing business Report, World Bank, Washington the United Nations Framework Convention on DC, United States, 2011. Climate Change. Republic of Rwanda. 3. Rwanda Development Indicators, Kigali- 7. Mukankomeje, Rose, 2010. Director General, Rwanda, 2006. Rwanda Environment Management Authority (REMA). Interviews taking place between 17 November – 17 December 2010.

Smith School of Enterprise and the Environment 89 4. Memorandum of economic and financial policies, 14. East Africa Community, 2010. Webpage http:// IMF and Rwandan Authorities, Rwanda, October www.eac.int/energy Accessed 4 December 2010. 2010. 5. Public Finance Management report, Rwanda, 15. ESMAP, 2011. Energy Sector Management 2010. Assistance Programme. Low Carbon 6. Law no 28 modifying the establishment of Development. http://www.esmap.org/esmap/ consumption tax for, Government of Rwanda, LowCarbonDevelopment Accessed 18 January 2010 . 2011. 7. National Export Strategy, Rwanda Development 16. Helio International, 2010. Climate-proofing Board ,Kigali Rwanda, 2010. energy systems. 8. Ministry for Public Service and Labor and HIDA 17. GoR MINECOFIN, 2007. Economic Development National Skills Audit. and Poverty Reduction Strategy 2008-2012. Chapter 4 18. Rwanda Utilities Regulatory Agency, 2010. http:// www.rura.gov.rw/ Accessed 21 December 2010. 1. GoR MININFRA, 2010. Draft Energy Sector Strategic Paper. December 2010. Chapter 5 2. GoR MININFRA, 2009. National Energy Policy 19. GoR MINIRENA, 2009. A revised Rwandan and National Energy Strategy 2008-2012. 16 mining policy. October 2009. January 2009. 20. GoR MINELA, 2010. Second National 3. GoR MINIFRA, 2010. Draft Electricity Strategic Communication on the United Nations Plan for the Energy Sector: 2011 – 2017. Framework Convention on Climate Change. December 2010. 21. US Geological Survey, 2008. 2008 Minerals 4. GoR MINELA, 2010. Second National Yearbook. Communication on the United Nations 22. GoR MINIFOM, 2010. MINIFOM progress report Framework Convention on Climate Change. on mining presentation. October 2010. 5. GoR MININFRA, 2010. Energy. 23. Personal discussions with MINIFOM staff. March www.mininfra.gov.rw Accessed 14 December 2011. 2010. 24. US Geological Survey, 2009. 2009 Minerals 6. Safari, B, 2010. A review of energy in Rwanda. Yearbook. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 14 25. Interpretation of the New Resolution Geophysics (2010) 524–529. (NRG) airborne geophysical survey, Rwanda and 7. Ogwu, A.A., 2010. The Role of KIST in the Integration with existing geosciences data OGMR development of energy and water treatment Reference N°: 10/02/09. A Report prepared for systems in Rwanda. Presentation to GoR. Rwanda Geology and Mines Authority (OGMR) 8. The New Times, 2010. Rwanda: Cimerwa Starts by Paterson, Grant & Watson Ltd. Toronto, Peat Production As Alternative Energy Source. Canada. April 2010. 26 August 2010. 26. Mineral Potential of Rwanda: Prospective Target 9. BBC News, 2010. Rwanda's bio-diesel bus Areas as interpreted from geophysical data. A unveiled. 26 March 2010. http://news.bbc.co.uk/ Study completed by Paterson, Grant & Watson go/pr/fr/-/2/hi/africa/8589712.stm Limited for OGMR Kigali, Rwanda. Toronto, Canada. April 2010. 10. GIZ, 2011. The potential of sustainable liquid biofuel production in Rwanda. A study on the 27. Biryabarema, M., 2010. Unveiling the Rwandan agricultural, technical and economic conditions mineral potential: A drive towards optimum and food security. Eschborn, February 2011. investment . OGMR presentation at the Rwanda International Mining Day, Kigali, 4 December 11. Geothermal Development Unit MININFRA, 2010. 2010. Rwanda geothermal resources potential and development strategy, December 2010. 28. Buckley, N. and Niyonkuru, Z., 2010. Creating a knowledge economy in mining services. OTF 12. Hirsch, S., 2010. Small-Scale Use of Geothermal Group presentation. Kigali, 14 December 2010. Power at Oserian Farms, Naivasha, Kenya. Proceedings World Geothermal Congress 2010. 29. GoR, 2009. Official gazette of the Republic of Bali, Indonesia, 25-29 April 2010 Rwanda. N° 37 /2008 of 11/08/2008. Law on mining and quarry exploitation. 6 April 2009. 13. 3E, 2010. Study for the assessment of wind power resource in Rwanda. 23 December 2010 30. GoR, 2010. Official gazette of the Republic of Rwanda. 11 October 2010

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Report 31. GoR MINECOFIN, 2007. Economic Development Hydrogen Energy Vol. 14, No. 2, pp 81-130, and Poverty Reduction Strategy. 1989. 32. Office of Geology and Mines in Rwanda (OGMR), 16. D.A. King (ed.), Future of Mobility Roadmap, 2010. Website. Accessed 27 November 2010. University of Oxford, 2010 33. FECOMIRWA brochure. 4 December 2010. 17. C.C. Chan and K.T. Chau, Modern Electric Chapter 6 Vehicle Technology, Oxford University Press, Oxford, United Kingdom, 2001. 1. OECD, Economic Survey: United States, Paris, France, Volume 2008/16, 2008. 18. P. Newman and J. Kenworthy, Sustainability and Cities: Overcoming Automobile Dependence, 2. P. Lombard, Preparation of Strategic Transport Island Press, Washington D.C. United States, Master Plan for Rwanda, Working Paper1: Status 1999. of the Transport Sector in Rwanda, Hatfield, Pretoria, South Africa, 2010. 19. NSCA, Biogas as a Road Transport Fuel: An assessment of the potential role of biogas as a 3. MININFRA, Road Maintenance Strategy, Kigali, renewable transport fuel, National Society for Rwanda, 2008. Clean Air and Environmental Protection, London, 4. NSIR, Rwanda Statistical Yearbook 2009 Edition, England, 2006. Kigali, Rwanda, 2009. 20. C. Carey, O.R. Inderwildi and D.A. King, Just Hot 5. E. Kabano, Rwanda airport revenues to hit $9m Air? The development of lighter-than-air craft and as traffic shoots up, The Independent, Kampala, their possible impact, Aviation and the Uganda, 20th October 2009. Environment, 10, 32-37, 2010. 6. MININFRA, Transport Sector Performance Chapter 7 Review Report for 2009-2010, Kigali, Rwanda, 1. The World Factbook 2009. Washington, DC: 2010 Central Intelligence Agency, 2009. 7. P. Chambannes, Technical Assistance for 2. MININFRA, National Urban Housing Policy for Institutional Capacity Building in Road Rwanda, Kigali, Rwanda, 2008 Maintenance and Auditing of Programmes to the MINIFRA and the Road Authority, Kigali, Rwanda, 3. J. C. Sano, Urban Environmental Infrastructure in 2010. Kigali City Rwanda, MSc Thesis, Wageningen University, 2007 8. Project Rwanda, The Coffee Bike, < http:// projectrwanda.org/cargo-bike, 2010, (Accessed 4. Y. Matsufuji and A. Tanaka, Consultancy and 18 December 2010). feasibility study on application of Fukuoka method to a new landfill in consolidated waste 9. O. Baba et al. Feasibility Study for the Railway management project in Rwanda, Final Report, Project Isaka – Kigali/Keza – Gitega – Musongati Fukuoka University, Fukuoka, Japan, 2009. Volume XV: Summary of the Study, Final Report, Kigali, Dar-es-Salaam, Bujumbura, 2009. 5. D. Hilhorst and M. Van Leeuwen, Emergency and Development: the case of Imidugudu, 10. TPS Consult, New Bugesera International Airport Villagization in Rwanda, Journal of Refugee 90% Design Stage, Croydon, United Kingdom, Studies, Vol. 13, No. 3, 2000. 2010. 6. Oz Architecture, Kigali Conceptual Master Plan, 11. ASEC, Economic and Technical Feasibility Study Bolder Colorado, United States, 2007. for Water Transport on Lake Kivu, Final Report, Kigali, Rwanda, 2009. 7. H. Damani and A. Karunakaran, Detialed Master Plan Report for Nyarugenge District, Surbana 12. M. Fox, Akagera River Transport Study – International Consultants Pte. Ltd., Singapore, Feasibility study of navigability on Akagera River 2010. Interim Feasibility Report, 2011. Chapter 8 13. S. Mills, ‘Inauguration of Ruhengeri – Gisenyi “people’s road”’ MININFRA News, Kigali 1. MINAGRI (2010) Annual Report 2009/2010 Rwanda, October 2009. (Draft), Ministry of Agriculture and Animal Resources (MINAGRI), Government of Rwanda, 14. A. Papson, F. Creutzig and L. Schipper, Kigali, pp.64 Compressed Air Vehicles: A drive cycle analysis of vehicle performance, environmental impacts 2. SEI (2009) Economics of Adaptation in Rwanda and economic costs, TRB 2010 Annual Meeting, 3. RDB (2010) Rwanda National Export Strategy, Washington D.C., United States, 2010. Draft Document, Rwanda Development Board 15. M.A. DeLuchi, Hydrogen Vehicles: An evaluation (RDB), Government of Rwanda, October 2010, of fuel storage, performance, safety, pp.99 environmental impacts and costs, Int. J.

Smith School of Enterprise and the Environment 91 4. SNV (2008) Investment Opportunities in the Dairy 4. SWEDESURVEY (2009) Preparation of Rwanda sub-sector of Rwanda, First Draft, Netherlands Land Use and Development Master Plan: Report Development Organisation (SNV), Kigali, pp.61 on Collection of Existing Data, March 2009, 5. AfDB (2010) Livestock Infrastructure Support Kigali, pp.274 Programme, Project Document, African 5. MINIFRA (2010) National Policy and Strategy for Development Bank,pp.18 Water Supply and Sanitation Services, Ministry of 6. MINAGRI (2006) Horticulture Strategy for Infrastructure (MINIFRA), Government of Rwanda: Preparing for Growth, September, Rwanda, Kigali, pp.99 Kigali, pp.47 6. MINITERE (2008) Scoping on the Status of 7. MINAGRI (2009) Strategic Plan for the IWRM in Rwanda in Rwanda Scoping Study, Transformation of Agriculture in Rwanda – Phase Global Water Partnership Eastern Africa, II (PSTA II), Ministry of Agriculture and Animal MINITERE, Kigali, pp.83 Resources (MINAGRI), Government of Rwanda, 7. Global Water Partnership (2008) http:// pp.114 www.gwp.org Chapter 9 8. IISD (2009) An Ecosystem Services Approach in 1. GoR (2010) National Land Use and Development Transboundary Watershed Management, 2009 Master Plan, Draft for Submission to Cabinet, World Water Week in Stockholm, 16-22 August, prepared by the National Land Centre (NLC), International Institute for Sustainable Ministry of Environment and Lands (MINELA) with Development, UNEP-DHI Centre for Water and assistance of Swedesurvey, Kigali Environment, pp.29 2. NLC (2010) Briefing Note on Progress of Land 9. FAO (2009) FAO/Global Environment Facility Registration, November 2010, Project Update Document for a project Transboundary Agro- Briefing, Communication received on 15 ecosystem Management Programme for the December 2010, National Land Centre (NLC) pp. Kagera River Basin (Kagera TAMP), Global 3 Environment Facility (GEF), Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), September 2009, pp.176 3. MINAGRI (2010) Annual Report 2009/2010 (Draft), Ministry of Agriculture and Animal Chapter 11 Resources (MINAGRI), Government of Rwanda, 1. Ministry of Forestry and Mines (MINIFOM), Kigali, pp.64 Republic of Rwanda, National Forestry Policy, 4. NLC (2009) Strategic Road Map for Land Tenure 2010. Reform: Summary Presentation, National Land 2. Belgian Development Cooperation, Support Centre, April 2009, pp.22 program to the development of the forestry 5. IFC (2010) Business Access to Land in Rwanda: sector in Rwanda (PAREF II), 2010. Issues and Recommendations, Rwanda 3. MINITERE and CGIS-NUR (2007). Final report on Investment Climate Reform Program, the Mapping of Rwandese forests, Volume 1. International Finance Corporation, World Bank The Ministry of Lands, Environment, Forests, Group, February 2010, pp.68 Water and Natural Resources (MINITERE) and Chapter 10 The Geographic Information Systems & Remote Sensing Research and Training Center of the 1. MINELA (2010) National Land Use and National University of Rwanda (CGIS – NUR) Development Master Plan, Chapter 8: Water and Sanitation, Risk Analysis, Swedesurvey, pp.32 4. GTZ/Marge, Biomass Energy Strategy (BEST), Rwanda. Volume 2: Background & Analysis, 2. NBI (2008) Kagera River Basin Monograph: 2009. European Union Energy Initiative Transboundary Nile Basin Initiative (NBI), Nile Partnership Dialogue Facility. Equatorial Lakes Subsidiary Action Plan (NELSAP), Kagera River Basin Transboundary 5. R. Drigo, Woodfuel Integrated Supply/Demand Integrated Water Resources Management and Overview Mapping (WISDOM) Methodology, Development Project, pp.412 2006. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). 3. Ladel, J et al. (2008) Integrated Water Resources 6. IFDC, CATALIST: Nourishing the soil, nourishing Management in the Congo Basin Based on the peace, 2011. Development of Earth Observation Monitoring 7. SCC Vi-Life Agroforestry, 2010 Annual Report, Systems in the Framework of the AMESD 2010. Programme in Central Africa, 13th World Water 8. Nabuurs, G.J., O. Masera, K. Andrasko, P. Congress 1-4 September, Montpellier, France Benitez-Ponce, R. Boer, M. Dutschke, E. pp.20 Elsiddig, J. Ford-Robertson, P. Frumhoff, T. Karjalainen, O. Krankina, W.A. Kurz, M.

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Report Matsumoto, W. Oyhantcabal, N.H. Ravindranath, M.J. Sanz Sanchez, X. Zhang, 2007: Forestry. In Climate Change 2007: Mitigation. Contribution of Working Group III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [B. Metz, O.R. Davidson, P.R. Bosch, R. Dave, L.A. Meyer (eds)], Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA. 9. Ministry of Forestry and Mines (MINIFOM), Republic of Rwanda, Strategic Plan for the Forest Sector, 2010.

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Report ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

AAP Africa Adaptation EDPRS Economic Development Programme and Poverty Reduction ADB Africa Development Bank Strategy BEST Biomass Energy Strategy EFR Environment and Fiscal Reform BEV Battery Electric Vehicles EIA Environmental Impact BTC Belgian Technical Assessment Cooperation EU European Union CAADP Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development EWSA Energy, Water and Programme Sanitation Authority CBD Central Business District FAO Food Agriculture CBO Community-based Organization Organisation FECOMIRWA Federation of Mining CCIOU Climate Change and Cooperatives International Obligations FONERWA National Fund for the Unit Environment in Rwanda CDF Community Development GDP Gross Domestic Product Fund GEF Global Environmental CDKN Climate and Development Facility Knowledge Network GHG greenhouse gas CDM Clean Development GIS Geographic Information Mechanism System CFL compact fluorescent lamp GoR Government of Rwanda CGIS Centre for Geographical GTZ German Technical Information Systems Cooperation Agency CIP Crop Intensifi cation HDI Human Development Programme Index COMESA Common Market for East HEV Hybrid Electric Vehicles and Southern Africa HFO heavy fuel oil CPI Corruption Perception Index ICE Internal Combustion Engine CTCN Climate Technology and Technical Network ICF Investment Climate Facility for Africa DDP District Development Plans ICRAF World Agroforestry Centre DFID Department for ICT Information and International Communications Development Technology DRC Democratic Republic of IFC International Finance the Congo Corporation DRR Disaster Risk Reduction IMF International Monetary Fund DNA Designation National Authority INC Initial National Communication EAC East African Community IPP independent power EAPMP East Africa Power Master producer Plan IRST Institute for Research in EAPP East African Power Pool Science and Technology ECCAS Economic Commission of ISAR Institut des Sciences Central African States Agronomiques du Rwanda

Smith School of Enterprise and the Environment 95 IWRM Integrated Water NAPA National Adaptation Resources Management Programme of Action JICA Japanese International NBDF Nile Basin Discourse Cooperation Agency Forum JV joint venture NBI Nile Basin Initiative KIST Kigali Institute for Science NCTA Northern Corridor Transit and Technology Agreement kWh kilowatt-hour NDBP National Domestic Biogas Programme LAIS Land Administration Information System NEDA National Energy Development Agency LDC Least Developed Country NELSAP Nile Equatorial Lakes LDCF Least Developed Country Subsidiary Action Fund Program LIS Land Information System NEPAD New Partnership for LTR Land Tenure African Development Regularisation NGO non-government LVBC Lake Victoria Basin organisation Commission NICI National Information and MDG Millennium Development Communications Goals Infrastructure MIE Multilateral Implementing NIS National Investments Entity Strategy MINAGRI Ministry of Agriculture and NIE National Implementing Animal Resources Entity MINALOC Ministry of Local NLA National Land Authority Government and Social NPR National Paved Roads Affaires NTEP Nile Transboundary MINEDU Ministry of Education Environmental Action MINECOFIN Ministry of Finance and Project Economic Planning NUR National University of MINICOM Ministry of Trade Rwanda and Industry ODI Overseas Development MINIFOM Ministry of Forestry and Institute Mines OGMR Offi ce of Geology and MINELA Ministry of Environment Mines in Rwanda and Lands PEI Poverty Environment MININFRA Ministry of Infrastructure Initiative MININTER Ministry of Internal PES Payment for Ecosystem Security Services MINIRENA Ministry of Natural PPIAF Public Private Resources Infrastructure Advisory MOU Memorandum of Facility Understanding PPP Public-Private Partnership MW megawatt PRSP Poverty Reduction NAB National Agriculture Strategy Paper Export Board PSF Private Sector Federation NAFA National Forestry PSP private sector Authority participation NAMA Nationally Appropriate PV photovoltaic Mitigation Actions

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Report R&D research and SIDA Swedish International development Development Agency RAB Rwanda Agricultural SIDS Small Island Developing Board States RADA Rwanda Agricultural SIG Sector Implementation Development Agency Group RARDA Rwanda Animal SNC Second National Resources Development Communication Authority SNV Netherlands Development RCAA Rwandan Civil Aviation Organisation Authority SSP Strategic Sector Plans REDD Reducing Emissions from SSATP Sub Saharan Africa Deforestation and forest Transport Policy Degradation SWAp Sector Wide Approach RHODA Rwandan Horticulture Development Authority UNCCD United Nations Convention to Combat RBS Rwanda Bureau of Desertification Standards UNDP United Nations RCM Regional Climate Model Development Program RDB Rwanda Development UNEP United Nations Board Environment Program RIG Rwanda Investment UNFCCC United Nations Group Framework on Climate RECO Rwanda Electricity Change Convention Corporation UNIDO United Nations Industrial REMA Rwanda Environmental Development Management Authority Organisation REMP Rwanda Electricity Master USD United States dollars Plan VAT Value Added Tax RGRES Rwanda Geothermal VCM Voluntary Carbon Markets Resources Exploration Strategy VUP Vision 2020 Umurenge Programme RNDB Rwanda National Dairy Board WB World Bank RSDI National Spatial Data Infrastructure RTDA Rwandan Transport Development Agency RURA Rwanda Utility Regulatory Agency RWASCO Rwanda Water and Sanitation Corporation RWF Rwandan Franc RWH Rainwater Harvesting RRA Rwanda Revenue Authority SADC Southern African Development Community SEA Strategic Environmental Assessment SEI Stockholm Environment Institute

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