The Peace of Nature and the Nature of Peace Value Inquiry Book Series
Founding Editor
Robert Ginsberg
Executive Editor
Leonidas Donskis
VOLUME 282
Philosophy of Peace
Editor
Danielle Poe
The titles published in this series are listed at brill.com/pop The Peace of Nature and the Nature of Peace
Essays on Ecology, Nature, Nonviolence, and Peace
Edited by
Andrew Fiala
LEIDEN | BOSTON Cover Illustration: Yosemite National Park, photo by Andrew Fiala.
Library of Congress Control Number: 2015942366
issn 0929-8436 isbn 978-90-04-29954-2 (paperback) isbn 978-90-04-29959-7 (e-book)
Copyright 2015 by Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands. Koninklijke Brill NV incorporates the imprints Brill, Brill Hes & De Graaf, Brill Nijhoff, Brill Rodopi and Hotei Publishing. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, translated, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission from the publisher. Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use is granted by Koninklijke Brill NV provided that the appropriate fees are paid directly to The Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Suite 910, Danvers, MA 01923, USA. Fees are subject to change.
This book is printed on acid-free paper. &OLPEWKHPRXQWDLQVDQGJHWWKHLUJRRGWLGLQJV 1DWXUH¶VSHDFHZLOOIORZLQWR\RXDVVXQVKLQHIORZVLQWRWUHHV -RKQ0XLU
CONTENTS
Preface Andrew Fiala 1
ONE INTRODUCTION: Violence and Nonviolence in the Environmental Movement 7 ANDREW FIALA
Two Return to Earth: A New Natural Philosophy? 19 ANDREW FITZ-GIBBON
Three Reflections on Violence 31 MICHAEL ALLEN FOX
Four On War and the Environment: A Proposed Revision in the Ethics of Restrain 41 LLOYD STEFFEN
Five Negative Impacts of Militarism on the Environment 51 WILLIAM GAY
Six A Phenomenological Inquiry into the Nature of Human Dwelling 61 WENDY C. HAMBLET
Seven Moral Extensionism and Nonviolence: An Essential Relation? 71 SANJAY LAL
Eight Anthropocentrism, Conservatism and Green Political Thought 81 MICHAEL HEMMINGSEN
Nine Guerrilla Gardening as Nonviolent Praxis: Existentialist Ethics in Food Deserts 91 DAMON BORIA
Ten Slow Violence and the Eschatological Crisis of Agriculture 101 JONATHAN MCCONNELL
Eleven Resolving Socio-Political Conflict in Africa 109 SOLOMON AKINYEMI LALEYE
Twelve Sequoyah and Seattle: Chief World Systems 129 DAVID BOERSEMA
Thirteen The Beloved Community: A Neo-Aristotelian Perspective 139 ANDREW FITZ-GIBBON
About the Authors 151
Index 155
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H[SODLQV³$QRQYLROHQWDJULFXOWXUHPXVWEHFRPHWKHFRUHRIRXUVHDUFKIRU SHDFH,WLVDFXOWXUHEDVHGRQFRFUHDWLRQDQGFRSURGXFWLRQZLWKWKHHDUWK² $JULFXOWXUH DV ZDU LV EHLQJ UHSODFHG DV DJULFXOWXUH DV SHDFH²SHDFH RI WKH VRLO SHDFH RI WKH SODQHWV SHDFH RI WKH DQLPDOV DQG SHDFH RI WKH SHRSOH´ 6KLYD :KDWLVVLJQLILFDQWKHUHLVWKDW6KLYD-HQVHQ DQG RWKHUV LPDJLQH KXPDQ EHLQJV OLYLQJ DW SHDFH ZLWK WKH ZRUOG ZLWK RQH DQRWKHUDQGZLWKRXUVHOYHV Violence and Nonviolence in the Environmental Movement 13 Nonviolent Ecology and the Unity of Means and Ends Militant environmentalists will argue that violence can be employed as a means toward the end of ecological harmony. However, such justifications of violence can be criticized from the standpoint of what we might call “nonviolent ecology.” Although we discussed Vandana Shiva above in relation to the discussion of war and self-defense, an important distinction between Shiva and Jensen is that Shiva remains committed to Gandhian principles of nonviolence, while Jensen rejects these. It is not surprising that nonviolent ecology would find support in Gandhian ideas. While Gandhi himself was not primarily interested in ecology, his ideas have influenced the environmental movement, especially in the approach known as “deep ecology.” Now some authors have attempted to blame “eco-terrorism” on the idea of “deep ecology” of the sort associated with Arne Naess. But they are wrong to trace militant environmentalism back to Naess and deep ecology. Don Liddick writes, for example: Developed by Norwegian philosopher Arne Naess, deep ecology is a philosophy that stresses biocentrism over anthropocentrism; rather than human beings enjoying special status in the natural world, all objects in nature are viewed as having intrinsic worth. The ideology of the radical environmentalist creates a milieu of moral equivalence between sentient and non-sentient objects, where humans, mountains, and protozoa all deserve equal consideration. With the establishment of this moral equation, illicit acts, including violent crimes, apparently become justified in the minds of some radical environmental and animal rights activists (Liddick 2006, 3). This characterization incorrectly discredits the work of Arne Naess and the insights of the deep ecologists. Naess was himself a follower of Gandhi, whose work reflected extensively on the importance of nonviolence. The primary issue is not the straw man of “moral equivalence” between humans, mountains, and protozoa. Rather, the issue is the question of proper means for moral action. The moral question is not merely one of deep ecology vs. shallow ecology (or the question of biocentrism vs. anthropocentrism); rather, the issue is a question of the justification of violence. Let’s clarify this by noting that nonviolent ecologists and militant environmentalists both agree about much. This may be why Liddick conflates them. Militant environmentalists will argue that the stakes are quite high and that the values involved in the environmental struggle are deep and serious. They believe that violence can be justified in defense of these important values. Nonviolent ecologists will agree that the stakes are high and that the values involved are deep and serious. But nonviolent ecologists believe that violence cannot be justified, even in defense of these important values. A central concern here is the question of the morality of means and ends. 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He teaches in the Philosophy Department and the Peace and Social Justice program. He is the former director of the Center for Peace & Spirituality at Pacific and is also the former Executive Director of the Concerned Philosophers for Peace. He has published in the areas of pragmatism, philosophy of science, philosophy of art, philosophy of language, and philosophy of human rights. Among his publications are Philosophy of Human Rights, Dimensions of Moral Agency (ed.), and Spiritual and Political Dimensions of Nonviolence and Peace (ed.). DAMON BORIA is Assistant Professor of Philosophy at Our Lady of the Lake College in Baton Rouge, Louisiana. He received his PhD in philosophy from Purdue University’s interdisciplinary Philosophy and Literature Program. His doctoral research focused on the ethical and political philosophy of Jean-Paul Sartre. Sartre Studies International has recently published his articles “Pricking Us into Revolt: Vonnegut, DeLillo and Sartre’s Hope for Literature” and “Interdependent Freedom: Sartrean Collectivism as (Good) Bad News for an Iconic American Myth.” He also contributed the chapter “Sartre on Moral and Political Authority” to the book Severally Seeking Sartre (2013). His current research remains primarily focused on the critique of Sartre’s social philosophy, increasingly in relation to ecological concerns. His other research projects focus on the philosophy of literature and healthcare ethics. ANDREW FIALA is Professor of Philosophy, Chair of the Philosophy Department, and Director of the Ethics Center at California State University, Fresno. Recent edited books include: The Bloomsbury Companion to Political Philosophy (2015), Civility and Education in a World of Religious Pluralism, co-edited with Vincent Biondo (2013). Single-author monographs include: Practical Pacifism (2004), The Just War Myth (2008), and Public War, Private Conscience (2010). He is also co-author with Barbara MacKinnon of the textbook Ethics: Theory and Contemporary Issues 8th edition (2014). Fiala is currently President of Concerned Philosophers for Peace. ANDREW FITZ-GIBBON is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Arts, Professor of Philosophy, Chair of the Philosophy Department, and Director of the Center for Ethics, Peace and Social Justice, at the State University of New York College at Cortland. and a past President of Concerned Philosophers for 152 About the Authors Peace. He earned his PhD from Newcastle University, UK. His academic interests are in the areas of ethics, nonviolence, love, philosophical practice, somaesthetics, and mysticism. He is the author, co-author, or editor of ten books, numerous book chapters and articles in peer reviewed journals such as Social Philosophy Today, The Journal for Peace and Justice Studies, The Acorn, Peace Review, and Philosophical Practice. He is an Associate Editor with Brill Academic Publishers where he edits the VIBS Social Philosophy Series. He is a fellow of the American Philosophical Practitioners Association, certified in client counseling, a certified taijiquan instructor, and is abbot of the Lindisfarne Community, Ithaca NY, a small ecumenical religious order. MICHAEL ALLEN FOX is received his B.A. from Cornell University and M.A. and Ph.D. from the University of Toronto. Michael is Adjunct Professor, School of Humanities, University of New England (Australia) and Professor Emeritus of Philosophy, Queen’s University (Canada), where he taught for 39 years and also edited Queen’s Quarterly, Canada’s oldest general-interest intellectual review, for ten years. He now lives in Australia. Michael describes himself as an “eclectic scholar,” and his research interests include nineteenth-century European philosophy, existentialism, environmental philosophy, ethics and animals, and philosophy of peace. In addition to over 65 refereed articles and book chapters, and over 30 popular articles, he has published several books, the most recent of which are The Remarkable Existentialists (Humanity/Prometheus, 2009) and Understanding Peace: A Comprehensive Introduction (Routledge, 2014). A new book Home: A Very Short Introduction is forthcoming from Oxford University Press. WILLIAM GAY is Professor Emeritus of Philosophy at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte. Within Concerned Philosophers for Peace (CPP), he has served as President (1993), Executive Director (1997-1999), Editor of Concerned Philosophers for Peace Newsletter (1987-2002), and Editor of CPP’s book series “Philosophy of Peace” published by Rodopi (2002-2012). He has published six books—with Michael Pearson, The Nuclear Arms Race (1987); with Tatiana Alekseeva, On the Eve of the 21st Century: Perspectives of Russian and American Philosophers (1994), Capitalism with a Human Face: The Quest for a Middle Road in Russian Politics (1996), and Democracy and the Quest for Justice: Russian and American Perspectives (2004); with Alexander Chumakov and Ivan Mazour, Global Studies Encyclopedia (2003) and Global Studies Encyclopedic Dictionary (2014)— and over 100 journal articles and book chapters on issues of violence, war, peace, and justice from the perspectives of philosophy of language and political philosophy. He also serves on the editorial boards of the journals Philosophy and Social Criticism (since 1978), The Age of Globalization (in Russian) (since 2008), and Journal of Globalization Studies (since 2010). The Nature of Peace and Peace of Nature 153 WENDY C. HAMBLET is Professor in the Department of Liberal Studies at North Carolina A&T State University, Greensboro, North Carolina. She has published numerous books on violence: The Sacred Monstrous: A Reflection on Violence in Human Communities (2005); Savage Constructions: A Theory of Rebounding Violence in Africa (2008); The Lesser Good (2008); Punishment and Shame (2011); and Daemon in the Sanctuary (2013). She is Executive Director of the Concerned Philosophers For Peace. MICHAEL HEMMINGSEN is a Ph.D. Candidate in the Department of Philosophy at McMaster University, Canada. His published articles include “Coercion, Value, and Justice: Redistribution in a Neutral State,” which argues that libertarian neutrality should lead to wealth redistribution, and “Disciplines, Norms and Identity: Women’s and Gender Studies and Interdisciplinarity,” which looks at the nature of interdisciplinarity in the academy. He is also the co-editor of two interdisciplinary volumes: Human Beings and Freedom and Meaning and Identity. His current project examines the ontology of reasons in moral discourse. SANJAY LAL is full-time lecturer of philosophy at Clayton State University in Morrow, GA. Lal has taught courses in both Environmental Ethics and Eastern Philosophy. His published works include, “Gandhism” (for the Berkshire Encyclopedia of Sustainability), “Gandhian nonviolence as not presupposing human goodness” (also as part of the VIBS series), and “Hume and Gandhi: A comparative ethical analysis” (published in The Acorn: Journal of the Gandhi-King society). Lal received his Ph.D. in philosophy from the University of Tennessee, Knoxville in 2006. He currently serves as Treasurer of Concerned Philosophers for Peace. SOLOMON AKINYEMI LALEYE is a lecturer in the department of philosophy at the Adekule Ajasin University, Akungba Akoko. Ondo State of Nigeria. Laleye holds the Bachelor of Arts degree in Philosophy from the then Ondo State University, Ado-Ekiti. Nigeria. He has to his credit The Masters of Arts and Doctor of Philosophy from a foremost tiertiary institution: The University of Ibadan. Nigeria. The direction of Dr Laleye’s research combines a very strong commitment to ethics and socio-political theorizing with a steady devotion to the mitigation of the African predicament. His writings have focused on issues in peace and conflict. He has attended several international conferences and published in internationally reputed journals. JONATHAN MCCONNELL has an MA in English Literature from Western Washington University and is currently a Ph.D. student in the Philosophy and Literature Program at Purdue University. His research interests are phenomenology, environmental ethics, and world literature. His recent work 154 About the Authors is particularly concerned with animal studies, posthumanism, food sovereignty, and social justice issues. LLOYD STEFFEN is Professor of Religion Studies, University Chaplain and director of both the Dialogue Center and the Prison Project at Lehigh University in Bethlehem, PA. Steffen, a graduate of New College (Florida), Andover Newton Theological School (M.A.), Yale (M.Div.) and Brown (Ph.D.), teaches and writes in the area of ethics, moral philosophy, and philosophy of religion. Author, editor or co-editor of eleven books, he is author most recently of Ethics and Experience: Moral Theory from Just War to Abortion (2012) and co-author with Dennis Cooley of The Ethics of Death: Religious and Philosophical Perspectives in Dialogue (2014). He served for seven years as the NGO representative to the UN for the Religious Coalition for Reproductive Choice. INDEX Abbey, Edward, 10, 13 environmental justice, 1, 8–9, 17 Africa, 61, 109–24 Agent Orange, 46–8,54, feminism, 140–1 agriculture, 11–12, 15, 23, 92, 101– food deserts, 91–7 7 Foreman, Dave, 10–11 Atlantis, 4 Anthropocene, 4 Galtung, Johan, 56, 101, 110, 114, anthropocentrism, 1, 13, 16, 44, 53, 132, 81-88 Gandhi, Mohandas K., 3, 13–16, 143–144 Berry, Wendell, 105–6 gardening, 91–7 biocentrism, 13, 41-2, 44–6, 48 biodiversity, 85, 87–8, 105 Hahn, Thich Nhat, 44, 144 Brune, Michael, 7 human rights, 82, 87, 113–16, 121, Buddhism, 44, 142 123 Burke, Edmund, 82–6 Jensen, Derek, 11–14 Carson, Rachel, 14-15, 101 Jonas, Hans, 62–3, 68, Churchill, Ward, 12 civil rights, 8, 9, 14, 34, 138, 141 Kant, Immanuel/Kantian, 67, 117– colonialism, 61, 110, 112–13 18 communitarianism, 112 King, Martin Luther, Jr., 7, 14, 139 community, 74, 77, 96, 105, 139– Kohҧk, Erazim, 62–4 147 community garden, 92–3 love, 16, 27, 65, 69, 118, 131, 139, cosmopolitanism, 112 145–7 Daoism, 23–29, 142 MacIntyre, Alasdair, 139, 143–7 deep ecology, 13, 15–16, 53 Marx, Karl/Marxist, 52, 97, 110, Dewey, John, 132 114 Diehm, Christian, 71–8 McKibben, Bill, 4, 20 militant environmentalism, 9 Earth First!, 10 militarism, 9, 15, 51–7 Earth Liberation Front, 10 Muir, John, 2–4, 7 eco-fascism, 9–10 ecopsychology, 135 Naess, Arne, 13, 15–16 eco-terrorism, 9–10 Nixon, Rob, 101–5 Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 44–5 noncombatant immunity, 41, 46 environmental immunity, 49–55 156 Index nonviolence, 1-4, 7–10, 13–14, 16, 79, 138, 140–3, 146–7 nonviolent ecology, 13 ontology, 16, 43 peace-keeping, 114–5 Plumwood, Val, 71–80 positive peace, 132–8 precautionary principle, 82, 85–8 qigong, 27–29 Sartre, Jean-Paul, 92, 94–7 Schweitzer, Albert, 20, 22–3, 26–7, 29 Seattle, Chief, 129–138 Sequoyah, Chief, 129–138 Sharp, Gene, 142 Shiva, Vandana, 11–13 Sierra Club, 4, 7, 10 somatic practice, 26–29 Spinoza, 16 Thoreau, Henry David, 7–9, 63 Tolstoy, Leo, 8–9, 17, 110, 114 violence, 8-14, 20, 29, 31–8, 91, 93, 97, 109–10, 114–5, 132, 141 institutional/structural, 101– 102, 110 slow, 101-7 Virilio, Paul, 104–6 virtue ethics, 22, 145 Yosemite National Park, 1–3, 7, 129, 133