Racial and Ethnic Groups in the Gulf of Mexico Region

September 2012 Research Report #115 Racial and Ethnic Groups in the Gulf of Mexico Region

scholars and thus Introduction Table 2. Groups of Interest in the Gulf of Mexico Region became a prominent As part of a larger project that Percentage discussion in our re- examines demographic and commu- Racial/Ancestry Group of Total Number view of the literature nity changes in the Gulf of Mexico Population on Vietnamese living region, we reviewed literature for African American 19.14 2,568,703 in the region. eight key racial and ethnic groups Cajun 7.81 1,092,377 with significant influence in part or Croatian .05 6,422 Here is the first all of the region. The Gulf of Mexi- in a series of eight Latino 29.72 3,988,491 co region is incrediblyLatinos diverse – with reviews. This first more than 13.5 million residents Native American .64 85,455 review discusses who trace their origins to scores of Other Asian 2.95 396,007 the experiences of places in Europe, Africa, Asia and Vietnamese 1.15 154,669 Latinos in the region, Latin America. (See Table 1.) White 63.72 8,912,239 a group that has gained significant Of these various groups, we Table 2 data from ACS five-year estimates and 2010 Decennial Census. Num- bers do not add to 100 percent because individuals can indicate more than local and national focused our reviews on eight specific one race, ethnicity or ancestry group. “Other Asian” refers to Asian groups other than Vietnamese. attention over the racial, ethnic and ancestry groups: previous 20 years as African Americans, Cajuns, Creoles, the number of Lati- Croatians, Latinos, Native Ameri- mitment to Catholicism and culture nos residing in the area, and in the cans, Vietnamese and other Asians of revelry. (See Table 2.) nation, has drastically increased as a (not Vietnamese). Though some These eight groups emerged as result of changing immigration laws of these groups may be small in significant through the existing and shifting economies1. number, their effects on the region literature that details their unique have been substantial. For instance, effects in building the culture, eco- Despite a long-standing history although only about 7.8 percent of nomic stability and political climate of Spanish presence and rule in the the residents in the region identify in the region, as well as their ties to southeastern United States, the as Cajun/French, this group has had the oil and gas industry operating in discussion here focusses upon post- significant effects on shaping the the Gulf of Mexico. For each group, World War II immigration to high- cultural and economic climate of we focused our review on common light the contemporary standing of the region through the tradition of elements such as the culture, his- this group in the Gulf of Mexico Mardi Gras, ethnic food ways, com- tory, immigration, ties to the oil and region. Upon our review of the liter- gas industry and ature, we found scholars discussing economic standing topics such as history, migration, culture, occupations, economics and Table 1. Diversity in the Gulf of Mexico Region of each group. In addition to these politics in length. Conversely, only Percentage common elements, a limited discussion of the role of Ancestry Category of Total Number Latino workers in the oil and gas Population we examined other prominent themes British 15.36 2,147,789 that emerged for French 7.81 1,092,377 particular groups. 1One point worth clarifying is the use of the terms “Hispanic” German 8.71 1,218,236 and “Latino.” While these terms often are used interchange- For instance, the ably in public discourse, they are not identical in definition. Middle Eastern .49 68,544 effects of Hurri- The term “Hispanic” refers to all Spanish-speaking peoples Northern/Eastern European 5.24 733,424 cane Katrina on the across the globe. “Latino” refers more specifically to people of Latin American origin (Odem and Lacy 2009). The following Southern European 3.09 432,724 Vietnamese fisher- literature review refers to both Hispanic populations and Subsaharan African/West Indian 1.22 170,670 men living in south- Latino populations, not as if they are always interchangeable, ern Louisiana were but with understanding that these terms occasionally are Total Population: 13,985,914 widely discussed by referring to distinct groups. In summarizing the existing lit- Table 1 data from ACS five-year estimates. erature, we chose to use the terms the original authors used.

1 LSU AgCenter Research Report #115 Racial and Ethnic Groups in the Gulf of Mexico Region: Latinos Latinos in the United States: 1980-2050 the signing of the Treaty of Paris in 1783 (Mantero 2008). It is through 100 oral traditions, writings and art that 90 Percentage a complex life in Spanish colonial 80 settlements from the 16th to the 70 Projecons 19th centuries is revealed in current 60 day Florida, New Mexico, Georgia, 50

Percentage Texas, Arizona, Louisiana, South 40 (132.8) (108.2) 30 (85.9) Carolina, California, Missouri, Mis- (66.4) (50.5) 20 (35.3) sissippi, Kansas, Arkansas, Ala- (14.6) (22.4) 10 bama and Nebraska (Korrol 1996). 0 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050 Migration Year The existing literature contains Data from United States Decennial Census. Projection data in italics from Ortman and Guarneri (2009) . (Latino population in millions in parentheses). a vast exploration of the growing Latino population in the southeast- industry and almost no discussion Spanish government remained com- ern United States since the 1990s of ties to the land or environmental mitted to its presence in the United (see Keely 1971; Mohl 2003; Kochar, justice issues that might be facing States (Mantero 2008). Suro and Tafoya 2005; Donato et al. this group of immigrants could be 2006; Hilfinger, Messias and Lacy found. Given the recent substantial Several of the southeastern 2007; and Fry 2008, to name a few). growth of Latino populations in United States were at one point Given the historical Spanish pres- this region, it is likely the scholarly or another under the rule of Latin ence in the United States, there has discussion will broaden and further American countries. For instance, been a long-standing immigrant examine the relationship Latinos from 1763 until 1793, Louisiana Latino population in the South, par- have to the Gulf of Mexico region. was part of the Diocese of Cuba. ticularly in Texas and Florida (Mohl After Louisiana came under Spanish 2003). Since the 1990s, however, Origins and History rule in 1763, nearly 2,000 Canary Latino immigration patterns have Latino populations have a long Islanders settled along the coast of shifted due to legislative and eco- and complex history in the United Louisiana (Din 1999), but this early nomic changes in the United States States. American history often group of Hispanic settlers soon and in Latin American countries, emphasizes European colonization was to be forgotten in the midst resulting in the spread of Latino along the East Coast of the country, of French immigration. Similarly, immigrants across the southeastern ignoring the Spanish colonization current day Florida remained under United States and ultimately the that predates it in the southern Spanish rule after the United States country. states. Some recent literature is be- realized independence in 1779, with ginning to reveal the long-standing history of Latinos in the United States (see Cummins 1988, Muzquiz Latino Population of the United States and 1997), however. Spanish occupa- Gulf of Mexico Region:1980 - 2010 tion in the United States actually 100 predates the founding of Jamestown by at least 100 years (Korrol 1996). 90 1980 More specifically, in the Gulf of 80 1990 Mexico region, Latino populations 70 2000 have been present since as early 60 2010 as the 16th century when Spanish 50 exploration across the southern Percentage United States became a priority for 40 the Spanish government. During the 30 17th century, Spanish occupation 20 grew in the southeastern United 10 States due to economic interests. 0 Even during a decline in the Spanish Mississippi AlabamaLouisianaFlorida TexasUnited States empire during the 18th century, the Data from 2010 United States Decennial Census.

2 LSU AgCenter Research Report #115 Racial and Ethnic Groups in the Gulf of Mexico Region: Latinos Recently, Latinos have become the largest and fastest-growing minor- ity in the United States. According to census data, during the 1990s, the Hispanic population grew nationally by 61.2 percent, bringing the total Hispanic popula- tion from 22.4 million in 1990 to 35.3 million in 2000 (Mohl 2003, Man- tero 2008). This pattern of population growth is a relatively recent trend that is arguably the re- Data from 2010 Decennial Census. Counties selected from Fannin et al. 2011. sult primarily of chang- ing immigrant legislation.

A century ago, 90 percent of Traditionally, upon immigration, border control and a legalization immigrants were from Europe. In Latino immigrants settled in south- program for undocumented mi- 1965, however, the federal govern- western states such as Arizona, grants already in the United States ment passed an immigration reform California, New Mexico and Texas. (Donato et al. 1992). With the that phased out the existing quota This pattern of settlement has passing of the act, however, rather system and replaced it with one in changed with the passing of another than stopping undocumented im- which family reunification became notable piece of legislation known migration, undocumented Latino the cornerstone. The result was that as the 1986 Immigration Reform immigrants began to spread to new the ceiling on total immigrant visas and Control Act. The passing of destinations across the country. In was raised by more than 100,000 that act fundamentally changed the particular, many new Latino im- annually. Eastern hemisphere coun- characteristics of immigration to migrants moved to the southeastern tries were given a 20,000 visa limit the United States via the Mexican states bordering the Gulf of Mexico. per country, while Western hemi- border. The Immigration Reform sphere countries had no per-country and Control Act was meant to stall Another legislative decision that limit as long as the total immigra- undocumented migration through pushed immigrants, particularly tion from the Western hemisphere sanctions of employers, increased Mexican immigrants, to southeast- remained under 120,000 (Keely ern states was the passing of Opera- 1971). Without per-country quotas in the Western Hemisphere, immi- grants from Latin America and Asia began immigrating in significantly Latinos in Gulf of Mexico Region by State:2010 higher numbers. The caveat to these 10 policies was that relatives of U.S. 37.6% citizens were not privy to the quotas 9 in place and could immigrate at 8 any time regardless of how many 7 visas already had been issued (Keely 6

llion(s) 5 1971). Given this preference to fam- 22.5% ily members, any immigrant who Mi 4 became a U.S. citizen could then 3 bring all of his or her family mem- 2 bers with them. After these policy 1 2.7% 3.9% 4.2% changes, for every 100 immigrants, 0 45 came from Latin America (Man- MississippiAlabama LouisianaFlorida Texas tero 2008). Data from 2010 United States Decennial Census. Percent of total population as data label.

3 LSU AgCenter Research Report #115 Racial and Ethnic Groups in the Gulf of Mexico Region: Latinos tion Guardian. In the mid-1990s, clining government subsidies for Not only have Latino communi- Operation Guardian was created by farming, high unemployment and ties begun to integrate their culture the U.S. government to discourage the devaluation of the peso, which into the places in which they’ve the entry of undocumented immi- were pushing workers out of the settled, but existing organizations grants by blocking traditional cross- country (Donato et al. 2006). On have adapted to embrace Latino ing points such as San Diego and the flip side, there was a booming immigrants. Churches, schools, El Paso. This program has simply economy in the U.S. South in the libraries and public agencies all have pushed undocumented immigrants 1990s, which was attracting im- responded in mostly positive ways to crossing the U.S.-Mexican border migrants to the promise of steady to immigrants. Based upon our at high-risk zones in the mountains work and decent wages (Kochar, review of the existing literature, the and deserts and to settle in new Suro, and Tafoya 2005). There link between Latino immigrants and destinations (Cordova Plaza 2009). also was a demographic shift that the Catholic Church often has been In particular, Alabama became an pushed Latino workers out of their the focus of analysis (see Mohl 2003, important destination for Latino countries of origin. With high fertil- Berchak 2007 and Shihadeh and immigrants, with their Latino ity rates in the midcentury, many Winters 2010). The Catholic Church population increasing 208 percent of these countries were experienc- and a number of Protestant de- from 1990 to 2000 (Mohl 2009). This ing an influx of people of working nominations have offered Spanish- shift in Mexican migration from ages without enough jobs to meet language religious services, English traditional destinations to new ones the demand (Donato et al. 2006). classes, employment assistance and is the reason Latino immigration It is primarily through both legis- other social services to Latino im- has become a national rather than a lative and economic changes that migrants (Din 1999, Mohl 2003 and local phenomenon (Mohl 2003). Latino immigration and migration Berchak 2007). across the United States has become The rate at which immigrants are a prominent phenomenon in the Other cultural themes that settling permanently in the United southeastern states. emerged in our review of the litera- States also has changed due to new ture include discussions of identity immigration legislation. While Culture (Ramirez 2004), health (Harrison prior to the Immigration Reform Similar to other immigrant groups and Scarinci 2007) and language and Control Act, Latin American in the United States, Latino immi- (Molina 2009). As the Latino popu- immigrants often were returning grants have found comfort in com- lation continues to grow, its culture home after working in the United munal activities and a rich cultural will continue to be a strong presence States for a few years, after the heritage based in food ways, kinship in the communities Latinos inhabit passing of the Immigration Reform activities, religion and music. This and will continue to be the focus of and Control Act, Latino immigrants cultural heritage is not only evident scholars. became more likely to stay in the in their homes but in thousands of United States permanently to avoid restaurants, grocery stores, clubs Occupations the more difficult border crossings and festivals throughout the United Since Latino populations have a (Mohl 2003). In fact, every year States (Mohl 2003). Latino soc- long-standing history in the U.S. since 1988, the number of un- cer leagues have emerged across South, there also is a long-standing documented immigrants who have the southeastern United States to history of employment. The re- succeeded in settling in the United provide leisure activities and Sun- lationship of Latino workers to States has increased despite stricter day outings for Latino families. the economies of the U.S. South immigration policies (Cordova Plaza For example, some 32 soccer teams has varied across time. During the 2009). make up the Latin American Soc- 1920s, Hispanic workers replaced cer League of Birmingham (Mohl European immigrants in steel, Economic forces also are at work meatpacking, railroad construction in conjunction with new immi- 2003). Bands and dance clubs offer weekend entertainment, while Span- and maintenance jobs (Mohl 2003). gration laws to aid the changing When the Great Depression hit, characteristics of Latino migration. ish language newspapers and radio stations keep immigrants informed Latino workers were repatriated at With worsening economic condi- alarming rates for fear they were tions in Mexico, Mexican workers and well versed in their native lan- guage, culture and traditions (Mohl “taking” jobs American workers continued to seek work and higher should be filling. With WWII, how- wages in the United States despite 2003). Music is particularly salient in Latino cultures – expressing ever, there were new farm labor de- the stricter immigration laws (Mohl mands that created a need for cheap 2003). In Mexico, there were de- emotion, experience and historical context (Mantero 2008). labor Latino immigrants could fill.

4 LSU AgCenter Research Report #115 Racial and Ethnic Groups in the Gulf of Mexico Region: Latinos From 1942 until 1964, the Bracero workers (Mohl 2003). In Alabama, and Houma, jobs in the oil indus- Program was implemented to legal- Latino workers fill agricultural jobs try abounded and offered decent ize the temporary recruitment of as peach harvesters, sod planters, wages to immigrants due to a local migrant farm workers. Even after timber plants, seafood and poultry labor shortage (Donato et al. 2006). the Bracero Program was phased processors and they work at dairy Larger oil companies tend to be the out, Latino farm workers continued farms, saw mills and nurseries (Mohl biggest employers of Latino work- to migrate to the southeastern Unit- 2009). Latino immigrants also are ers because they have the means ed States, seeking out farming jobs filling jobs in hosiery, garment, tex- to house, feed and transport work- (Mohl 2003). In more recent times, tile, carpet, furniture and plastics ers (Murphy et al. 2001). Many oil the booming economy of the 1990s manufacturing (Mantero 2008, Mohl companies actively recruit Mexican resulted in a demand for cheap, 2009). In metropolitan areas, Latino workers by travelling to Mexico and nonunion labor. With an ongoing workers fill jobs in restaurants, land- offering assistance in transporta- economic crisis in Mexico during the scaping, roofing, construction, car tion, housing and obtaining legal 1980s and 1990s, Mexican workers washes and warehouses. They also documents. Similarly, existing La- felt both a push out of Mexico and are working as chambermaids in tino immigrant workers often are of- a pull into the United States (Mohl hotels and as janitors in office build- fered a cash bonus to recruit friends 2003). Even in the economic down- ings (Mohl 2009). and family (Donato et al. 2006). turn that began in 2000, employers sought out Latino workers for their Recruitment of Latino workers There are arguably three reasons lower wages and high levels of ef- has been an active strategy used why southern Louisiana oil compa- ficiency. While labor markets were by some companies in the south- nies seek out Latino immigrants to tight, these immigrants remained a eastern United States. American fill jobs. First, the jobs are skill- and source of cheap, reliable and non- companies even have been known to labor-intensive. Second, since the unionized labor (Mohl 2009). place billboards in Mexico advertis- offshore oil industry cannot relo- ing job opportunities in the United cate, it relies heavily on the local The meatpacking industry is States. In 2002, Gold Kist, a poultry labor force. Finally, since the price a principal example of how the processing plant, put a large bill- of oil fluctuates widely, companies employment of Latino workers has board in Tijuana, saying, “There’s must rely on a flexible labor force soared since 1980. In 1980, 9 percent plenty of work in Russellville, Ala.” that can be expanded or contracted of all meat-processing employees (Mohl 2003). Radio and newspaper quickly (Donato et al. 2006). With were Latino, and that grew to 20 ads in Latin American countries also the oil bust of the 1980s, many local percent by 2000 (Stuesse 2009). have been used to advertise work in workers left the region to seek other During the 1980s and 1990s there the U.S. South (Mohl 2009). Latino work, leaving oil companies search- was a rising demand for processed workers are an integral part of the ing for workers from other places. chickens, nationally and globally, southeastern United States labor These companies soon realized which led to the recruitment of force – providing a source of cheap, Mexican workers had the skills and Latino, primarily Mexican, workers reliable, nonunionized labor in a work ethic they were looking for – who often shifted from agricultural variety of industries. and these laborers were expendable labor to poultry processing (Mohl should the price of oil drop again. 2003). Today, more than 50 percent Ties to the Oil and Gas Industries Mexican workers also were often of all poultry workers are now im- Similar to other industries, Latino paid less than their local counter- migrants (Stuesse 2009). Mississippi, immigrants recently have been parts and remained nonunion. Given for instance, though one of the recruited to work in the booming the Mexican laborers’ characteristics poorest states in the country, is one oil and gas industries in the Gulf of expendability and being tempo- of the leading poultry-processing of Mexico and in related industries rary and less costly, oil employers in states, resulting in a significant because of the cheap, nonunionized southern Louisiana hired Mexican rise in Latino immigration since and vast labor supply they provide. workers more and more often (Do- 1990 (Stuesse 2009). That is not to Many Latino migrants now are nato et al. 2006). say Latino workers are no longer working in shipbuilding and fabri- prominent in agricultural labor in cation yards along the Gulf Coast While several scholars mention the South. In fact, Latino workers (Murphy et al. 2001). Also, with the relationship between Latino make up a huge percentage of the the price of oil dropping during the workers and the oil and gas industry farm labor force. For instance, in 1990s, the oil industry was forced in the Gulf of Mexico, few articles Georgia, Hispanics comprise more to seek cheaper labor. Particularly examine this relationship in detail than 80 percent of the migrant farm in south Louisiana in Morgan City (Murphy et al. 2001, Donato et al.

5 LSU AgCenter Research Report #115 Racial and Ethnic Groups in the Gulf of Mexico Region: Latinos 2006). Scholars are more inclined to moved to the Southeast to take ferences. This often has led to open discuss the rights Latin American advantage of the Latino workforce conflict and violence. In an attempt countries have to these waters (see (Mohl 2003). In summary, Latino to mediate ethnic and racial con- Gruesz 2006) than discussing the immigrants in the rural and urban flicts, politicians, union organizers integral role Latino workers play Southeast have become an integral and advocacy groups have begun to in filling jobs in the American oil component in the region’s low-wage, take interest in meeting the needs of industry. low-skill economy by working for Latino immigrants (Mohl 2003). minimal pay, often under difficult Economic Standing and dangerous working conditions Given the growing Latino popula- The new Latino labor force and (Mohl 2003). tion in the U.S. South, it is unlikely the growing Latino community have these issues will disappear from the become an important part of the Ties to the Land political arena. On average, Latinos economy in the southeastern United Latinos in the Gulf of Mexico re- are participating more and more in States. As Latino immigrants are gion also have ties to the land in the the American political process, po- filling jobs across the region, consti- region. With the industrialization sitioning themselves to be a strong tuting up to 90 percent of the labor of the South, many of the southern political voice. Hispanic candidates force in some areas, these work- landowners hired Latin Americans in Georgia have had success in ers also are planting roots in these to harvest their crops, manage their recent elections, allowing issues La- communities and eventually buying chicken coops and tend to the land tino immigrants are facing to come homes and sending their children to (Mantero 2008). Similarly, Latin to the forefront. Several scholars public schools (Mohl 2009). In addi- American immigrants often have recently have begun to examine the tion to spending money in the com- land-centered customs, allowing potential political power and vot- munities in which they live, many them to work the soil and merge ing base of Latino populations in Latino immigrants also are starting Southern and Latin American the U.S. South (Bullock and Hood, their own businesses and generat- cultures (Mantero 2008). Despite Michelson 2010, Bedoya 2006). ing revenue. The most common of brief mentions of ties to the land, Redistricting, affirmative action, these businesses are grocery stores, our review of the existing litera- minority contracting and driver’s restaurants, landscaping enterprises ture indicates no scholars explicitly licenses and tuition for undocument- and construction companies. Ac- discussed the ways in which Latino ed immigrants are issues that are cording to census data, Birmingham populations rely on the land and the becoming more salient as the Latino experienced a 180 percent growth potential environmental justice is- voting pool grows (Mohl 2003). The in Hispanic-owned businesses from sues that might be facing this group. number of Latino voters should 1990 to 2000. By 2002, in Alabama, only continue to grow as the Latino Latinos had established more than Politics population grows and as more Lati- 2,500 businesses that generated The growing Latino population in nos undergo the citizenship process more than $741 million in sales the southeastern United States has (Mohl 2003). (Mohl 2009). important political implications. Hurricane Katrina In particular, the surge of Latino Several communities across workers has placed topics such as When Hurricane Katrina hit New the southeastern United States unemployment and low wages at the Orleans, La., in 2005, approximately also have experienced growth and center of political debate. Some pol- 300,000 Latinos were affected. A revitalization due to the growing iticians and scholars have suggested predicted 140,000 Hondurans who number of Latino workers. For Latino workers have displaced black lived in New Orleans were displaced example, in Georgia and Mississippi, workers and maintained low wages and had difficulty finding shelter. the growth in the poultry industry for both groups (Mohl 2003). Ar- In losing their documentation to resulted in bringing resources to guably though, these workers are the floodwaters, many Latinos were communities that were in need of filling labor-intensive and dangerous denied entrance to shelters for fear revitalization (Mantero 2008). An- jobs nobody else wants. Some black they were “illegals” (Mantero 2008). other way in which Latino workers workers already had abandoned When the city began to rebuild, His- contributed to the economic trans- the jobs Latino workers are filling, panic residents faced discrimination formation of the U.S. South was rejecting the low pay and demand- as residents and as workers. Many by enticing new forms of economic ing work. Whether or not Latinos Latino laborers were brought in to investment. Foreign-owned auto are displacing black workers, blacks help rebuild the areas hit hardest by plants, high-tech research facili- and Latinos have been at odds over Hurricane Katrina, but hundreds of ties and new food-processing plants residential areas and cultural dif- the workers hired for cleanup were

6 LSU AgCenter Research Report #115 Racial and Ethnic Groups in the Gulf of Mexico Region: Latinos never paid what they were promised face of disaster, because of negative population in these states since the and often faced physical and verbal stereotypes and discrimination, La- early 1990s has become a focus of abuse by their employers (Mantero tinos face unique challenges in the both public discourse and schol- 2008). Without documentation, southeastern United States. arly discussion. Given the effects these workers had no recourse for of the growing presence of Latinos the discrimination and exploitation Conclusion in these states, it is unlikely the they were experiencing. In our re- Latino populations are an integral scholarly discussion will halt soon. view of the literature, other authors part of southeastern United States Furthermore, as the fastest-growing explored the implications of Hurri- in terms of their histories, economic and largest minority in the United cane Katrina on Latino populations standing and political influence. States, Latinos are becoming an in New Orleans and other Gulf of Despite their long-standing history inextricable part of the Gulf of Mexico states (Gruesz 2006). In the in this region, the growing Latino Mexico region.

Appendix

Overview of Latinos in the Gulf of Mexico Region Section Broad Conclusions Origins and History Spanish rule in the Gulf Coast Region began as early as the 16th century, predating European colonization in the northeastern United States. Migration Due to legislative and economic changes, Latino immigration has increased since the 1990s. Similarly, since that time, the rate at which Latino immigrants are settling permanently in the United States also has increased. Culture Cultural elements such as music, food, religious affiliation, lan- guage, festivals and sports can be seen throughout the Gulf Coast Region and are often a means for immigrants to maintain their ethnic identities. Occupations Latino immigrants work in a variety of industries but they account for a significant amount of the growth in low-skill markets such as agriculture, poultry processing and service industry work. Oil and Gas Industries Alhough few Latinos work directly for the oil and gas companies that are in the Gulf Coast Region, many Latinos work in support industries such as shipbuilding and fabrication. Economy In addition to supplying lower wage work and settling permanent- ly in areas along the Gulf Coast, Latinos also are starting businesses at a rate higher than any other ethnic group in the country. Ecology There is little documentation to suggest Latinos have strong ties to the land apart from those who work in agriculture. Politics With the Latino population growing in the Gulf Coast Region, political tensions have begun to rise between Latinos and other minority ethnicities. Similarly, states such as Alabama have passed legislation that prevents undocumented immigrants from access- ing public services. Hurricane Katrina Latino immigrants, both documented and undocumented, had difficulty finding shelter and recovering after Hurricane Katrina. De- spite those difficulties, Latino workers were instrumental in helping rebuild and they battled discrimination and exploitation as a result of their ethnicity.

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Travels in Louisiana: Journeys Into Ethnicity and Heritage by Two Hispanic Groups. (Master’s Thesis). Gratton, Brian and Myron P. Gutmann. 2000. “Hispanics in the United Louisiana State University: Department of Geography and Anthropology. States, 1850-1990: Estimates of Population Size and National Origin.” http://etd.lsu.edu/docs/available/etd-04132004-185813/unrestricted/ Historical Methods. 33 (3):137-153. Ramirez_thesis.pdf Gruesz, Kirsten Silva. 2006. “The Gulf of Mexico System and the Reimers, David M. 1983. “The Unintended Reform: The 1965 ‘Latinness’ of New Orleans.” American Literary History. Immigration Act and Third World Immigration to the United States.” Harrison, Lynda and Isabel Scarinci. 2007. “Child Health Needs of Rural Journal of American Ethnic History. 3(1):9-28. Alabama Latino Families.” Journal of Community Health Nursing. Shihadeh, Edward S. and Lisa Winters. 2010. “Church, Place and Crime: 24(1):31-47. Latinos and Homicide in New Destinations. Sociological Inquiry. Hilfinger Messias, DaAnne K. and Elaine Lacy. 2007. “Katrina-related 80(4):628-649. Health Concerns of Latino Survivors and Evacuees.” Journal of Health Stuesse, Angela C. 2009. “Race, Migration and Labor Control: Care for the Poor and Undeserved. 18:443-464. Neoliberal Challenges to Organizing Mississippi’s Poultry Workers.” In Keely, Charles B.. 1971. “Effects of the Immigration Act of 1965 on Odem, Mary E. and Elaine Lacy (ed.). 2009. Latino Immigrants and the Selected Population Characteristics of Immigrants to the United Transformation of the U.S. South. (pp. 91-111). Athens, Ga.: University States.” Demography. 8(2):157-169. of Georgia Press.

8 LSU AgCenter Research Report #115 Racial and Ethnic Groups in the Gulf of Mexico Region: Latinos Suro, Roberto and Sonya Tafoya. 2004. “Dispersal and Concentration Claudel, Calvin. 1945. “Spanish Folktales from Delacroix, La.” The of Latino Residential Settlement.” Pew Hispanic Center. Journal of American Folklore 58:209-224. http://www.jstor.org/ stable/10.2307/536610 Cobas, Michelle M. 2001. “Mass Media Ethics vs. Ethnic Identity. The Cuban American National Foundation’s Battle With the Miami Herald.” Other Works of Potential Interest Mass Communication, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge. http://etd.lsu.edu/docs/available/etd-1114101-125240/unrestricted/ (Not Cited in Paper) Cobas_thesis.pdf Achee, Timothy J. Jr. 2010. “The Poisonous Wine From Catalonia Conrad, Glenn R. and Carl A. Brasseaux. 1982. “A Selected Catalonia. Rebellion in Spanish Louisiana During the Ulloa, O’Reilly Bibliography of Scholarly Literature on Colonial Louisiana and New and Carondelet Administrations.” History, Louisiana State University, France.” Lafayette, La.: Center for Louisiana Studies, University of Baton Rouge. http://etd.lsu.edu/docs/available/etd-04072010- Southwestern Louisiana. 142121/unrestricted/achee_thesis.pdf Cooper, Robin, Denese Edsall, Diana Riviera, Julia Chaiti, and J. P. Amado, Maria Luisa. 2003. “The Strength of Strong Ties: Mexican Linstroth. 2009. “‘My Country’. / ‘This Country.’ Ambivalent Belongings Immigrants in the Atlanta Labor Market.” 3103777 Thesis, Emory of Cuban Americans in South Florida.” Forum: Qualitative Social University, United States – Georgia. Research 10:1-24. http://www.qualitative-research.net/index.php/fqs/ Archer, Kevin and Kris Bezdecny. 2009. “Searching for a New Brand: article/viewArticle/1364/2858 Reimagining a More Diverse Orlando.” Southeastern Geographer Cruz, JosÉ E. 2010. “Barriers to Political Participation of Puerto Ricans 49:185-199. and Hispanics in Osceola County, Fla.: 1991-2007.” Centro Journal Asamoa, Kwame, M. Rodriguez, Venus Ginés, Rosa Varela, Ken 22:242-285. Dominguez, C. Gerry Mills, Gerry Sotomayor, and Consuelo M. Beck- Davis, Donald W. 1988. “Current Research in Ethnic Diversity in Coastal Sagué. 2004. “Use of Preventive Health Services by Hispanic/Latino Louisiana.” Pp. 337-342 in Proceedings: Eight Annual Gulf of Mexico Women in Two Urban Communities: Atlanta, Ga., and Miami, Fla., Information Transfer Meeting, December 1987, MMS Contract, edited 2000 and 2001.” Journal of Women’s Health (15409996) 13:654-661. by Geo-Marine Inc. New Orleans, La.: U.S. Department of the Interior, Baker, Vaughn B. and Jean T. Kreamer. 1982. “Louisiana Tapestry: The Minerals Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region. Ethnic Weave of St. Landry Parish.” Pp. xii, 182. Lafayette, La.: Center for Din, Gilbert C. 1980. “‘Cimarrones’ and the San Malo Band in Spanish Louisiana Studies, University of Southwestern Louisiana. Louisiana.” Louisiana History: The Journal of the Louisiana Historical Beck, Scott A. L. 2003. “We Were the First Ones.” Oral Histories of Association 21:237-262. http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/4232005 Mexican Heritage Women Pioneers in the Schools of Rural Southeast Duany, Jorge. 2010. “The Orlando Ricans: Overlapping Identity Georgia, 1978--2002 “ 0805517 Thesis, University of Georgia, Discourses Among Middle-Class Puerto Rican Immigrants.” Pp. 84-115, United States – Georgia. http://athenaeum.libs.uga.edu/bitstream/ vol. 22: Centro de Estudios Puertorriquenos. handle/10724/6760/beck_scott_a_200308_phd.pdf?sequence=1 Fussell, Elizabeth. 2007. “Constructing New Orleans, Constructing Bertrand, Alvin Lee. 1955. “The Many Louisianas: Rural Social Areas Race: A Population History of New Orleans.” Journal of American and Cultural Islands.” Louisiana State University and Agricultural and History 94:846-855. Mechanical College Agricultural Experiment Station, Baton Rouge, La. Galgano, Robert Christopher. 2003. “Feast of Souls: Indians and Brassieur, C. Ray. 1988. “National Park Service Ethnographic Studies, Spaniards in the 17th Century Missions of Florida and New Mexico.” an Overview.” Pp. 328-331 in Proceedings: Eight Annual Gulf of Mexico 3091428 Thesis, College of William and Mary, United States – Virginia. Information Transfer Meeting, December 1987, MMS Contract, edited by Geo-Marine Inc. New Orleans, La.: U.S. Department of the Interior, Garcia, Maria Cristina. 1990. “Cuban Exiles and Cuban-Americans: A Minerals Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region. History of an Immigrant Community in South Florida, 1959-1989.” 9105553 Thesis, University of Texas at Austin, United States – Texas. Bretos, Miguel A. 1988. “Current Research on Hispanics of the Eastern Gulf Coast.” Pp. 334-337 in Proceedings: Eight Annual Gulf of Mexico Girard, Chris and Guillermo J. Grenier. 2008. “Insulating an Ideology: Information Transfer Meeting, December 1987, MMS Contract, edited The Enclave Effect on South Florida’s Cuban Americans.” Hispanic by Geo-Marine Inc. New Orleans, La.: U.S. Department of the Interior, Journal of Behavioral Sciences 30:530-543. Minerals Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region. Gowland, Bryan M. 2003. “The Delacroix Isleños and the Trappers’ Bronstein, Daniel. 2006. “La Cubana City: A Cuban Cigar War in St. Bernard Parish.” Louisiana History: The Journal of the Manufacturing Community Near Thomasville, Ga., During the 1890s.” Louisiana Historical Association 44:411-441. http://www.jstor.org/ Georgia Historical Quarterly 90:391-417. stable/10.2307/4233965 Brown, Scott C., Craig A. Mason, Tatiana Perrino, Ikkei Hirama, Rosa Holloway, Charles. 1997. “Divergent Twins: Isleno and Brule Spanish in Verdeja, Arnold R. Spokane, Maria Cristina Cruza-Guet, Barbara Lopez, Louisiana.” Southwest Journal of Linguistics 16:1-2. Hilda Pantin, and José Szapocznik. 2009. “Longitudinal Relationships Jumonville, Florence M. 2002. “Louisiana History: An Annotated Between Neighboring Behavior and Depressive Symptoms Bibliography.” Pp. 810 in Bibliographies of the States of the United in Hispanic Older Adults in Miami, Fla.” Journal of Community States, No. 10. Westport, Ct.: Greenwood Press. Psychology 37:618-634. Lanning, John Tate. 1928. “The International Contest for Georgia. A Bustillos, Ernest Nava. 2004. “Out of Aztlan: The Migration and Sketch of Anglo-Spanish Diplomacy.” 0139987 Thesis, University of Settlement of Mexicans in Georgia.” 3135047 Thesis, University of California-Berkeley, United States – California. California, Santa Cruz, United States – California. Larsen, Clark Spencer, Mark C. Griffin, Dale L. Hutchinson, Vivian E. Carpenter, Barbara. 1992. “Ethnic Heritage in Mississippi.” Pp. xii, Noble, Lynette Norr, Robert F. Pastor, Christopher B. Ruff, Katherine F. 212. Jackson and London: Published for the Mississippi Humanities Russell, Margaret J. Schoeninger, Michael Schultz, Scott W. Simpson, Council, University Press of Mississippi. and Mark F. Teaford. 2001. “Frontiers of Contact: Bioarchaeology of Chaitin, Julia, J. P. Linstroth, and Patrick T. Hiller. 2009. “Ethnicity and Spanish Florida.” Journal of World Prehistory 15:69-123. Belonging: An Overview of a Study of Cuban, Haitian and Guatemalan Lavender, Abraham D. 1993. “Sephardic Policitical Identity: Jewis and Immigrants to Florida.” Forum: Qualitative Social Research 10:1- Cuban Interaction in Miami Beach.” Contemporary Jewry 14:116-132. 25. http://www.qualitative-research.net/index.php/fqs/article/ view/1363/2856

9 LSU AgCenter Research Report #115 Racial and Ethnic Groups in the Gulf of Mexico Region: Latinos Lestrade, Patricia M., Michael D. Picone, and Yolanda Rivera-Castillo. Poyo, Gerald Eugene. 1983. “Cuban Émigré Communities in the 2001. “Recovering Linguistic Information from Isleno Rememberers of United States and the Independence of Their Homeland, 1852-1895.” St. Bernard Parish.” Southern Journal of Linguistics 25:1-2. 8415152 Thesis, University of Florida, United States – Florida. Lestrade, Patricia Manning. 1999. “Trajectories in Isleno Spanish Reilly, Timothy F. 1977. “An Historical Geography of the Morgan City With Special emphasis on the Lexicon.” 9958557 Thesis, University of Area, 1700-1950 (appendix 2).” Pp. 292-326 in Outer Continental Alabama, United States – Alabama. Shelf Impacts, Morgan City, La., U.S. Department of Commerce Under —. 2004. “The Last of the Louisiana Décimas “ Hispania 87:447-452. Provisions of the Coastal Zone Management Act of 1972, edited by E. http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/20063027 F. Stallings and T. F. Reilly. [Baton Rouge], La.: Louisiana Department. of Transportation and Development, Coastal Resources Program; Limerick, Nicholas. “Linguistic “Misunderstandings,” Social Spaces, and disseminated under the sponsorship of the Louisiana State Planning the Restriction of Latin American Immigrants in Atlanta”. http://www. Office. gse.upenn.edu/sites/gse.upenn.edu.wpel/files/archives/v25/Limerick. pdf Reyes, Augustina H. 2010. “The Immigrant Children of Katrina.” Peabody Journal of Education (0161956X) 85:443-468. Lipsky, John M. 1990. The Language of the Isleños: Vestigial Spanish in Louisiana. Baton Rouge, La.: Louisiana State University Press. Rodriguez, Antonio Acosta and Paul E. Hoffman. 1981. “Overview of the Consumption of Food and Goods by Isleño Immigrants to Martinez, Iveris Luz. 2002. “The Elder in the Cuban American Family: Louisiana.” Louisiana History: The Journal of the Louisiana Historical Making Sense of the Real and Ideal.” Journal of Comparative Family Association 22:299-306. http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/4232100 Studies 33:359-375. Rothe, Eugenio M. and Andrés J. Pumariega. 2008. “The New Face Maruggi, Vincent and Charles R. Wartenberg. 1996. “Louisiana Net of Cubans in the United States: Cultural Process and Generational Migration, 1980-1990: The Oil Bust Reflected.” University of New Change in an Exile Community.” Journal of Immigrant & Refugee Orleans, College of Business Administration, Division of Business and Studies 6:247-266. Economic Research, New Orleans, La. Ruple, Rodney S. 2002. “The People of Florida and Spanish Cuba and McHugh, Kevin E., Ines M. Miyares, and Emily H. Skop. 1997. Their Integrated and Complementary Historical Interrelationship “The Magnetism of Miami: Segmented Paths in Cuban From Prehistory Up To the Spanish-American War of 1898.” 1409452 migration(*).” Geographical Review 87:504. http://www.jstor.org/ Thesis, California State University, Dominguez Hills, United States – stable/10.2307/215228 California. McWhorter, John H. 1995. “The Scarcity of Spanish-Based Creoles Saavedra, Maria Cristina. 1997. “The Impossible Island: The Intellectual Explained.” Language in Society 24:213-244. http://www.jstor.org/ and the Search for Cuban Nationhood.” 9808333 Thesis, New York stable/10.2307/4168602 University, United States – New York. Michelson, Melissa R. 2010. “Majority-Latino Districts and Latino Schott, Marshall E. 1990. “Louisiana Sugar and the Cuban Crisis, Political Power.” Duke Journal of Constitutional Law & Public Policy 1895-1898.” Louisiana History: The Journal of the Louisiana Historical 5:159-175. Association 31:265-272. http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/4232806 Mohl, Raymond A. Havana USA: Cuban Exiles and Cuban Americans in Sears, Danielle E. 2002. “Isleno Decima Singers of Louisiana. An South Florida, 1959-1994 vol. 38: Routledge. Interpretation of Performance and Event.” Communication Studies, —. “The Nuevo New South: Hispanic Migration to Alabama.” Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, La. http://etd.lsu.edu/docs/ available/etd-1108102-013819/unrestricted/Sears_thesis.pdf Moon Jr, David T. 2002. “‘A Foreign Mission at Home’: The Georgia Baptist Convention and Latino Missions in Georgia, 1960-2000.” Smith, Rhea M. 1932. “Racial Strains in Florida.” The Florida Georgia Historical Quarterly 86:253. http://www.latinamericanstudies. Historical Society Quarterly 11:16-32. http://www.jstor.org/ org/religion/Latino-Baptists.pdf stable/10.2307/30150131 Morris, Michael. 2003. “Dreams of Glory, Schemes of Empire: The Plan Spitzer, Nicholas R. 1988. “Cultural Conservation on the Gulf Coast.” to Liberate Spanish Florida.” Georgia Historical Quarterly 87:1. Pp. 328-331 in Proceedings: Eight Annual Gulf of Mexico Information Transfer Meeting, December 1987, MMS Contract, edited by Geo- Pearson, Fred Lamar Jr. 1968. “Spanish-Indian Relations in Florida: Marine Inc. New Orleans, La.: U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals A Study of Two Vistas, 1657-1678.” 6815502 Thesis, University of Management Service, Gulf of Mexico OCS Region. Alabama, United States – Alabama. Strait, John B., Gang Gong, and Cherisha N. Williams. 2007. “Rubbing Peterson, Mark F. and Mark R. Meckler. “Cuban-American Elbows in the Big Easy: The Dynamics of Residential Segregation Entrepreneurs: Chance, Complexity and Chaos.” Organization Studies Among Racial and Ethnic Groups in New Orleans, La.; 1990-2000.” (Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co. KG.) 22:31. Southeastern Geographer 47:254-282. Phinney, A.H. 1925. “Florida’s Spanish Missions.” The Florida Sturtevant, William C. 1962. “Spanish-Indian Relations in Southeastern Historical Society Quarterly 4:15-21. http://www.jstor.org/ North America.” Ethnohistory 9:41-94. http://www.jstor.org/ stable/10.2307/30149631 stable/10.2307/480785 Pickman, Susan Lois. 1980. “Life on the Spanish-American Colonial Tinley, Alice L. 2000. “Migration and Transition from Guanajuato to Frontier: A Study in the Social and Economic History of Mid-18th Alabama: A Study of Schooling Experiences of Four Mexican Families.” Centruy St. Augustine, Fla.” 8021375 Thesis, State University of New 9996503 Thesis, University of Alabama, United States – Alabama. York at Stony Brook, United States – New York. Varsalona, Devin. “ Hispanic Population Soars in Southeast.” Chronicle Portes, Alejandro. 1984. “The Rise of Ethnicity: Determinants of Ethnic of Higher Education 51:A33-A33. Perceptions Among Cuban Exiles in Miami.” American Sociological Review 49:383-397. http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/2095282 VÉLez, William and Giovani Burgos. 2010. “The Impact of Housing Segregation and Structural Factors on the Socioeconomic Portes, Alejandro and Alex Stepick. 1985. “Unwelcome Immigrants: Peformance of Puerto Ricans in the United States.” Centro Journal The Labor Market Experiences of 1980 (Marlel) Cuban and Haitian 22:174-197. Refugees in South Florida.” American Sociological Review 50:493-514. Waldman, Melissa Anderson. 2000. “A History of Remembering: The Poyo, Gerald E. 2002. ““Integration Without Assimilation.” Cuban French and Spanish in Florida, 1562-1565.” 9977280 Thesis, University Catholics in Miami, 1960-1980.” U.S. Catholic Historian 20:91-109. of Michigan, United States – Michigan. http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/25154832

10 LSU AgCenter Research Report #115 Racial and Ethnic Groups in the Gulf of Mexico Region: Latinos Weise, J. 2009. “Fighting for Their Place: Mexicans and Mexican Acknowledgements Americans in the U.S. South, 1910-2008.” 3361623 Thesis, Yale This research was funded in part by the Bureau of Ocean Energy University, United States – Connecticut. Management as part of a larger project studying ethnic groups and White, David Marvin. 1998. “Cultural Gumbo: An Ethnographic enclaves in the Gulf of Mexico region. We would like to acknowledge Overview of Louisiana’s Mississippi River Delta and Selected Adjacent Harry Luton from the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management for his Areas.” National Park Service, Jean Lafitte National Historical Park and feedback and encouragement throughout this project. We also would Preserve, New Orleans, La. like to thank Diane Austin, Thomas McGuire, Britny Delp, Margaret Wickman, Patricia Riles. 1997. “Discourse and Power: Native Americans Edgar, Lindsey Feldman, Brian Marks, Lauren Penney, Kelly McLain, and Spaniards Negotiate a New World in La Florida.” 9805920 Thesis, Justina Whalen, Devon Robbie, Monica Voge, Doug Welch and Victoria University of Miami, United States – Florida. Phaneuf from the University of Arizona for providing a database of literature and support. Similarly, we would like to acknowledge Helen Williams, Don E. “The Miami Experience in English for the Foreign Regis, Carolyn Ware, Bethany Rogers and Annemarie Galeucia of Born: The Adult Cuban Refugee Program.” Tesol Quarterly 1:50-52. Louisiana State University for their comments and feedback. Finally, http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/3585813 we would like to thank Huizhen Niu, LSU AgCenter, for her assistance Wilson, nbsp, and H. 2007. “The Urban Development of Spanish with GIS mapping. Colonial Pensacola, 1781-1821.” 3329098 Thesis, Louisiana State University and Agricultural and Mechanical College, United States – Louisiana. Yudewitz, Bruce J. 2003. “Coming to Miami: The Domestic Impact of the Crisis in Argentina.” Journal of Jewish Communal Service 79:136. Zsembik, Barbara A. 2000. “The Cuban Ethnic Economy and Labor Market Outcomes of Latinos in Metropolitan Florida.” Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences 22:223.

Authors Amanda D. Cowley, Louisiana State University Mark J. Schafer, LSU AgCenter http://www.lsuagcenter.com/en/communications/authors/MSchafer.htm Troy Blanchard, Louisiana State University

www.LSUAgCenter.com

Louisiana State University Agricultural Center William B. Richardson, Chancellor Louisiana Agricultural Experiment Station John S. Russin, Vice Chancellor and Director Louisiana Cooperative Extension Service Paul D. Coreil, Vice Chancellor and Director

Research Report #115 (275) 9/12

The LSU AgCenter is a statewide campus of the LSU System and provides equal opportunities in programs and employment.

11 LSU AgCenter Research Report #115 Racial and Ethnic Groups in the Gulf of Mexico Region: Latinos