Table 1. Target weed species in South Africa, their region of origin and degree of biological control achieved (see text for definitions): natural enemies studied, their feeding guilds or association with the host plant, present research status, and degree of agent damage to the weed (if established) (see text for definitions ), and key references for each.
Target weed, region of Natural enemy Feeding Agent research Damage origin, and degree of guild status inflicted control ALISMATACEAE Sagittaria platyphylla Listronotus Flower Under (Engelm.) J.G. Sm appendiculatus feeder investigation (Broad-leaf arrowhead, (Boheman) (Coleoptera: Delta Arrowhead or Curculionidae Delta Duck-potato ) Listronotus frontalis Tuber Under North America (LeConte) (Coleoptera: Feeder investigation Curculionidae) Listronotus lutulentus Leaf Feeder Under (Boheman), (Coleoptera: investigation Curculionidae) Listronotus sordidus Root crown Under (Gyllenhal) (Coleoptera: Feeder investigation Curculionidae) ARACEAE Pistia stratiotes L. Neohydronomus affinis Leaf and Released 1985, Extensive (water lettuce) Hustache (Coleoptera: stem borer established South America Curculionidae) Complete ASTERACEAE Ageratina adenophora Baeodromus eupatorii Leaf rust Shelved (Spreng.) R.M.King & (Arthur) Arthur pathogen H.Rob. (= Eupatorium (Pucciniales: adenophorum Spreng.) Pucciniosiraceae) (Crofton weed) (?) Eugnosta medioxima Shoot tip Under Central America (Razowski) (Lepidoptera: and stem investigation Negligible Tortricidae) borer Lophoceramica sp. Leaf feeder Rejected (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) Passalo ra Leaf spot Released 1987, Moderate ageratinaeCrous & A.R. pathogen established Wood (=“ Phaeoramularia” sp.) (anamorphic fungus; Mycosphaerellales: Mycosphaerellaceae) Pentispa fairmairei Leaf miner Reje cted (Chapuis) (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: Cassidinae) Procecidochares utilis Stem galler Released 1984, Moderate Stone (Diptera: established Tephritidae)
Ageratina riparia Entyloma ageratinae Leaf Released 1989, Considerable (Regel) R.M.King & R.W. Barreto &H.C. Evans pathogen established H.Rob. (mistflower) (Entylomatales: Central America Entylomataceae) Complete
Campuloclinium Cochylis campuloclinium Flower Under macrocephalum (Less.) Brown (Lepidoptera: feeder investigation DC. [formerly in Tortricidae) Eupatorium ] (pompom Liothrips tractabilis Stem galler Released 2013, Moderate weed) Mound & Pereyra established South America (Thysanoptera: Not determined Thripidae) Puccinia eupatorii Dietel Leaf rust Not released, Unknown (Pucciniales: pathogen occurs locally; Pucciniaceae) also under investigation Zeale (= Adesmus ) Stem -borer Rejected nigromaculatus Klug (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae)
Chromolaena odorata Actin ote anteas Leaf feeder Shelved (L.) R.M.King & H. Rob. (Doubleday ) [formerly in (Lepidoptera: Eupatorium ] (triffid Nymphalidae) weed) Actinote thalia pyrrha Leaf feeder Rejected North, Central & South (Fabricius) (Lepidoptera: America Nymphalidae) Not determined Actinote thalia thalia Leaf feeder Rejected (Linnaeus) (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae) Adaina p rimulacea Stem -galler Shelved Meyrick (Lepidoptera: Pterophoridae) Calycomyza eupatorivora Leaf miner Released 2003, Trivial Spencer (Diptera: established Agromyzidae) Carmenta chromolaenae Stem -tip Shelved Eichlin (Lepidoptera: wilter Sesiidae) Cecidochares connexa Stem -galler Shelved Macquart (Diptera: Tephritidae) Conotrachelus reticulatus Stem -tip Shelved Champion (Coleoptera: galler Curculionidae) Dichrorampha odorata Stem -tip Rele ased 2013, Brown & Zachariades galler establishment (Lepidoptera: unconfirmed Tortricidae) Dysschema sacrifica Leaf feeder Rejected Hübner (Lepidoptera: Arctiidae) Leptocysta sexnebulosa Sap sucker Rejected (Stål) (Hemiptera: Tingidae) Lixus aemulus Petri Stem borer Re leased 2011, (Coleoptera: establishment Curculionidae) unconfirmed Lixus sp. (Coleoptera: Stem borer Shelved Curculionidae) Longitarsus sp. Larva root Rejected (Coleoptera: feeder; Chrysomelidae) adult leaf feeder Melanagromyza Stem -tip Under eupatoriella Spencer wilter investigation (Diptera: Agromyzidae) Pareuchaetes aurata Leaf feeder Released 1990, (Butler) (Lepidoptera: not established Arctiidae) Pareuchaetes insulata Leaf feeder Released 2001, Considerable (Walker) (Lepidoptera: established Arctiidae) Par euchaetes Leaf feeder Released 1989 pseudoinsulata Rego & 1998, not Barros (Lepidoptera: established Arctiidae) Passalora caribensis Leaf Rejected Crous & Den Breeÿen pathogen (anamorphic fungus; Mycosphaerellales: Mycosphaerellaceae) Passalora ch romolaenae Leaf Rejected Crous & Den Breeÿen pathogen (anamorphic fungus; Mycosphaerellales: Mycosphaerellaceae) Passalora convoluta Leaf Rejected Crous & Den Breeÿen pathogen (anamorphic fungus; Mycosphaerellales: Mycosphaerellaceae) Passalora p erfoliati (Ellis Leaf Rejected & Everh.) U. Braun & pathogen Crous (anamorphic fungus; Mycosphaerellales: Mycosphaerellaceae) Polymorphomyia basilica Stem -galler Under Snow (Diptera: investigation Tephritidae) Phestinia costella Stem -tip Shelved Hampson (Lepidoptera: galler Pyralidae) Pseudocercospora Leaf Rejected eupatoriella Crous & pathogen Den Breeÿen (anamorphic fungus; Mycosphaerellales: Mycosphaerellaceae) Recchia parvula (Lane) Stem and Under (Coleoptera: crown investigation Cerambycidae) borer Septoria chromolaenae Leaf Rejected Crous & Den Breeÿen pathogen (anamorphic fungus; Mycosphaerellales: Mycosphaerellaceae) Septoria ekmaniana Petr. Leaf Reje cted & Cif. (anamorphic pathogen fungus; Mycosphaerellales: Mycosphaerellaceae)
Cirsium vulgare (Savi) Rhinocyllus conicus Seed feeder Released 1984 - Moderate Ten. (spear thistle) (Froelich) (Coleoptera: 1986, Europe Curculionidae) established Negligible Urophora stylata Seed feeder Rele ased 1984 - (Fabricius) (Diptera: 1990, not Tephritidae) established
Parthenium Carmenta sp. nr. ithacae Root crown Under hysterophorus L. (Lepidoptera: Sesiidae) borer investigation (parthenium ) Epiblema strenuana Stem galler Under Caribbean (Walker) (Lepidoptera: investigation Not determined Tortricidae) but temporarily deprioritised Listronotus setosipennis Stem borer Released 2013 Under (Hustache) (Coleoptera: and ongoiong. investigation Curculionidae) Established Puccinia abrupta var. Leaf rust Not released, Unknown partheniicola (Jack. & pathogen occurs locally Holw.) (Pucciniales: Pucciniaceae) Puccinia xanthii Leaf rust Released 2010, Unknown Schwein.var. parthenii- pathogen establishment hysterophorae Seier, H.C. confirmed and Evans & Á. Romero spreading (= P.melampodii ; Pucciniales: Pucciniaceae) Smicronyx lutulentus Seed feeder Released 2015, Under Dietz (Coleoptera: establishment investigation Curculionidae) not confirmed Zygogramma bicolorata Leaf feeder Releas ed 2013 Under Pallister (Coleoptera: and ongoiong. investigation Chrysomelidae: Established Cassidinae)
Silybum marianum (L.) Rhinocyllus conicus Seed feeder Alternative Gaertn. (milk thistle) (Froelich) (Coleoptera: host, released Mediterranean, Asia Curculionidae) 1985, not established
Tithoni a diversifolia Platyphora ligata (Stål) Leaf feeder Shelved (Hemsl.) A.Gray (Coleoptera: (Mexican sunflower) Chrysomelidae) Central America Puccinia enceliae Dietel Leaf rust Shelved & Holw. (Pucciniales: pathogen Pucciniaceae) Unidentified speci es Shoot -tip Rejected (Lepidoptera) feeder
Tithonia rotundifolia Canidia mexicana Larva stem Shelved (Mill.) S.F.Blake (red Thomson (Coleoptera: borer; adult sunflower) Cerambycidae) leaf feeder Central America Chlosyne sp. Leaf feeder Shelved (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae) Lixus fimbriolatus Larva stem Under Boheman (Coleoptera: borer; adult investigation Curculionidae) leaf feeder Puccinia enceliae Dietel Leaf rust Shelved & Holw. (Pucciniales: pathogen Pucciniaceae) Rhodobaenus auctu s Larva stem Shelved Chevrolat (Coleoptera: borer; adult Curculionidae) leaf feeder Zygogramma piceicollis Leaf feeder Released 2015, (Stål) (Coleoptera: establishment Chrysomelidae: not confirmed Chrysomelinae) Zygogramma Leaf feeder Released 2015, signatipennis (Stål) establishment (Coleoptera: not confirmed Chrysomelidae: Chrysomelinae) Unidentified species Larva stem Under (Coleoptera: borer; adult investigation Curculionidae) leaf feeder AZOLLACEAE Azolla filiculoides Lam. Pseudolampsis guttata Frond Rejected (red water fern) (LeConte) (Coleoptera: feeder South America Chrysomelidae: Complete Galerucinae) Stenopelmus brunneus Frond Shelved (Hustache) (Coleoptera: feeder Curculionidae) Stenopelmus rufinasus Frond Released 1997, Extensive Gyllenhal (Coleoptera: feeder established Curculionidae) BASELLACEAE Anredera cordifolia Isotes eruptiva (Bechyné) Leaf feeder, Shelved (Ten.) Steenis subsp. (Coleoptera: possible cordifolia (Madeira Chrysomelidae: root feeder vine) Galerucinae) South America Loxomorpha cf. Leaf feeder Rejected cambogialis (Guenée) [formerly in Epipagis ] (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) Phenrica sp. (Coleoptera: Leaf feeder Under Chrysomelidae) investigation Plectonycha correntina Leaf feeder Under Lacordaire (Coleoptera: investigation Chrysomelidae: Chrysomelinae) Unidentified species Leaf miner Rejected (Lepidoptera: ?Gelechiidae) BIGNONIACEAE Dolichandra unguis - Apteromechus notatus Seed feeder Under cati (L.) Lohman [syn: (Hustache) (Coleoptera: investigation Macfadyena unguis- Curculionidae) cati (L.) A.H.Gentry] Carvalhotingis hollandi Leaf sucker Released 2007, Unknown (cat's claw creeper) Drake (Hemiptera: established Central & South Tingidae) America Carvalhotingis visenda Leaf sucker Released 2007, Moderate Negligible Drake & Hambleton established (Hemiptera: Tingidae) Charidotis auroguttata Leaf feeder Released 1999, Trivial Boheman (Coleoptera: established Chrysomelidae: Cassidinae) Hedwigiella Leaf miner Released 2007, Trivial jureceki (Obenberger) established (Coleoptera: Buprestidae) Hypocosmia pyrochroma Leaf feeder Released 2010, Unknown Jones (Lepidoptera: establishment Pyralidae) unconfirmed
Tecoma stans (L.) Juss Clydonopteron sacculana Seed feeder Rejected ex Kunth var. stans Bosc (Lepidoptera: (yellow bells) Pyralidae) North & Central Dibolia sp. (Coleoptera: Adult leaf Shelved America Chrysomelidae) feeder, Not determined larva root feeder Mada polluta (Mulsant) Leaf feeder Re leased 2013, Under (Coleoptera: established investigation Coccinellidae) Prospodium Leaf rust Rejected appendiculatum (G. pathogen Winter) Arthur (Pucciniales: Uropyxidaceae) Prospodium Leaf rust Relea sed 2010, transformans (Ellis & pathogen not established Everh.) Cummins (Pucciniales: Uropyxidaceae) Pseudonapomyza sp. Leaf miner Released 2014, (Diptera: Agromyzidae ) establishment unconfirmed CACTACEAE Austrocylindropuntia Cactobla stis cactorum Cladode Alternative Unknown subulata (Muehlenpf.) (Berg) (Lepidoptera: borer host, Backeb. (= Opuntia Pyralidae) established exaltata (Berger)) (long-spine cactus) South America Not determined
Cereus jamacaru DC. Hypogeococcus Stem sucker Alternative Extensive and C. hildmannianus festerianus (Lizer y host, K.Schum. (queen of the Trelles) (Hemiptera: established night) Pseudococcidae) South America Nealcidion cereicola Stem borer Alternative Considerable Complete (Fisher) [formerly in host, released Alcidion ] (Coleoptera: 1990, Cerambycidae) established
Cylindropuntia fulgida Dactylopius tomentosus Cladode Released 2008, Extensive (Engelm.) F.M.Knuth (Lamark) , 'cholla' biotype sucker established var. fulgida Zim (chain- (Hemiptera: fruit cholla) Dactylopiidae) North & Central Dactylopius tomentosus Cladode Alternative Trivial America (Lamark) , 'imbricata' sucker host, released Complete biotype (Hemiptera: 1970, Dactylopiidae) established
Cylindropuntia Dactylopius tomentosus Cladode Released 1970, Considerable imbricata (Haw.) (Lamark), 'imbricata' sucker established F.M.Knuth (imbricate biotype) (Hemiptera: prickly pear) Dactylopiidae) North & Central Metamasius spinolae Stem borer Alternative America (Gyllenhal) (Coleoptera: host, released Substantial Curculionidae) 1974, not established
Cylindropuntia Dactylopius tomentosus Cladode Alternative Extensive leptocaulis (DC.) (Lamark) ('imbricata' sucker host, released F.M.Knuth (pencil biotype) (Hemiptera: 1977, cactus) Dactylopiidae) established North & Central America Complete
Harrisia balansae Hypogeococcus Stem sucker Alternative Considerable (K.Schum.) N.P.Taylor festerianus (Lizer y host, released & Zappi Trelles) (Hemiptera: 2006, South America Pseudococcidae) established Substantial
Harrisia martinii Hypogeococcus Stem sucker Released 1983, Extensive (Labour.) Britton & festerianus (Lizer y established Rose (harrisia/ moon Trelles) (Hemiptera: cactus) Pseudococcidae) South America Nealcidion cereicola Stem borer Released 1 990, Considerable Complete Fisher [formerly in established Alcidion ] (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae)
Harrisia pomanensis Hypogeococcus Stem sucker Alternative Moderate (F.A.C.Weber) Britton festerianus (Lizer y host, released & Rose (midnight lady, Trelles) (Hemiptera: ???, devil's rope cactus) Pseudococcidae) established South America Not determined
Harrisia tortuosa Hypogeococcus Stem sucker Al ternative Under (J.Forbes ex Otto & festerianus (Lizer y host, released investigation A.Dietr.) Britton & Trelles) (Hemiptera: 2014, Rose (spiny snake Pseudococcidae) established cactus) South America Not determined
Opuntia aurantiaca Cactoblastis cactorum Cladode Alternative Moderate Lindl. (jointed cactus) (Berg) (Lepidoptera: borer host, South America Pyralidae) established Substantial Dactylopi us austrinus De Cladode Released 1935, Extensive Lotto (Hemiptera: sucker established Dactylopiidae) Mimorista pulchellalis Cladode Released 1979, Dyar (Lepidoptera: borer not established Crambidae) Nanaia sp. Heinrich Clad ode Released 1983, (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) borer not established Zophodia tapiacola Cladode Released 1976 (Dyar) [formerly in borer & 1982, not established Tucumania ] (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)
Opuntia engelmannii Cactoblastis cactorum Cladode Alternative Trivial on Salm-Dyck ex Engelm. (Berg) (Lepidoptera: borer host, released large plants, (= O. lindheimeri, O. Pyralidae) 1938, moderate on tardospina ) (small established small plants round-leaved prickly pear) Dactylopius opuntiae Cladode Alternative Moderate to North & Central (Cockerell) (Hemiptera: sucker host, released trivial, America Dactylopiidae) 1938, depending on Negligible established climate & plant variety
Dactylopius opuntiae Cladode Und er (Cockerell) (various sucker investigation biotypes?) (Hemiptera: Dactylopiidae)
Opuntia ficus -indica Cactoblastis cactorum Cladode Released 1933, Extensive (L.) Mill. (mission (Berg) (Lepidoptera: borer established prickly pear) Pyralidae) Central America Dactylopius opuntiae Cladode Released 1938, Extensive Substantial (Cockerell) (Hemiptera: sucker established Dactylopiidae) Lagocheirus funestus Stem borer Released 1943, Trivial (Thompson) [formerly in established Archlagocheirus ] (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) Metamasius spinolae Stem borer Released 1948, Extensive (Gyllenhal) (Coleoptera: established Curculionidae)
Opuntia humifusa Dactylopius opuntiae Cladode Alternative Considerable (Raf.) Raf. (creeping (Cockerell) , Australian sucker host, in hot, arid prickly pear, large- ('stricta') biotype established regions, flowered prickly pear) (Hemiptera: moderate in North America Dactylopiidae) cooler regions Not determined & Highveld
Opuntia monacantha Cactoblastis cactor um Cladode Alternative Considerable Haw. (smooth/ (Berg) (Lepidoptera: borer host, drooping prickly pear) Pyralidae) established South America Dactylopius ceylonicus Cladode Released 1913, Extensive Substantial (Green) (Hemiptera: sucker established Dactylopiidae)
Opuntia salmiana Cactoblastis cactorum Cladode Alternative Considerable J.Parm. Ex Pfeiff. (bur (Berg) (Lepidoptera: borer host, cactus) Pyralidae) established South America Substantial
Opuntia spinulifera Cactoblastis c actorum Cladode Alternative Unknown Salm-Dyck (large (Berg) (Lepidoptera: borer host, round-leaved prickly Pyralidae) established pear) Central America Not determined
Opuntia stricta (Haw.) Cactoblastis cactorum Cladode Alternative Extensive Haw. (Australian pest (Berg) (Lepidoptera: borer host, released pear) Pyralidae) 1980s, North America & established Caribbean Dactylopius opuntiae Cladode Released 1997, Extensive Substantial (Cockerell) , Australian sucker established ('stricta') biotype (Hemiptera: Dactylopiidae)
Pereskia aculeata Mill. Catorhintha schaffneri Stem wilter Released 2014, Under (Barbados gooseberry/ Brailovsky & Garcia established investigation pereskia) (Hemiptera: Coreidae) South America & Loxomorpha cambogialis Le af feeder Rejected Caribbean (Guenée) [formerly in Negligible Epipagis ] (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) Maracayia chlorisalis Stem borer Shelved (Walker) (Lepidopera: Crambidae) Pereskiophaga Stem miner Under brasilensis Anderson investigation (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) Phenrica guerini Bechyné Leaf feeder Released 1991 Trivial (Coleoptera: & 1995, Chrysomelidae) established CLADOPHORACEAE (CHLOROPHYTA) Cladophora glomerata Pythium spp. (Chromista: Fungal Rejected (L.) Kuetzing (alga, Saprolegniales) pathogen "draadalg") CLUSIACEAE Hypericum perforatum Agrilus (Spiragrilus ) Root borer Released 1974 - L. (St John's wort) hyperici (Creutzer) 1979, not Europe & Asia (Coleoptera: established Complete Buprestidae) Aplocera efformata Leaf feeder Released 1983, (Guenée) (Lepidoptera: not established Geometridae) Aphis chloris Koch Sap sucker Released 1982, (Hemiptera: Aphididae) not established Chrysolina Leaf feeder Released 1960 - hyperici (Forster) 1973, not (Coleoptera: established Chrysomelidae: Chrysomelinae) Chrysolina quadrigemina Leaf feeder Released 1960 - Extensive Suffrian (Coleoptera: 1973, Chrysomelidae: established Chrysomelinae) Zeuxidiplosis giardi Shoot -tip Released 1972, Moderate (Kieffer) (Diptera: galler established Cecidomyiidae) COMMELINACEAE
Tradescantia Neolema abbreviata shoot -tip Under fluminensis Vell. (Lacordaire) and leaf investigation (wandering Jew) (Chrysomelidae) feeder SE Brazil and NE Argentina CONVOLVULACEAE Convovulus arvensis L. Aceria malherbae Leaf galler Released 1994, (field bindweed) Nuzzaci (Acari: not established Europe & Asia Trombidiformes: Eriophyidae) Septoria sp. (anamorphic Leaf spot Not released, Trivial fungus; pathogen occurs locally; Mycosphaerellales: rejected Mycosphaerellaceae) FABACEAE Caesalpinia decapetala Acrocercops hyphantica Leaf miner Rejected (Roth) Alston Meyrick (Lepidoptera: (Mauritius thorn) Gracillariidae) Asia Lacera noctilio (Fabricius) Leaf feeder Rejected Negligible (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) Spermophagus sp. Seed feeder Rejected (Coleoptera: Bruchidae) Sulcobruchus Seed feeder Released 1999, Trivial subsuturalis (Pic) established (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: Bruchinae)
Gleditsia triacanthos L. Megabruchidius Seed feeder Not released, Unknown (honey locust) tonkineus (Pic) occurs locally North America (Coleoptera: Not determined Chrysomelidae: Bruchinae)
Leucaena leucocephala Acanthoscelides Seed Released 1999, Tr ivial (Lam.) de Wit macrophthalmus feeder established (leucaena) (Schaeffer) (Coeloptera: Tropical America Chrysomelidae: Negligible Bruchinae)
Prosopis L. species Algarobius bottimeri Seed feeder Released 1990, (mesquite/ prosopis) Kingsolver (Coleoptera: not established North & Central Chrysomelidae: America Bruchinae) Negligible Algarobius prosopis Seed Released 1987, Considerable (LeConte) (Coleoptera: feeder established Chrysomelidae: Bruchinae) Asphondylia Flower -bud Shelved prosopidisCockerell galler (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) Coelocephalapion Seed feeder Under gandolfoi Kissinger investigation (Coleoptera: Brentidae: Apioninae) Evippe sp . #1 Leaf miner Under (Lepidoptera: + tier & investigation Gelechiidae) feeder Mimosestes amicus Seed feeder Rejected (Horn) (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: Bruchinae) Mimosestes protractus Seed feeder Rejected (Horn) (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: Bruchinae) Neltumius arizonensis Seed Released 1993, Unknown (Schaeffer) (Coleoptera: feeder established Chrysomelidae: Bruchinae) Oncideres rhodosticta Stem borer Under Bates (Coleoptera: investigation Cerambycidae) Prosopidicola mexicana Pod Shelved Crous & C.L. Lennox pathogen (Diaporthales: Valsaceae)
Sesbania punicea Eudiagogus episcopalis Root feeder Rejected (Cav.) Benth. (red (Gyllenhal) (Coleoptera: sesbania) Curculionidae) South America Neodiplogrammus Stem borer Released 1984, Extensive Complete quadrivittatus (Olivier) established (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) Rhyssomatus marginatus Seed feeder Released 1984, Extensive Fåhraeus (Coleoptera: established Curculionidae) Trichapion lativentre Flowerbud Released Extensive (Béguin-Billecocq) feeder 1970s, (Coleoptera: Brentidae: established, Apioninae) present before release
Spartium junceum L. Aceria spartii (Canestrini) Stem gal ler Shelved (Spanish broom) (Acari: Trombidiformes: Europe Eriophyidae) HALORAGACEAE Myriophyllum Listronotus marginicollis Stem borer Shelved aquaticum (Vell.) (Hustache) (Coleoptera: Verdc. (parrot's Curculionidae) feather) Lysathia sp. (Coleoptera: Leaf feeder Rel eased 1994, Extensive South America Chrysomelidae) established Substantial Xanthomonas campestris Bacterial Not released, (Pammel) Dawson (?) wilt occurs locally; (Proteobacteria: rejected Xanthomonadales; Xanthomonadaceae)
Myriophyllum Euhrychiopsis lecontei Stem borer Shelved spicatum L. (spiked Dietz. (Coleoptera: water-milfoil) Curculionidae) Europe, Asia, North Africa
HYDROCHARITACEAE Egeria densa Planch. Hydrellia egeriaesp. Nov. Leaf miner Under (Brazilian waterweed) (Diptera: Ephydridae) investigation South America
Hy drilla verticillata Bagous hydrillae O'Brien Stem miner Shelved (L.f.) Royle (hydrilla) (Coleoptera: Old World Curculionidae) Hydrellia pakistanae Leaf miner Shelved Deonier (Diptera: Ephydridae) Hydrellia sp. (Diptera: Leaf miner Relea se permit Ephydridae) issued MELIACEAE Melia azedarach L. Araecerus fasciculatus Fruit pulp Rejected (seringa) (DeGeer) (Coleoptera: borer Asia to Australia Anthribidae) MIMOSACEAE Acacia baileyana Melanteriu s maculatus Seed feeder Alternative Moderate F.Muell. (Bailey’s Lea (Coleoptera: host, released wattle) Curculionidae) 2006 & 2009, Australia established Negligible Dasineura pilifera Kolesik Flower Under (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) galler investigation
Acacia cyclops A.Cunn. Calonectria scoparia Leaf spot Not released, ex G.Don (red eye/ Ribeiro & Matsuoka ex pathogen occurs locally; rooikrans) Peerally (Hypocreales: rejected Australia Nectriaceae) Substantial (anamorphic fungus: Cylindrocladium candelabrum) Dasineura dielsi Flower Released 2002, Extensive Rübsaamen (Diptera: galler established Cecidomyiidae) Melanterius servulus Seed Alternative Considerable Pascoe (Coleoptera: feeder host, released Curculionidae) 1991 & 1994, established Pseudolagarobasidium Die -back Not released, Unknown acaciicola Ginns pathogen occurs locally; (Polyporales: under Phanerochaetaceae) investigation
Acacia dealbata Link Bruchophagus acaciae Seed feeder Shelved (silver wattle) (Cameron) Australia (Hymenoptera: Not determined Eurytomidae) Mela nterius maculatus Seed Alternative Moderate Lea (Coleoptera: feeder host, released Curculionidae) 1994-2007, established Perilampella hecataeus Gall former Under Walker (Hymenoptera: investigation Pteromalidae)
Acacia decurrens Melanterius maculatus Seed Alternative Moderate (Wendl.) Willd. (green Lea (Coleoptera: feeder host, released wattle) Curculionidae) 2001-2007, Australia established Negligible Dasineura pilifera Kolesik Flower Under (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) galler investigation
Acacia elata A. Cunn. Melanterius maculatus Seed feeder Alternative ex Benth. (pepper tree Lea (Coleoptera: host, under wattle) Curculionidae) investigation Australia
Br uchophagus orarius Seed feeder Shelved Neser & Prinsloo Acacia longifolia (Hymenoptera: (Andr.) Willd. (long- Eurytomidae) leaved wattle) Melanterius ventralis Lea Seed Released 1985, Extensive Australia (Coleoptera: feeder established Substantial Curculionidae) Rayieria sp. (Hemiptera: Leaf sucker Rejected Miridae) Tri chilogaster Bud galler Released 1982, Extensive acaciaelongifoliae established (Froggatt) (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae)
Acacia mearnsii De Asphondylia sp. (Diptera: Flower or Shelv ed Wild. (black wattle) Cecidomyiidae) pod galler Australia Ceratocystis albofundus Gummosis Not released, Not determined M.J.Wingf., De Beer & pathogen occurs locally; M.J.Morris shelved (Microascales: Ceratocystidaceae) Cylindrobasidium laeve Early Not released, (Pers.) Chamuris succession occurs locally; (Polyporales: wood rot developed as Physalacriaceae) pathogen, cut stump prevents inoculant coppice "Stumpout" growth Dasineura rubiformis Flower Present before Extensive in Kolesik (Diptera: galler release, Western Cape Cecidomyiidae) established Melanteri us maculatus Seed Released 1993 - Moderate Lea (Coleoptera: feeder 1996, Curculionidae) established
Acacia melanoxylon Melanterius acaciae Lea Seed Released 1986, Extensive R.Br. (Australian (Coleoptera: feeder established blackwood) Curculionidae) Australia Substantial
Acacia podalyriifolia Bruchophagus acaciae Seed feeder Alternative A.Cunn. ex G.Don. (Cameron) host, under (pearl acacia) Australia (Hymenoptera: investigation Not determined Eurytomidae) Melanterius maculatus Seed Alternative Moderate but Lea (Coleoptera: feeder host, released localised Curculionidae) 2008, established
Acacia pycnantha Cylindrobasidium laeve Early Alternative Benth. (golden wattle) (Pers.) Chamuris succession host; not Australia (Polyporales: wood rot released, Substantial Physalacriaceae) fungus occurs locally; developed as cut stump inoculant "Stumpout", but never used Melanterius maculatus Seed Alternative Moderate Lea (Coleoptera: feeder host, released Curculionidae) 2005-2007, established Tri chilogaster signiventris Bud galler Released 1987 Considerable/ (Girault) (Hymenoptera: & 1992, Extensive Pteromalidae) established
Acacia saligna (Labill.) Melanterius compactus Seed Released 2001 Considerable H.L.Wendl. (Port Lea (Coleoptera: feeder & 2003, Jackson willow) Curculionidae) established Australia Uromycladium Gall former Released 1987, Extensive Substantial tepperianum (Sacc.) established McAlpine (Pucciniales: Pileolariaceae)
Paraserianthes Melanterius servulus Seed Released 1989, Considerable lophantha (Willd.) Pascoe (Coleoptera: feeder established Nielsen [formerly in Curculionidae) Albizia ] (stink bean) Uromycladium Gall former Release pe rmit Australia tepperianum ( Sacc.) issued Substantial McAlpine (Pucciniales: Pileolariaceae) MYRTACEAE Leptospermum Aristaea thalassias Leaf feeder Released 1996, Considerable laevigatum (Gaertn.) (Meyrick) [formerly in established F.Muell. (Australian Parectopa ] (Lepidoptera: myrtle) Gracillariidae) Australia Callo coccus leptospermi Stem -galler, Under Negligible (Maskell) (Hemiptera: sap-sucker investigation Eriococcidae) Dasineura strobila Bud galler Released 1994, Considerable Dorchin (Diptera: established, Cecidomyiidae) present before release Dasineura tomentosa Shoot - & Under Dorchin (Diptera: flowerbud investigation Cecidomyiidae) galler, sap- sucker Doratifera sp. Leaf feeder Rejected (Lepidoptera: Limacodidae) Fergusonina sp. (Diptera: Flowerbud Shelved Fergusoninidae) galler PAPAVERACEAE Argemone o chroleuca Conotracheluscf . Stem borer Under Sweet and A. mexicana leucophaeatus Fåhraeus investigation L. (Mexican poppy) (Coleoptera: Central America Curculionidae) Sirocalodes cf. wickhami Seed feeder Under (Champion) (Coleoptera: investigation Curculionidae) PINACEAE Pinus pinaster Aiton Pissodes validirostris Cone borer Under (cluster pine ) Gyllenhal (Coleoptera: investigation Mediterranean Curculionidae) POACEAE Arundo donax L. (Giant Tetramesa romana Stem -galler Under reed) Walker (Hymenoptera: investigation Eurytomidae) Mediterranean , Europe Rhizaspidiotus donacis Rhizome -, Under and Asia Leonardi (Hemiptera: leaf- and investigation Diaspididae) stem- feeder PONTEDERIACEAE Eichhornia crassipes Acremonium zonatum Leaf Not released, (C.Mart.) Solms (water (Sawada) W.Gams pathogen occurs locally hyacinth) (anamorphic fungus; South America Hypocreales) Substantial Alternaria eichhorniae Leaf Not released, Nag-Raj & Ponnappa pathogen occurs locally; (anamorphic fungus; shelved Pleosporales: Pleosporaceae) Bellura densa (Walker) Petiole Rejected (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) borer Cercospora piaropi Leaf Not released, Tharp. (anamorphic pathogen occurs locally fungus; Mycosphaerellales: Mycosphaerellaceae) Cercospora rodmanii Leaf Released 1992, Considerable Conway (anamorphic pathogen established fungus; Mycosphaerellales: Mycosphaerellaceae) Cornops aquaticum Leaf feeder Released 2011, (Brüner) (Orthoptera: establishment Acrididae: Leptysminae) unconfirmed Dysci netus dubius Crown Rejected (Olivier) (Coleoptera: borer Scarabaeidae: Dynastinae) Eccritotarsus catarinensis Leaf sucker Released 1996, Considerable (Carvalho) (Hemiptera: established Miridae) Megamelus scutellaris Lea f-sucker Released 2013, Under Berg (Hemiptera: established investigation Delphacidae) Neochetina bruchi Stem borer Released 1990 Considerable Hustache (Coleoptera: & 1996, Curculionidae) established Neochetina eichhorniae Stem borer Released 1974 - Considerable Warner (Coleoptera: 1985, Curculionidae) established Niphograpta albiguttalis Petiole Released 1990, Considerable Warren (Lepidoptera: borer established Crambidae) Orthogalumna Leaf miner Released 1989, Considerable terebrantis Wallwork established (Acari: Sarcoptiformes: Galumnidae) Taosa longula Remes Leaf -sucker Under Lenicov (Hemiptera: investigation Dictyopharidae) Thrypticus circularis Petiole Under Bickel & Hernández miner investigation (Diptera: Dolichopodidae) Uredo eichhorniae Gonz. Leaf Shelved Frag. & Cif. (anamorphic pathogen fungus: Pucciniales) Xubida infusellus Petiole Shelved (Walker) (Lepidoptera: borer Pyralidae) PROTEACEAE Hakea gibbosa (Sm.) Aphanasium australe Stem borer Alternative Unknown Cav. (rock hakea) (Boisduval) (Coleoptera: host, released Australia Cerambycidae) 2001, Negligible established Erytenna consputa Green -seed Alternative Trivial Pascoe (Coleoptera: feeder host, released Curculionidae) 1975, established
Hakea sericea Schrad. Aphanasium australe Stem borer Released 2001, Unknown & J.C.Wendl. (silky (Boisduval) (Coleoptera: established hakea) Cerambycidae) Australia Carposina autologa Seed feeder Released 1970 Considerable Substantial Meyrick (Lepidoptera: & 1982, Carposinidae) established Colletotric hum acutatum Stem Not released, J.H. Simmonds f.sp. gummosis occurs locally; hakeae Lubbe, Denman, disease developed as P.F. Cannon, J.Z. mycoherbicide Groenew., Lampr. & "Hakatak" Crous (Order Incertae sedis: Glomerellaceae) Cydmaea binotata Lea Leaf & Released 1979, Trivial (Coleoptera: shoot borer established Curculionidae) Dicomada rufa Blackburn Flowerbud Released 2006, Unknown (Coleoptera: feeder established Curculionidae) Dixoncis pictus Oke Old -fruit Shelv ed (Coleoptera: borer Curculionidae) Erytenna consputa Green -seed Released 1970 Extensive Pascoe (Coleoptera: feeder & 1974, Curculionidae) established Megastigmus sp. Bud galler Shelved (Hymenoptera: Torymidae) Sangarius paradoxus Stål Seed suck er Rejected (Hemiptera: Acanthosomatidae)
Hakea drupacea Aphanosperma Mature - Shelved (C.F.Gaertn.) Roem. & occidentalis Britton fruit borer Schult. (= Hakea (Coleoptera: suaveolensR .Br.) (sweet Cerambycidae) hakea) Australia ROSACEAE Rubus cuneifolius Gymnoconia nitens Systemic Shelved Pursh (American (Schwein.) F.Kern & stem bramble) Thurst. (Pucciniales: pathogen North America Phragmidiaceae)
Rubus fruticosus L. Phragmidium violaceum Leaf She lved (blackberry) (Schultz) G. Winter pathogen Europe (Pucciniales: Phragmidiaceae) SALVINIACEAE Salvinia molesta Cyrtobagous salviniae Stem borer Released 1985, Extensive D.S.Mitch. (water fern) Calder & Sands established South America (Coleoptera: Complete Curculionidae) Paulinia acuminata (De Frond Shelved Geer) (Orthoptera: feeder Acrididae: Pauliniinae)
Salvinia minima Baker Cyrtobagous salviniae Stem borer Under (Common salvinia) Calder & Sands, Florida investigation South America strain (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) SAPINDACEAE Cardiospermum Apocera zographica Leaf tier Shelved grandiflorum Sw. (Dyar) (Lepidoptera: (balloon vine) Pyralidae) South America Chlorostrymon simaethis Seed feeder Rejected sarita (Skinner) (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae Cissoanthonomus Seed feeder Released 2013, Unknown tuberculipennis Hustache established (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) Contarinia sp .(Diptera: Flower Shelved Cecidomyiidae) galler Gargaphia sp. Leaf sucker Rejected (Hemiptera: Tingidae) Lisseurytomella flava Seed feeder Shelved (Ashmead) (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) Moodnopsis sp. nr. Seed feeder Shelved perangusta Dyar (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) Phyllachora rimulosa Tar spot Shelved Speg. (Phyllachorales: pathogen Phyllachoraceae) Platynota xylophaea Leaf tier Shelved (Meyrick) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) Puccinia arechavaletae Leaf Under Speg. (Pucciniales: pathogen investigation Pucciniaceae) SOLANACEAE Cestrum laevigatum Uromyces cestriBertero Rust Rejected Schltdl. (inkberry) ex Mont. Pucciniales: pathogen South America (Pucciniaceae)
Solan um Arvelius albopunctatus Seed sucker Rejected elaeagnifolium Cav. (De Geer) Hemiptera: (silverleaf nightshade/ Pentatomidae) satansbos) Conotrachelus bisignatus Seed feeder Rejected North, Central & South Boheman (Coleoptera: America Curculionidae) Substantial Ditylenchus phyllobius Leaf galler Shelved (Thorne) (Nematoda: Tylenchida: Anguinidae) Frumenta nephelomicta Fruit galler Released 1979 (Meyrick) (Lepidoptera: & 1985, not Gelechiidae) established Frumenta sp. Stem & fruit Released 1989, (Lepidoptera: galler not established Gelechiidae) Gratiana lutescens Leaf feeder Rejected (Boheman) (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: Cassidinae) Leptinotarsa defecta Leaf feeder Released 1992, Moderate (Stål) (Coleoptera: established Chrysomelidae: Chrysomelinae) Leptinotarsa texana Leaf feeder Released 1992, Extensive (Schaeffer) (Coleoptera: established Chrysomelidae: Chrysomelinae) Pseudocercospora Leaf spot Rejected egenula (Syd.) U. Braun pathogen & Crous (anamorphic fungus; Mycosphaerellales: Mycosphaerellaceae)
Solanum mauritianum Acalleptrix sp. Leaf miner Rejected Scop. (bugweed) (Coleoptera: South America Chrysomelidae: Negligible Galerucinae) Acrolepia xylophragma Leaf miner Rejected (Meyrick) (Lepidoptera: Plutellidae) Adesmus hemispilus Stem borer Shelved (Germar) (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) Anthonomus morticinus Flowerbud Shelved Clark (Coleoptera: feeder Curculionidae) Anthonomus santacruzi Flowerbud Released 2008, Moderate Hustache (Coleoptera: feeder established Curculionidae) Aponychus schultzi Leaf sucker Shelved Blanchard (Acari: Tetranychidae) Collabismus notulatus Shoot galler Shelved Boheman (Coleoptera: Curculionidae ) Conotrachelus squalidus Stem borer Shelved Boheman (Coleoptera: Curculionidae ) Corythaica cyathicollis Leaf sucker Rejected (Costa) (Hemiptera: Tingidae) Gargaphia decoris Drake Leaf sucker Released 1999, Trivial (Hemiptera: Tingidae) established Mycovellosiella Leaf spot Rejected brachycarpa (Syd.) pathogen Deighton (anamorphic fungus; Mycosphaerellales: Mycosphaerellaceae) Nealcidion bicristatum Stem borer Rejected (Bates) (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) Platyphora biforis Leaf feeder Rejected (Germar) (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: Chrysomelinae) Platyphora c onviva (Stål) Leaf feeder Rejected (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: Chrysomelinae) Platyphora nigronotata Leaf feeder Rejected (Stål) (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: Chrysomelinae) Platyphora paraguana Lea f feeder Rejected (Jacoby) (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: Chrysomelinae) Platyphora semiviridis Leaf feeder Rejected (Jacoby) (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)
Solanum Gratiana spadicea (Klug) Leaf feeder Released 1994, Extensive sysimbriifolium Lam. (Coleoptera: established (wild tomato/ dense- Chrysomelidae: thorned bitter apple) Cassidinae) South America Metriona elatior (Klug) Leaf feeder Rejected Substantial (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: Cassidinae) TAMARICACEAE Tamarix chinensis Diorhabda carinulata Leaf feeder Under (chinese tamarisk), T. (Debrochers) investigation ramosissima (pink (Coleoptera: tamarisk) and their Chrysomelidae) hybrids Eurasia VERBENACEAE Lantana camara hort. Aceria lantanae (Cook) Flower Released 2007, Extensive, on (lantana) (Acari: Trombidiformes: galler established certain Central & South Eriophyidae) varieties in America some areas Negligible to Aconophora compressa Stem sucker Rejected substantial Walker (Hemiptera: Membracidae) Aerenicopsis championi Stem borer Shelved Bates (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) Aeren icopsis irumuara Stem borer Shelved Martins & Galileo (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) Alagoasa decemguttata Leaf feeder Rejected (Fabricius) (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: Galerucinae) Alagoasa extrema Leaf feeder Rejected (Harold) (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: Galerucinae) Alagoasa parana Leaf miner Released 1985, Samuelson (Coleoptera: not established Chrysomelidae: Galerucinae) Asphondylia camarae Flower Shelved Mohn (Diptera: galler Cecidomiidae) Autoplusia illustrata Leaf feeder Released 1978 (Guenée) (Lepidoptera: & 1984, not Noctuidae) established Barela parvisaccata Leaf sucker Rejected Young (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae) Calycomyza lantanae Leaf miner Released 1982, Moderate (Frick) (Diptera: established Agromyzidae) Charidotis pygm aea Leaf feeder Rejected (Klug) (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: Cassidinae) Coelocephalapion Petiole Released 2007, Moderate but camarae Kissinger galler established localized (Coleoptera: Brentidae: Apioninae) Crocidosema lantana Flower - & Released pre - Trivial Busck [formerly in receptacle 1961 & 1984, Epinotia ] (Lepidoptera: miner established Tortricidae) Eutreta xanthochaeta Shoot galler Released 1983; Aldrich (Diptera: not Tephritidae) established; rejected Falconia intermedia Leaf sucker Released 1999, Moderate, (Distant) (Hemiptera: established localized Miridae) Hypena laceratalis Leaf feeder Not released, Moderate Walker (Lepidoptera: native Noctuidae) Lantanophaga Flower Relea sed pre - Trivial pusillidactyla (Walker) miner 1961, (Lepidoptera: established Pterophoridae) Leptobyrsa decora Drake Leaf sucker Released 1972 - (Hemiptera: Tingidae) 1984, not established Longitarsus bethae Savini Root feeder Released 2007, Considerable & Escalona (Coleoptera: established Chrysomelidae: Galerucinae) Longitarsus columbicus Root feeder Shelved columbicusHarold (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: Galerucinae) Longitarsus howdeni Root feeder Shelved (Blake) (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: Galerucinae) Longitarsus sp. Root feeder Shelved (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: Galerucinae) Macugonalia Stem sucker Rejected geographica (Signoret) (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae) Neogalia sunia (Guenée) Leaf feeder Released 1962 (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) & 1969, not established Octotoma championi Leaf miner Released 1978, Baly (Coleoptera: not established Chrysomelidae: Cassidinae) Octotoma scabripennis Leaf miner Released 1971 - Considerable Guèrin-Mèneville 1975, (Coleoptera: established Chrysomelidae: Cassidinae) Omophoita albicollis Leaf feeder Rejected (Fabricius) (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae: Galerucinae) Ophiomyia camarae Leaf miner Released 2001, Considerable Spencer (Diptera: established Agromyzidae) Ophiomyia lantanae Seed miner Released pre - Moderate (Froggatt) (Diptera: 1961, Agromyzidae) established Orthezia insignis Browne Stem sucker Not released; Moderate (Hemiptera: Ortheziidae) polyphage Orthonama ignifera Leaf feeder Approved for (Warren) [formerly in release Leptostales ] (Lepidoptera: Geometridae) Orthonamasp . B Leaf feeder Shelved (Lepidoptera: Geometridae) Passalora lantanae Leaf Released 2002, (Chupp) U.Braun & Crous pathogen not established var. lantanae [formerly in Mycovellosiella ] (anamorphic fungus; Mycospherellales: Mycospherellaceae) Phenacoccus madeirensi s Leaf & Shelved Green (Hemiptera: shoot Pseudococcidae) sucker Phenacoccus parvus Leaf sucker Not released, Moderate, Morrison (Hemiptera: occurs locally, localized Pseudococcidae) polyphage Plagiohammus Stem borer Released 1973, spinipennis (Thomson) not established (Coleoptera: Cerambycidae) Prospodium Leaf -rust Rejected tuberculatum (Speg.) pathogen Arthur (Pucciniales: Uropyxidaceae) Pseudanthonomus Flower Rejected canescens Faust miner (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) Pseudanthonomus Flower Rejected griseipilis Champion miner (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) Puccinia lantanae Farl. Leaf - and Release permit (Pucciniales: stem-rust issued Puccinaceae) pathogen Salbia haemorrhoidalis Leaf feeder Released 1962, Trivial (Guenée) (Lepidoptera: established Crambidae) Septoria sp. (anamorphic Leaf spot Rejected fungus; pathogen Mycosphaerellales: Mycosphaerellaceae) Teleonemia elata Drake Leaf sucker Released 1972, (Hemiptera: Tingidae) not established Teleonemia scrupulosa Leaf & Released 1972, Considerable Stål (Hemiptera: flower established Tingidae) sucker Teleonema vulgata Leaf sucker Shelved Drake & Hambleton (Hemiptera: Tingidae) Uroplata fulvopustulata Leaf miner Released 1 978, Baly (Coleoptera: not established Chrysomelidae: Cassidinae) Uroplata girardi Pic Leaf miner Released 1974 Considerable, (Coleoptera: & 1983, coastal Chrysomelidae: established Cassidinae) Uroplata lantanae Buzzi Leaf miner Released 1984, & Winder (Coleoptera: not established Chrysomelidae: Cassidinae) Unidentified species Leaf sucker Rejected (Hemiptera: Tingidae)
For each of the agents that has established successfully, a rating is given for the perceived degree of damage that it inflicts on the target weed. These ratings (Anon. 1999), which have been widely adopted since 1999, and slightly amended in this account, are sometimes based on formal measurements and otherwise on subjective visual assessments, and include the following categories. Extensive : Very high levels of damage, as much as could be expected from the agent. Few plants survive, or growth is arrested, or almost no seeds are produced. Considerable : High levels of damage. Some plants may survive but growth rates are noticeably slower, or seed production is reduced by more than 50%. Moderate : Perceivable damage, but most plants survive. Growth may be slowed to some extent, or seed production is reduced by less than 50%. Trivial : Some damage, but survival, growth and seed production of the plants is almost normal. Unknown : Agent has been too recently released, or has not been evaluated. For each weed species, the combined impact of all agents (i.e. the degree of control) (adapted from Anon. 1999) is rated by estimating the degree to which the impact or importance of the target weed species has been reduced by the agents. Assessments are based on the degree of reduction in the use of alternative control methods (chemical or mechanical) since the introduction of biological control agents, and include the following categories. Complete : No other control measures are needed to reduce the weed to acceptable levels, at least in areas where the agents are established. Substantial : Other methods are needed to reduce the weed to acceptable levels, but less effort is required (e.g. less frequent herbicide applications or less herbicide needed per unit area). Negligible : In spite of damage inflicted by the agents, control of the weed remains entirely reliant on the implementation of other control measures. Not determined : Either the release of the agents has been too recent for meaningful evaluation, or the programme has not been evaluated.
Adapted from: Klein, H. 2011. A catalogue of the insects, mites and pathogens that have been used or rejected, or are under consideration, for the biological control of invasive alien plants in South Africa. In: Moran, V.C., Hoffmann, J.H. & Hill, M.P. (Eds) Biological Control of Invasive Alien Plants in South Africa (1999-2010). African Entomology (Special Issue) 19 (2): 515-549.
Last updated October 2015.
Contact: Hildegard Klein at [email protected]