The Jargon Buster Accidental Anacrusis

The Jargon Buster

Accidental Example phrase: “Watch out for the accidentals!”

An accidental is the term given to a note that is temporarily changed from what it would have been according to the key signature of a piece of music (see ‘Diatonic / Non-Diatonic’). Accidentals will appear as a sharp, flat, natural, double sharp or double flat sign just before a note head. The effect of this symbol will last for the bar in which it occurs and be cancelled out again by the next bar line. Sometimes you see a reminder in the following bar in brackets to confirm that the note needs to return to what it would be according to the key signature, but this is not essential and does not always appear.

Anacrusis rd Example phrase: “The anacrusis starts on the 3 beat of the bar”

An anacrusis is an incomplete bar at the beginning of a piece of music. Not all pieces start with a complete bar. For example, in ‘Happy Birthday’, it is the ‘birth’ syllable that is on the first beat of the bar, the ‘happy’ is on the 3rd beat of the previous bar, which as it is the beginning of the tune, would be written as an anacrusis – in this case, a one beat bar, even though the rest of the tune would have 3 beats in a bar. When this happens, it is the established tradition in music publishing that the last bar of the whole piece will also have an incomplete bar. In the instance of ‘Happy Birthday’ this would be a bar of 2 beats, i.e. the remainder of the anacrusis bar – together they will total the time signature.

Bar Example phrase: “The chorus of this song lasts for 8 bars”

Bars are a simple way to divide music up into much smaller sections, which has both visual and musical advantages. On paper, if a whole piece of music had no visual dividers, the score would be much more difficult to read. The regularly appearing vertical bar lines help with this. There are also musical advantages. Performing music often involves a lot of counting of beats. By having the music divided into bars, this means we can count beats in very small batches rather than have to worry about counting the hundreds or thousands of beats that may be in a full song. (See ‘Time Signature’).

Beat Example phrase: “In this song there are 4 beats in the bar”

The word ‘beat’ is often used interchangeably with the word ‘rhythm’ by people describing music. However, there are fundamental differences that mean it would be better to be more precise. The simplest way to think of the word beat, and how best to use it, is to imagine you were using the word ‘pulse’ instead, and see if the sentence still makes sense. The beat of music is the constant, regularly spaced pulse. The pulse of the music can get faster or slower, but when the speed is set, it is a constant – much like our pulse varies depending on whether we have been exercising or are resting. A rhythm CAN be the same as a beat, but in the vast majority of cases it is not, (see ‘Rhythm’).

Cadence Example phrase: “This song ends with a perfect cadence”

The term ‘cadence’ is used to describe pairs of chords that follow one another, and there are four types that we can label. The most commonly used, and easily recognizable, is a perfect cadence. This is a chord 5 followed by a chord 1, or to make use of correct chord labelling methods, chord V followed by chord I, as we use Roman Numerals in this situation. The sound of a perfect cadence to a listener is that something is ‘complete’, ‘finished’ or has arrived ‘home’. This is because we are pairing a chord which has a very strong sound of needing something else to follow it (chord V, see ‘Dominant’) with a chord based on the note that is based on the main note or root of the key (see ‘Tonic’).

What is important to note here, is that the numbers are referring to the note that is the root of each chord, and that the type of chord is secondary. So, for example, in the key of C major, a chord of G major would be labelled Vmaj, and a chord of G7 would be labelled V7, i.e. the chord root and the chord type are two separate pieces of information, but both in this context could form the first chord in a perfect cadence as they are both formed on the 5th step of C major (see ‘Dominant’). So, in the key of C major, the chords of G major followed by C major is a perfect cadence, as is G7 followed by C major 6, as is G7 followed by C major 9 and so on. The important feature is that we are following a chord based on step 5 with a chord based on step 1.

The next type of cadence to learn is a plagal cadence. This is a chord IV (4) followed by a chord I (1). Again, the type of chord formed on each does not affect the labelling of this pair of chords as a plagal cadence. Much like a perfect cadence, a plagal cadence also sounds complete as it finishes with a chord I. The most common way to remember the sound of a plagal cadence is to think of an ‘Amen’ at the end of old hymns (in fact a plagal cadence is even sometimes nicknamed the ‘amen cadence’). An example in a song in D minor would be a chord of G minor followed by a chord of D minor 7.

Cadence (continued)

The third type of cadence is an imperfect cadence. This is so-called simply because it is a perfect cadence in reverse, i.e. chord I followed by chord V. For example, in the key of Bb major this could be Bb major 7 followed by F7. As might be expected, this pairing of chords sounds ‘incomplete’ to the listener, as it follows a ‘home’ chord with a chord that sounds like it is leading somewhere.

The final type of cadence is an interrupted cadence. Here we have many more variations possible, as simply put this is usually chord V followed by something OTHER than chord I. Perhaps the most common example is chord V followed by chord VI. For example, in the key of A major, this could be a chord of E7 followed by a chord of F# minor.

Chord Example phrase: “A chord of B major”

We use the word ‘chord’ to describe two or more notes that are sounded at the same time. In practical use, this tends to most commonly refer to three notes at once (‘triads’) or four notes or more (‘extended chords’).

Clef

Example phrase: “treble clef”, “bass clef” etc.

The symbol that most commonly appears at the start of each line of music that indicates which notes are going to appear on the stave. Some instruments such as violin or flute use the treble clef because they play higher pitched notes. Some instruments such as bassoon or double bass use the bass clef because they play lower pitched notes. The alto clef is used by comparatively fewer instruments with the most common being the viola, and mainly covers the overlapping area from the top part of the bass clef to the lower part of the treble clef. The tenor clef is also used quite rarely, with its most common appearance being in cello parts where the usual bass clef is replaced with a tenor clef because the cello is needing to play a section in the higher part of its range.

Treble clef Bass clef

Clef (continued)

The piano is an unusual example because it uses both the treble and bass clef because it has such a large range of notes that it can play. A common misunderstanding with piano music is that people think the treble clef means “right hand” and the bass clef means “left hand”. That is a myth, caused by the fact that most commonly the pianist uses their right hand to play higher notes and their left hand to play lower ones. But if the pianist needs both hands at the bottom of the piano, then they will have bass clefs on both of their staves, and vice versa with a treble clef if they need both hands at the top of the piano.

One last point worth remembering is that instruments can change clef at any point on a stave (like the cello example) if they are going to need to play a section that is higher or lower than the clef range they are currently using.

Diatonic / Non-Diatonic Example phrase: “Diatonic / Non-Diatonic harmony”

Notes, chords or harmony can be described as either diatonic or non-diatonic depending on whether they ‘belong’ in the key being discussed. In simplistic terms, do they follow the ‘law’ of the key signature of the piece of music? For example, a C# does not appear in the key signature of G major, so any C# that appeared (see ‘Accidental’) in a piece of music in G major would be described as non-diatonic. This would also mean that any chord that contained a C# (for example a chord of A major) would be described as non-diatonic harmony. This is not to say that such occurrences are unusual: some examples of non-diatonic harmony are extremely common. The term merely refers to whether the notes or chords are according to the key signature being used.

Dominant Example phrase: “The dominant of this piece is D”

The term ‘dominant’ is used to refer to the note which is the number 5 in the musical key being discussed. The dominant note of a key plays a very significant role, as when it appears it strongly suggests to the listener that something else needs to follow it, and if nothing follows, things sound incomplete or unfinished (see ‘Cadence’). Chords based on the dominant step of a key, therefore, are very useful to link to or pivot between sections.

Dotted Notes / Dotted Rests Example phrase: “Two dotted crotchet beats per bar”

If we wanted to have a different symbol for every possible note length that we might need in music, we would end up with a lot of different symbols to remember, and things would quite quickly get a little unwieldly. One of the main ways around this we use is to have the option to follow a note head with a dot. (Note this is different to a dot that appears above or below a note head, see ‘Staccato’).

When a note has a dot immediately after the note head, this increases the length of the note from the original note length by 50%, or most commonly being explained as ‘half as long again’. For example, this turns a one beat note into a one and a half beat note, a half beat note into a three-quarters beat note and so on. The same process also applies by adding a dot immediately after a rest symbol.

Enharmonic Example phrase: “F sharp and G flat are enharmonically the same”

A note or interval that is the same but named (or sometimes we use the term “spelled”) differently. For example, G# and Ab are the same pitch. The name we use will depend on the musical situation in which we are naming it. In this instance, we would call it G# if it was one of the notes in a scale of E major, but we would call it Ab if it was in the scale of F minor. One way to think of this is to consider the different ways different languages can produce an “ay” sound, such as in the words “day” and “café”: they sound the same but are spelled differently.

Flat Example phrase: “E flat (Eb)”

The term ‘flat’ in music simply means to lower the note that it follows by a semitone. So, for example, E flat is a semitone lower than E. One of the biggest myths, especially when people either learn piano or use a piano keyboard to visualize their theory learning, is to assume this means a black note. This is not the case: it just means to go a semitone lower, and the concept is the same on any instrument. So, for example, C flat is a semitone lower than C, which is the same note as B, (which on a piano is a white note!) And yes, that means every note in music can have more than one name (see ‘Enharmonic’).

Interval Example phrase: “Those two notes are a perfect 4th apart”

We use the word interval in music to describe the distance between two notes, and every possible distance has its own term. The smallest building blocks are tones and semitones (see ‘Tone / Semitone’). Then within an octave range we use a sort of ‘placing’ system to count distances i.e. 2nd, 3rd, 4th etc. When counting the distance between two notes in music, we ALWAYS call the lowest note the number 1; not the first step away from it. So, for example, if we were counting from C to E, C would be the number 1.

The simplest intervals to learn first are the ‘perfect’ intervals: a perfect 4th, a perfect 5th, and an octave (See ‘Octave’). Start counting as if your lowest note (e.g. D) is the first note of a scale, and then count to either the 4th or 5th note in a major or minor scale based on it. In our example, you would land on a G (perfect 4th higher than D) or an A (perfect 5th higher). If you wanted to find out a perfect 4th or 5th higher than Bb, then the Bb would be your first note of the scale, and you would land on an Eb (perfect 4th higher than Bb) or F (perfect 5th higher).

This can also work to find intervals lower than your original note, by doing the process in reverse. th For example, if you want to find what note is a perfect 4 lower than G, then the G must be the 4th note in the major and minor scales starting on the note you are looking for. G is the 4th note in a scale of D major, so a perfect 4th lower than G is D, and G is the 5th note in a scale of C major, so a perfect 5th lower than G is C.

Once you have the concept in place of the lowest note being the number 1 to start counting from, the next set of intervals to learn are the 3rd, 6th and 7th, with both major and minor versions rd th th of each i.e. count in a major scale for a major 3 , 6 or 7 , and a minor scale for the minor rd th equivalents. For example, starting on F, a major 3 higher is A, a major 6 higher is D, and a major 7th higher is E. As before you can also count downwards to find an interval below. So, C is a minor

3rd higher than A, a minor 6th higher than E, and a minor 7th higher than D, as those are the minor scales where you find a C at that number step.

The only intervals in this system that seem to break the rule as far as their naming, are the major and minor 2nd. A major 2nd is indeed the distance from the 1st to the 2nd note of a major scale, e.g. F to G. However, whilst in that example a G is also the 2nd note in F minor, we do not use the term minor 2nd to describe it. A minor 2nd higher than F would be Gb. As can be seen, therefore, a nd major second is the same distance as a tone, whereas a minor 2 is the same as a semitone. There are also augmented and diminished intervals, as well as intervals larger than an octave. For more information on these, please watch the relevant video content.

Inversion Example phrase: “D major first inversion”

Whilst basic chords may only contain three notes (a triad) or perhaps four (extended chords), there can be multiple ways that a chord can be performed. This could be either by combining lots of instruments that predominantly play single notes such as in an orchestra, or the lots of different ways that multiple note instruments such as a piano or guitar can play the same chord. Essentially, for example, a G, B and a D, form a chord of G major, no matter what order or octave the notes appear in, or how many of each note there is. (The term ‘voicing’ can be used here to refer to the different ways of how a chord has been performed).

The term ‘inversion’ refers to a chord where one of the notes that makes up that chord OTHER than the root, has been performed as the lowest sound. So, for example, a chord of G major (G, B and D) performed by an orchestra could have the cello, tuba and bassoon parts playing the lowest B, where all of the other instruments, regardless of whether they are playing a G, B, or D, are playing a higher note. In a band playing a chord of G major, the guitarist could be playing a chord of G major with G as the lowest note, but if the bass player is playing a lower D, they have formed an inversion.

The way we name an inversion is as follows. If the note that has given the chord its name (e.g. in the case of G major, this is G) is the lowest sounding note, then to give the chord its full name, this is G major root position. If the next note “up” in the chord (e.g. in G major, this is B) is the st lowest sounding note, then this would be G major 1 inversion, and then if the next note “up” in nd the chord (in G major, this is D) is the lowest sounding note, this would be G major 2 inversion. If the chord was originally a four-note chord (e.g. G7), it would be possible to create a 3rd inversion chord and so on.

Key / Key Signature Example phrase: “The key signature of E minor is one sharp”

When we talk about ‘keys’ in music the best way to picture it is in terms of thinking of it as a musical language that a piece is written in. The key is the language, and the scale of that key is the alphabet. To an experienced musician, the ‘key signature’ is a series of symbols at the start of a piece of music that indicates which language (or ‘key’) the piece is written in, and therefore what notes we can expect to see. Think of a key signature as a label on the front of a tourist information guide that says what language the guide is written in. That tells you what alphabet you can expect to see used within. Key signatures do the same job for musicians. Apart from C major and A minor (which have no sharps or flats), keys are only ever a sharp OR flat key. You never see a combination of both in a key signature.

Example of different key signatures

Leger Line Example phrase: “how many leger lines can you see above the stave?”

As most instruments have a stave that has only has five lines and four spaces, but can play pitches of a much bigger range, we need a way to extend the stave to show higher or lower pitches than the normal stave covers. We do this by adding leger lines, either above or below the stave, which are only used temporarily when we need to indicate one of these pitches. They are only the width of the note head and we only write as many as we need on a note by note basis rather than using a set of them all the time.

Major / Minor Example phrase: “That song is in F major”

We use the words major and minor a lot when we are using musical language, and they are terms that can be used in a range of contexts. When we are using them to name a key (e.g. “the key of A minor” see ‘Key / Key Signature’) then we are not only describing the key a piece is in, but by using we the key signature we can then also construct the scale of the same name. For example, a key signature (e.g. 1 sharp, F) tells us what key we are in (in this case it could be G major or E minor), and therefore what notes we have available to us to form the scale (again of G major or E minor). The words major and minor are also used to label certain chord constructions, both triads (e.g. a chord of G major) and extended chords (e.g. a chord of G major 7). You should see the relevant videos to learn how these scales and chords are constructed.

Whilst not essential in order to understand written music, a simple useful aural skill for musicians to learn is to be able to recognise major and minor scales and chords by ear. The most common method that people tend to refer to in order to do this is to describe major scales and chords as sounding “happy” and their minor equivalents as “sad”. As you might imagine, this is not an exact science, and there is an element of individuality in responses. However, this is certainly as reasonable a starting point as any, which when coupled with experience can lead to more detailed recognition skills.

Mode Example phrase: “G dorian mode”

Before Western music developed the language of talking about scales predominantly in the context of ‘major’ and ‘minor’, the term ‘mode’ was more prominent and rooted in Ancient Greek music. In basic terms, modes are much like scales in terms of being a series of (usually seven) notes written in sequential order. Each of the different types of mode have a distinct sound formed by using a particular pattern of notes. Whilst there are many different modes and modified or altered modes, there are seven that form the bulk of discussion, and are named ionian, dorian, phrygian, lydian, mixolydian, aeolian and locrian. For more information on how they are formed and their relationship to how we now understand major and minor keys, please see the video content on modes. However, it is useful to have as a reference point that the term ‘ionian mode’ is the modal name for what we now call a major scale, and the term ‘aeolian mode’ is likewise for what we now call a natural minor scale.

Natural Example phrase: “D natural”

The term ‘natural’ in music simply means a note that isn’t a sharp or flat, i.e. it is just the letter such as D or E for example. In music we have seven naturals in the musical alphabet from A to G.

Octave Example phrase: “That should be played an octave higher”

The simplest way to picture the concept of an octave is to look at a piano. Pick any note (e.g. D) then move to the right, getting higher up to the keyboard until you find another D. That is said to be an “octave higher” than the first. Likewise, if you had carried out the same process moving to the left, going lower down the keyboard, the next D would be an “octave lower”.

Example of an octave above middle C

Relative Key Example phrase: “B minor is the relative minor of D major”

Much like we have relatives who we share features or characteristics with, so do musical keys. These work in pairs, where every major key has a relative minor, and vice versa. The main connection between each pair, which leads to numerous other connections, is that they share a key signature. As a result, they share the same notes which can create the same chords and harmony, and so on. For example, D major and B minor both have a key signature of two sharps, F# and C#. The key of D major would write the notes in the order D, E, F#, G, A, B, C#, D. The relative minor key of B minor would write the same notes out but start on the B, i.e. B, C#, D, E, F#, G, A, B.

Rest Example phrase: “That is a crotchet rest”

Just like how in music we have notes that last for precisely defined different numbers of beats, each note type also has an equivalent rest symbol, i.e. a period of silence that also lasts for a precisely defined number of beats. Be careful not to think of rest lengths (or note lengths for that matter) in terms of seconds of time: they are counted in numbers of beats.

Semibreve rest

Rhythm Example phrase: “The rhythm of this phrase is made up of crotchets and quavers”

‘Rhythm’ is often used interchangeably with the word ‘beat’, but there is an important difference (see ‘Beat’). Whereas a beat is a constant pulse in a piece of music, the rhythm that any of the instruments or singers perform is far more likely to be made up of notes and rests that are a range of lengths, i.e. the rhythm is a pattern of varied sounds, whereas the beat is regular pulses. Of course, if an instrument performed 4 crotchets in a bar of 4/4, the rhythm of the part would be the same as the beat, but as you can imagine this is the exception rather than the rule – there are not many songs where every note in the rhythmic pattern is the same length as the beat!

Scale Example phrase: “The scale of F major”

One of the simplest ways of understanding the term ‘scale’ is to think of it as the notes of a key (think of this as a language) lined up in the kind of order they would be if you recited your alphabet from A to Z. The key signature dictates which notes appear in the scale i.e. which notes are naturals, and which are sharps or flats. Some types of scale have a different number of notes (such as pentatonic scales only having five), but the majority of scales have seven. So, for example, the key signature of F major is one flat, which is B. Therefore, a scale of F major would read F, G, A, Bb, C, D, E, F.

The scale of F major on the bass clef

Sharp Example phrase: “F sharp (F#)”

The term ‘sharp’ in music simply means to raise the note that it follows a semitone higher. So, for example, F sharp is a semitone higher than F. One of the biggest myths, especially when people either learn piano or use a piano keyboard to visualise their theory learning, is to assume this means a black note. This is not the case: it just means to go a semitone higher, and the concept is the same on any instrument. So, for example, E sharp is a semitone higher than E, which is the same note as F, (which on a piano is a white note!) And yes, that means every note in music can have more than one name (see ‘Enharmonic’).

Slash Chord Example phrase: “G/F# is a slash chord”

Used more commonly in popular music than in classical, the term ‘slash chord’ refers to a chord symbol where the chord name is followed by a slash then a note name. The chord that is to be played is the bit before the slash, and the note after the slash refers to a note that should be used as the bass note i.e. the lowest note. For a piano player, therefore, G/F# might mean a chord of G major in the right hand and an F# in the left hand. In a band line-up this would be interpreted as a guitarist playing a chord of G major, and the bass player playing an F#. There is an overlap in definition between slash chords and inversions (see ‘Inversion’) but they do not mean exactly the same thing.

Staccato / Legato

Example phrase: “That phrase needs to be played staccato / legato”

This is indicated by a dot either above or below a note head. If notes are to be played staccato, that means that they are to be played as short as possible, regardless of the note length that the symbol would usually indicate. Obviously, this would mean that there effectively ends up being rests in between the notes, so in practical usage you will not see staccato indicated on longer length notes very often, more commonly on phrases made up of shorter notes.

Effectively the ‘opposite’ term in music is legato, which means the notes must be played smoothly, i.e. with no gaps at all in between them. This is indicated by a curved line (a ‘slur’) that arcs above or below the affected notes.

Stave / Staff Example phrase: “musical notes are written on a stave”

The set of lines and spaces that musical notes are written on. For the vast majority of instruments, this is a set of five lines and four spaces formed in between them, although there are a small number of instruments such as some percussion examples that use far fewer lines. The centre of the musical note heads sits on the relevant line or space to show which pitch is to be played.

Example of a stave/

staff with both a treble and bass clef

Suspended / Suspension Example phrase: “This is a chord of Dsus4”

A musical suspension is a term used to describe a “clash” between two notes performed at the same time, usually as part of a bigger chord (at least three notes or a “triad”). In simplistic terms, whereas a standard major or minor triad is constructed out of notes that are 3rds apart (see nd ‘Interval’), in suspended chords there will be a 2 that provides the “clash”. For example, a chord of D major is made up of D, F# and A (the 1, 3 and 5 from the scale of D major). However a chord of Dsus2 is made up of D, E and A (the 1, 2 and 5 from the same scale, with the combination of the 1 and 2 providing the suspension), and a chord of Dsus4 is D, G and A (the 1, 4 and 5 from the scale, with the combination of the 4 and 5 providing the clash).

Time Signature Example phrase: “This song has a time signature of 6/8”

The time signature is the pair of numbers written one above the other at the start of each stave of music. The top number is the easiest of the two to understand – it refers to how many beats there are in each bar. The bottom number, however, is not a number (remember that!) and so leads to some confusion. Rather than thinking of the bottom number as a number, think of it instead as a code or symbol that represents something, and that something is what kind of beats they are in that bar. So, for example, the most common bottom number is a 4. This doesn’t mean four anything – the 4 is a code or symbol for crotchet beats. Therefore, 4/4 just means that there are four crotchet beats in a bar, 2/4 means there are two crotchet beats in a bar and so on. There are several other numbers that appear on the bottom of time signatures, with 8 (meaning the beats are quavers) and 2 (meaning the beats are minims) are by far the most common. In those instances, 6/8 would mean there are six quaver beats in a bar, and 3/2 would mean that there are three minim beats in a bar.

Example of the time signature 4/4

Tone / Semitone Example phrase: “Those two notes are a tone apart”

Tones and semitones are in many ways the basic building blocks of music, and the distance between any pair of notes can be described using these basic intervals to count them (see ‘Interval’). A semitone is (perhaps unsurprisingly!) half the distance of a tone, and modern diatonic harmony is constructed out of twelve notes, each a semitone apart from the last. For example, we can describe the distance (interval) from a B to a C just next to it as a semitone, or from a B to a C# as a tone. Likewise, the distance (interval) from an Eb to an E is a semitone, or from an Eb to an F is a tone.

Tonic Example phrase: “The tonic of this piece is G”

The term ‘tonic’ is used to refer to the note which is the number 1 in the musical key being discussed. An alternative term that means the same thing is the ‘root’ or ‘root note’. This is in essence the home note or chord of a piece of music.