The Multiplayer Game: User Identity and the Meaning Of
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THE MULTIPLAYER GAME: USER IDENTITY AND THE MEANING OF HOME VIDEO GAMES IN THE UNITED STATES, 1972-1994 by Kevin Donald Impellizeri A dissertation submitted to the Faculty of the University of Delaware in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in History Fall 2019 Copyright 2019 Kevin Donald Impellizeri All Rights Reserved THE MULTIPLAYER GAME: USER IDENTITY AND THE MEANING OF HOME VIDEO GAMES IN THE UNITED STATES, 1972-1994 by Kevin Donald Impellizeri Approved: ______________________________________________________ Alison M. Parker, Ph.D. Chair of the Department of History Approved: ______________________________________________________ John A. Pelesko, Ph.D. Dean of the College of Arts and Sciences Approved: ______________________________________________________ Douglas J. Doren, Ph.D. Interim Vice Provost for Graduate and Professional Education and Dean of the Graduate College I certify that I have read this dissertation and that in my opinion it meets the academic and professional standard required by the University as a dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Signed: ______________________________________________________ Katherine C. Grier, Ph.D. Professor in charge of dissertation. I certify that I have read this dissertation and that in my opinion it meets the academic and professional standard required by the University as a dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Signed: ______________________________________________________ Arwen P. Mohun, Ph.D. Member of dissertation committee I certify that I have read this dissertation and that in my opinion it meets the academic and professional standard required by the University as a dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Signed: ______________________________________________________ Jonathan Russ, Ph.D. Member of dissertation committee I certify that I have read this dissertation and that in my opinion it meets the academic and professional standard required by the University as a dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Signed: ______________________________________________________ Carly A. Kocurek, Ph.D. Member of dissertation committee “We are overwhelmed by our very human need to weave a web of meaning where there may be none.” -- Edward Roivas, Eternal Darkness: Sanity’s Requiem, dir. Denis Dyack (St. Catharines, Ontario, Canada: Silicon Knights, 2002). iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Without the encouragement, support, and kindness of the people mentioned here, this work would not have been possible. To my partner, Katherine Lynch, who was with me through the entire process, even when it stretched the limits of the “better or worse” part of our vows. To my parents, Donald and Patricia Impellizeri, who taught me the value of hard work and fostered a lifetime love of learning. To the members of my comprehensive exam and dissertation committees: Peter Kolchin, David Pong, Jonathan Russ, Arwen Mohun, and Carly Kocurek. Special thanks to Katherine C. Grier, my patient advisor who saw this project through to the end despite long bouts of silence, imposter syndrome, and personal turmoil. To Wilson Carey McWilliams and Julio Nazario, who encouraged me to pursue my academic dreams wherever they led, and to Susan Strasser, who taught me to make every word count. To my family and friends, who have put up with me for longer than I deserve. To the attendees of conferences and talks where I had the opportunity to share parts of my research. These include the 2010 History Graduate Student Association Conference at North Carolina State University, the 2010 James A. Barnes Club Graduate Student Conference at Temple University, a 2012 talk on video game communities at Drexel University’s W.W. Hagerty Library, the 2013 Mid-Atlantic Popular and American v Culture Association (MAPACA) Conference, and the 2014 Annual Meeting of the Society for the History of Technology (SHOT). Thank you all for your time, attention, and constructive questions and comments. To my colleagues and friends at Eastern State Penitentiary Historic Site, Fort Mifflin on the Delaware, and The College of Physicians of Philadelphia who tolerated my constant talk about video games with patience and grace. Much of the work that went into the pages that follow came in the cellblocks of a historic prison, the casements of a Revolutionary War fortress, and the break room of a medical history museum. Special thanks to Jacqui Bowman, a mentor, boss, and friend, who encouraged me to “just get the thing done.” Thank you to my colleagues and friends in the Department of History at the University of Delaware who looked at drafts during various stages of this project. Special thanks in that regard to Jon Donovan, Ben Reiss, Grace Patterson-Leatherman, Keith Minsinger, and Elizabeth Jones-Minsinger. To everyone over years who offered their personal histories with video games. Even if they did not consider themselves “gamers,” I was surprised to learn the ways people connected with certain games throughout their lives. In fact, there is only one aspect of this project for which I can truly take full credit: the mistakes. They’re all mine. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES………………………………………………………………………ix ABSTRACT……………………………………………………………………………...xi INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………………...1 Chapter 1 PLAYING THE PAST THROUGH THE “ELECTRONIC GAME OF THE FUTURE”: THE FIRST GENERATION OF HOME VIDEO GAMES, 1972-1976…………………………………………………………34 "The Latest Craze—Electric Games": The First Home Video Game Boom…………………………………………………………………………36 "The New Electronic Hearth": Video Games and the American Nuclear Family……………………………………………………………….42 "For Anyone, Young and Old...At Any Time, for Any Occasion": Video Games and Middle-Class Leisure……………………………………………53 “The Premature Arrival of the Future”: Video Games and Cultural Anxieties over Computers……………………………………………………64 Conclusion…………………………………………………………………...78 2 DESIGNING GAMES AND GAMERS: THE EVOLUTION OF GAME USERS, 1977-1993…………………………………………………………..79 "Have You Played Atari Today?”: Video Gaming, 1977-1984……………...81 The “World of Nintendo”: Video Gaming, 1985-1990…………………….113 “Playing with Power” and “Doing What Nintendon’t”: Game Users during the “Console War”………………………………………………….147 Conclusion………………………………………………………………….153 3 “THE FUTURE BELONGS TO THE COMPUTERS”: THE FALL AND RISE OF THE HOME VIDEO GAME SYSTEM, 1982-1985……..155 Chasing the Chuck Wagon: The Rise and Fall of Home Video Games……158 Video Game Systems “Sprout Keyboards”………………………………...171 Mario’s Hammer Falls: The Collapse of the American Home Video Game Market……………………………………………………………….192 From “Family Computer” to “Entertainment System”: Nintendo and the Rise of the Gaming Machines………………………………………......202 Conclusion………………………………………………………………….212 vii 4 BITS, BYTES, AND BUGS: VIDEO GAME HOBBYISTS AND THE BALLY ASTROCADE, 1978-1986………………………………….214 “The Home Entertainment Sensation”: A History of the Bally Astrocade…………………………………………………………………...220 Hackers, Hobbyists, and Wumpus Hunters: Computer Hacking and the Rise of Male Suburban Leisure…………………………………………238 The “Astrocade Underground”……………………………………………..254 Conclusion………………………………………………………………….285 5 “WAKE UP, MOM AND DAD, THIS ISN’T PAC-MAN ANYMORE”: THE MORAL PANIC OVER VIDEO GAMES, 1993-1994…………………………………………………………………..287 “Let’s Face It—We're Getting it from All Sides”: Video Games and Controversy, 1976-1993……………………………………………………292 “You Don’t Just Play Pac-Man, You Are Pac-Man:” Interactive Media and the “Epidemic of Violence”……………………………………305 “You Are Profiting Off Of the American Child:” The December 9, 1993, Hearing……………………………………………………………………..326 “Your Mom Hates Dead Space 2:” The Aftermath of the Hearings, their Legacy and the Impact of the ESRB………………………………………..348 Conclusion………………………………………………………………….357 CONCLUSION……………………………………………………………..359 BIBLIOGRAPHY…………………………………………………………..382 viii LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1.1: The “family circle” surrounded around the Odyssey 200 in a 1975 Magnavox catalog………………………………………………………..44 Figure 1.2: Family circle depicted on the packaging for the Wonder Wizard……….45 Figure 1.3: Box for the Venture Video Sports Model VS-7 depicting the family circle……………………………………………………………………..46 Figure 1.4: The Magnavox Odyssey…………………………………………………73 Figure 1.5: Wonder Wizard model 7702, released by General Home Products in 1976…………………………………………………………………...74 Figure 1.6: The Atari Video Computer System, released by Atari in 1977………….75 Figure 2.1: Ms. Pac-Man arcade cabinet marquee………………………………….100 Figure 2.2: The Atari Secret Handshake……………………………………………106 Figure 2.3: Advertisement for the "Grand Stand."………………………………….109 Figure 2.4: Pitfall “Explorers’ Club” patch………………………………………...111 Figure 2.5: The R.O.B. (Robotic Operating Buddy) peripheral for the Nintendo Entertainment System with attachments to play the game Gyromite…..121 Figure 2.6: Microplay ad depicting computer games as the successor to the model railroad for father-son bonding………………………………….132 Figure 3.1: Mattel Intellivision and Keyboard Component…………………………175 Figure 3.2: The Odyssey3 “Command Center.”…………………………………….182 Figure 3.3: Mattel Intellivision II, with cassette player, keyboard, and a VCS emulator attachment…………………………………………………….186 Figure 3.4: Atari’s proposed keyboard attachment for the Video Computer System…………………………………………………………………..187 Figure 3.5: The Atari 2600 “Kid’s Controller” with an overlay for Oscar’s Trash Race……………………………………………………………...189 Figure 3.6: Nintendo Advanced Video System on display at the Nintendo World