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The Buddhist Roots of Secular Compassion Training A The Buddhist Roots of Secular Compassion Training A Comparative Study of Compassion Cultivation in Indian and Tibetan Mahāyāna Sources with the Contemporary Secular Program of Compassion Cultivation Training (CCT) Julia Caroline Stenzel School of Religious Studies, McGill University, Montreal October 2018 A thesis submitted to McGill University in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy © Julia C Stenzel, 2018 Abstract This dissertation is a comparative analysis of compassion cultivation in Indo-Tibetan Mahāyāna Buddhist contexts and the recent phenomenon of secular, Buddhism-derived compassion training in North America, exemplified by one of the most prominent programs to date, the Compassion Cultivation Training (CCT) developed at Stanford University. This dissertation makes a contribution to the little-studied field of Buddhist compassion cultivation by tracing the transformations of important key concepts throughout Indian and Tibetan Buddhist intellectual history, highlighting the ways in which these transformational processes have enabled the contemporary secularization of compassion training. The study also clarifies conceptual discrepancies between traditional Buddhist and secular approaches to compassion training, particularly focusing on the compassion culture in which the respective training methods are embedded. The study thereby raises awareness of the scope and limitations of the secularization of Buddhist contemplative practices. The critical comparative analysis is based on textual interpretation of relevant texts from various genres, such as Indian Mahāyāna sūtra, Abhidharma, Tathāgatagarbha, Yogācāra and Madhyamaka śāstra, Tibetan commentarial texts and practice manuals of the Lojong (blo sbyong) and Lamrim (lam rim) traditions, as well as recent scientific studies of mindfulness and compassion. The choice of textual material is determined by its relevance for the evolution of compassion cultivation, culminating in its secularization in contemporary North America. The study begins with a broad overview of etymologies, definitions and ideas pertaining to compassion in canonical Mahāyāna literature, which are contrasted with definitions drawn from contemporary secular compassion science literature, thereby setting the stage for a comparative analysis. Then I discuss compassion didactics in sūtra and śāstra literature and propose a systematization of three didactic approaches, namely, constructive, deconstructive and cognitive-analytic. I argue that these three didactic styles must be understood as embedded in a contextual framework, a “compassion culture.” The study then focuses on the specific method of tonglen, which is the formal contemplative method in both, Tibetan Lojong and secular CCT. I trace its philosophical roots to the principle of “equalizing and exchange of self and other” (Skt. svaparasamatā parātmaparivartana, Tib. bdag gzhan mnyams brje), which has been extensively developed by the seventh-century Indian master Śāntideva in his Bodhi(sattva)caryāvatāra. The analysis of various Tibetan interpretations thereof shows how this meditation was progressively transformed and popularized, thereby paving the way for its secularization in CCT. After a detailed presentation of the secular program of CCT, I discuss the complex relationship to its Buddhist roots and conclude with a critique of the recent phenomenon of secularized Buddhist contemplative practice. Résumé Cette thèse est une analyse comparative de la méditation de la compassion dans le bouddhisme Mahāyāna indo-tibétain avec l’entraînement à la compassion laïque dérivé du bouddhisme, un phénomène récent en Amérique du Nord, illustré par l'un des programmes les plus importants à ce jour, le Compassion Cultivation Training (CCT) à l'Université de Stanford. Cette thèse contribue au domaine peu étudié de la méditation de la compassion bouddhique en retraçant les transformations d'importants concepts clés tout au long de l'histoire de la pensée bouddhique indienne et tibétaine. Cette analyse montre en quoi ce processus de transformation a permis la laïcisation contemporaine de la méditation de la compassion. L'étude clarifie également les divergences conceptuelles entre les approches traditionnelles bouddhiques et laïque à l’entrainement de la compassion, en mettant en avant l’importance de la « culture de compassion » qui soutient les méthodes de l’entraînement. L'étude sensibilise ainsi à la portée et aux limites de la laïcisation des pratiques contemplatives bouddhistes. L'analyse comparative est basée sur l'interprétation textuelle des ouvrages pertinents de divers genres, tels que les sūtra Mahāyāna indiens, les śāstra de l'Abhidharma, Tathāgatagarbha, Yogācāra et Madhyamaka, les commentaires et les manuels de pratique des traditions tibétains de Lojong (blo sbyong) et Lamrim (lam rim), ainsi que des études scientifiques récentes sur la pleine conscience et la compassion. Le choix du matériau textuel est déterminé en fonction de sa pertinence pour démontrer l'évolution de l’entraînement à la compassion, aboutissant à sa laïcisation dans l'Amérique du Nord contemporaine. L’étude commence par un large aperçu des étymologies, des définitions et des idées relatives à la compassion dans la littérature canonique du Mahāyāna. Je contraste ceci avec les définitions tirées de la littérature scientifique de la compassion laïque contemporaine, préparant ainsi l’analyse comparative en tant que telle. Ensuite, j'analyse les méthodes de méditation dans la littérature des sūtra et śāstra et je propose une systématisation en tant qu'approche constructive, déconstructive et cognitive-analytique à l’entraînement à la compassion. Ces trois approches didactiques doivent être comprises comme faisant partie intégrante d’un cadre contextuel, que j’appelle « la culture de la compassion ». Ensuite, je focalise sur la méthode spécifique de tonglen, qui est la méthode contemplative formelle à la fois dans le Lojong tibétain et dans le CCT laïc. Je retrace les racines philosophiques de la pratique du tonglen, à savoir le principe d'égalisation et d'échange de soi avec l'autre (svaparasamatā parātmaparivartana, bdag gzhan mnyams brje), qui a été développé par le maître indien Śāntideva dans le Bodhi(sattva) caryāvatāra. L'analyse de diverses interprétations tibétaines montre comment cette méditation a été progressivement popularisée, ouvrant ainsi la voie à sa sécularisation en CCT. La thèse se termine par un examen de l’entraînement à la compassion de CCT dans son contexte laïque qui est dominé par la science. Ayant montré la présence tacite de la pensée bouddhique dans le CCT, je conclus avec des réflexions sur les limites de la laïcisation des pratiques contemplatives bouddhistes. Acknowledgements With deep gratitude I dedicate this dissertation to the late Lama Gendun Rinpoche of Dhagpo Kundrol Ling. Through the transmission of his profound understanding of the Buddhist tradition in general and his radiant embodiment of compassion in particular, he planted the seed for the present study of compassion in Buddhist literature. I am forever grateful to him and to all my teachers who, over the years, encouraged me and supported me with great kindness in my attempts to understand the view and practice of Tibetan Buddhism. I wholeheartedly thank my academic advisors: I am grateful to Professor Thupten Jinpa for introducing me to the field of secular compassion training and for his patient and superb guidance in writing this dissertation. I am grateful to Professor Lara Braitstein for her generous help at all stages of the doctoral program, for many hours of translating together, for her caring encouragement and her assistance with all aspects of academic life. I am grateful for having had the opportunity to learn from excellent professors at McGill University. I wish to mention in particular Professor Victor Hori whose example in academic excellence, rigor and kindness fills me with inspiration and admiration. I wish to express my gratitude to Numata Professor Roger Jackson for his help with early translations for this project, for his patient introduction into the art of academic publishing and for his ongoing kind support. I also wish to thank Numata Professor Dr. Trungram Gyaltrul Rinpoche for bringing his vast knowledge of Buddhist traditions into academia. I am indebted to many teachers who instructed me in Tibetan and Sanskrit grammar and the art of translation. At the International Buddhist Academy in Kathmandu: Professor Khenpo Jorden, Mingyur Dorje, Gavin Kilty, and Professor Dan Martin. Patrick Carré and Christian Bruyat of the Padmakara Translation Group were my very first translation teachers, and Dr. Erin McCann made Sanskrit study an enjoyable endeavor. I also thank Pamela Gayle White for editing parts of this dissertation. I wish to thank my colleagues and fellow students at the School of Religious Studies of McGill University, in particular, Tillie Perks, Melanie Coughlin, Ryan Jones, and Professor Antoine Panaïoti for many enjoyable and fruitful discussions. Thanks also to all the kind staff in the Birks Building for their support and warm presence throughout the years. Finally, I thank my friends and family who contributed in indirect ways to the completion of this dissertation, with their kind encouragement, their expertise and help inside and outside of academia, and their loving friendship: Delha Bettina Secker, Khaydrup Podvoll, Pamela Gayle White, Tsony, Prof. Chiara Letizia, Prof. Piroska Nagy, Sylvie Leblanc,
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