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XENOPHOBIA, IDENTITY Period

XENOPHOBIA, IDENTITY Period

Edited Volumes

Dealing with the phenomenon that we have termed • Andrija Krešić The book presents valuable contributions to contemporary interpretati- “new ”, strongly colored by U svom i našem vremenu ons of nationalism, which has proved to be a uniquely destructive force and framed in identitarian slogans, is an intellectually in the last century. Understanding of nationalism and xenophobia in challenging task. Is new nationalism merely a sequel to • Ка бољој демографској the region will be aided by perspectives offered by these contributors, and one could only hope that the subject of this study will become less the historical one, or something radically different and volumes

будућности Србије relevant in the years to come. novel? Nationalism’s most striking feature is perhaps Aleksandar Bošković its Protean character, an extraordinary capacity to • Multiculturalism change and adapt to different political and philosoph- edited in Public Policies ical standpoints: postmodernism, communitarianism, This fine collection of essays dealing with recent forms of national multiculturalism or even . By appropriating • Кa evropskom društvu - identity and nationalist is organized in three well-integrated sections, beginning with studies of the recent revival of xenophobic the arguments of their opponents, by appealing to ograničenja i perspektive political movements in Europe and the USA. The middle section con- justice, equality or right to difference, new nationalist tains studies of the “new nationalism” in its political, philosophical, narratives and practices blur the distinctions between • Филозофија кризе и отпора and legal dimensions, and includes several articles concerned with different theoretical positions and their usual political - мисао и дело Љубомира post-Yugoslav countries, as well as comparative studies of Hungarian implications. They provoke distortions and inversions in Тадића and . The final section looks at possible responses ot our ideological maps, and testify to their inadequacy for the challenge of nationalistic and xenophobic politics in the current XENOPHOBIA, IDENTITY period. understanding the issues of contemporary world. • Xenophobia, Identity and New Omar Dahbour Forms of Nationalism AND NEW FORMS OF NATIONALISM

We particularly appreciate the effort made by this book to arrive EDITED BY | VLADIMIR MILISAVLJEVIĆ AND NATALIJA MIĆUNOVIĆ at a typology of the different contemporary . The volume is characterized by a very good balance between expe- rienced and young researchers, representatives of South-West Europe and international guests, as well as between (a discipline in which several of the instigators of this symposium belong) and other approaches (human sciences, exact sciences, law, literature, journalism in particular). Arnaud François XENOPHOBIA, IDENTITY AND NEW FORMS OF NATIONALISM

www.idn.org.rs XENOPHOBIA, IDENTITY AND NEW FORMS OF NATIONALISM PUBLISHED BY Institute of Social Sciences 2019

PUBLISHER Goran Bašić, Ph.D.

REVIEWERS Prof. Aleksandar Bošković Prof. Omar Dahbour Prof. Arnaud François Suzana Ignjatović, Ph.D. Prof. Alpar Lošonc Prof. Đorđe Pavićević

SERIES Edited Volumes

SERIES EDITOR Natalija Mićunović, Ph.D.

ISBN 978-86-7093-223-4 Natalija Mićunović Vladimir Milisavljević and EDITED BY OF NATIONALISM AND NEWFORMS IDENTITY XENOPHOBIA, Institute ofSocial Sciences |Belgrade2019 edited volumes

Contents 5 edited volumes

152 292 317 190 206 226 239 240 252 268 176 Section III Middle East Dean Komel Dušan Janjić Contributors Igor Milinković Slobodan Divjak Michał Kozłowski Muharem Bazdulj Muharem Bazdulj Aleksandar Prnjat Ana Dimishkovska Communitarianism Racial Discrimination Vladimir Milisavljević Goodbye Nasser: Dynamics and Goodbye Value Relativism as a Result of the Value SOLUTIONS AND OPEN QUESTIONS SOLUTIONS Judicial Opinions in Cases Related to to in Cases Related Judicial Opinions Xenophobia after the “End of History” after Xenophobia and Challenges of Preserving Diversity Constitutional Identity as a Shield of New New of Shield a as Identity Constitutional Contradictions of Gender Politics in the of Gender Politics Contradictions Hungarian Constitutional Court’s Case Law Law Case Court’s Constitutional Hungarian Legal Argumentation on Trial: Dissenting Dissenting Trial: Argumentation on Legal Xenophobia and Identitarian Nationalism Xenophobia the Constitutional Identity Argument in the the in Argument Identity Constitutional the Farewell to Universalism: Nationalism and Universalism: to Farewell Offensive of Multiculturalism as a Form of Form of Multiculturalism as a Offensive Two Faces of Nationalism: The Case of Bosnia Nationalism? Some Reflections on the Use of of Use the on Reflections Some Nationalism? Post-Yugoslav Syndrome of Dehumanization New Reality and Old Powers: Globalization Globalization Powers: Old and Reality New

6 86 62 70 42 21 22 10 132 110 109 Section I Section II Goran Bašić János Boros Vlaisavljević Paget HenryPaget Rastko Močnik Rastko Lewis R.Lewis Gordon Ugo Vlaisavljević Editors’ Foreword Editors’ Natalija Mićunović GLOBAL VS. LOCAL VS. LOCAL GLOBAL William Leon McBride William Leon Serbs, Croats and Others XENOPHOBIA INHERITED, XENOPHOBIA INHERITED, What Do Intellectuals Think? What Do Intellectuals AND TOPICAL DIFFERENCES AND TOPICAL A Primer, Based on Experience A Primer, XENOPHOBIA TRANSFORMED False Hope of Hope of Transnationalism False What is New in the New Forms of Forms What is New in the New The Rise of American Xenophobia The Rise of American Xenophobia Nationalism? The Case of Nationalism? Contemporary Quests for Stability Quests for Contemporary Ethics and Identity: Towards a New and Identity: Towards Ethics How to Make a Great Again: a Nation Great Again: Make to How Introductory Remarks. Nationalism: The Xenophobic Feeling of Ethnicity: of Ethnicity: Feeling The Xenophobic of Kant, Rawls, Rorty and Philosophies of Kant, Rawls, Cognitive-Political Order. Based on the Order. Cognitive-Political and the Decline of the Global Minotaur Postmodern and Other Facets of and Other Facets Fascism Postmodern Editors’ Foreword

It has been almost two years since we frst decided to embark on a project of organizing an international philosophical conference which would be devoted to a familiar but highly disturbing subject: the extraordinary upsurge of nationalism in its novel and unprecedented forms, with extreme xenophobia as one of its central features. The conference, organized by the Center for Philosophy of the Institute of Social Sciences, under the title “Xenophobia, Identity and New Forms of Nationalism”, was held on October 4–5 of 2018 in Belgrade. It was attended by 17 lecturers from eight countries, most of them philosophers, but also sociologists, political scientists, jurists, journalists or fction writers. This collective volume is its result. As is well known, at the time of the inception of our idea, the is- sue of new nationalism and xenophobia had already become burning not only in Europe (in the political as well as historical and cultural meaning of the term) but in many other parts of the world too. Sadly, in the meantime, it has gained even more in impetus and signifcance in social, political and institutional life, above all in developed Western countries. Obviously, one of the main reasons for this of afairs is the (so inappropriately named) “migration problem”, which is in fact the problem of inequality in the world society. If the words “migration” or “immigration” did not fgure in the title of the conference, it is only because their connection to xenophobia, to the new forms of national- ism and to the politics of identity is so manifest, that those terms, as it seemed to us, could be omitted with no harm for the discussion of our subject, and because we hoped that the imposing realities to which they refer would not be overlooked by the participants anyway. This has proven to be true. However, the sheer topicality of the theme was not the only reason for our decision to devote a special attention to it. Dealing with what we have termed “new nationalism”, strongly colored by xenopho- bia and framed in identitarian slogans – most of them newly forged, but highly reminiscent of the past – is above all intellectually challeng- ing, particularly from, dare we say, a philosophical point of view. It in- volves a distinctly philosophical task of identifying the conceptual bor- ders of a historically changing, Protean phenomenon. What is at stake here is the relationship between old and new forms of nationalism, which forms the center of the frst part of the volume (“Xenophobia In- herited, Xenophobia Transformed”). Is new nationalism merely a se- quel to the historical one, or something radically diferent and novel? No doubt this question allows for diferent answers. At the very least, the new nationalism seems to have taken the place in the political spec- trum which was up to now occupied by extremist far-right parties, and 7 deserves for that reason to be treated as their successor. In particular

cases, historical continuity is warranted by sticking to the old party edited volumes name, regardless of signifcant and outspoken changes in the party program. However, one may even go so far as to deny altogether that the new xenophobic identitarianism represents a form of nationalism as we have known it, as is the case in the opening article of the frst sec- tion (by Rastko Močnik). Another point calling for refection is the relationship between nationalist and xenophobic practices or feelings and the world of ideas or systems of thought in the broadest sense of the term (treated by Goran Bašić, János Boros, Slobodan Divjak). This relationship is at least twofold, as it can signify either the embeddedness of nationalism in ideological and philosophical matrices which serve to justify it, or the capacity of the latter to deal with nationalism and its detrimental socie- tal efects. Here again, the most striking feature of new nationalism is perhaps its extraordinary capacity to change and adapt to diferent ideological and philosophical standpoints – postmodernism, communi- tarianism, multiculturalism or even liberalism. By appropriating the ar- guments of their opponents – by appealing to justice, equality or right to diference – new nationalist narratives blur the distinctions between ------be be e all, all, e ations ations Several chapters of the volume – as a rule, but not exclusively,Several chapters of the volume – as a rule, The stress laid on xenophobia by the conference title presented presented title conference the by xenophobia on laid stress The have adopted a more specifc perspective of gender (Michał Kozłowski) Kozłowski) (Michał gender of perspective specifc more a adopted have in par focusing, and Igor Milinković), or legal studies (Ana Dimishkovska on the questions of discrimination and identitarianism. However ticular, ern Europe, the USA, , the countries of former Yugoslavia and and Yugoslavia former of countries the Serbia, USA, the Europe, ern Henry, (by William Leon McBride, Paget Ugo Vlaisavlje the Arab World and Dušan Janjić). Some of themvić, Muharem Bazdulj Dean Komel, they have been grouped in the second section (“Global vs. Local and and Local vs. (“Global section second the in grouped been histories have local they to attention special given have – Diferences”) Topical and East in Western and developments of nationalism and xenophobia ment, as an essential piece function should be considered xenophobia domination. ing in the complex machine of worldwide those which pertain to the transformation of capitalism in a globalized globalized a in capitalism of transformation the to pertain which those Močnik, Natalija Mićunović, Pagetworld economy of our days (Rastko Henry). Their contributions suggest that, rather than a wanton senti approach adopted by most of the contributors, particularly by those those by particularly contributors, the of most by adopted given have approach which causes political and economic highlighted have who special character – abov rise to new nationalism and defned its moralizing or even demonizing criticism of it. This type of criticism is all all is criticism of type This it. of criticism demonizing even or moralizing the by averted by it been taken disputes. However, too frequent in political and ideological has danger This scope. limited rather a of is it self, viewed solely in terms of a subjective experience, which would result in in result would of nationalism should the risk of suggesting that the new forms which experience, subjective a of terms in solely viewed ment, than to de posture and no other ambitions having a defensive home or territoryfend its “own” aggressive newcomers (as ar from Prnjat and Vladimir Milisavljević). gued by Aleksandar ern metropoleis, it has also achieved important successes in presenting presenting in West imperialism, characteristic of the historical lizing” nationalism or successes important achieved also has it metropoleis, ern move guise of a merely protective nativist itself under the modest by Lewis R. Gordon), which works veryby Lewis R. Gordon), on com well, even if it is based In contrast to earlier forms of missionarypletely false premises. or “civi testify to their inadequacy of contempo the issues for understanding shown (as groups rary an elaborate nationalism has developed For example, new world. social hegemonic very the of victimization of strategy diferent theoretical positions and their usual political implic and their usual political positions diferent theoretical or – maps and “reactionary” “progressive” the one between (most notably, politi ideological our in confusions provoke and orientations) cal

8 Foreword 9 edited volumes ------eir eir nti the the place, we we place, Vladimir Milisavljević and Natalija Mićunović Vladimir Marjanović, general afairs assistant at the Insti ­ At last,volume thank all those whose aid gave to this we wish to Technological Development of the Republic of Serbia. fully supervised the process of publication of this volume, and other other and volume, this of publication of process the supervised book the fully of publication and conference The staf. and the of Science members Education, of Ministry the from funding with realized were tute of Social Sciences, who has been of great help in organizing the the Inđić organizing due Mrs. Svetlana in help great of been has who Sciences, care Social has of who tute librarian, Jovanović, Vesna M.A. to as well as conference, sor Michał Kozłowski, professor Martin Matuštík, professor William profes Jović, Dejan professor Henry, William Paget professor Gordon, R. Lewis professor Matuštík, Martin professor Kozłowski, are Michał thanks sor special Our Vlaisavljević. Ugo professor and McBride Leon gratitude to professor Vojin Rakić,program commit president of the gratitude to professor Vojin members of the said commit tee of the conference, as well as to other professor Jane Gordon, professortee: professor Arnaud François, ences, University of Novi Sad) and professor Đorđe Pavićević (Faculty of of (Faculty Sci of Technical (Faculty Academy of Sciences and Arts Alpar Lošonc Pavićević Đorđe professor and Sad) Novi of our extend University to like ences, would We Belgrade). of University Sciences, Political naud François (Department of Philosophy, University of Poitiers), Poitiers), of University Philosophy, of (Department François naud Serbian the Suzana Ignjatović, senior research associate (Institute of Social Sci­ of member corresponding and professor Belgrade), ences, valuable suggestions: professor Aleksandar Bošković (Faculty of Philos (Faculty Bošković valuable suggestions: professor Aleksandar professor Omar Dahbour (Hunter Col University of Belgrade), ophy, professor Ar of New York), lege and Graduate School, City University its present form and made its publication possible. In the frst its present form and its con who have thoroughly scrutinized are grateful to the reviewers by th the painstaking job of amending it tents and went through will, hopefully, lead to new adventures in researching intriguing phe new adventures in researching intriguing lead to will, hopefully, and identity. nomena of nationalism count much more than attempts at fnding fnal “solutions”. Editing of of Editing “solutions”. fnal fnding at attempts than more much count and but it also gave rise to more questions this volume was a pleasure, fences as a major political symbol of our imperfectly globalized world. world. globalized imperfectly our of symbol political major a as fences may on the title of briefy comment world – to In such a segregated disagreements, even and questions”, “open – section last and third diverse, those topical analyses have let come to the fore essential, if if essential, fore the to come let have analyses topical those diverse, wire barbed regions or co diferent states, similarities between unfortunate and walls of importance growing the by epitomized nents, Goran Bašić Goran

10 Bašić 11 edited volumes ------

- minded ­ hink? T ntellectuals ntellectuals I o D , not trying patriotic feelings to force their emarks emarks per se R In case we accept the existence of good nationalism, we still In case we accept the existence of good Many warn that the spirit of nationalism once again fuels pas warn that the spirit of nationalism once Many ationalism: What ationalism: contemporary nationalisms are evident in social relations, econom ic measures on global and regional levels, political action and movements. Thus revitalized, strengthening of people’s political , has contributed, despite global and regional inte political culture, has contributed, despite of national programs gration processes, to both homogenization and strengthening of nationalism (Bašić 2017). The infuences of face the problem that, with a grain of , the boundaries be erased at the expense of the tween good and bad nationalism are became a characteristic of contemporary which Populism, former. the expense of other , while their love often amounts to ob the expense of other nations, while their session and monomania. you can make a rough divide indicating that “good” nationalists a rough you can make love their nation “bad” nationalists love their nation at while way, onto others in any their values and customs, leading to prejudice and disdain for eth their values and customs, leading to prejudice nic diferences at best, with its radical forms being and is fear enveloped in hate. In conclusion, . Xenophobia a private matter which is publicly displayed only rarely, usually on only rarely, a private matter which is publicly displayed with the utmost decorum. special, festive occasions, and always suspicion of foreigners, implies fear and xenophobia Conversely, people with whom he/she shares common ethnic origin, as well as people with whom he/she shares common is defensive in nature (see linguistic and cultural heritage. A patriot Orwell religion, as just like 1945, 12), he/she perceives nationalism, nization aimed at liberation from external dominance. It is a com from external dominance. It nization aimed at liberation customs patriot is loyal to a way of life and the mon opinion that a and observesthat he/she cherishes like in community with stantial number of people indicate that apart from “bad” destruc people indicate that apart from “bad” stantial number of love of nationalism also exists, based on tive nationalism, “good” own nation and country or on national homoge one’s (), sions that not only provoke uncomfortable anxiety, but also cause but also anxiety, uncomfortable provoke sions that not only crises and misunderstanding. A sub sufering, misfortune, fear, N Introductory ------

t it tes the It would be unfair, of course, to neglect the strength of na of course, to neglect the strength It would be unfair, Providing that nationalism produces fear and has caused produces fear and has caused Providing that nationalism was essential for the Scotsmen, Irishmen, and Welshmen, as well as was essential for the Scotsmen, Irishmen, and Welshmen, for the Bretons, Occitans, and Gauls to become integrated into the nations. He believed liberal civil nations to be British and French cy, and individualism as creative forces behind liberal state, which cy, and individualism as creative forces incompatible with pri society, should have brought forth a humane mordial nationalism and populism. believed tha nity, freedom, and equality, with the purpose of securing everlast with the purpose freedom, and equality, nity, from the pest that is racism, ing peace and liberation of humanity They believed in freedom, democra chauvinism, and xenophobia. many a statesman, philosopher, or writer has secured his place in a statesman, philosopher, many that nations and the sta anthologies and textbooks by believing founded on frater based on them are results of the cosmopolitism also Vargas Llosa 2018). also Vargas and nations. Moreover, tionalism, which created the tirely contrary the nationalism of our to civilization. Therefore, and an en times is but a reactionary, anti-historical, racist ideology, (Vargas Llosa 2017; see emy of progress, democracy and freedom” and new, fear of and hate against the other, a person who worships a other, fear of and hate against the and new, and observesdiferent gods, speaks a diferent language diferent say – has instincts that are en customs, and it actually – needless to South America ended up in dictatorship: “Nationalism is a widely South America ended up in dictatorship: spread out ideological perversion, it infuences the instincts that as as fear of the diferent are deeply rooted in human beings, such past, how come that nationalists are so popular and enjoy people’s past, people’s nationalists are so popular and enjoy how come that Vargas to explain the unexplainable, Mario support? Attempting in all “left” and “right” nationalist movements Llosa indicates that guess which of them would prevail. guess which of them in collapses of the civilization dire sufering and catastrophic has produced in modern history,has produced in modern while placing the legacy of the to it would not be hard nationalism on the other, “bad” xenophobic cited fear and uncertainty. The two faces of Janus are nowhere so two faces of Janus The and uncertainty. cited fear and should of nationalism, as with the phenomenon clearly visible scales what “good” nationalism of Iustitia’s we place on one plate nationalism has awakened in people national pride and homogeni in people national has awakened nationalism “the end of his believed, following of which have been zation, both tory”,in other hand it has while on the belong to premodernity, to

12 Bašić 13 edited volumes ------to - - - brink century only, things spiraled out th However, during the 20 during the However, It is commonly known that concentration of one’s attention of one’s It is commonly known that concentration Semitism, or their memories of ethnic conficts are so vivid ­ cepts. important for political and economic stability, while he saw a while stability, for political and economic important peoples’ renunci in autochthonous their strengthening chance for national con into wider and their integration ation of identity, Anti that they do not see the progress in national homogenization and or Catalan nationalists feel ethnic mobilization. Scottish, Kosovar, velopment based on respect and intertwining of diferences, fail velopment based on respect and intertwining they perhaps may see the progressive side of modern nationalism, be “unjustifably” of the revitalization of and apprehensive on a phenomenon may produce “blindness” in the researcher when on a phenomenon may produce “blindness” actually essential facts. It is it comes to seemingly ephemeral, but by the vision of de thus possible that interculturalists, overcome ignited the sparks of fervor in fres that would de which resulted vour both ideas and people. “great” religions such as Christianity and Islam, which had been unity in faith, peace, and love, in founded on the ideal of people’s deed failed to eliminate local nationalisms, and rather conversely tion of tolerance as the basis for overcoming individual and collective prejudice and animosities, have overlooked the fact that the humanistic ideas contained in the doctrines of the secession demands occurred yet again, thus distancing the mod secession demands occurred yet again, of humanistic and cosmopoli ern world even more from the ideas tan development. Multiculturalists, who usually perceive the no primordial stimulus for nationalism, would ebb away in civil state. Despite the belief that nationalism would lose its destructive force after “the end of history”, ethnic and religious conficts and tion state and nationalism would lose their importance within the global perspective of the labor movement, while liberals on their part thought that the strength of ethnicity, as the most powerful only for National Socialism (Nazism), founded on racism and the the capital, to bring the civilization to interests of fnancial of extinction. During the “”, Marxists believed that na the principle of ethnicity destroyed the dynastic principle of legit destroyed the dynastic principle the principle of ethnicity imacy, claiming an enormous number of victims along the way, of control on a number of occasions. First, a nation state based on ------n - rko rko - e 11, century, has not th It cannot be avoided, when talking about nationalism, to It cannot be avoided, when talking about of Pakistani immigrants in Scotland support the country’s immigrants in Scotland support the of Pakistani secession (Bašić 2018, 114). The British policyfrom Great Britain of multicul in the second half of the 20 turalism, developed news 2019). On the other hand, laborite Sadiq Khan, Mayor of Lo other hand, laborite Sadiq Khan, Mayor news 2019). On the with racism origin, equates don of Pakistani more than 40% It is also interesting to note that 2017). (Guardian by the British Government concerning leaving the EU have largely have concerning leaving the EU by the British Government (Euro strengthening of Scottish nationalism contributed to the Minister Nicola Sturgeon, the leader of the Scottish National Party, National Party, leader of the Scottish Sturgeon, the Minister Nicola and, in addi from Great Britain separation of Scotland advocates made believes that the political decisions tion to historical reasons, otherwise, the strength necessary from nationalism they draw for from the politi and liberation economic independence political and Prime states. Scottish infuence of their composite other cal or any the Avalanche of Political Barbarism”, in which he said that he had in which Barbarism”, of Political the Avalanche so intellectual, Croatian or Serbian either as himself established not he was not qualifed to participate in the debate (see Jakšić 20 it comes to the relationship of intellectuals with nationalism is the it comes to the relationship of intellectuals to participate in the de to the invitation response by Gajo Petrović bate by Serbian and Croatian intellectuals entitled “Mind befor that do not directly threaten me. If you take my example, in case I take that do not directly threaten me. If you Croat I am an intellectual, support Serbs in , as an ethnic over when thinking Worth since I am not threatened as Serbs are”. who deals with things that do not concern him/her, i.e., public him/her, who deals with things that do not concern that my salarythings. I am not an intellectual if I say is low – this me a unionist. of things I am an intellectual when I speak makes writing beautiful poems, novels, or philosophical treatises. These writing beautiful poems, novels, or philosophical yet they are not great in are great writers, philosophers, painters, that an intellectual is he/she tellectuals. In his lectures, Sartre says for the consequences of nationalism. In a newspaper article, Ža for the consequences of nationalism. “TherePuhovski wrote sharply about nationalism: is a defective, ‘perverse’ attitude present in our public that intellectuals are those of and create itself a new course. responsibility of intellectuals also discuss the issue of the role and only obviously failed to pacify but also traditional nationalisms, incarnations. National been lenient when it comes to their recent river; it always fnds a crack to spring out a subterranean ism is like

14 Bašić 15 edited volumes ------gia - - (Mićunović 2018) – a trait in one’s (Mićunović 2018) – a trait in one’s interpretations, is placed by Machiavelli on the in ­ plebeian moral tact moral plebeian An intellectual is a creator, the one who inspires and incites the An intellectual is a creator, Attitudes like those quoted above are not rare. On the con above are not rare. those quoted like Attitudes rism” and quasi rism” tellectual: “when the evils that arise have been predicted (which they can be quickly dealt with. But when, only wise men can do), the ruling group as the general interest and public good. Responsi the ruling group as the general interest and the tension bility for the consequences of such “blindness” brought about by the confict between authentic ideas and “pla tices inficted on “us” by “others”. Unlike intellectual criticism, that tices inficted on “us” by “others”. Unlike is ideological one, of an intellectual freed from intellectualism which in its essence has the tendency to represent the interest of cause the anger of the “orthodox” intellectuals, imbued with the cause the anger of the “orthodox” and the deceptive and of romanticism of the “original” nationalism past and the injus ten biased memories of the glorious national terest, of but for the common good. When the intellectual speaks risks that the logic,nationalism, he/she is mostly alone and ethics, that his/her ideas are based on would and verisimilitude (facts) others to action and refection, expands horizons, and when criti horizons, others to action and refection, expands of glory, in or personal sake cizing, he/she does not do so for the in the full meaning of the word, this humanistic substrate is more in the full meaning of the word, this humanistic important than education, or encyclopedic accumulation of scien tifc and other facts. bah, writes that Krešić was among the rare educated people en bah, writes that Krešić was among the dowed with from. For an intellectual, character that intellectualism may sprout tant and, fnally, freed from any passion and interest. from any freed Dragoljub tant and, fnally, Mićunović, of An on the oeuvre and practical humanism refecting drija Krešić, cas enlighteners of the Balkan intellectual one of the including and the nation based on it,including national identity is prone to talent fortitude, and lack the maturity, changes. These opinions proactive, pressure resis intellectual criticism creative, which make mordial limits of nation, grounded in the feeling of the ever-pres mordial limits of nation, everything, and failure to accept the fact that ent danger of others trary, of intellec of critical positions are numerous examples there publicly more frequent and nationalism. However, tuals towards pri opinions, falling within constricted visible are anti-intellectual 77–78). By refusing any national distinction, Gajo Petrović stood Gajo Petrović national distinction, refusing any 77–78). By that delimit humanity. national constraints against the ------

- gle, ” who had looked down at ” who had looked ketman known truth that Bosnian, ­ Asking in the early 1970s whether nationalism was our desti Criticism of nationalism does not garner praise and rewards, does not garner praise and rewards, Criticism of nationalism their feet when faced with his uncompromising fght for justice, freedom, and truth. The opinions of his colleagues, mainly former members of the Praxis group, that by adopting nationalism Tadić alist right in Yugoslavia, but he could not foresee that near the end but he could not foresee alist right in Yugoslavia, by Serbian national of his life he would be “praised” and arrogated ists, i.e., the very “practitioners of to fnd, and often even construct linguistic diferences. to fnd, and often even construct linguistic clearly predicted the rise of nation academician Ljubomir Tadić ny, linguistic purists and nationalists who have, for decades, ever since linguistic purists and nationalists who vehemently perpetrated vi the establishment of the nation states, of the peoples, tryingolence against the languages and identities cused of being national traitors, advocates of the restoration of Yu cused of being national traitors, advocates national for the orthodox goslavia, which must be the gravest sin ists in the region, and whatnot. The most vocal critics were that the Declaration does not contest political reality and the right that the Declaration does not contest language, for “their own” of nation states to freely chose the name and ac criticized its authors and signees have been unfoundedly cal space, that is, to the well standard forms of a sin Montenegrin, Croatian, and Serbian are Despite the fact and 2018b). polycentric language (Bugarski 2018a Language”, with which a group of thinking men, most of them soci Language”, the schism between linguis olinguists and linguists, has pointed to politi tic reality and linguistic policy in a part of the post-Yugoslav but usually provides pseudointellectuals with an opportunity to pseudointellectuals with an opportunity but usually provides on the Common back. A good example is the “Declaration strike don Socrates’ chiton in a timely manner, or at all, while the political or at all, while the political in a timely manner, don Socrates’ chiton ag belongs with those who advocated, and historical responsibility nationalist policies. and implemented itated for, consequences caused by the nationalist politics and rhetoric.consequences caused The to intellectual can only be that of the failure responsibility of an for the beneft of everyonefor the beneft the and explain else, timely recognize is the intellectual truth. However, and confront it with problem, for the and cannot accept responsibility not the world’s conscience though not having been predicted, they have been permitted to they have been having been predicted, though not way that everyonegrow in a is no longer a can see them, there remedy” one who should, intellectual is the 2006). The (Machiavelli

16 Bašić 17 edited volumes ------

thori based government ­ Contributing factors to the fourishing of nationalism also in Contributing factors to the fourishing Contemporary and the favor nationalists political conditions alism will prevail and that nationalism would disappear in the histori cultural and educational, Political, illusion. an but are perspective cal states aresystems, as well as language policies of European isms which could, as history has taught us, make Janus’ evil face turn turn face evil Janus’ make us, taught has history as could, which isms economic, political, of interest the in be to prove this should “us”, to The notions that only “good” nation and fnancial centers of power. the contrary, policies have been adopted to protect national, ethnic ethnic national, protect to adopted been have policies contrary, the tolerance of a myriad ofand linguistic minorities, based on mutual and nurture national monocultural groups. Such policies stimulate clude the fact that multicultural European states do not nurture poli clude the fact that multicultural European On interweaving. cultural and trust on based multiculturalism of cies by Eurocentric distrust of migrants, as well as of Islam, believers of distrust of migrants, as well as of Islam, believers of by Eurocentric dangerous others in the context of populist for ideal which make nationalism. cates that their political systems have mechanisms in their core, cates that their political systems have whose main aim is to pacify diferent, often contradictory ethnic is also contributed to (national) interests. National homogenization are fundaments of statehood. Exceptions are multinational states are fundaments of statehood. Exceptions as which adopted citizenship of North Macedonia and Montenegro, their daily functioning indi their main state-building substrate, yet even today’s liberals resort to nationalist rhetoric, so it seems true In the constitutions of the majority that nationalism is our destiny. nation of the Balkan states, nation state and ideology has a traditionally strong foothold in the . Au strong foothold in the Balkans. ideology has a traditionally of conser and populism suit well the parties tarian political culture vative right, Moreover, programs are based on nationalism. whose the far-right Austrian Freedom Party, revealed immediately before revealed immediately Party, Freedom Austrian the far-right this party’sposition, or to signifcantly weaken the elections, failed allies. Nationalist their German for , that of the Alternative indicated the strengthening of the populist right in , France, France, of the populist right in Italy, indicated the strengthening afair of Great Britain, while the corruption Hungary, and Poland, goslavhood. goslavhood. have right. Parliament The lately held elections for the European had sunk into his own oeuvre, did less damage to his reputation did less damage into his own oeuvre, had sunk been building those who had once sung to him by than the odes the very based on careers in academia their conformist idea of Yu ------of - of ger oken oken ed l rela tionalism century, when it was believed that the identity of a people people a of identity the that believed was it when century, th The superiority of nationalists over multiculturalists should over multiculturalists should The superiority of nationalists are the systems of national minorities’ protection better suited for for suited better protection minorities’ national of systems the are early 20 the ethnic distance between their respective majority peoples and and peoples majority respective their between distance ethnic the These nationalisms. other’s each nurturing thus minorities, national national interest to overcome their misunderstandings and the con their misunderstandings to overcome national interest adopt they have nevertheless of their prior conficts, sequences refect which minorities, national of rights the protect to systems the nationally denoted, and multicultural practices represent just (un)de practices denoted, and multicultural nationally as, for a striking example Croatia make Serbia and sirable exceptions. unquestionable and responsibility civilizational a have they though nationalism, which, as a rule, serves a confrmation of the per as ception of human nature as authoritarian. which we explain diferent aspects of this complex social phenom which we explain diferent aspects of for the word sp enon. Critical, open thought and responsibility the capricious nature are the most efective safeguards against things, the energy which should lend additional strength to nation things, the energy which should lend paradigms in the context state (Antonić 2016; Ljušić 2016). The decisive role in the manner in which we perceive nationalism have a 2018) and that the consequences of the decisions made on the 2018) and that the consequences of the a long-term source of local wave of populism would prove to be in Brexit,and global crises. Serbian experts see among other tions and consequences of the policies based and fed on national tions and consequences of the policies is an efect of na ism. British scientists believe that Brexit 2016, and Martill and Stai (among numerous articles, see Salter not discourage the latter. There may be no reason for excessive op may be no reason for excessive There latter. not discourage the for quitting critical thinking of the socia timism, but neither is best preserved in their elite. elite. their in preserved best is

18 Bašić 19 edited volumes - ­ - - - , last scottish ­ . London: www.eu on ­ Andrija Krešić Krešić Andrija https://elpais. nacionali ­ https://www.kcl. li ­ attack February 25, ­ March 2, http://www.ceopom-is down edited by Zoran Lutovac,edited by Zoran ­ 1423, April 12. El País, tones ­ The Guardian, The Guardian, 2: 77–104. , June 28, , last accessed July 15, 2019. , last accessed , last accessed June 15, 2019. http://www.novosti.rs/vesti/plane Vreme Populizam, khan ­ http://www.gutenberg.org/ , last accessed August 4, 2019. June 28, Istina (CEOPOM) Filozofja i društvo Filozofja nacionalizam ­ i ­ , last accessed June 15, 2019. demokratija/?lang=lat ­ Brexit and Beyond. Rethinking the Futures of Europe Brexit and Beyond. Rethinking . Belgrade: Institut društvenih nauka. . Belgrade: Institut društvenih Večernje novosti, novosti, Večernje Belgrade: XX vek. Bregzit London: Polemic. ­ srpska ­ , last accessed June 15, 2019. Translated by W. K. Marriott, W. by Translated Ljusic ­ , last accessed March 4, 2019. https://arhiva.nedeljnik.rs/nedeljnik/portalnews/moze h.htm ­ , edited by Božidar Jakšić,, edited by Božidar 10–17. Belgrade: Institut društvenih nauka. Rados ­ h/1232 drustvo/bregzit The Prince. The Prince. ­ ­ i ­ Govorite li zajednički ? Govorite Notes on Nationalism. , last accessed June 15, 2019. December 30, Multikulturalizam i etnicitet Multikulturalizam Nedeljnik, zam-da-bude-progresivan/ com/elpais/2018/02/27/inenglish/1519736544_699462.html u svom i našem vremenu ac.uk/sspp/departments/politicaleconomy/research/biopolitics/publications/workingpapers/ brexit-hegemony-and-intellectuals3.pdf ta.299.html:612391 fles/1232/1232 UCL Press. ronews.com/2019/04/28/scottish-independence-it-s-time-says-snp-leader-nicola-sturgeon accessed June 15, 2019. https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2017/feb/25/sadiq nationalism 147–161. Belgrade: Institut društvenih nauka. 147–161. Belgrade: Institut društvenih tina.rs/politika Vargas Llosa, Mario. 2018. “Political Correctness is the Enemy of Freedom”. Correctness is the Enemy of Freedom”. Llosa, Mario. 2018. “Political Vargas Vargas Llosa, Mario. 2017. “Može li nacionalizam da bude progresivan? [Can Nationalism be Progressive?]”. Nationalism be Progressive?]”. [Can li nacionalizam da bude progresivan? Llosa, Mario. 2017. “Može Vargas Orwell, George. 1945. at Brian. 2016. “When Available Intellectuals fail? Brexit and hegemonic challenge”. Salter, Martill, Benjamin and Staiger, Uta (eds.). 2018. Uta (eds.). 2018. Martill, Benjamin and Staiger, In Krešić: Čovek uspravnog hoda u svim burnim vremenima”. Mićunović, Dragoljub. 2018. “Andrija Machiavelli, Niccolo. 2006. Jakšić, Božidar. 2011. “Nacionalističke kritike PRAXISA”. PRAXISA”. kritike 2011. “Nacionalističke Jakšić, Božidar. Ljušić, Radoš. 2016. “’Bregzit’ i nacionalizam”, Guardian. 2017. “Sadiq Khan tones down attack on Scottish nationalism”, Guardian. 2017. “Sadiq Khan tones down attack on Scottish nationalism”, Bugarski, Ranko. 2018b. 2018b. Bugarski, Ranko. 28, April 2019. “ScottishEuronews. says SNP leader Nicola Sturgeon”, Independence: ‘It’s time,’ Bašić, Goran. 2018. o jeziku”. Interview “Briga i ‘briga’ 2018a. with S.Bugarski, Ranko. Ćirić. Bašić, Goran. 2017. “Multietnička društva i reakcionarni populizam”. In populizam”. Bašić, i reakcionarni 2017. “Multietnička društva Goran. Bibliography Antonić, “Bregzit i srpska demokratija”. Slobodan. 2016. 20 Bašić 21 edited volumes SECTION I SECTION Xenophobia Inherited, Inherited, Xenophobia Xenophobia Transformed Xenophobia Rastko Močnik Rastko

22 Močnik 23 edited volumes . ------century, na th Gesamtkapital afrmation of of afrmation ­ , is again again is nationalism bourgeois , ungary H orms of F class households. In the situation of uncer of situation the In households. class ­ Gesamtkapital ew N ase of ase of C fascism, Hungary, nationalism, populism he T In the past, nation was a bourgeois form of emancipation. It se cured the reproduction of social formations split into three rela tively autonomous social spheres, where the freedoms of con sciousness and expression belonged in the ideological sphere, inequal secured sphere, juridico-political the in equality and liberty 20 the In sphere. economic the in exploitation and ity tary trend is propelled also from below, as a spontaneous survival survival spontaneous a as below, from also propelled is trend tary working the of strategy strength households income, of sources heterogeneous and tain identities, ethnic and religious of means the with cohesion their en with traditional authority – which results in the re patriarchal oppression. – The new nationalism seems to be an that secures “identitarianism” social cohesion in situations of his weakness. societal and torical Keywords: fghting against colonial and imperialist rule. When the bourgeois bourgeois the When rule. imperialist and colonial against fghting reproduction the secure to unable proved nation-state democratic re-artic fascist the supported nationalism bourgeois capitalism, of ulation of the state. patronized Now that the operational capacity of na increasingly is and limited severely been has tion-states of institutions the by bourgeoi comprador side, one On ways. contradictory in mobilized and semi-pe sies use it to support the reproduction of peripheral nation of ideology the is it side, other the On capitalisms. ripheral of fractions stronger against fghting bourgeoisies al Our hypothesis is that the formerly emancipatory national con struction has degenerated into identitary community. The identi tion was again the emancipatory form embraced by the peoples peoples the by embraced form emancipatory the again was tion ew in the ew in the N What the media and most commentators nowadays call “na hat is ationalism? ationalism? tionalism”, and usually specify ideolog tionalism”, borrows many as “populist”, ical elements from the nationalisms of the past, whose legacy it N A b s t r a c t W ------cen th centu in the the in and sup th ers from from ers ig talk talk ig centuryin its ; etc.). The absence absence The etc.). ; th ­ . th funded) interests of ­ century. We may sur century. We th colonial nationalisms of of nationalisms colonial ­ neutral term” (the minus-minus minus-minus (the term” neutral Like traditional national traditional Like 1 imperial struggles of the 19 ­ , US+; Serbian: EU+, US , US+; Serbian: EU+, ­ terme neutre, , aligning of the whole society. Moreover, Moreover, society. whole the of aligning , Gleichschaltung century by socialism, contemporary mostly inspired “national However, contrary of the 19 to the liberal nationalisms However, Ideological elements are mostly old, but their collage is new, new, is collage their but old, mostly are elements Ideological th The case of suffices to justify this assertion. During the negotiations, negotiations, the During assertion. this justify to suffices Greece of case The rialism, we get a matrix where all possible combinations apply – with the the with – apply combinations possible all where matrix a get we rialism, US-. (e.g.: Croatian and Slovene governmental of EU-, meaningful exception EU US+; Polish: ideologies: EU+, of what Greimas would call “ ruling not-yet-composed a of fractions these that indicates combination) class need a hegemon. In the sequel, we shall explain why. European Commission and European Central Bank, together with the Inter national Monetary brutally pressed (often ill Fund, (see funds speculative transnational and banks private German and French Truth Committee 2015). – We should note that If we add the attitudes towards the US impe negative attitude towards EU. not all “nationalisms” have a

century, or anti-colonial nationalisms of the 20 1 th mise that the operations of the ruling class alliances in the nation nation the in alliances class ruling the of operations the that mise are new and specifc. states, their political economy and ideology, isms, it aims, and often succeeds, at creating mass movements. at creating mass and often succeeds, isms, it aims, the 20 ry, and in even starker opposition to the anti the to opposition starker even in and ry, claims. It further resembles nationalisms of the 19 nationalisms of the further resembles claims. It thus disqualifes any easy analogy with the liberal nationalisms of the the of nationalisms liberal the with analogy easy any disqualifes thus 19 port it with various privileges, so that it can exploit their population their exploit can it that so privileges, various with it port to brutal exploitation more easily; they hand over their people deeds and words between contradiction The countries. capitalist core or the EU (notwithstanding their potential anti-EU rhetoric). Contrary Contrary rhetoric). anti-EU potential their (notwithstanding EU the or speculative to wealth national sell they patriotism, declared their to transnational capital funds and to foreign states; they fnance tate home fascism and collaboration of the past. Strikingly, they are are they Strikingly, past. the of collaboration and fascism home tate b in the present: in contrast to their often “collaborationist” and/ the NATO they join (or intend to join) about national sovereignty, cipline upon their followers. If they come to power, they attempt an an attempt they power, to come they If followers. their upon cipline ideological are verytheir invented traditions often revisionist, to rehabili seeking isms” require, and often succeed at imposing a quasi-authoritarian dis succeed at imposing a quasi-authoritarian isms” require, and often often declared anti-imperialist stance, recognizing, e.g., such an im stance, recognizing, anti-imperialist often declared Union. in the European perialist power and the present nations’ and their states’ real functioning dif and the present nations’ and their states’ in anti the way nationalism worked tury the 20 and in anti-colonial endeavours of

24 Močnik 25 edited volumes - - - - k - - - - - gh wah 2016). ­ state, ruled by weak local bourgeoisies that need state, ruled by weak local bourgeoisies ­ In the past, of populism was describing develop the notion One of the new features in the media and political vocabu media and political new features in the One of the In the European Union, “populism”, it seems, is now the label it seems, Union, “populism”, In the European On the ideological front, patrio they accordingly mobilized An apt formula was proposed for this strategy: “the state should lead and the bourgeoisie follow” Other analyses ex 1999, 276–305). (Schneider plicitly refer to the state bureaucracy (Yin 2

2 ness. would be anachronistic, one particular feature deserves our atten resorted to the tion: in historical populisms, local bourgeoisies economic and social wea state apparatus to compensate for their ed massive support, system. but had no intention of changing the means of capitalism, and They were fghting capitalism with the its causes. While analogies easing social injustice without removing this kind of politics. Populist governments were struggling against this kind of politics. Populist system with the means of the hierarchies of the capitalist world capitalist nation fghting social inequalities by redistribution of wealth. Althou fghting social inequalities not tinge (“politics is for the specialists, the term has a paternalistic the internal contradiction of in a way, it catches, for the people”), mentalist Latin American governments that endeavoured to break governments that endeavoured mentalist Latin American dependencyout of their world-systemic by state intervention into and promoting import substitution industries, especially economy, the hyperboles “fascism, neofascism”. “fascism, neofascism”. the hyperboles lary the While expression “populism”. introduction of the is the use is recent, its present and has replaced is not new, word itself as well as “far-right” expressions “nationalism”, the more restrained Populism? the interference of two otherwise processes – a heterogeneous above, and a mass move factional strife within the ruling groups ment below. and politicians gain massive support whom the EU bureaucracy the EU vili and politicians gain massive support whom observationsfes. Although only intuitive, the two yield a good results from “populism” starting point: it seems that the present attached by the mainstream to the politics and politicians who gain attached by the mainstream to the politics On massive support, bureaucracy but whom the EU does not like. periphery,European seems equally true: those politics the inverse tism to rally popular masses behind their class-project.tism to rally popular masses behind their ------n is - - e - he er mid composition of national bour ­ composition of the working masses. ­ rule (Dimitrov 1935). The pattern of Trotsky’s analysis can rule (Dimitrov 1935). The pattern of Trotsky’s ­ However, the frame of these processes – the nation state, The features that suggest the analogy between the contem The features that suggest the analogy For Trotsky, historical resulted from two indepen fascisms resulted from two historical For Trotsky, Beyond anachronism, this intuition agrees with Trotsky’s Trotsky’s with agrees intuition this anachronism, Beyond dialectical” defnition of historical fascism: “Fascism is a specif fascism: “Fascism defnition of historical dialectical” ­ has radically changed since the eras of historical fascisms and populisms. The capacity of the state to attract and keep the Re-articulation the nation-state of on state apparatuses, political mobilization of dissatisfed low on state apparatuses, political mobilization dle classes, and class de porary populism and historical fascism are the weakness of national national of weakness the are fascism historical and populism porary by compensational reliancebourgeoisie and its class re-composition (Gramsci 1971), with the further specifcation that the loss of domes ca results from the loss of international competitive tic hegemony 1978). capital (Sohn-Rethel pacity of important fractions of national other, the demise of parliamentary democracy as the form of bour other, geois class hegemony bourgeois of crisis the of thesis Gramsci’s integrate overcoming its international weakness. Trotsky dialectically articulat Trotsky overcoming its international weakness. ed the classical, but disparate Marxisthad diag assessments that on one side, and, on t nosed the defeat of labour (Zetkin 1923) that coincided with a crisis of national bourgeois political and ideo that coincided with a crisis of national logical apparatuses; and the class re to view the with state bourgeois the transforming radically geoisie, (Trotsky 1932). 1932). (Trotsky peopl the class decomposition of working dent social processes: duced to an amorphous state; and that a system of administratio duced to an amorphous serves which and masses the into deeply penetrates which created proletariat” the of crystallization independent the frustrate to uses “the petty bourgeoisie as a battering ram” to achieve “that the the “that achieve to ram” battering a as bourgeoisie petty “the uses that the proletariat is re organizations are annihilated; workers’ “class the in bourgeoisie petty the organizing and mobilizing of means ic fascism However, 1934). (Trotsky capital” fnance of interests social Fascism?

26 Močnik 27 edited volumes - -

-

3 - - - - - gesellschaftliches (in the Marxian sense of the aggregate capital), represented by international the aggregate capital), represented by samtkapital Ge We can measure the limitations of historical analogies and These processes enhance the importance of the executive These processes enhance fnanced infrastructure. In other words, the integration of of words, the integration infrastructure. In other fnanced An important indication of this trend is the complicated construction of An important indication of this trend is the complicated construction of and distinction between the executive Union that blurs the the European the legislative. ­ colonial situation where, as noted by the Pakistani Marxist as noted by the Pakistani colonial situation where, ­

3 attacks from those capable of delivering painful blows (interna attacks from those capable of delivering tional fnancial markets and rating agencies). They brought na tional bank under government control and thereby provoked sumer and investment demand, and earned favourable ratings by have “reduced external vul rating agencies. Fidesz governments nerability” (Koltai 2018) and shielded the country from political colonization and national revival” (Gagy and Gerocs 2019). They and lowered foreign private and pub discipline” “fscal have kept lic debt, increased GDP and net wages, increased domestic con tuitions about contemporary nationalist populism, if we examine the Fidesz government in Hungary. Viktor Orbán’s party won program of “economic de three consecutive elections with the begin to construct a theoretical concept that goes beyond the in begin to construct a theoretical concept The case of HungaryThe case Gesamtkapital, Gesamtkapital, Bank, the International Monetary World organizations like Fund, Union, etc. European OECD, Hamza Alavi, local administration operates as the executive of the operates as the executive Hamza Alavi, local administration is now classes (Alavi 1982). The “metropolis” metropolitan ruling the global and the state administration, transforming them into a sort of transforming them into a and the state administration, “comprador bureaucracy”. the The historical analogy is rather post against its population. state increasingly de world system now into the capitalist the state pends upon its ability to wage an ever more intensive class war capital has now almost exclusively shifted towards its ability to provide low-paid and disorganized labour, low corporate taxes, state subsidies to corporations, low ecological standards, and ------in sta While de 4 making ­ tradable sectors where conditions ­ .: “[…] non 7 . op. cit ., writes about “state-dependent bourgeoisie”, and ., writes about “state-dependent bourgeoisie”, op. cit Fidesz policies seem to converge towards the forma Fidesz policies seem to converge towards Together with the “biopolitical” measures, such as the with the “biopolitical” measures, such Together 6 5 . as a state project The December 2018 law that allowed companies to request law that allowed companies to request The December 2018 Announced by Viktor Orbán in his “State of the Nation Address” on 10 February 2019). 2019 (Orbán Mihály Koltai, sees its economic base in territorially bound businesses (or “sedentary capitalist activities” in Pierre-Noël Giraud’s terminology): “It has been The new labour code introduced by Fidesz in 2013, importantly weak The new labour code introduced by Fidesz in upon the level of ened trade unions, transferred collective bargaining of employment.individual enterprise and increased flexibility and Gerocs, Gagy Cf. telecommunications or can be shaped by state policies (such as banking, in favour of the new transport) see strong reorganizations of property oligarchic national capital”.

6 7 4 5 of domestic entrepreneurs, mainly through government contracts of domestic entrepreneurs, mainly through funds towards this group of oligarchs and by channelling EU tu nascendi stroying the resistance capacity of labour, Fidesz has been support capacity of labour, stroying the resistance the formation of a layer of the class barrier, ing, on the other side the Fidesz government over the eight years of their rule. the Fidesz government from workers up to 400 hours of overtime work per year (instead up to 400 hours of overtime from workers payments up to 3 years, was only and delay of 250 hours before) by measures against the labour introduced the last in a series of ing-class masses. cies. However, liberal domestic opposition and its international the “Slave inefcient until allies remained Law”,passed in De work a sharp confrontation with the cember 2018, triggered protests from the EU bureaucracy and international liberals. decision and of all levels of of the media Their control poli about their anti-democratic to liberal lamentations gave rise nation-state building also requires the formation of national bour nation-state building also requires the geoisie mantling of the social state (or what has remained of it from social mantling of the social state (or what has In social assistance). ism: public education, public health system, the project of the capitalist the absence of a domestic ruling class, tion of a capitalist nation state within the narrow limits imposed by tion of a capitalist nation state within entails The project Hungary’s the NATO. and membership in the EU working people and dis intensifcation of class struggle against virtual criminalization of homelessness, the state incentives to fam virtual criminalization of homelessness, la children in order to compensate for the lack of ilies with many bour power,

28 Močnik 29 edited volumes ------a - .: “[…] corpo The seeming 8 op. cit cannot afford afford cannot effect of such low cor ­ levels of this “social levels of this “social ­ earners […].” ­ GDP ratios.” – Gagy and Gerocs, ­ : “Hungary continues to have one of the most open : “[…] the basic structure of Hungary’s economy has to ­ op. cit. op. cit. stock ­ raising, we should keep in mind the proportions on a macro scale. As raising, we should keep ­ and is organically dependent on the global processes of 9 The domestic “social block” (if it is indeed a block, given its The domestic social alliance behind Fidesz’s politics seems to seems politics Fidesz’s behind alliance social domestic The On the other side, however, Fidesz continues previous continues previous Fidesz side, however, On the other porate taxation with high subsidization of companies – many of these – many porate taxation with high subsidization of companies Unions’ highest 27% VAT, provisions are undisclosed – is the European the burden of which is put on wage Mihály Koltai, Mihály Koltai, not changed and it is still dominated by transnational capital, concentrat ed in manufacturing, whose interests Orbán has not significantly touched, and arguably has done his utmost to create ideal conditions for profit extraction. While the enrichment of figures such as Mészáros is hair rate taxation among the European Union member states has become the Union member states has become the rate taxation among the European rate is 9%, but the ef lowest in Hungary. official corporate flat-tax The allowances is only 7.2%, fective tax which companies pay after various by German manufac whereas the 30 largest multinationals dominated turers pay an effective rate of 3.6%. The counter Mihály Koltai, Mihály Koltai, whole world), with very (indeed the economies in the EU high export-to- GDP and FDI government to build up its own economic support base. We are seeing are seeing base. We government to build up its own economic support that the birth of a new state-dependent bourgeoisie change of government, as they owe their wealth to the current leader ship through myriads of shady deals.” therefore domestic sectors such as tourism, retail, agriculture, media and therefore domestic sectors such as tourism, more elbow room for the some infrastructure projects where there is

9 8 tives of the transnational capital. The domestic “sedentary”tives of the transnational capital. The econo country’smy supports only a small part of the economic pro cesses, problematic reliance upon the larger social base) is necessarily is necessarily social base) problematic reliance upon the larger – the representa complemented by an international component employees of transnational frms. The lower employees of transnational upon the conditional support is (or was?) block” are masses whose economic success of the ruling groups. short-term be composed of the state bureaucracybe composed of the and the “state-dependent level and, on the middle level, of the on the highest bourgeoisie” the and administration state the of groups bureaucratic-managerial tics’ class-agent. contradiction between capitalist nation-state building on one side, and dependent integration into the EU semi-periphery on contradictory derives from the character of this poli the other, governments’ policies of dependent development and creates transnational capital. conditions for capital friendly ------l - -

owned stock of investment in the country ­ profit of Audi in 2016, and is negligible com yearly Canada Comprehensive Economic and Trade Trade Canada Comprehensive Economic and ­ The question is, does this political model have a solid The question is, does 10 Viktor Orbán calls this political model “illiberal nation state”, political model “illiberal nation state”, Viktor Orbán calls this Regardless of the success of the specifc political program of Regardless of the success of the specifc Some sort of alliance between transnational capital and do Some sort of alliance between transnational Orbán 2014. an example, Mészáros’s total wealth of around 0.35 billion euros is some what less than the pared to the total foreign (over 64 billion euros in 2016) […].”

10 examples. and quotes Singapore, China, India, , as its successful Russia China, India, Turkey, and quotes Singapore, isfed, as well as making charitable concessions to transnationa concessions well as making charitable isfed, as capital, is consequently vital for the Fidesz political economy and general societal politics. the capitalist system. Politically, too, the country’s system. Politically, the capitalist national sover eignty is severely limited by its membership in the EU and the agencies sat at peace and rating fnancial markets Keeping NATO. with local variations, are detectable in many countries of peripheral countries of peripheral many with local variations, are detectable in “illiberal nation-state”, the class pattern of the ruling alliance seems alliance ruling the of pattern class the nation-state”, “illiberal pro since it is driven by world-systemic able of self-reproduction, cesses. While Hungary example, its contours, may ofer its clearest ments like the EU ments like Agreement (CETA). ro-Atlantic transnational capital will increasingly search for prof ro-Atlantic transnational capital will increasingly in opportunities in its “internal colonies”, entrapped it-maximizing eventually additionally chained by agree and and the NATO, the EU an periphery capitalism. With the failing ca into the “Euro-Atlantic” and North America to sustain global pacity of northern Europe mutual interest,competition, such an alliance will be of as the Eu mestic ruling groups (state bureaucracies, local top managers, mestic ruling groups (state bureaucracies, necessary“state-dependent bourgeoisies”) seems for the repro Southern and Central Europe duction of dependent integration of on European peripheryon European Ruling alliances and their political economy economy and their political alliances Ruling social class base, and has it succeeded in building a coherent politi has it succeeded in building a coherent social class base, and cal economy?

30 Močnik 31 edited volumes ------class con 12 If systemic integra If systemic 11 ., suggests that “economics of ‘Orban

class masses. Until now, local rul now, class masses. Until 13 ­ op. cit skilled and disorganized labour in labour in skilled and disorganized ­ come up with a ’régime of accumulation’ and a come up with a ’régime of accumulation’ did wage low ­ – The Left). . the breakdown of big domestic retail chains in Slovenia, Croatia, . the breakdown Levica The main reason for this uncertainty is the questionable Political articulation of these antagonisms will depend on or Political infrastructure construction in the Balkans; appropriation by ownership infrastructure construction in the Balkans; appropriation or concession of airports in the region by foreign firms; etc. manifestations in 2012–2013 in Despite their similarly chaotic character, Slovenia gave rise to a new anti-capitalist and socialist formation that entered parliament in 2014 and is now a respectable socialist party ( ism’” is a specific regime of accumulation: “Unlike his erstwhile liberal is a specific regime of accumulation: “Unlike ism’” adversaries Orbán reproduce itself so far and system of class alliances that has been able to near future.” shows no obvious signs of disintegration in the Cf in Serbia, and the expansion of core- and partly Bosnia-Herzegovina, Chinese penetration into based transnational chains in these countries; Against this, Mihály Koltai, Against this, Mihály Koltai,

13 12 11 ties are open to the seizure by transnational capital, ties are open to the depend on low and as domestic “sedentary”manufacturing industries, activi tion of peripheral and semi-peripheral countries continues to festations in Hungary, Serbia and Albania, albeit in a and badly articulated manner. still chaotic ers were managing this contradiction unilaterally by intensifyers were managing this contradiction ing exploitation and imposing “workfare” against “welfare”. large masses, as is shown by recent mani politics antagonizes This state-dependent local bourgeoisies are caught within the con bourgeoisies are caught within state-dependent local tradiction between the pressures of transnational capital working the resistance of the and tradictions may well develop into antagonisms. Already at pres develop into antagonisms. Already tradictions may well ent, domestic ruling coalitions of comprador bureaucracies and solidity of its present political economy. its present political solidity of Europe. However, the political shape of this class alliance, and the alliance, and the shape of this class the political However, Europe. support it, that will nation-state construction type of the may vary in the future. short-term political agglomerations. short-term ganizational capacity of the classes in confrontation. In the last in ganizational capacity of the classes in to construct themselves, stance, that means upon their capacity groups, and not merely as and to reproduce themselves as social ------xis class, ­ was ex a class; they they class; a In the present situa 15 vis the whole working ­ à ­

16 we can draw a sketch of the systemic of the a sketch we can draw maximizing competition leads to the maximizing competition ­ 14 coincides with the reproduction of the relations of pro coincides with the reproduction of the relations as class Class-composition of the capitalist class results directly from of the capitalist class results directly Class-composition Conceiving class-composition along theoretical lines elabo along theoretical class-composition Conceiving “Here, then, we have a mathematically precise proof why capitalists proof why “Here, then, we have a mathematically precise form a veritable freemason society vis competition among them while there is little love lost between them in selves” (Karl Marx 1999). For a general information see: Bellofiore and Tomba 2011; Bologna Tomba For a general information see: Bellofiore and 2002. and Milana 2008; Wright 2014; Trotta For this reason, contemporary post-socialist bureaucracies are structurally structurally are bureaucracies post-socialist contemporary reason, this For tion of the juridical-political apparatuses is a spontaneous process involving involving process a ruling class. Bureaucratisa ious, because they were bureaucracies without spontaneous a is apparatuses class, juridical-political ruling the a of tion exists states pre-socialist all in However, logic. its of institutional instrument the as state the controls the successfully states, less or more socialist”) which (“historical post-capitalist in this, to Contrary rule. class bourgeois ruling class had been destroyed and the working class duction of the dominant mode of production. The structurally obstructive obstructive structurally The production. of mode in dominant the originated of duction bureaucracies socialist”) (“historical post-capitalist of domination character bureaucratic of reproduction of mechanisms the that processes. fact the socialist of reproduction of mechanisms the with coincide not did congruent not were domination bureaucratic of mechanisms worse, Consequently, Even general. in production of mode any of reproduction the with were not bureaucracies that emerged after socialist revolutions they were particularly obnox were only dominating social groups. However, ist”) societies. In Marx’s theory of class domination, reproduction of the the of (“historical social stronger than were the bureaucracies in the post-capitalist reproduction domination, class of theory Marx’s In societies. ist”) ruling class

16 14 15 tence” (to use an Althusserian concept) of the class of the concept) of the class solidarity of the (to use an Althusserian tence” thus the among individual capitals is capitalist class. Competition the capitalist class. mechanism of composing individual capitalists’ pursuit of their immediate and individual goal pursuit of their immediate and individual individual capitalists’ profts. Proft to maximize e proft rate – which is the “material creation of the general Central European semi-periphery.Central European processes under way, and of the class-practices presently per of the class-practices and under way, processes and systemic core countries and in Southern formed both in the the capitalist class-composition thus organically integrates the alli the capitalist class-composition thus organically ance with comprador bureaucracies. tion, oligopolies maximize their profts by depreciating labour pow tion, oligopolies maximize er on the periphery, and by obtaining capital-friendly concessions capital. The mechanism of from local governments eager to attract rated by Italian operaism, rated by Italian Class-composition of antagonistic classes Class-composition of antagonistic

32 Močnik 33 edited volumes ------ing - political under the condi 17 . antecedent composition of work ­ class masses and managed the the managed and masses class ­ value under the specifc technological con value under the specifc ­ While political composition of the working class results from While political composition of the working On the side of the labour, Italian operaists introduced the dis the introduced operaists Italian labour, the of side the On The alliance between transnational capital and local compra capital and between transnational The alliance Permanent technical revolution as one of the basic features of the capi technical revolution as one of the basic features Permanent talist mode should accordingly be considered not only as the conse quence of the competition among individual capitals to appropriate extra-profit (as it is perceived by the capitalist ideology). It should pri marily be conceived as the result of the permanent struggle of the capi tal to break down the political class composition of the working class. cluded from the management of state apparatuses. Instead, party-state party-state Instead, apparatuses. state of management the from cluded unhampered bureaucracy “represented” the working the of results The name”. workers’ the “in apparatuses bureaucracy state post-capitalist of (theory catastrophic were bureaucratisation was developed in Kržan 2016 and Kržan 2017).

17 class has historical initiative against capitalist class class has historical initiative against capitalist composition in its class political tion that it succeeds ly, the technical composition of labour power is a response from ly, the capitalists’ class struggle to the historically would mean that working composition of the working class. This technical composition of labour power, the technical composition the technical technical composition of labour power, struggle of the capitalist of labour power results from the class composition. Accord class combating the working class political litical composition of the working class (Tronti 1966; Bologna 1972). (Tronti litical composition of the working class under the conditions primarily determined by struggle the workers’ torical unity of means of production as the means of producing sur torical unity of means of production as resistance workers’ The exploitation. of means as i.e., value, plus power gives rise to po against the technical composition of labour her/him produce surplus her/him is power labour of composition Technical moment. the of ditions producer’sthe imprint upon the of the specifc his body and mind tinction between technical composition of labour power and politi composition of labour power tinction between technical labour of composition Technical class. working of composition cal making by producer immediate the submits capital how is power ing-class masses. formation of nations into identity communities. The other source is The other source communities. of nations into identity formation present its mechanism, divide. To side of the class on the opposite digression on the class we need a conceptual dor bureaucracies is most often ideologically produced and repro ideologically produced is most often dor bureaucracies the present trans is one source of . This duced by ------, - - - nation social of the en re-composition composition of the working class ­ 18 : it efects a , not of the particular labour power . class political , of all the various sectors of workers involved in various Although, in every particular historical moment, class etc.). Under post-Fordist regimes, the general tendency is towards het etc.). Under post-Fordist erogenisation of technical compositions of labour power (non-standard importance of private employment, civil law substitutes labour law, social education, limited national strategies, austerity), and the over-all composition of labour power becomes an important foundation of the domination of capital. mation was proposed in Močnik 2011. According to Italian operaists who mation was proposed in Močnik 2011. According developed the concept, “technical composition of labour power” is the Capital as technology effect of the subsumption of labour to capital. of the labour power determines educational level, skills, social habitus etc., in order to integrate it into the production process. Under Fordist regime, there is a general tendencyhomogenisation of the towards employment contracts, technical composition of labour power (standard consumerism strategy, labour laws, public education, national economic The concept of “social composition of labour power” The concept of “social composition of labour as a combined power in a social for effect of various technical compositions of labour

class 18 of labour power in a particular society – it challenges the of labour power in a particular society composition of labour power i.e., on the level of social formation, not only of one or several of its modes of production. Class works against the combined efect of all technical compositions litical unity of the working class, it also challenges the domi litical unity of the working class, it also class conse Working of the dominating mode of production. quently composes itself on the level of the really existing society, of workers resulting from the existence of various technical com resulting of workers positions of labour power as various types of capital domination po produces only not composition class political exploitation, and ous historical technical compositions and reaches beyond the divi compositions and reaches beyond ous historical technical sions imposed upon the labour power by the technical existence of the capital as constant capital. By abolishing the fragmentation historically existing modes of production, dominant or not, and in the many variants of the dominating mode. Class composition is of vari challenges the “technical determinism” political as far as it class composition is class composition tire tion, class response to such a technical composition is the re a technical composition response to such tion, class the working sponse of trapped in its given historical technical composition. In this sense, struggle is determined by the particular technical composition im particular technical determined by the struggle is mode of produc by the dominant the labour power posed upon

34 Močnik 35 edited volumes - - ) ­ - k, - - - - titu of labour. labour. of he means means he otional otional , small and and small , ofensive ofensive ­ socialist soci ­ Formal sub socialist (semi ­ 20 Subcontracting exploitation, like unpaid exploitation, like ­ liberal counter ; “Fordist” and competitive labour labour competitive and “Fordist” ; exploitation has been the ­ ­ , Vol. I. , Vol. neo composition in post composition 19 ­ Capital Classical industry Classical : labour power is separated from the means of production; production; of means the from separated is power labour : citizens’ (“migrant”) work (Brass 2018). The combined citizens’ ­

21 Toyotism” The present social composition of labour power has so far of labour power social composition The present handicraft production), and “real subsumption of labour under capital” handicraft production), where capital directly intervenes into the production process and sub the chapter “Absolute Cf. mits it to permanent technological revolution. and Relative Surplus Value”, For the concept of the “cycle of accumulation” and an historical over For the concept of the “cycle of accumulation” increasing rates of see Arrighi 2010. For the falling profit rates and view, 2008b. exploitation, see Husson 2008a and Husson under capital” Marx Under the concept of “subsumption of labour distin capital” (where capital guishes “formal subsumption of labour under controls labour without intervening into the direct production process, to capital as in, e.g., which remains the same as before being submitted As an illustration, I list some of the various modes of integration of labour labour of integration of modes various the of some list I illustration, an As important parts of the organisation of the labour process are assumed by the the by assumed are process 2. “ labour the of organisation the of parts important social of mechanisms working teams; solidarity of the working team is induced by “em “pre-capitalist” by firm, the to loyalty engineering”, 3. cohesion (family enterprises, ethnic business). medium enterprises – shared risk: labour power separated from t market: labour power is separated from material and intellectual means of of means intellectual and into the capital process: 1. material from separated is power labour market: the organisation production; technology and management dictate

21 19 20 particularly relevant for our discussion, was the fragmentation of for our discussion, was the fragmentation particularly relevant of labour under capital. the modes of subsumption and intensifed traditional modes of over and intensifed traditional of attac mostly by women. Another line domestic work, provided targeted labour along several strategic lines. For one, it preserved several strategic lines. For one, it targeted labour along periphery. fragmentation of the social composition of labour power that has fragmentation of the social composition class-composition of the until now importantly obstructed the and in post working class both in the capitalist core new forms of unfree labour were institutionalized, such as agencynew forms of unfree labour were institutionalized, work, or non efect of the plethora of modes of over sense, however, new forms of “non-standard” employment con new forms sense, however, subs (based on juridical fctions, as the tracts were introduced and contracts by civil-law contracts) employment tion of labour-law sumption reappeared, as in various “cognitive” activities. In a larger activities. In a larger as in various “cognitive” sumption reappeared, keep proft rates from falling during the recession phase of the phase of the during the recession rates from falling proft keep cycle of accumulation, “American” prevented the working class class the working class prevented countries. To core it in the EU has signifcantly eroded eties, and ------and - is supple unit; the arket and also also and arket oduction unit unit oduction is supplemented by by supplemented is separation no. 1 separation separation no. 1 separation comprador bureaucracies. The The bureaucracies. comprador – individual production unit as a whole is is whole a as unit production individual – , small, medium and big enterprises – the risk risk the – enterprises big and medium small, , de facto – individual production unit as a whole is separated separated is whole a as unit production individual – and separation no. 2 separation Subcontracting contractor; relations are the same as under 3, only less fa contractor; relations are the same as under 3, only ­ in spe separation no. 2 separation Present social and ideological conjuncture, accordingly, re ideological conjuncture, accordingly, Present social and of compra The new ruling groups are uneasy conglomerates This immediate structural efect has been enhanced by the has been enhanced structural efect This immediate mented by the new separated from socialisation of its production process on the m from the general social conditions of production; individual pr sells its product, that may be the final product, to only one (“monopsonistic”) buyer that has no obligations towards the individual production market. world the on agent oligopoly an is buyer from socialisation of its production process on the market; its product is a is product its market; the new the on process production its of who buyer socialisation from (“monopsonistic”) one to sold be only can quasi-monopolist that a is and semi-product process production its of conditions social controls 4. on the market. from separated is force is upon the sub labour unit: production individual the for vourable the means of production; this constitutive capitalist of production; this constitutive capitalist the restoration of capitalism using the “nation-state” ideology. How ideology. “nation-state” the restoration of capitalism using the identity were established actually they constructions the ever, traditional the of pluralism the to contrary that, states omy. The restoration of capitalism in post-socialist countries resort The restoration of capitalism in post-socialist omy. in efects catastrophic with ideology, nationalist traditional to ed for support popular organized groups ruling new where Yugoslavia, geoisies may still nurture dreams of domination within their respec geoisies may still nurture dreams of domination the into enclosed remain they Ideologically, frames. national tive of traditional nation state and (eventually) of national econ horizon dor bourgeoisies EU is pushing towards bureaucratic composition, while weak bour sults from two kinds of processes, one kind working from above of processes, one kind working from sults from two kinds tendency general the into ftting both con of below, from other the societies. fragmenting by itself reproduce to capitalism temporary Identity politics labour power. This is the second source of identity politics that of identity politics is the second source This labour power. contemporarytransforms agglomerates of formations into social identity communities. response of households to the heterogeneity and insecurity of heterogeneity and of households to the response composition of the fragmented social resulting from their income,

36 Močnik 37 edited volumes ------ste un of the identity 23 social form: standard , national practiced internal discipline and control, as well as as well as control, and discipline internal practiced 22 A spontaneous “bottom-up” process supplements this “top- A spontaneous “bottom-up” The maximum of social composition the restoration ruling the restoration of social composition The maximum class managing a dependent society, Being a dependent sciousness, i.e., ideological pluralism). This juridical-political construction This juridical-political sciousness, i.e., ideological pluralism). is supported by the national educational system, national culture when it comes to “super – As side – national economy. its the “infrastructure” and for structure”, limitation, this construction creates the problem of “national minorities”. The “traditional nation-state” is here referred to in the ideal-type sense: The “traditional nation-state” Revolution of the French it is the state that secures the achievements i.e., political pluralism; or freedom of con (e.g., freedom of assembly, For an early definition of the “politics of recognition”, see Taylor 1992. see Taylor For an early definition of the “politics of recognition”,

22 23 ing contributors to the household income and objects of ing contributors to the household income vival. Control and discipline especially target the young and the vival. Control and discipline especially emancipate themselves women, as they are willing and able to are promis on the other, from family constraints on one side, and, down” mechanism. Households with precarious and heteroge down” strict control over their members, neous resources need to exert the means of sur and to discipline them into solidarily assembling community by superior instances (the “international community”,community by superior instances (the etc.). the EU, nation-state, for these features to be safeguarded. Local ruling groups self-au for these features to be safeguarded. themselves as the guardians of “national identity”,thorize and the qualifed instance able to secure the “recognition” cient mechanisms for this double task. It draws on traditional cient mechanisms for this double task. the educational system and reotypes inculcated in the masses by creates a communal need the apparatuses of national culture, and with transnational capital and its political-juridical apparatuses on capital and its political-juridical apparatuses with transnational passivity consent or at least to organize other, one side, and, on the ef whom they rule. Identity ideology ofers of the masses over state management or of the EU bureaucracy. bureaucracy. or of the EU state management need to ally themselves comprador bureaucracies-bourgeoisies they are able to organize a local dependent economy) and (in other a local dependent economy) they are able to organize of the metropolitan comprador bureaucracy, an extension cases) tional frame’s fascist potential into actually existing neo-fascism. neo-fascism. existing actually into potential fascist frame’s tional cases are comprador bourgeoisie (in the rare groups can achieve, ethnic intolerance. It then only took some exalted rhetoric vol took some exalted It then only ethnic intolerance. this institu dissidents, to transpose writers, poets, and teered by ------24 We may conclude that what we perceive as the new forms We The combined objective pressures and operations of the and operations objective pressures The combined Its is monistic and inwardly oppressive. Identity community Croatia, Serbia and . The differences, we assume, would mostly be ideological, while the socio-economic pattern is more or less the same. In Slovenia, this pattern is a historical tendency that slowly makes its way against strong resistance (from the trade unions in the nineties, from popular movements around 2010, from the organised left after 2014). same concepts, the analysis could eventually be extended to Poland, We have based our analysis on the case of Hungary. Developing the

24 fects of the world-systemic crisis of capitalism without changing fects of the world-systemic crisis of capitalism the capitalist system. of nationalism, are new types of ideologies and politics, and even of nationalism, are new types of ideologies that attempt to adapt to the destructive ef new forms of society, mechanism of domination, as it supports spontaneous survivalmechanism of domination, as it supports households, and repro strategies employed in working people’s and exploited. duces their position of the oppressed tradictory it an efcient mech makes character of identity ideology anism of reproduction of the contradictory systemic position of is also an efcient comprador ruling groups. Identity ideology culture, and feels superior to non-members and neighbours. On to non-members and neighbours. culture, and feels superior of recog community is incessantly in need the other hand, identity it. for an authority that would bestow nition, and searches The con outward stances are contradictory:outward stances are it believes it is aggressive, since and knowledge of a secret and exclusive itself to be in possession identity communities that seem to be in the process of replacing that seem to be in the process of identity communities traditional nations. ercion yields “identity”.ercion yields up yield the top down and from the bottom identity politics from matrimonial strategies. Households help themselves with the avail help themselves strategies. Households matrimonial constraint, domination, religious patriarchal able mechanisms: eth means of co of these “traditional” The combination nic discipline.

38 Močnik 39 edited volumes ------ital ­ https:// of ­ International Prehod v social , last accessed lineage ­ Introduction to the So to the Introduction the ­ New York: International New York: on ­ https://www.viewpoint . Chicago: Haymarket Books. . Chicago: Haymarket edited by Sergio Bologna et edited by Sergio Bologna http://www.criticatac.ro/left fordism ­ , last accessed February 2019. 8, ostface to: Ernest Mandel, beyond , last accessed February 8, 2019. ­ P . Lausanne: Page deux. . Lausanne: Page http://www.internationalviewpoint.org/ , edited by Hamza Alavi and Theodor Shanin, Alavi and Theodor , edited by Hamza , December 15, 2014, Operai e Stato. Lotte operaie e riforma dello stato dello e riforma operaie e Stato. Lotte Operai workerism ­ http://hussonet.free.fr/parvaivp.pdf , last accessed February 8, 2019. or: Selections from the Prison Notebooks. Selections The Long Twentieth Century: Money, Power and the Origins of Money, Century: Twentieth The Long , last accessed February 8, 2019. Un pur capitalisme http://www.criticatac.ro/lefteast/the-political-economy-of-hun London: Verso. London: Verso. n°397, February 2008, Labour Markets, Identities, Controversies Markets, Labour Viewpoint Magazine [Transition to Socialism], Ljubljana: Založba. to Socialism], [Transition , last accessed February 8, 2019. workerism/ ­ movimento consiliare”. In movimento consiliare”. e New Deal, Rivoluzione d’ottobre tra capitalistico al. Milano: Feltrinelli. Macmillan Press, London–Basingstoke. Macmillan Press, Our Times. libcom.org/library/italian ciology of “Developing Societies” of “Developing ciology ian erism”. erism”. mag.com/2014/12/15/workerism Viewpoint spip.php?article1421 February 8, 2019. htm ‘Slave Law’”, garys-new-slave-law/ Publishers. national in the Struggle of the Working Class against Fascism. Main Report Class against Fascism. national in the Struggle of the Working Congress of the Communist International”, delivered at the Seventh World https://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/dimitrov/works/1935/08_02. east/the-economics-of-orbanism/ tion between social formations], izem Bibliography 1982. “TheAlavi, Hamza. In peripheral capitalism”. structure of Bologna, Sergio. 2014. “Workerism Beyond Fordism: On the Lineage of Italian Work Beyond Fordism: On the Lineage Bologna, Sergio. 2014. “Workerism Bologna, Sergio. 1972. “Composizione di classe e teoria del partito alle origini del di classe e teoria Bologna, Sergio. 1972. “Composizione Bellofore, Riccardo and Tomba, Massimiliano. 2011. “On Italian Workerism”, Italian Workerism”, 2011. “On Massimiliano. Tomba, Bellofore, Riccardo and Arrighi, Giovanni. 2010. Brass, Tom. 2018. Brass, Tom. of the Communist Inter Ofensive and the Tasks Georgi. 1935. “The Fascist Dimitrov, Koltai, Mihály. 2018. “The economics of ‘Orbánism’”, 2018. “The Mihály. Koltai, economics of ‘Orbánism’”, Husson, Michel. 2008b. “The upward trend in the rate of exploitation”. Gramsci, Antonio. 1971. Husson, Michel. 2008a. Gagy, Agnes and Gerocs, Tamás. 2019. “The of Hungary’s political economy Gerocs, Tamás. Agnes and Gagy, new Kržan, Marko. 2016. “Teorija prehoda med družbenimi formacijami” [Theory of transi prehoda med družbenimi formacijami” [Theory 2016. “Teorija Kržan, Marko. ------­ - - -

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42 Gordon 43 edited volumes ------crises, fascism, leftism, postmodernism, power crises, fascism, leftism, postmodernism, power to address imposing and coercive fascist ones from the right.to address imposing and Keywords: Through an exploration of age-old tensions between quests Through an exploration of freedom, this essay ofers an for stability and aspirations and the left’s distinct responses to examination of the right’s for contemporarycrises and their implications forms of fas The is postmodern in character. cism, which the author argues when the on what is at stake essay concludes with a refection models of power with which left refuses to ofer alternative To begin, my aim here will be to examine fascism beyond its To So, the thesis ofered here is straightforward. Fascism per So, the thesis ofered here is straightforward. Fascism This essay examines the conjunction of two terms nearly ev This essay examines the conjunction immediately avowed political goals. Its logic has always lurked with immediately avowed political goals. Its logic has always lurked in the human struggle with the age-old problem of stability in the Age-old problem of stability versus change versus of stability Age-old problem ing to resources of rebranded postmodern representations. Such I ing to resources of rebranded postmodern in the end. is at stake will argue with some refections on what sists, but it can, through bad faith, deny what it is through appeal sists, but it can, through bad faith, deny the unfashionable! ment aforded in their unclothed forms; strangely enough, to ment aforded in their unclothed forms; credit, is not borne of some of the discomfort postmodernism’s content but temporal displacement. the return of How paradoxical end of grand narratives. Fascism, on other hand, has kept its histori on other hand, has kept end of grand narratives. Fascism, through the shelter of eu cal repugnancy, yet it is on the rise albeit of both is the embarrass phemisms. Indeed, a converging feature eryone argues about, yet knows when they see what they signify. slightly farcical as the world The postmodern, once revered, is also essentialisms and the carries on despite disavowals of continued Contemporary Quests for Stability for Quests Contemporary A b s t r a c t Postmodern Fascism and Other Facets of Facets and Other Fascism Postmodern ------, more more , gov eing uction of Axw , Cofn Texts ancients, especially in an ancients, (sometimes translated as soul, soul, as translated (sometimes ka their . It is the source of the word “po , which means godlike strength. We We strength. godlike means which , the potis pHty heka or HqAw What is the point of a god who can do nothing? Power is that that is Power nothing? do can who god a of point the is What I am speaking, of course, of what Sigmund Freud called “the Freud I am speaking, of course, of what Sigmund This dual manifestation of reality took form in many aspects of reality took form in many This dual manifestation should bear in mind that for those ancient Northeast Africans, even even Africans, Northeast ancient those for that mind in bear should the gods’ abilities came from a source. In the often written as tent” as in an omnipotent god. If we again look back further, howev look back further, tent” as in an omnipotent god. If we again Kingdom Middle Kemet/Egyptian ancient the notice will we er, word BCE) BCE–1700 (2000 important element through which the ability of the gods, and us, is is us, and gods, the of ability the which through element important etymology the to refer often analyses Eurocentric manifest. made of “power” in the Latin word ernments. None of these, however, are worth much without that are worth ernments. None of these, however, power. added element of gods – namely, all, ofered sanctuary, good health, and laws. With culture, we have as houses, villages, and towns; such safety, technologies of physical of course, states and medicine; ethics, morals, and laws; and, once sought from the gods: protection, longevity, and order. Freud Freud and order. longevity, once sought from the gods: protection, of miseryformulated them as alleviation of sources born from the The gods, after each other. elements, our bodies, and, most severe, prosthetic god” – namely, culture. That reality, created at least in culture. That reality, prosthetic god” – namely, of the promises many its human forms by human beings, ofers can, after all, go out of being. There is thus risk in the prod can, after all, go out of being. There is world with a false all institutions, and this beguiles the human promise of never dying. of human life, especially the production of institutions, whose folly the production of institutions, of human life, especially haunt from what was created. The is the promise of permanence b is a basic refection: What comes into ing of all institutions ence of the human condition of struggling with change amid the condition of struggling with change ence of the human unchanging. futility of what appears manifested in fre and water. The recurring rise of the sun and the The recurring rise of the sun and the water. manifested in fre and experi our fngers captures this dynamic water that fows between ity of change being the paradoxically ongoing manifestation of re manifestation ongoing being the paradoxically ity of change to the earlier appeal there is ality, the two forces are cyclically wherein cient Kemet/Egypt, midst of change. Among the ancients, on whom Euromodern schol Euromodern ancients, on whom Among the midst of change. real”, the “really of reality, thought is often Parmenides’ arly focus permanent, and thus as the unchanging on the real and Heraclitus’

44 Gordon 45 edited volumes ------r (“just (“just modo century French philosopher and and philosopher French century ­ What critics who equate modern with European ignore is European What critics who equate modern with Today we are accustomed to equating the term “modern” “modern” term the equating to accustomed are we Today Anxiety thus emerges about the future. Will one belong? Anxiety thus emerges about the future. where the pres Let us call investments in future belonging, For things to happen, however, there must be change. There must be change. there to happen, however, For things present unless their legitimacy is challenged. Circumstances that lead to such include externally avowed conquest and experienced colonization. There could also be moments of diferent groups present? Should not Descartes be ancient or at least classical? classical? least at or ancient be Descartes not Should present? reason to question their belonging to the that no people have any mathematician René Descartes as the beginning of modern philoso mathematician René Descartes as the modern the With “present”. perpetually him makes oddly This phy. the be moments past those could how then present, or now being to the sixteenth century, discussions often point back to events that that events to back point often discussions century, sixteenth the to philosophers European Thus, about. understanding such brought point back to the seventeenth now” or “present”), which, as a noun, refers to a person belonging belonging person a to refers noun, a as which, “present”), or now” the to unique not is clearly understanding an Such present. the to back dates use French the Though European. became who people its tendency to collapse all concepts its practitioners deemed posi is, “modern” term The identity. continental racialized their into tive transformation of the Latin after all, from the French “modern”. “modern”. and colonialism European of consequence a is This “European”. with ent would be believed to thus escape the graveyards of history,ent would be believed to thus escape come even by prolonged moments of stability. Looking around, ru moments of stability. come even by prolonged and even recently abandoned domiciles ins of past civilizations of security. haunt such delusions This conundrum – stable transition from stability – is always imper transition from stability – is always This conundrum – stable is thus, at of course, losing control. There of, iled by the possibility ove world, a lurking uncertainty that is not least in the human wise. There is thus even in stability the ever-present possibility of possibility even in stability the ever-present wise. There is thus not mean that all change must be unstable. This does instability. is thus a movement from stasis in which, if the latter is maintained, latter is maintained, in which, if the from stasis is thus a movement an ability that could veryit must be through other well have acted spirit, or, in a word, “magic”), is what makes reality (see Buck and and Buck (see reality makes what is “magic”), word, a in or, spirit, to a straightforward All this amounts Gardiner 1951). thesis on pow happen. things make to means the with ability the as er ------ied ence, (“frst primitivus ), which was transformed from a ), which was transformed prime and, in efect, the level of culture, ruins. at primitive modern. Though the literature on this concept is vast,modern. Though the post For our purposes, the critique of equating modern with Eu Another option is simply to focus on what postmodern iden Another option is simply to focus on what This observation modern raises, of course, questions about es are always on the prowl. when that kind of ropean entails specifying “Euromodern” sentialism, foundationalism, grand narratives, totalizations, and the sentialism, foundationalism, grand narratives, an ironic relation to radical commitment since – with, of course like Paradox that, manifestation of what they disavow. too, would be a tifcation disavows. It could disavow Eurocentrism, as in its Global as in its Global tifcation disavows. It could disavow Eurocentrism, commitment against es Southern forms. It could also be a radical tions, but each of these could be shown in understandings of the tions, but each of these could be shown The previous Europe. world that pre-date the notion of modern point.discussion of power would be a case in phy from Descartes to Kant – but that already substantiates the Eu phy rocentric point. As notions could point to metaphysical well, one grand narratives, totaliza such as essentialism, foundationalism, modern as legitimate because of its supposedly being European. being European. modern as legitimate because of its supposedly notion of location to concep One could, of course, move from the philoso tualization – for instance, on the epistemology-centered in a European future, a form of European belonging through what future, a form of European in a European is accompan is to come reaching back in an act of legitimation, of any decolonial sensibility, by a rejection, at least from a form of tion, or their Global Southern counterparts tryingtion, or their Global Southern counterparts to transcend it, means a form is at work, which the continued centering of Europe lurks even in the heart of such critique. Lost hope of Eurocentrism of being signif post is standing as a prefx to a European most presume the on that condi refecting thinkers Thus, whether a set of French er. way of referring to ancestors to notions of aboriginality – in other ancestors to notions of aboriginality way of referring to words, being exclusively of its past.exclusively Think here of the Latin term of its kind” – for example, roactively afects the way it sees its present and, as a consequ sees its present and, afects the way it roactively its encounter, is erased in the future a group’s however, the past. If, a feature into question, and belonging becomes present is brought meeting or transforming through ongoing processes of trade. ongoing processes transforming through meeting or question of is an inevitable from such encounters What emerges the future, that ret group belongs to to the future. If a belonging

46 Gordon 47 edited volumes ------ls, - - . or, for that mat or, of modern Europe kinds good market is the substitute. This could be done good market ­ Where capitalism is deifed, capital and an omnipotent,Where capitalism is deifed, capital and om A feature of Euromodernity is also its efort to account for A feature of Euromodernity This rationalization is not unique to Christianity, as Kwame as Kwame This rationalization is not unique to Christianity, These problems of equating all things good with Europe Europe all things good with of equating These problems dicy. Where a complete center of normative gravity asserts it center of normative gravity asserts dicy. Where a complete vanced as “complete” and godly, and, where they bolster a single and godly, vanced as “complete” source from which they fow – for example, capital – the rest proverbially follows. ter, such as “western civilization”. As disciplinarysuch as “western civilization”. decadence is also a norms of assessing form of theodicy, so, too, are the prevailing these institutions. In other words, disciplines could also be ad niscient, and all or with cultural ido with models of knowledge, such as science, grammar of theodicy. Where Christ stepped out, Where grammar of theodicy. other gods are two idols. Capitalism is stepped in. Epistemology and science another. itself without appealing to its Christian presuppositions. Yet Euro presuppositions. Yet itself without appealing to its Christian maintained the modern atheism, agnosticism, and secularism without question the normative center of the Euromodern world, world, of the Euromodern without question the normative center 1987; Hicks 1978; Jones 1997; focus on it (Gyekye sense to it makes Jackson 2009; Pinn 1999; Gordon 2008). Gyekye has shown in his study of Akan philosophy in Ghana, but as has shown in his study of Akan philosophy Gyekye and Christianity is the context of this discussion is Euromodernity, for such infelicity because of (1) human limits of comprehension for such infelicity because of (1) human which humanity botched and (2) the grace of free will through 1952). things up (see Augustine 1950 and Leibniz count. From the times of St.count. on Augustine through to Leibniz and From work on the topic,to recent Christian the response is as follows: The omnipotent, omniscient, Deity is not responsible and all-good self, the inevitable problem of evil and injustice demands an ac problem of evil and injustice demands the inevitable self, idolizes its center. The problem to which I am here referring is The problem to which I am here referring center. its idolizes theo ples who became European. Its foundation was in Christianity, al was in Christianity, Its foundation ples who became European. or value that system of knowledge to any though its logic pertains “modes” of belonging – in other words, belonging – in other “modes” of of the peo that has dominated the thought have at its heart a logic modernity is what is being talked about and other kinds of modern other kinds of modern about and is what is being talked modernity move on to the such, one could are the foci. Stating when they appropriately, of futurity and, of competing models question ------tal ugh -

the tions the market col the market , there is occur if there were more occur if there were could knowledge of the market knowledge ; instead of education markets there is the ; instead of education markets (see Gordon 2010 and forthcoming). Where the Market colonizes institutions of power, the Mar the institutions of power, colonizes Where the Market We are already witnessing this credo of commodifcation in We Capitalism, for instance, lacks any principle of verifcation of verifcation principle any for instance, lacks Capitalism, also a market colonization of imagination. In a way, this would be a colonization of imagination. In a way, also a market postmodern triumph, since it would also mean a proverbial foreclo Capitalism would in sure of future alternatives to the Market. edge, this entails the market colonization of political life and edge, this entails the market all kinds of knowl this involves knowledge. In the case of the latter, edge including the imaginative practices of inquiry. It means, then, onization of society In the case of politics and knowl sole exemplar. becomes its ket go on, but the basic point is already evident; crucial institu go on, but the basic point is already evident; have of what is marketable that historically controlled the scope could call this We been subordinated to the market. market of education; instead of religious protection of sacred places places sacred of protection religious of instead education; of market of religion; instead of political the is the market from the market, of politics. The list could there is the market control of the market, kets other than The Market, this abstraction makes a market out of a market this abstraction makes Market, other than The kets everything else: instead of of knowledge market the subversion of other institutions, including other markets, to the to markets, other including institutions, other of subversion the (Heilbroner 1999; and deifed notion of The Market fetishized 2016 and 2017; Bowles 2007). Thus, failing to think of mar Woods thing is commodifable. Or even simpler: Everything and anyone Everythingthing is commodifable. Or even simpler: and anyone could be bought. sufcient or even ideal amount of cultivated capital? Where capi amount of cultivated capital? Where sufcient or even ideal thro is complete privatization understood is deifed, the answer Every This amounts to a simple principle: process of capital access. such afictions. Where there is fourishing, however, a strange there is fourishing, however, such afictions. Where in of what causal potential comes fertile soil for capital. What,radicalized in other words, would be a tion is often that there is an insufcient amount of free market in market is an insufcient amount of free tion is often that there of thus becomes external to causal mechanism practice. Capitalism purpose, the fact of the matter is that more people look at the is that more people the fact of the matter purpose, experience it.wealth than of employment, If there are crises envi the rationaliza ronment, social maledictions of scarcity, and other since it is premised on a purist model in which its proponents can its proponents can model in which premised on a purist since it is and have it, could serve too. Although wealth eat their cake a such

48 Gordon 49 edited volumes ------r criti an sys ontologized, other consid ontologized, ­ fetishizing of capitalism. ­ Raising the question of fetishized capitalism, the reader may Raising the question of fetishized Suspending notions of market completeness means placing Suspending notions of market Capitalism thus stands as a form of stability over change Capitalism thus stands as a form of stability Of course, a critical response could be to reject this notion Of course, a critical response could be Limiting political capacity and imagination involves the sub imagination involves capacity and Limiting political duced system. This is, in efect, a de wonder about an important elephant in the room, especially in Market into a specifc kind of market. De kind of market. into a specifc Market capital which makes erations can be explored and communicated, and brought under account as a human-pro ism particularized accountability on The Market, which would transform it from The which accountability on The Market, The “right” and the “left” human actions. That question of the future of capitalism threatens human actions. That question of the future its basic tenet, which is that, as the legitimate bearer of the pres ent, there is no future without it. but instead activities of consumption. veiling its dependence on through the bad faith of its proponents nated, and, of course, this could be accompanied by a celebration nated, and, of course, this could be accompanied fantasies for a world of of the demise of that bane of capitalist other subject, or any even consumers, not proft without workers of “we” and any other form of “subject”. In a single swoop, the idea other form of “subject”. any and of “we” point would be elimi of a transcendent standpoint or legitimation lusion of its ontological status. Missing here is that as a hum status. Missing here is that as a lusion of its ontological agencytem, it requires human and maintenance. for its creation out of being. bring into being, we can also take What human beings through the human capacity to produce social worlds or systems, capacity to produce social worlds or through the human a as The Market and transform them. Treating communicate them, forces and thus ofers the il it stand outside of human deity makes ple, the abstraction of The Market. Elided in such an abstraction is of The Market. ple, the abstraction relations constructed as human of markets the understanding ordination of politics to rule. The Market, after all, in commodifying after The Market, of politics to rule. ordination blocking ou This means stratifes their potential. institutions for exam through that stratifcation. Take, cal capacities to think efect be a paradoxical closing of of grand narratives since even narratives since closing of of grand a paradoxical efect be would be commodifed. such narratives ------an sufcient and, eventually, isolated as a sufcient and, eventually, ­ We come, then, to a problem of at least the western side of We For socialism to work, one must be willing to interrogate one must be willing to interrogate For socialism to work, thing beyond itself. If it makes itself objective and all that is real, If it makes thing beyond itself. the concepts would collapse. There would be no subjectivity from would same The versa. vice and sense, make could objectivity which toward political life. As premised on legitimacy through and onto subject cannot articulate objectivity such an individualized itself, and reality because that would require being accountable to some forms of subjectivity. This includes its philosophical , This includes its philosophical anthropology, forms of subjectivity. subject and valoriza which in the end is the individual consuming along with it a position tion of consumption. This subject brought by – economic practices? by – economic practices? world. The rise of capitalism brought along its the Euromodern cialism. In other words, a de-fetishized socialism requires consider cialism. In other words, a de-fetishized this not en entail. Would ing what an open form of socialism would constrained not are that is, that – transcend that relations social tail ual would have to be self contradict the communicability This would god onto him or herself. and the social one of so and community premise of communism economic system, it represents a specifc form of market among form of market economic system, it represents a specifc communism, that matter, others, since even in socialism and, for Without such, each individ there must be some form of exchange. what “work” means and confront the possibility that what that what “work” means and confront the it fails (for elaboration, means may have conditions under which is because, at least as see Tlostanova 2018; Močnik 2017). This theoretical and empirical levels. Yet, having the same form, does having levels. Yet, theoretical and empirical same. not entail being the exceeds them. This practice, I argue, is also a form of theodicy them. This exceeds at the level of disciplinary a form of practice. Cannot there, then, be answer is yes both at the It is clear that the theodicean socialism? as “complete” with the result of attempting to squeeze reality into of attempting to squeeze with the result as “complete” to what 2016) instead of attuning disciplines the discipline (Gordon tutions to presume there is one size that fts all. It is a point I have fts all. It is a point that one size presume there is tutions to writings on disciplinary elsewhere in my elaborated decadence, methods its and discipline one’s treating of phenomenon the is which Eastern European countries and those who allied with them who allied with them and those countries Eastern European The ar socialism. fetishized – namely, the Global South throughout fallacy far is that it is a gument thus comes to human insti when it

50 Gordon 51 edited volumes ------ict e - ls’s - - - re g of col had directus directus Gauche . (“to set gauche dirigere and has origins in the Latin droit Droit , which, as it sounds, was from the Lat senestre (literally, to the left). (literally, This supervenience split the conse created an important I will not here rehearse the many arguments from the An arguments the many I will not here rehearse sinister (“straight”), which is the past participle of a portrait of two see in this etymological exercise straight”). We fundamentally diferent responses to crises. tion. In the French, the words were the words tion. In the French, replaced the earlier in left. This right and left separation, although at frst arbitrary, had also refers to bein psychoanalytical signifcance, since “right” from much supersti “straight” in a society where “left” sufered quences of which are sufered into the present.quences of which are sufered into the The clear state ment of this division was in the eighteenth-century parlia French ment, on the where Monarchists sat on the right and republicanists dent to readers of liberal thought ranging from John Stuart Mil dent to readers of liberal thought ranging to John Rawls’s. lective responsibility meant more direct normative models of mo lective responsibility meant more direct rality and force of law supervened. short, In liberal political theory law supervene morality and makes over politics. This should be evi els of the individual sought – namely, the individual’s own security els of the individual sought – namely, and increasingly prevailed, and appetite. The consumer-individual individual, the decline as accountability pointed back to that speech and negotiated conficts and social aims for fourishing d speech and negotiated conficts and social the threat of conf pending on such practices of communication, mod to what self-sustaining via dissent made politics also a threat the position toward political life it engendered. Euromodern liberal political life it engendered. Euromodern the position toward political theory As out of this philosophical anthropology. grew pol in involved power as manifested itics, classically understood, glo-philosophical tradition for which Thomas Hobbes is the father, the father, for which Thomas Hobbes is glo-philosophical tradition and its connection to the emerging capitalism to point out except truth is jeopardized and what at best could be ofered in the com and what at best could be ofered truth is jeopardized others is “opinion”. of pany nominalism of the world. In other words, there are physical things are physical other words, there of the world. In nominalism beyond that a themselves, and are selves onto of which some befo of relating to them. It is not long world of difering ways happen to the real and the non-real. Thus, if conceding there is a there is a Thus, if conceding the real and the non-real. happen to the hold must do is question what that subject world of others, a form of self through creating have on the individual they may

------or ­ , after all, also refers to le , after all, also refers droit American philosopher John Rawls called “well American philosopher John Rawls called ­ The leftward position also raises questions of liberty and This leaves the leftward turn. The left looks at liberalism and This leaves the leftward turn. The left There is also an interpretation of keeping straight instead of There is also an interpretation of keeping “Crisis” refers to a situation in which a decision must be made. made. be must decision a which in situation a to refers “Crisis” there to do with perfection but to maintain it? freedom. This is because for change to be possible, there must be mitment is to making the future better, it is progressivism. Where it is progressivism. mitment is to making the future better, perfection – a utopia – that progressivism leads to an imagined ,there is the return of a paradoxical for what else is those of perfecting or at least making moments better. This makes makes This moments better. those of perfecting or at least making the understanding of each leftward thought future-oriented, with the present.future moment being diferent than Where the com positions moving right of it as wrong responses to each of their positions moving right of it as wrong moments. The past and the present, from this perspective, are both imperfect. In fact, perfect moment, there is no but instead The confict, then, becomes one of how the moment of crisis is in terpreted. conservativestraightness requires conserv one in that to maintain ing or preserving it. straight Thus, the rightward turn of re-setting what is already straight.would be interpreted here as transforming resetting as straight.the This model, which a theorist such as famed Anglo dered”, is a core one of liberal thought. It is also simultaneously a this means all oppositions, all diference, all dissent,this means all oppositions, all diference, all things ren The result is fascism. dered external threats, must be eliminated. demands more and thus become right of traditional conservatives conservatives traditional of right become thus and more demands – it to threats means this supervenes, order Since 2016). (Kerwick radicalized, If subordinated. are – liberty freedom, dissent, as such order embedded in an imagined right – often read as perfect – past. past. – perfect as read often – right imagined an in embedded order Although conservatives to tra tend to seek order through returning – neoconservatives – group another times recent in values, ditional ness such as law and order. The word order. ness such as law and and law of rectitude of form a about is then, right, The rightness. gal or right position. Setting things straight therefore, has an implicit implicit an has therefore, straight things Setting position. right or an inherent conser There is therefore in it and thus a return. “again” vative turn in the right, of right and that involves the associations Some people’s response is to attempt to set things straight. is to attempt response This pre Some people’s an initial straight is a deviation from which is not straight sumes that

52 Gordon 53 edited volumes ------an - kind ter all, t unlock , after all, all, after , radicalis (to turn or roll back) through a through back) roll or turn (to , should be evident. Returning to to Returning evident. be should , revolvere revolvere modern Imagine the plight of prisoners. When released, they have Imagine the plight of prisoners. When Before continuing, it is important to consider that “radical” “radical” that consider to important is it continuing, Before ever, is home? If it is a place in which they were free, then it would is home? ever, depends on the seem one can return to freedom. Much, however, project that was at work in that initial place of belonging. Af liberty. When they escape, they also have liberty. In both instances, When they escape, they also have liberty. liberty. they often seek the same thing: to go home. What, how however, liberty and freedom, it is clear that one could return to liberty but but liberty to return could one that clear is it freedom, and liberty one is attempting to tran the whole point of freedom is that a past not enough. scend would be one in which liberty was would take us too far afeld – to signify us too would take enacting a great change of the unlike is that future a about bringing to connection Its afairs. past or present, and thus tion with origins comes to the fore. “Revolution”, however, diverted diverted however, “Revolution”, fore. the to comes origins with tion from its Latin etymology in sixteenth centurylong series of argumentation from the – which and “revolutionary” are not identical. The former simply means go Late Latin ing to the extreme, or to the roots. The means of or having roots. As roots also mean source, the connec the goal. It requires an understanding of freedom that is richer the goal. It requires an understanding than an absence of constraints. fused with anarchism, meet. fas It is also where both could meet cism. After all, fascism is a voluntaryassociation of fascists. This in which liberty alone is not portrait requires, then, a leftward turn however, before one realizes that what is voluntary that what is before one realizes can be dis however, solved without compulsory – that is, non-voluntary – maintenance. This is where conservatismoften con and libertarianism, which is For now, the crucial consideration is that where anarchy surfaces consideration is that where anarchy the crucial For now, some is not a god, the only recourse is for and each individual of voluntary is not long, management of life resources. It collective anarchy. We would go far afeld here to go through the complicat go far afeld here to go through the would We anarchy. years. averred over the past few hundred ed varieties of anarchy the grips of the past and the present.of the past and the the grips in it remains negative Where its goal becomes destroying, of unlocking or perhaps the sense of leftism promises this model Radicalized, absence of constraints. something that people could actually do that diverges from what from what actually do that diverges that people could something requires liberty to bring in the new done. This ability people have it mus It has liberty because of freedom. and the possibility ------The - rela tion. is a realm beyond which there is only the end of the world. , which is why others are often jeopardized. A similar path others are often jeopardized. , which is why We come, then, to a fundamental distinction of right and We Maturation involves understanding the false dilemma of dys of dilemma false the understanding involves Maturation This “place” or set of relationships of belonging properly belonging properly of relationships of or set This “place” me me It is no accident, that hegemonic discussion of the for instance, right and left seems to have no model of the left beyond the cen that is, other than the so-called “far left”. Legitimacy seems to ter, bial of liberal identifca emerges for the various sliding locations This left. The right, all, decides within a temporal realm of immedi after ate reach. This means for the right, it all comes back to the prover plete subjectivity, of taking responsibility for a future that is never plete subjectivity, must be built beyond foreclosed or overdetermined, but instead reach. immediate one’s relationship of both. What,with capi we should then ask, as we did of that leftward talism, would be the philosophical anthropology than the ongoing realization of incom It would be no less turn? strengths and weaknesses. Seeing both facilitates a dialectical strengths and weaknesses. Seeing both always two competing uni tionship to reality in which there are not but instead an interactive versals of the positive and the negative, topia versus utopia. Life is not a case of the depressing versus the topia versus utopia. Life is not a case reasonable in the face of its ideal. It is also one of building what is of the familiar. Rejecting that, the course of belonging through of the familiar. and this, then, leads to con places of fourishing entail possibility, cepts such as growth and maturation. tue of not belonging. The outcome of either is the same – some The outcome of either is the same tue of not belonging. ex understood, properly homes not thus are These escape. of form who may need degradation as afrmation cept for the masochists they belong in those places in the form of abuse and sufering. places in the form of abuse and sufering. they belong in those places are perversionsresponse is that such intro of home. They by vir of non-belonging belonging, or belonging duce the paradox quires the empowering of possibility. There are people who have There are people who of possibility. quires the empowering could say with their place of belonging. One traumatic associations what they seek. what they re could live and at times fourish. It is where people called “home” paradoxically, not all places called “home” were in fact homes. Al were in fact homes. “home” not all places called paradoxically, to go home, too may attempt formerly incarcerated though the to ofer for certain places more is required discover that many

54 Gordon 55 edited volumes ------ac - - in the ap. This no medi Such a leap frst demands infnite resignation. This means no Such a leap frst demands infnite resignation. The leftward turn is distinguished by an immediate and a by an immediate turn is distinguished The leftward reaching temporality ofers a place into which one cannot enter ofers a place into which one cannot reaching temporality ­ ating force of promised political outcomes to grasp. It means the commitment itself is the responsibility through which responsibility for responsibility is made manifest. ing the idols of our age, I meant also that doing so is a form of leap ing the idols of our age, I meant also that even at metalevels, for the justifca in which there is responsibility, tions of justifcation. At political levels, this means there is cause human beings have always been haunted by a displeasing cause human beings have always been do not only face responsibility in the world but also our truth. We When I argued for transcend responsibility for that responsibility. taking the leap requires taking full responsibility for that le taking the leap requires taking full responsibility is an ancient insight. It is there in Judaism. It is also there in Bud dhist, Hindu, and Islamic thought. It is there all across the world be temic or moral mediation. This is why Kierkegaard considered a te Kierkegaard temic or moral mediation. This is why does not mean that ethical leological suspension of the ethical. It not justifylife disappears. It simply means it does itself and that gaard’s documented conservatism, revolutionary. side to embrace one, no epis guarantee of open arms on the other action becomes an existential challenge. It requires commitment action becomes an existential challenge. political action, that is, without knowledge of outcome. It is a leap of faith. It is also, despite Kierke­ language of Kierkegaard, tions are responsibilities for those who are always eventually un tions are responsibilities for those who Without a anonymous. known – those who are, in other words, and what they would receive, forecasted outcome of who they are the known and the anonymous. This second model holds a clue to This second anonymous. the known and the is always and political action. After all, as it political responsibility of such who are “not us”, the ramifcations about “us” and those far from the actions of immediate and succeeding yet could only exist of subjects thus become between generations. The relationship and thus eventually back to a “me”. That is why some forms of left some forms That is why back to a “me”. and thus eventually the right.could slide easily into that a Another kind of left realizes far-reaching temporality. The immediate one tends to grasp for one tends The immediate temporality. far-reaching in the here and now – can reach – understood as those what “we” be only center through right of center, which means, then, that which means, then, of center, through right be only center we have been seeing legitimate, as ultimately become even fascists and neoconservativein neoliberal regimes. ------ical. ers ers . rule This appeal to victimization as a condition of appearance, Unfortunately, moral subjects often become moralistic ones Unfortunately, Second, where politics is avowed but ultimately rejected, Second, where politics is avowed but First, the idea of morality prevailing becomes the hegemon This expectation of rule over the political is the profered rule over the political is the profered This expectation of This is scary stuf. As Ali Shariati observed, act is neitherThis is scary “[t]his stuf. emerges: Politics as a case of petitioned redress for harm. emerges: Politics destroys the political dimensions of political life, since, after all, the subject as the moral subject surfaces, and appearance – at least in subject as the moral subject surfaces, premised on having been the avowed political realm – becomes harmed. The logic here is legalistic in form, and in fact that is what through an expectation of moral purity. This ofers notions of inno through an expectation of moral purity. one could either be free of cence, and the result is a world in which harmed. The victimized having done harm, or be those who are Where to be political is to be moral, the logic of moral subjectivity Where to be political is to be moral, the follows. the task becomes its transformation under market constraints. This market the task becomes its transformation under political subject. Where that oc requires constructing a marketable moral one posing as polit curs, the most compatible kind is the ic model. This ultimately means eliminating the contingencyic model. This ultimately means eliminating of poli politics. tics and, consequently, ready shown to be an extension of The Market subject, we could Market ready shown to be an extension of The imagine what follows. ual rights. The conservativeThe rights. ual by constrained be to subject that wants and the fascist demands no tradition, the neoconservative by law, Asdeviation from its totalitarian dictates. subject is al the liberal a moral, and often moralized, one of moral individual subject. one moralized, a moral, and often Neo Market strives for a combination of The liberalism, for example, individ on individual moral subjects with and civil liberties focusing model of liberal, conservative, neoconservative, and fascist thought. becomes liberals, the philosophical anthropology Among 1965/2001; Young 2004; Gordon, forthcoming). The political is too too is political The forthcoming). Gordon, 2004; Young 1965/2001; open, they might object. of They want the closed security and the political subject – we who are all politically responsible – for for – responsible politically all are who we – subject political the and as liberalism responsibility, security of individual the immediate (Jasp of legal and morally responsible ones avows, in the forms logical nor illogical, it is alogical […]” (Shariati 1981, 61). Some might might Some 61). 1981, (Shariati […]” alogical is it illogical, nor logical responsibility political reject thus and possibility a such from recoil

56 Gordon 57 edited volumes ------her. her. . ian itics. Breitbart supremacists day fascism ofers no white ­ looking white women orga ­ punk on the one hand, and ­ profled supposed contradictions to essen ­ Steve Bannon, and, of course, his former boss, the Man Steve Bannon, and, of course, his former This development of the subordination of politics through This development of the subordination One’s political marketability becomes one’s victimization or one’s becomes political marketability One’s These varieties of fascists include hip and high corporate white women leadership, as with Marine nizers limit our discussion to To in France. Le Pen use of the tactic of high tialist claims of their reputation such as, in the UK, who was the London editor of Raheem Kassam, Breitbart to form, the avowed attacks True Child President Donald Trump. are done through on “identity politics” and “political correctness” comparative literature professors in hip black outfts on the ot comparative literature professors in hip polemicist Milo Y Their public face includes the queer British nopoulos, the failed Hollywood editor of screenwriter and former and even accusations of so-called rationalizations of an impending and even accusations of so-called rationalizations on familiar postmod Its proponents often take “white ”. ern symbols in the form of anarcho consistency in a postmodern, anti-essentialist essentialism. In the United States, criticisms of white supremacy receive virulent and as “essentialist”, “racist”, often violent responses from the right the supervenience is an expression of po of moralistic subjectivity contemporarylitical nihilism. It is also what distinguishes fascists present from their predecessors. Cynically, on the basis of what one is (among the harmed) instead of what on the basis of what one is (among the or political work). one can do (citizenship where. It is not that there are no people who are actually harmed. there are no people who are actually where. It is not that groups, especially the right,It is that there are weaponiz who are a claim expense of political life. It announces ing their harm at the harm. This is why, as we see in today’s fascism, white reassertion of harm. This is why, cryhegemonic groups in fact, beyond fas why, victimization. It is subjects every victims or harmed so many cist claims, there are since it is ofered as political in a world of commodifed pol political in a world of commodifed since it is ofered as tim. The citizen must foremost be capable – in other words, a mani – in other words, foremost be capable must tim. The citizen of power or empowerment.festation is moralistic model Thus, the it is ironic here, and politics, but citizenship ultimately at war with key subject of political life is the citizen, the agent of citizenship, the agent of citizenship, is the citizen, of political life subject key on which the life depends on actions whose appearance the person need not be a vic thus qua citizen, depends. The citizen of power ------picked picked tivity, tivity, - ­ r regalia. – that of the twen our world cherrya toward Conservatism,turn a is seen, have we The political nihilism at the heart of these developments, The political nihilism at the heart of these These manifestations of fascism of course do not always of of course do not of fascism These manifestations frst century – is not like those of the past. Too many people re many frst century those of the past. Too – is not like ­ should understand, however, that should understand, however, ty spond to these crises through trying to fgure out to which past past of supposed security, law and order, perfection. This often re law and order, past of supposed security, such as diference, crea quires eliminating sources of dissent and freedom and, instead, ultimately cultivating fascism. We The stakes present. form of postmodernism is, unlike many others, ultimately an others, many form of postmodernism is, unlike ti-modern through a perverse modern in an exclusively investment to the past as the primarythat belongs, properly, feature of the are not features of today’s can fascism. Their leadership, indeed, in only the Locked not seem to think beyond their own lifetime. The prefx “post” in this the future falls sway. past and the now, despite their tactic of amassing rule of government,despite their tactic of amassing rule of is embedded After all, past fascists in what their return to the past promises. Such grand expectations sought the avowed thousand years’ rule. themselves “critical theorists”, “decolonial theorists”, and even, in themselves “critical theorists”, “decolonial 2019). (Gordon black thought, “Afropessimists” A lot of the old continues in freshly re-branded clothing. This is not in freshly re-branded clothing. A lot of the old continues unique to the right. leftism After all, the failures of postructuralist of the late twentieth-century its apostles now calling have led to structurally, acquired new ones, so, too, have varieties of fascism new ones, so, too, have varieties of fascism acquired structurally, exem though their old-style “authentic” rebranded themselves, their white robes, black shirts, and othe plars still march in there are countries such as the United States and Russia that deny that deny such as the United States and Russia there are countries at least they maintain old colonies and have, being colonial, while fer themselves as such – preferring these days the more fashion these days as such – preferring fer themselves but refusal of interpellation, – in an apparent “alt-right” able term as Just appearance more than grammar. rebranding often changes would be misleading, however, since Aryan since part of this logic is also misleading, however, would be development, leadership in India. in Narendra Modi’s as witnessed

58 Gordon 59 edited volumes - - r, r, e - - -

- frst ­ frst century lives on a smaller planet. are humanity We ­ We need a responsible form of practice attuned to the many need a responsible form of practice attuned to the many We We must understand that the challenges we face today are We Despite groping for salvation in the past,Despite groping for the twenty empowerment. This requires a left that is not allergic to power. empowerment.that is not allergic to power. This requires a left dimensions of what we are and our relationship to other forms of hands. They assert and embrace power as exclusively coercive. It as exclusively hands. They assert and embrace power Coercive for the rest of us to adopt such a view. would be a mistake fght against disempowerment requires power disempowers. To right’s efort to eliminate political life imperils us all, but,right’s efort to eliminate political life as I have a challenge through leaving been arguing, we cannot address such with “global”, in their as has occurred the understanding of power, man beings could afect life beyond ourselves. That means they r man beings could afect life beyond ourselves. and the human world quire human action for their transformation, properly called politics. The of produced power is, we should recall, the situation thus: “Nature doesn’t negotiate” (Barber 2017, 6). negotiate” the situation thus: “Nature doesn’t of power by which hu human produced; they are manifestations us – to, as the East Indian philosopher Sri Aurobindo put it,us – to, as the East Indian philosopher opening our challenges (Aurobin up our minds to our potential to address Barber summarized do 2003). The late political theorist Benjamin we face is the challenge of living on a planet incapable of sustain we face is the challenge of living on a have committed us – and ing the kind of life to which past ages the right are condemning those who wish to return by turning to people and technologies that traverse distances in a Nano-second, people and technologies that traverse twenty life. Among the questions compressing reality and thus imploding and thinking plural futures. and thinking plural century billion its own seismic shifts: with several is undergoing is that even those eforts have been forestalled by violently im have been forestalled by violently is that even those eforts via and semi-Eastern (Western European posed North American, interventionsRussian) Southern projects of building against Global humble ability to learn from those who have had to struggle from those who have had to struggle humble ability to learn howeve foreclosed future. The difculty here, against an imposed searching for the past to which they supposedly belong. Some crit they supposedly for the past to which searching this problem (2011), regard Jean and John Comarof ics, such as than a imagination of a closed European more as a phenomenon century nineteenth, belong – the twentieth, to would like they conservatism is in fact the underlying or sixteenth. This eighteenth, countries are busy of China, most With the exception of the age. - -

- - - - - are - New r con Twin Twin (Tuesday, (Tuesday, intellectu ­ truthout Cambridge, UK: Cam New York: Farrar, Straus Farrar, New York: colonization ­ The Ancient Egyptian Cofn Texts. Texts. Cofn The Ancient Egyptian International Journal of Critical Di International Journal of Critical market ­ Theory from the South: Or, How Euro-Ameri Theory from the South: Or, Edinburgh Gate, UK: Pearson Longman. Gate, UK:Edinburgh Pearson New York: Routledge. New York: , trans. Marcus Doas, with an introduction by Fear of Black Consciousness. Consciousness. of Black Fear Capitalism. Capitalism. Chicago: The University of Chicago Oriental Institute Pub Chicago: The University of Chicago Oriental Institute Cool Cities: Urban Sovereignty and the Fix for Global Warming. Global and the Fix for Cities: Urban Sovereignty Cool Disciplinary Decadence: Living Thought in Trying Times. Times. Living Thought in Trying Disciplinary Decadence: Philosophy. to Africana An Introduction

The Future Evolution of Man: The Divine Life Upon Earth. The Future Evolution of Man: The Divine Life Upon The City of God . http://archive.truthout.org/the versity Studies. and Giroux. York: Routledge. York: bridge University Press. April 6), als58310 c. BCE. 2181–2055 LXVII;lications Volume University of Chicago Press. Africa. Toward Is Evolving ca Thomas Merton. New York: Modern Library. Thomas Merton. New York: Lotus Press. Lakes: University Press. New Haven: Yale Gordon, Lewis R. Forthcoming. Gordon, Lewis R. 2019. “Re-Imagining Liberations”, Gordon, Lewis R.2008. Gordon, Lewis R.2010. “The Colonization of Intellectuals”, Market Gordon, Lewis R.2006. Comarof, Jean and John Comarof. 2011. Jean and John Comarof. Comarof, Bowles, Paul Bowles. 2007. Bowles, Paul Alan H. (eds.). 1951. Buck, Adriaan de, and Gardiner, Aurobindo, Sri. 2003. Benjamin. 2017. Barber, Augustine, St. 1950. Bibliography also dependent, for nothing short of the in the end, on each other revolutionary. which our future depends on our understanding that our little on our understanding that our which our future depends we world reaching out for others and that speck of dust is our man life in its wider context. What might that be? Think of us as Think of its wider context.man life in be? What might that dust in a large dust in a cloud of dust on a speck of specks of through a vast universe, or possible pluriverse, stellation of dust in life. We need to unleash our capacity (power) to create, to build (power) to create, unleash our capacity need to life. We terrestrial crea to the realities of the while being sober meaning, the fragility of hu understanding of are. This requires an tures we

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- - - - - Edition. Edition. nd , 2 New York: Con New York: London: Verso. The Journal of Po The Question of German Guilt.The Question of German New York: Oxford University New York: , edited by Austin Farrer and trans. E.M. , edited by Austin Farrer , Revised Edition. New York: Harper & Row. New York: , Revised Edition. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. Durham, NC: Duke Theodicy , trans. Fatollah Marjani. North Haledon, NJ: Islamic Marjani. North Haledon, NJ: , trans. Fatollah Democracy Against Capitalism: Renewing Historical Mate Historical Renewing Democracy Against Capitalism: View. A Longer The Origin of Capitalism: Die Schuldfrage. Von der politischen Haftung Deutschlands. der politischen Von Die Schuldfrage. The Worldly Philosophers: The Lives, Times, and Ideas of the Times, The Lives, Philosophers: The Worldly Islam and Black Sufering. and Black Islam What Does It Mean to Be Post-Soviet?: Decolonial Art from Art from Decolonial What Does It Mean to Be Post-Soviet?: 12, no. 4: 365–388. , Revised Seventh Edition. New York: Simon & Schuster. Simon York: New Edition. , Revised Seventh Is God a White Racist: A Preamble to Black Theology to Black A Preamble Is God a White Racist: Why, Lord?: Sufering and Evil in Black Theology. Sufering and Evil in Black Lord?: Why, An Essay on African Philosophical Thought: The Akan Conceptual Conceptual Thought: The Akan Philosophical African An Essay on Misguided Guardians: The Conservative Case against Neoconserva Case The Conservative Misguided Guardians: Evil and the God of Love Evil and the Man and Islam London: Verso. , Revised Edition. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. University Temple Philadelphia: , Revised Edition. Las Vegas: Stairway Press. Las Vegas: Publications International. Empire. the Ruins of the Soviet rialism. ties of Post-Socialism”, Tiempo devorado: revista de historia actual 4, no. 1: Tiempo ties of Post-Socialism”, 146–165. tinuum. Boston, MA: Beacon Press. tism. University Press. Huggard. New Haven: Yale Press. as in English Available Piper. Munich, Germany: University Press, 2001. Fordham New York: Scheme Great Economic litical Philosophy litical Woods, Ellen Meiksins. 2017. Ellen Meiksins. Woods, Iris Marion. 2004. “Responsibility and Global Labor Justice”. Young, Tlostanova, Madina. 2018. 2016. Ellen Meiksins. Woods, Shariati, Ali. 1981. Pinn, Anthony B. 1999. Pinn, Anthony Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm. 1952. Structural Specifci and Historical Parallels 2017. “Beyond Fascism?: Močnik, Rastko. Kerwick, Jack. 2016. Jones, William R. 1997. Jaspers, Karl Jaspers. 1965. Jaspers, Karl Jaspers. 1965. Hicks, John. 1978. Hicks, John. Jackson, Sherman A. 2009. Gyekye, Kwame. 1987. Kwame. Gyekye, Robert L. 1999. Heilbroner, William Leon McBride William Leon

62 McBride 63 edited volumes ------st. - as they were called called were they as gain: A ξένοι reat reat ? And yet, eventually, Rome fell – fell Rome eventually, yet, And ? G xperience E ation historical farce, nationalism, U.S. Presidency, Trump N mare nostrum being the objects of xenophobia) – and gradually gradually and – xenophobia) of objects the being slogan, “Make America great again”, and has instantiated a cartoon cartoon a instantiated has and again”, great America “Make slogan, Centuryline from (a the parody late of Twentieth an American na also which 1812, of War the during battle a of report ofcer’s val did not end well), “We have met the enemy, and they are us”. De spite the ultimate seriousness of the entire situation, greater em phasis will be placed on its farcical aspects. Keywords: On the assumption that lived experience is the best basis for theo for basis best the is experience lived that assumption the On the in especially xenophobia, of role the explores paper this rizing, of States United the in regime Trump the of evolution historical in campaign Presidential Trump’s Donald with America, beginning be will It conference. the of time the to up continuing and 2016 campaign be the the of eye the in is greatness to extent some to while that, shown up live to failed least the at has regime this holder, ased on ased on B ake a ake οἱ ξένοι M Greek, As we know, everything in our modern world happens at at happens world modern our in everything know, we As rimer, rimer, Every reader of this essay knows about Imperial Rome – it was was it – Rome Imperial about knows essay this of reader Every P κοινή So, it was within the lifetime of most readers that members of the the of members that readers most of lifetime the within was it So, but that is another story. breakneck speed as compared with historical evolution in the pa tempted to appropriate its prestige by proclaiming the existence of a of existence the proclaiming by prestige its appropriate to tempted and well, very worked never charade the but Empire; Roman Holy Mussolini, was there eventually Well, again. great became never Rome undermined by subversive religions that were contemptuous of the the of contemptuous were that religions subversive by undermined old gods. As one of those religions, having be the centuries went by, the old Roman Empire, at come dominant in the western parts of Mediterranean Sea was (or invaded by unfriendly aliens from the East in parts, the vast majority of its later Emperors were born on what is now now is what on born were Emperors later its of majority vast the parts, great; were they that thought Romans The Serbia. of the territory them, the for that, fact the than there is this of proof stronger what great. As a matter of fact, as I learned during my last trip to these A A b s t r a c t How to to How ------in in - de de use use oder part - ”, to the the to ”, the the mare meum meum mare Voprosy Filosofi mare nostrum , our seas. By contrast, the once- maria nostra , words best translated as “let them hate us as long long as us hate them “let as translated best words , – or, better, in his megalomaniacal case, a better, – or, President, who like Bush received a smaller popular vote vote popular smaller a received Bush like who President, President, Mr. Bush, expressed it in his speech to Congress of Sep President, Mr. regarded by the United States as a hostile regime.” And, we should add, add, should we And, regime.” hostile a as States United the by determine to regarded power the itself to arrogated has Administration attack Bush to the and "" constitute not does what and does what pre-emptively. have times then, since But not? it was greatness, true was That that was expressed for the United States immediately after those those after immediately States United the for expressed was that of the world. Asevents in order to demand fealty from the rest the facto tember 20: “Every in every nation Ei has a decision to make. region now be will this day for From ther you are with us, or you are with the terrorists. terrorism support or harbor to continues that nation any ward, Who, in fact, are the “we” to whom the world’s oceans belong? Al to whom the Who, in fact, are the “we” codicils, question would require in though a completely accurate answer to this some adding and qualifcations and reservations some cluding the United time is, “To the simple answer at the present moment in sympathy in power has made States Government” […]. The regime currently the of and 2001 11, September of events infamous the of ner in the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, one sees that only a few few a only that sees one Organization, Treaty Atlantic North the in ner northern the from complete encircle Strait prevent NATO kilometers of the Bering but Ocean, Atlantic North the only Not earth. the of ment Pacifc Ocean as well, are ‘ mighty Roman Empire confned the designation, Mediterranean Sea alone […]. If one looks at a globe and focuses on the westernmost part of If one looks at a globe and the easternmost part of the newest American State of Alaska de facto de facto mare nostrum 2002 (McBride 2002, 80): 2002 (McBride 2002, as they fear us”, by way of expressing American imperial dominance dominance imperial American expressing of way by us”, fear they as presented I that paper a in wrote I As Iraq. on war the in illustrated as was published in translation in in Moscow and that staf of the United States President Bush, Emperor of the Second Second the of Emperor Bush, President States United the of staf writer, of an obscure Roman retrieved the words Bush Dynasty, int dum metuant a than his opponent and profted from some very questionable activities activities other questionable very some from profted and principle in be opponent to his appears than who investigation, of objects the still are that changed, and they have changed very The United States has an rapidly.

64 McBride 65 edited volumes ------r ll Marx’s fa to his most most his to fallen from greatness – assuming, that is, that we could reach that is, that we greatness – assuming, fallen from As an emissary to this conference from the land of the Horror Horror the of land the from conference this to emissary an As has children, accompanied by another decision to revise previously mentation. However, it is now partially in efect, in somewhat altered altered somewhat in efect, in partially now is it However, mentation. form. Meanwhile, everyone has heard of the disastrous decision to dis courage immigration from Mexico by separating parents from thei the United States citizens of certain predominantly Moslem countries, countries, Moslem predominantly certain of citizens States anger, to United led the ambiguities, of full and out thought poorly that, action an confusion, and a quick intervention by federal courts to block its imple serve as a greater deterrent to crossing than the various fences and and fences various the than crossing to deterrent greater a as assuming serve upon Then, on. so and place, in already systems into surveillance admitting against ukase a issued Trump President, of ofce the ardent followers, even though it is obviously an extremely silly idea for for idea silly extremely an obviously is it though even it followers, doing ardent of impossibility sheer the cost, enormous the – not reasons would it many that fact the border, the of segments certain along all at der. One of his earliest rallying cries concerned the supposed need to to need protected southern bor into the United States across an inadequately supposed the concerned cries rallying earliest his of One der. still to appeal build a wall all along that border; this seems presidential campaign by coming down an escalator inside his New New his inside escalator an down coming by campaign presidential murderers Yorkand Cityrapists building,sending for knownresponsible was as Trumpparticular, Tower,in co, and proclaiming that Mexi that behavior in general and the theme of the conference at which this this which at conference the of theme the and general in of behavior forms that new and identity, xenophobia, presented: originally was his essay launched Trump Donald remember, us of many As nationalism. Clown, I assume that I am expected both to furnish some explanations explanations some furnish to both expected am I that assume I in Clown, recently place taking been has that behavior extraordinary the of that land, and to try some connection between to establish at least – has a certain validity, then it is hard to avoid, although I tried to dismiss dismiss to tried I although avoid, to hard is it then validity, certain a has – Mussolini. our is Trump that suspicion the it, dency was true and (b) that my historical analogy between the fall of of fall the between analogy historical my that (b) and true was dency farce a second the the United States – the frst fall, to reca Rome and the fall of tragedy, a being Napoleon, Louis of treatment mous ther assumptions – (a) that Trump’s diagnosis of the historical decline of of decline historical the of diagnosis Trump’s that (a) – assumptions ther the Presi the time at which he decided to run for the United States at deed, given the fact of Trump’s now occupying the Presidency, it is clear clear is it Presidency, the occupying now Trump’s of fact the given deed, that it two fur constitutes national greatness. If we make agreement on what – individual, but who, somewhat paradoxically, took and continues to to continues and took paradoxically, somewhat frst who, the but from far am I individual, – As again”. great America “Make slogan his as take from greatness. In America has fallen clearly implies that to note, this ------hotos hotos 60% of newspaper as of mid-September mid-September of as newspaper ) of their empire – for instance, the one one the instance, for – empire their of ) limites Washington Post Perhaps, after some months of Trump’s Presidency, it is time for for time is it Presidency, Trump’s of months some after Perhaps, careful count by the speeches and tweets and documenting the astounding number of his his of number been measured with statistical precision by journalists perusing his astounding the documenting and the tweets to and according speeches inaugurated was he since 5000 over misstatements: in appropriate ways, that the crowd at his Inauguration was the largest largest the was by cropping their p raphers working for him hastened to support Inauguration his at crowd the that has ways, mendacity appropriate in Trump’s of greatness, the magnitude, the Indeed, ever. neither the Senate nor the Roman people. What observersneither the Senate nor the Roman people. often de and fond is his utter hypocrisy scribe as most characteristic of Trump with his claim, which photog ness for lies, great and small – beginning ple, bearing the insignia “SPQR”, the Senate and the Roman people, people, Roman – for exam in massive hypocrisy to the north. And the Romans engaged the and Senate the “SPQR”, one, insignia the neither of bearing service ple, the in acted armies their after long battle into Americans did not believe that he respects the latter. The Romans built built Romans The latter. the respects he that believe not did Americans Scots barbarian the walls around the borders ( out keep to Britain in Hadrian Emperor the by built turies. There seems to be no doubt that Trump is more committed to to committed more supreme for several more cen thoritarianism, and thereafter it reigned is Trump that doubt no be to seems There turies. – one poll showed that authoritarianism than to the rule of law gans such as “the rule of law”. But please remember the comparison comparison the remember please But law”. of a rule still “the was as it such while gans greatly expanded Rome True, again: once Rome with republic, but then came the Empire, with its strong commitment to au ception, with certain republican (small “r”) institutions and practices practices and than two centuries since its in along, across the decades and now more institutions “r”) (small republican certain with ception, the world, reinforced by slo that it has tried to promote throughout left the impression that my answer was “no” to the frst part of my my of part frst the to “no” was answer my that that impression perhaps the But left again. great American made not has he limped no, has – States question United the thing, one For answer. an hasty too is an initial reckoning: Has he made American great again, or is he still still he is or again, great American made he Has I ago, reckoning: time some initial an written abstract, my In way? his on but it on working to ofer a brief summary, just in order to confrm the connection with with connection the confrm to order in just summary, brief a ofer to the conference theme. – who would previously have qualifed for it. I could go on and on with with on and on go could I it. for qualifed have previously would who – necessary it unneces but it seems xenophobia, of Trumpian detailed illustrations thought I however, obvious; and blatant so is it since sary, accepted standards for successful asylum seekers so as to make the the make to as so seekers asylum successful for standards for accepted impossible virtually and difcult, more much asylum of abuse granting severe of victims are who women particular in including – many

66 McBride 67 edited volumes ------os Auctoritas, muri, magna magna muri, Auctoritas, – how great is THAT? – how great . In the infamous march in Charlottesville, Virginia, Virginia, Charlottesville, in march infamous the In . ξένοι In fact, as I have noted in my abstract, we know who the enemy enemy the who know we abstract, my in noted have I as fact, In Contemporary has, by comparison with with comparison by has, nationalism American Contemporary it is now. I am sure that I have never before heard such unremitting unremitting such heard before never have I that sure am I now. is it Americans has not been as high, in all probability, since the Civil War as as War Civil the since level of political antagonism among The no mistake: is: ourselves. Make probability, all in high, as been not has Americans portion of the American population that is not purely white will reach reach will white It is generally agreed that thea serious one. It must be resolved soon: purely not is that population American the of portion sooner. probably and 2050, year the by 50% over urrecting a gloriously xenophobic past, as it certainly seems to mean in in mean to seems certainly it as past, xenophobic gloriously a material abundant urrecting is there then Trumpians, hard-core of minds the internal enemies are remainsavailable, but the problem of just who the ant, although in retrospect often underestimated, aspect of American American of aspect hated, and before that… well, racial hatred has always been an import underestimated, often retrospect in although ant, history. If making America great again means, among other things, res Obama had been born in Kenya – but some lines are difcult even for for even difcult are lines some but – Kenya in born been had Obama especially were who Up to a century there was extreme animosi radical bigots to draw. ago Irish the was it that before and Chinese, toward ty lems of all ethnicities, as well as African-Americans were on the side of of side the on were African-Americans as well as ethnicities, all of lems Barack that in the years be himself, the invading enemy – remember that Trump insisting kept candidate, Presidential a became he fore Jews were explicitly called out. It would have gone without saying saying without identify the gone have would It out. called explicitly were Jews other Latin Americans, M among those marchers that Mexicans and the Trumpian efort to rekindle xenophobia, which is very efort to rekindle xenophobia, real and sup the Trumpian to how just of fol of his core by many ported even more blatantly and enthusiastically problem the encounters himself, Trump by than lowers and diluted by several centuries of sporadic intermarriage with non-na centuries of sporadic intermarriage with and diluted by several So, European. tives. More important, which the though, is the fact that the lands from mainly now until although diverse, are came immigrants there are Native Americans, descendants of the original inhabitants, but but inhabitants, original the of descendants (I Americans, genocide Native of are kinds there various of result the small, very are slaughter) numbers simple as their well as diseases infectious through genocide mean many other nationalisms, certain peculiarities based on the fact that, as as that, fact the on based peculiarities certain course, nationalisms, Of other many immigrants”. of nation a are “We goes, expression blunt the paper reporters claim to be the truth…. claim to be the paper reporters realitatem extra realitas deceptio, 2018. That is eight public lies per day. For his followers, at least, For his followers, the vir day. is eight public lies per 2018. That is far su his incessant fctions has conjured up by that Trump tual reality television, and news reality that radio, mundane so-called perior to the ------re nds nds r it – al stupid as he he as stupid un, from Trump’s threats threats Trump’s from un, , has just been published, published, been just has , ­ . The example from from example The . Fear modus operandi control, childishness, and sheer lack of knowledge of politi control, childishness, ­ written book about making deals that the creation of a certainwritten book about making deals that the ­ In the last analysis, there is some reason to doubt Trump’s quali In the last analysis, there is some reason to doubt Trump’s The Roman parallel that frst comes to mind in regard to to regard in mind to comes frst that parallel Roman The Perhaps, say the optimists, Trump’s tendency to create chaos is is chaos create to tendency Trump’s optimists, the say Perhaps, respected journalist whose latest book, journalist whose latest respected ­ Borough of Queens in New York City, where he was born and grew up, up, grew and born was he where City, York New in Queens of Borough to be. No, I am not claiming that he was born in Kenya – although the the although – Kenya fcations as the embodiment of America nationalism that he prete in born was he that claiming not am I No, be. to though it is true that he himself did not live many more years. Perhaps, Perhaps, years. more many live not did himself he that true is it though is our Nero, or at least would as more than being our Mussolini, Trump pire to that role if he knew enough history. plete with a huge statue of himself. In fact, it can be argued in general general in argued be can it fact, In himself. of statue huge a with plete been expected to have suf that Nero made Rome, which might have fre, even greater afte fered a serious setback by virtue of the struction of the mansions on the Palatine Hill that was one result of the the of result one was event, Rome. In any that consumed large parts of the city of the de that Hill Palatine the on mansions the of struction palace, the Domus Aurea, fre allowed Nero to build an enormous tor from time to time, and he is rumored – although one writer, Tacitus, Tacitus, writer, one Trump’s although love – of chaosrumored is ishe Nero.and Like time, fre to Trump, great time hethe tookfrom tor onstarted the have role to – of anrumor ac the of skeptical somewhat was of raining “fre and fury” down on North Korea, to a seemingly cordial cordial seemingly a to Korea, North on down fury” time. and any at “fre fury and raining fre of to revert course, of could, which – relationship Trump’s Presidency that is most often mentioned in this context is the the is context this in degree of chaos is part of his mentioned often most is that Presidency Trump’s Jong amazing course of his relations with Kim appears. After all, he did win the election – although it is universally universally is it although – election the win did he in all, After suggested has he appears. and – so do to expect not did he that now agreed his ghost grows weekly, or so it seems. seems. it so or weekly, grows his part; perhaps he is not nearly so in fact a clever ploy on ing names. And the list of those who have worked closely with him and and him with closely disparag who are legion, and calling them by denouncing his enemies, worked have who those of list the And criminality names. of ing forms various to confessed recently more have who cal realities. The President, for his part, is constantly sending out tweets tweets out sending lack of self constantly is part, his for President, The realities. cal or the former national security director, James Clapper – express real real express – Clapper ly James director, security national President’s the former the given or ahead, lie dangers serious that own their of fears mentators on television as one hears constantly now. Increasingly, one one Increasingly, by major com and other politicians of a President negative criticism now. constantly hears one as television on mentators the high Woodward, – such as Bob of those commentators hears some

68 McBride 69 edited volumes ------at at rding rding , iving a very very a iving limites , and the same holds holds same the and , Twelfth Night core American nationalists, such as as such nationalists, American core ­ , Shakespeare homepage (online). homepage , Shakespeare Twelfth Night . is the Dalmatian Coast). Trump successfully deceived a is the Dalmatian Coast). Trump Voprosy Filosofi When contemplating Trump’s slogan, “Make America Great Great America “Make slogan, Trump’s contemplating When Twelfth Night cBride, William Leon. 2002. “Globalizatsiya i mezhkulturniy dialog”, translated by D. Lakhuti. Lakhuti. D. by translated dialog”, mezhkulturniy i “Globalizatsiya 2002. Leon. William cBride, Shakespeare, William. 2018. William. Shakespeare, Bibliography M repetition of history constituting farce. Thank you, Marx! Thank you, you, Thank Marx! you, Thank farce. constituting history of repetition Rome! And thank you, Shakespeare! tempt to thrust greatness back on the American people, who acco tempt to thrust greatness back on the American second the about lost it,to him were born to greatness but somehow is above all an illus comment famous Marx’s of scale, grand a on tration, prisoning some of his former advisors has begun. In any case, while he he while case, any In Trump himselfbegun. has has beenadvisors confnedformer his as of insane, some althoughprisoning the process of im at blown up, until now Trump’s may eventually succeed in getting us all ried out certain intentionally crazy instructions as to how to dress, dress, to how to as Trump wished instructions for hiscrazy opponent, Hillarynor intentionally certain Clinton) followers out ried becauseTrump’s of Malvolioany neither car time present the to up whereas of that fate (the up population. One diference certain naïve segment of the American locked and mad thought was Malvolio that is point this ror Clown! Of course, the letter was a trick, successfully dece ror Clown! Of course, the letter was a trick, Malvolio, in the play, naïve character, it should be recalled, the settingfor the current situation (incidentally, a letter given to him, “Some are born great, some achieve greatness, greatness, achieve some great, born are “Some him, II, to Act given 2018, letter a (Shakespeare ‘em” upon thrust greatness have some and Scene V). it by its Hor America is so lucky to have greatness thrust upon Again”, it is difcult for an Anglophone not to think of a very famous famous very a of think to not Anglophone an for in read difcult is it characters his Again”, of one has Shakespeare As Shakespeare; from line extremely useful for their cause, but they do not exactly regard him as as him regard exactly not do they but cause, their for useful extremely think that the Klan has certain to all, they like one of their own. After standards to uphold. of Ku Klux Klan fame, have found Trump’s Presidency to be be to Presidency Hard is he who marries foreigners? Trump’s found have fame, Klan Klux Ku of Duke David and Trump frst married someone from beyond the Roman someone from beyond frst married and Trump from the border married to someone and is currently Slovakia, namely, Slovenia. What sort of true nationalistlands of Roman territory, namely, seems rather foreign to someone like myself who was born in the Bor myself who like foreign to someone seems rather Britain, Roman of very came from the – but his mother ough of Manhattan out land of Scot keep to wall their built inhabitants whose land Natalija Mićunović Natalija

70 Mićunović 71 edited volumes ------(III47010) 1 Social transformations in the Social transformations commons, inequality, transnationalism commons, inequality, Keywords: and social diversity, are often seen as solvable through expert are often seen as solvable and social diversity, of old-fash handling and mediated negotiations. The virtues for ioned internationalism (of the Communist International, corporate style are dissolved in particularism and instance) of transna (because we need to understand the true nature identity politics. tional institutions as corporations) and mass populist low right Growing grassroots alt-right the faceless movements attest to a disoriented rage towards IMF) deciding on millions of individual desti (like acronyms future of hu nies. The hope of internationalism as the bright to a collection of phrases at worst and manity is highjacked humiliating humanitarian aid at best. We think of transnationalism as a tendency to delegate local, We to transnational bodies and national and regional problems unbiased, rational, ex extol their virtues as unquestionably creating a system informed by pert informed, consensual, Habermasian communication. afairs, problems ranging from In the present state of world political, climatic, environmental and economic issues, to rights infringements and biological those concerning human This paper was written within the project – multidisciplinary approach of European integration process Develop funded by the Ministry Science and Technological of Education, 0000 0002 3134 0548. ment of the Republic of Serbia. ORCID It is important to distinguish the hope that is inherent in the vi It is important to distinguish the hope

1 tional organizations, which are keeping their importance in play play in importance their keeping are which organizations, tional particular their with in factor they where negotiations, through event of a global catastrophe, solidarity and humanist ideals best best ideals humanist and solidarity catastrophe, global a of event sometimes reaching glob represented in the spontaneous protests, al attention, and the “international community” residing in transna sion of international solidarity, sometimes still glimpsed in the the in glimpsed still sometimes solidarity, international of sion A b s t r a c t A b s t r a False Hope of Transnationalism False - - - - -

- - - ew he resis tened tened ng. tifes The lack of sheer understanding of what might be “in com The lack of sheer understanding of what prob attempt to solve any Internationalism is essential in any The generational gap between baby-boomer parents, co-con The generational gap between baby-boomer In the relationships between diferent countries, diferent between diferent countries, diferent In the relationships In contrast to internationalism and with the constrains im In contrast to internationalism Let us look at actual activities of transnational institutions. of transnational at actual activities Let us look tionalism failed because transnational institutions became either either became institutions transnational because failed tionalism dominated by stronger parties in them, or became a ground of per It cooperation. not is Negotiation negotiation. contested manently the divisions that are becoming dangerous. lem, yet, Transna stands in the way. the divisiveness of nationalism their status and wellbeing in the dystopian society in the maki their status and wellbeing in the dystopian is fueling generations, classes and nations sexes, for diferent mon” question and the struggle of recreating the world of their parents,question and the struggle of recreating even when there areput young people in a less fortunate position sustaining of incapable them rendering them, to granted privileges millennial or whatever ofspring who are given no hope, with with hope, no given are who ofspring whatever or millennial their heads, is heigh doomsday clocks of all kinds looming over future. The future inby the illusion that there once was a better inheritance, privilege or infuence. their and wrong, no admit still who privilege and greed of spirators technologies, new democratic practices and ever so scarce resources. resources. scarce so ever and practices democratic new technologies, are redefned by what t The justifcations of inequality by merit origin of income, property, merit is and, maybe even more, by the social groups and positions of diferent proximity to actual decision to actual proximity social groups and positions of diferent Inequality is closely tied to all making, there is a growing inequality. importance of access to n other problems; it is redefned by the those of immigrants, similar to local eating, and general faky similar to local eating, and general those of immigrants, tance to globalization. posed on international relations by the transnational institutions, relations by the transnational institutions, posed on international as the policynativism to turn expected there is an the of protecting or established inhabitants against interests of the native-born not a transnational institution. not a transnational For example, if the IMF is advocating privatization, that iden privatization, if the IMF is advocating For example, at least, true any contrarythem as a transnationalism, or, force to and its nature as a multinational corporation internationalism, and interests. We have to wonder: What went wrong with the cosmo What went wrong have to wonder: We interests. and transnationalism? internationalism, politanism,

72 Mićunović 73 edited volumes ------t op com New challenges arose from certain improvements in interna Maybe the commonalities of humanity were overrated, and Maybe the commonalities of humanity of the world. I get so mad when I see golf courses and lawns lawns and courses golf see I when mad so get I world. the of tional relations that were not supported with enough foresight and transnational for market new a up opened faith. good trade and war in advances made progress Technological exploitation. portunities that globalization created, also resulted in great temp portunities that globalization created, ambition. tations for unbridled greed and unfounded citizens that their recommendations are not taken seriously. that their recommendations are not taken citizens groups. Also, grea it is easier to fnd commonalities in smaller has veered so far from rational decency that no common ground is is ground common no that decency rational from far so veered has transnational extension, by and, institutions, political and possible of wants and needs the from alienated so become have institutions, of my own comfort. Unfortunately, the natural resources and the the and resources natural the Unfortunately, comfort. own my of are peace and wellbeing health, longevity, of terms in capital social discourse Political all. takes winner which in endgame like treated tional understanding of the common ground that is truly the tional understanding of the common mons detriment the to water save tryand to refuse I that watered, being feel foolish watching Macron jet around the world. We come to an an to come We world. the around jet Macron watching foolish feel limited themselves toimpasse because transnational institutions not develop a true interna creating a negotiating ground, but did would they not feel foolish? Those two levels mix, so when agricul would they not feel foolish? protest against ecological tax on their nec tural producers in France they because partly is that equipment, diesel essary-for-production starts a carbon emission saving program, that would be good for for good be would that program, saving emission carbon a starts it seri if just Scandinavian countries take what the planet. However, testing, nuclear continue powers nuclear of bunch a while ously, be good for the planet, but if only a handful of us do it, would we we would it, do us of handful a only if but planet, the for good be away throw and steaks eat people other watching fools like feel not Earth on nation every If trash? regular in containers Styrofoam their does not correspond to what is good for individual nations. If every to what is good for individual nations. does not correspond would that meat, eating and tableware plastic using stopped one international community, only nations. We are faced with a peculiar peculiar a with faced are We nations. only community, international prisoner’s is not thefor future generations what is good dilemma: the planet and what is good for for us now, same with what is good is a possible foundation for cooperation, but negotiations are ori but negotiations foundation for cooperation, is a possible there that believe we as long As interests. particular towards ented no is there that believe also we then individuals, only society, no is ------world - ­ for f . belonging We need to look into the possibilities of restructuring the We Without redistribution, existent even in the maligned sys Without redistribution, existent even Inequality is integral to disintegration on the global level: Inequality is integral to disintegration The role of transnational organizations in the cartelization organizations in the cartelization The role of transnational landscape. The transformation of the nature of growth and the focus for cosmopolitan agenda of humanistic movements in the changing of the USA; public dis nationalism and racism prevalent in the agenda to divide and con course are products of the controlled quer but also of the new nature of social structures, leaving limited justment in the political realm, creating no agent for global con justment in the political realm, creating the linger of the EU, cerns. Outcomes are upon us: disintegration institutions, regression ing of 2008 crisis, disintegration of political ly high bonuses to bankers), are detrimental to economy, life are detrimental to economy, ly high bonuses to bankers), and decent, or even bare existence of a large number of people, eliminate democratic ad rendering them dispensable. They also market, it is impossible to even out,market, iron out, or just tame the worst and vertical in Horizontal dysfunctionalities of post-capitalism. system (i.e., giving ridiculous equalities, with a parody of the merit tems such as feudalism, it is impossible to sustain motivation tems such as feudalism, it is impossible and without a somewhat free output driven economy, nancialized the loss of the ideal of humanity, without which, the sense of be the loss of the ideal of humanity, or something religious afliation longing reverts to race, gender, a sports club. even less tangible, like disintegration of communities, institutions and ideas, and it is disintegration of communities, institutions verybreeding nationalism. The loss of the concept of commons is which is in turn dominated by increasingly fnancialized cartel. The by increasingly fnancialized which is in turn dominated outputs of are reinterpreted as values inherent in internationalism dominance and plundering of resources. projects geared towards such a way that the products thereof (treaties, recommendations, products thereof (treaties, recommendations, such a way that the primacy factor into the of the managed de development projects) livery and their outputs to the global economy of all resources of global economy and its dominance over all other aspects of life- and its dominance over all other aspects of global economy system in of proposed standards into the world is their integration tially a by-product of digitalization, introduced spiraling economic economic spiraling introduced digitalization, of by-product a tially arena. as well as in the international in national societies, inequality quicker, and more difcult to counter. Introduction of indigenous cul of indigenous Introduction difcult to counter. and more quicker, on cus standards based social world stage relativized tures to the par of economy, Financialization to . toms particular

74 Mićunović 75 edited volumes ------

- - - co - st m - - di r the our f Capital in 21 Capital (Piketty 2015, 625): (Piketty In this profound change, concepts of capital and labor, es capital and labor, In this profound change, concepts of Innovations and technology are relevant because we cannot Innovations and technology are relevant In order to truly understand why transnational organiza why In order to truly understand Dynamic development of market economy and private property, economy and private property, Dynamic development of market leads to powerful convergence, especially connected left to itself, to the development of knowledge and skill, but it also leads to vergence, potentially threatening our democratic societies and val ues of social justice they are founded on. Century a say in decision making and that the decisions made will be fo a say in decision making and that the best. says in the conclusion to his monumental work on As Piketty inequality, the economic controversies surrounding sential for study of capitalism, are transformed. Representative de sential for study of capitalism, are transformed. mocracy all have is falling short of fulflling its promise: that we will nancial transactions and the verythe and transactions nancial mon of role the of understanding can understand the nature of fnancial prod We ey in the economy. exchange. ucts for what they are: constructs in human economic justice. will not transform pretend that bitcoin or a similar invention technology, as well as the shift in the understanding of the rela technology, tionship between representative and participatory democracy, and the understanding of the concepts of economic equality and vent of corporate multinational capitalism as a more dominant mode of socio-economic exchanges than the traditional capital ism. The issues relevant to that change include innovations and tions fail to perform their cohesive function better, we must look capitalis they are working in. The nature of at the environment the ad the most profound change since is undergoing a change, powerplay between superpowers, including not only countries, but superpowers, including not only countries, powerplay between exploitation cartels. also production and but to the soul of humanity, do not inspire enough cohesion in the do not inspire enough cohesion but to the soul of humanity, movements to counteract the ever-growing global progressive rarely successful, attempts at growth, jeopardizing sustainability. sustainability. growth, jeopardizing attempts at rarely successful, than it was for previous and scarier is now more imminent Future challenges, not only to the verygenerations. The global existence, value of sustainability over volume create a need for global institu create a need over volume value of sustainability we have. The e than the ones insightful and efcient tions, more though austerity and aggressive, is met with nomic downturn ------­ nta rsal Going back to nationalism is a way to confrm values (nation How did transnational institutions develop their corporate How did transnational institutions develop Some of the past international movements were based on movements were based Some of the past international Participation of citizens in democratic processes linked to in processes linked in democratic of citizens Participation al, religious, traditional, for the lack of any universal ones) and fulfl universal ones) al, religious, traditional, for the lack of any interests (national, class, etc.). we see a number of new That is why (or recycled) and movements that are xenophobic grassroots commodity. Obviously, these were not inventions of that era, but these were not inventions Obviously, commodity. accelerated it.technological and bureaucratic development eignty, was the consequence of alienation of national, i.e., political eignty, power became Therefore, political power from economic power. being traded as infuence just a tool in increasing economic power, but rather narrowed down to serving the proft benefciaries. That that accommodated disre but the style was not essentially new, destroying food sover in, say, gard for the actual national interests WWII fnancial and economic order which had occurred in the meaning that the 1970s, the managerial style became corporate, wide spread prosperity, focus of economic activity did not include ation which was supposed to be fostered by transnationalism. ation which was supposed to be fostered a time, after the hidden collapse of the post Once upon nature? nature of their functioning and a lack of sincerity about unive nature of their functioning and a lack in the sense of non-nation values, did not deliver internationalism outweighs cooper alism. In dealings between nations, competition EU, OPEC, OSCE, CoE, UN (UNESCO, UNDP, UNICEF, UNWOMEN, UNICEF, UNDP, OPEC, OSCE, CoE, UN (UNESCO, EU, courts, etc. international Transnational UNHCR), NATO, UNFDPA, between nations, corporate organizations, due to the power play der, arose. International “community”/”order” ruled by the is now der, mediat of states’ power play and is ostensibly geopolitical dynamic Bank, World IMF, WTO, organizations like ed through transnational On the basis of belief that international relations can be mediated, that international relations can be On the basis of belief at least to some extent, transna by the goals of those movements, international or as buttresses of recognized tional organizations, universal values which were expressed through shared interests. were expressed through shared interests. universal values which tative democracy, are essential for quality citizenship and and for quality citizenship are essential tative democracy, but also on GDP, based not only on to the real wealth, contribute Index. Human Development formed decision making, and not only in the election of represe not only in the election making, and formed decision democracy as participative tives; as well not merely represen and

76 Mićunović 77 edited volumes ------Global protests did not develop because there is always a always is there because develop not did protests Global motives of necessity and self-preservation. Is it any crime, after a ship Is it any motives of necessity and self-preservation. lay can one safety of instrument or means whatever seize to wreck, of property? without regard to former limitations hold of, the feelings of injustice, although Hume explains here why Suppose a society to fall into such want of all common necessaries, Suppose a society to greater the preserve cannot industry and frugality utmost the that will it misery; extreme from whole the and perishing, from number justice are sus I believe, be admitted, that the strict laws of readily, stronger the to place give and emergence, pressing a such in pended, develop from a feeling of resistance to injustice, a feeling ground of resistance to injustice, a feeling develop from a feeling (Hume 1975, 186): ed in natural understanding that requires constant vigilance against predators and distraction vigilance against predators and distraction that requires constant kind any truly be called progress. Protests of from thinking cannot ing around, which make little drops of protest less likely to less likely drops of protest little which make ing around, a like which seems way of life” as well as the “modern coalesce, and entertainment. Thewaste of life on administration way of life entrenched in the nationalistic perspective on history. perspective on in the nationalistic entrenched Global pro impossible be is in part spirit of true internationalism test in the contradictory the bits of incomplete cause of all information foat be an impression that something on that path is gained, for instance instance for gained, is path that on something that impression an be makes, campaign PR confusion the is that but campaign, #MeToo in appearance The change. societal or justice bring itself, by cannot, it virtue of loss of values, the integrity of person is lost. Diferent Diferent lost. is person of integrity the values, of loss of virtue overlap, little with groups, identity and groups interest of groupings may There justice. for plea coherent a make to impossible it make tionalistic interests. Fragmentation of resistance is also the result of of result the also is resistance of Fragmentation interests. tionalistic seem not does There interests. and values shared of fragmentation by true personal interest if, to be an understanding that there is no promise of a better life, if you only make it to Sweden. Because the the Because Sweden. to it make only you if life, better a of promise there report), MASH (BBC’S stupidity” is apocalypse the of rider “5th na narrow the transcend that commonalities of understanding no is ance of scarcity works both ways –mobilizes us for the common ance of scarcity works both ways –mobilizes us competitors in the common market. good, but also makes they initially extend to include the reaction to the he injurythey initially extend to include the reaction to oth Creating the appear ers, get severely constricted in dire straits. ------ac - -

­ - - as in in as markets markets under ­ wing, intolerant authoritari ­ sion with growth. […] The result is not only unnecessary hardship It also heralds a global doom loop for vast segments of humanity. of deepening inequality and chronic instability. by market forces and are now taken within a strictly hierarchical, within a strictly hierarchical, forces and are now taken by market global corporations. Its manag of though fairly loose, hyper-cartel expectations, manuf ers fx prices, determine quantities, manage fashion pseudo ture desires, and collude with politicians to services. their that subsidize was the New Deal The frst casualty era aim of full employment,by an obses which was duly replaced Meanwhile, independently of establishment politicians’ aims and Meanwhile, independently of establishment has been evolving. The capitalism their ideological smokescreens, long ceased to be shaped vast majority of economic decisions have nance and aggressive accumulation of wealth (Varoufakisnance and aggressive accumulation of 2018): al interests, still blamed in the PR campaign for allowing corporate corporate allowing for campaign PR the in blamed still interests, al out, hollowed and misrepresented are Earth, the invade to interests by domi are outranked as if the sustained peace and prosperity ism is at the center of it, because its role changed from a regulatory, regulatory, a from changed role its because it, of center the at is ism distribution of models of imposition to tool, negotiating inter-state as cartel-type interest groups. Nation and enforcement centralized the classic totalitarianism due to the change in the way in which pro which in way the in change the to due totalitarianism classic the to due change economic of speed the and disseminated, is paganda and trade. Transnational technological advancement in production little diferently. This wave of new right This little diferently. to due change rapid undergoing society global of product a is anism from appearance in diferent is It interconnectedness. enhanced zations, on the other hand, makes for actions that ignore particular particular ignore that actions for makes hand, other the on zations, old argu it is an of organizations’ goals. In a way, interests in pursuit a out played always but fascism, breeds discontent social that ment fcult for compassion to play a role, with the lack of universal fcult for compassion organi structure encompassing transnational standing. Corporate main divorced from any core values and interests. The diversifca and interests. The core values from any main divorced interests perceived the with accordance in groups political of tion it dif common ground, making for the lack of any and values, makes of it collapses with diferent identifcations with other groups, identifcations with with diferent of it collapses political The Cavanaugh. and/or Trump with sided who women of PR industry, to a segment politics being reduced choices, with re

78 Mićunović 79 edited volumes ------al, ot ot spe ho used used ho in order for for order in state We may wonder why inequality is integral to disintegration on on disintegration to integral is inequality why wonder may We New forms of nationalism, xenophobia and national identity New forms of nationalism, xenophobia to sustain their families. They outsource work so that people w to sustain their families. They outsource work as work to forced are employees as benefts and wage fair a make to monitor invasively to technology use They contractors. independent work on unionization, keeps All of this, along with the attacks workers. er bargaining power as low as possible. corporations to achieve objectives of general interest that would oth objectives of general interest that would corporations to achieve erwise follows that if corporations ex be difcult to achieve. Hence it be should existence their then it, allow people, a as we, because ist corporations Today’s […] needs. our of satisfaction the by conditioned purpose. They cut em have retained the privileges and lost the public enough make can’t workers that so possible, as low as to costs ployee Legal rules that defne and commit corporations have changed a l corporations have that defne and commit Legal rules Corporations era. Wilson’s and States United the of founding the since that were once re of the constitutional protections today enjoy many it because repeating worth is comment Wilson’s individuals. for served precisely are corporations large to given privileges today: true still is – privileges granted by the this – privileges, not rights Considering international organizations as corporations is as corporations international organizations Considering diference” (Ignatief 2001, 130). diference” ideas, and institutions communities, of disintegration level, global the ethnic, racial, sexual and cultural history, is often the only option; as members of a “[…] it is doubtful that our sense of identity cies is strong enough to overcome our sense of identity based on the interests of the voters are not in play, only their feelings of be the interests of the voters are not in play, and in the absence of groups longing. The need to belong is strong, identifcation with nation that can express authentic needs, the sexual, political and cultural, as opposed to class and/or profession sexual, political and cultural, as opposed This is the reason that al identity which corresponds to interests. then before, since political culture involves even more irrationality are manipulated as replacements for, let’s say, professional and let’s say, are manipulated as replacements for, In so called culture wars, two kinds of identity are class identity. racial, national, ethnic,emphasized: regional and tribal, as well as seeing what went wrong with the ideals of internationalism (Palla the ideals of internationalism went wrong with seeing what dino 2018): ------gen sent in in sent h difer commons. This displacement makes it even less likely likely less even it makes displacement This commons. our Nationalism’s strongest divisive properties are needed to Nationalism’s The loss of commons is the loss of the ideal of humanity, ideal of humanity, The loss of commons is the loss of the who could possibly coexist with us in solidarity. Austerity is the who could possibly coexist with us in solidarity. manual price we pay for permissiveness in allowing others (poor, servants, skinned people, females, homosexuals, workers, darker feed both the inequality and instability. It provides for enemies, feed both the inequality and instability. within and without, to to allow for the calls for sacrifces needed the people to punish the lazy and to exclude overcome the danger, to sustain motivation for output driven economy, and without a economy, to sustain motivation for output driven it is impossible to develop. somewhat free market, without which, belonging reverts to groups identifed by race, without which, belonging reverts to groups existent even in and of course, nation. Without redistribution, der, feudalism, for example, it is impossible the maligned systems like owners of fnancial (real and ghost money), natural (land, water, ore) ore) water, (land, natural money), ghost and (real fnancial of owners resources. education) care, health (technology, social and ening others. What do they threaten? Something that rightfully be ening others. What do they threaten? longs to us, of 1% top narrowing the in disappearing are commons the that see to people from the other side of the tracks) is seen as an unfair (notion of of (notion unfair an as seen is tracks) the of side other the from people a by addressed be to has that threat anyway) suspect being fairness against the threat mobilized higher degree of cohesion in the group large segments of diferent are sometimes expressed expressed sometimes are populations diferent of segments large others of presence mere the where nationalism, extreme through simply or sexualities, other races, other migrants, refugees, (women, cannot be sustained through hierarchy and competition alone. Be and competition through hierarchy cannot be sustained is strong, it is then expressed throug cause the need to belong pre group identities. The frustrations ent kinds of exaggerated education, income and general success. That makes it less appealing appealing less it makes That success. general and income education, commu instead of competition. Institutions and to foster cooperation they as way, meaningful a in develop to cooperation on depend nities stantially correlate with early prospects, one of the basic tenets of the the of tenets basic the of one prospects, early with correlate of stantially generator major the is merit that is ideology neo-liberal prevailing ercised at pre-natal level. The technology that allows it already exists, exists, already it allows that technology The level. pre-natal at ercised is it Although use. in be already may it aware, be not may we though sub research that the economic conditions amply shown in serious equality brings about instability. Inequality, reaching new heights and in evidence that There is growing and does it breed nationalism? and why heights new reaching Inequality, instability. about brings equality in scarydistinction ex is going to be for future generations, outcomes

80 Mićunović 81 edited volumes ------ite, ting ns of the The argument for meritocracy fails in the growing inequality So, commons exist, but not for just anybody. Feelings of enti So, commons exist, but not for just anybody. emergence as a class represents. We tend to think that the victims emergence as a class represents. We from the club. But his of our success are just the people excluded tory playing, ev shows quite clearly that, kind of game we’re in the erybody loses badly in the end. wealth and passing privilege along at the expense of other people’s expense of other people’s wealth and passing privilege along at the concentra growing the to bystanders innocent not are We children. in a are the principal accomplices tion of wealth in our time. We Ameri destabilizing process that is slowly strangling the economy, delusions of merit now can politics, and eroding democracy. Our the problem that our prevent us from recognizing the nature of The meritocratic class has mastered the old trick of consolida The meritocratic class has mastered the old consequences similar to multigenerational welfare. welfare. multigenerational to similar consequences 2018): (Stewart practically a communist idea in its generosity and inclusion, it is ac practically a communist idea in its generosity keeps and unrest, and unemployment of cost the of fraction a tually have can implementation, its on depending but, clean, streets the Charter 2019 and European Commission 1997), it is the extension extension the is it 1997), Commission European and 2019 Charter the of parts certain of force labor the from exclusion and welfare of as Lauded workers. for need lessened the with needed population, from labor (merit), from property (rights), and from infuence (privi from labor (merit), from property (rights), social of embodiment the like income, universal of Speaking lege). Social institutions often praised (see European rights that European Speaking of rights, rights can be universal like human rights, belong belong rights, human like universal be can rights rights, of Speaking The merit. of result the be or rights, civil like community certain a to come can it income, of Speaking merit. is risk at is really that notion humanitarian empire” (Douzinas 2009, 187). (Douzinas humanitarian empire” privileges. and rights of confusion a make sometimes tlement as a community (what Americans call exceptionalism) is embedded is embedded Americans call exceptionalism) as a community (what “Moral integrity is crucial to the actio in sharing the spoils: and our understanding of fair play. The commons must be defend The commons play. of fair and our understanding patriarchal, wh (or Muslim, must remain Christian ed, our land straight, our value as individuals and traditional), our recognition of artsy, bookish or simply diferent people) to share in the commons to share in the people) or simply diferent bookish artsy, on our birth right, device, to infringe of our own to play the capital temperament not equipped by legacy, for which they are ism game ------, we - ket ket ctices economic main ­ poses of repaying the Western banks, but at an exorbitant price: price: banks, but at an exorbitant poses of repaying the Western the dismantling of much of their public sector (including schools founded state institutions, the shrinking of the newly and clinics), and the wholesale transfer of valuable public assets (e.g., water The IMF happily ofered to lend money to governments for the pur The IMF happily ofered to lend money to As productive participants in the economy (laborers and and (laborers economy the in participants productive As There is a global trend of alienation of expert culture, espe There is a global trend of alienation of For us to rethink development and truly understand sustain For us to rethink development The hope that transnational institutions will play the role of institutions will play that transnational The hope should be wary not so much of , as of International Monetary Monetary International of as Greeks, of much so not wary be should of sale demands sector, public dismantles which gifts, bearing Fund 108): 2013, (Varoufakis institutions of shrinking and assets public lation, since labor is an intrinsic part of value; and as citizens, we value; and as citizens, lation, since labor is an intrinsic part of of consent”, lest there re should not acquiesce in “manufacturing we says: Varoufakis Yanis As to. consent to value of nothing mains economic, human and social resources. should not ascribe value to vacuous and dangerous specu we such), meaning, under attack of social policy that diminishes its content. will need all the strength of our minds and imaginations to re We of natural, fnancial takeover sist the urge to follow spiraling, toxic cially in the fnancial sphere, from general socio cially in the fnancial sphere, from general one that is, in the core of its stream, and the concept of equality is faith, belt tightening and money fetishism are ruinous; instead faith, belt tightening and money fetishism history,can value people, nature, resources and future and knowl commas in bank accounts. edge, above mesmerizing numbers of tions, fnancial transactions, trade rules and commercial pra trade rules and commercial tions, fnancial transactions, compli between powerful wise leaders and secret as private deals mar consultants. Ideological thinking: blind cated expertise of life”, understood as our birth right. understood as our birth life”, of international rela all matters we keep is impossible if ability, humanism as the grand idea, so that we can isolate “monsters” in idea, so that we can isolate “monsters” humanism as the grand preservethe remote parts and “our way of privilege, quaintly called dirty at home, is para-religious. We hope to be given absolution hope to be given We is para-religious. dirty at home, be completely to see the light and we do, of debts), (sometimes replace dirty habits. It is intended to police and transformed in our universal arbiter, just by equalizing arbitration, that UN, EU, IMF EU, that UN, by equalizing arbitration, just arbiter, universal is wrong and particularly will help fx what acronyms and similar

82 Mićunović 83 edited volumes - - - - -

------t fnancial is important insistence on members ­ say, World Trade Organization. The best and least painful way to in Organization. The best and least painful Trade World say, cul more would be trough creation of a common tegrate Europe tural space, but, due to its structure as a union of fercely indepen dent, dependent nation states, which try consensus their to keep only communication, and no recognition of value of the fact that only communication, and no recognition of The most im European. universal humanitarian ideals are not only efort at is that there was never any portant failure of EU is not a because Europe state-building, much less nation-building, but could have a function as transnational organization, nation. EU it is more than that, to more togetherness than, so it should aspire European identity is a concept that is at best derivative and at identity European identity is based on an association of disparate EU worst empty. even verystates, not paying enough attention to non-members, in Linguistic in presenting its identity. fuential and present in Europe policy […] shows a certain self Even feeble attempts to transcend national identity failed, feeble attempts Even The disaster is not in our wallets as much as in our minds. Asin our wallets as much as in our minds. The disaster is not was a disaster from which most Third World countries have never countries have never Third World from which most was a disaster quite recovered. to IMF for growth: “According It is justifed as a prerequisite boards, telecommunications, etc.) to Western companies. It is not companies. etc.)boards, telecommunications, to Western debt crisis that the Third World to suggest at all an exaggeration (after the brutal historic disaster world’s second was the colonized In fact, it trade). the associated slave of colonization and experience in the biggest ever experiment to create a transnational entity in the biggest ever experiment to create (Mićunović 2015, 30): al, dear, we just have to follow rules, numbers, facts, technical de we just have to follow rules, numbers, al, dear, tails” statements. ple did not do well in math and physics in school and are easily in ple did not do well in math and physics and it cloaks the outrageous timidated by numbers and formulas; immoral intentions in the “mandatory by the facts, nothing person feminists claimed that personal is political, it is clear tha feminists claimed that of “get it is political. There are two advantages not mathematical, of peo those who do so in arguments: majority ting technical” for development theory, incen growth results from the supply side investors” (Henrytives given to private 2016, 154). ------s of ns of al, ac Nazis, ­ metropolitan world. There is a great deal of hope to be derived from this [assertio There is a great deal of hope to be derived as solidarity without ethnic particularities were not enough, just if only because, far from being at the end criticism was not enough] of history, we are in a position to do something about our own present and future history, whether we live inside or outside of the I will let Edward Said conclude for me (Said 1993, 264): Said conclude for me (Said I will let Edward Nation states are experiencing a crisis of legitimacy. The old Nation states are experiencing a crisis On the other side of the spectrum, there have been more there have side of the spectrum, On the other isolated as if it was possible, disintegrative processes are disintegrative as if it was possible, cultures isolated as a and EU of member countries by cultural policies actually aided whole. chauvinists, skinheads and other groups that engage in “dis and other groups that engage in chauvinists, skinheads ­ complished communities. and more links to actual lifestyles of many people than any previ people than any and more links to actual lifestyles of many feel space creates The total (dis)information ous popular phantasy. of opportunities in re ings of frustration fostered by the lack many people who are in search of belonging, protection and aspira many is taking new form tions that nations could provide. Alienation powers of persuasion escape in the virtual reality that has more “nationalism of citizenship” as well as ethnic “” mod as well “nationalism of citizenship” to the thoughts and feelings of els do not correspond anymore not the truth, because there is no connection based on love and af not the truth, because there is no connection frmative validation (without a necessary confrontation with the enemy) which is essential for a family. group of people who are together because they have to hate”. hate”. are together because they have to group of people who that from street gangs and neo-Nazi groups With all assurances it is a family to young people who join them, they can represent ties in their negative rationale for the bond. If “a family is a group rationale for the bond. If “a family ties in their negative together”, live to have they because other each hate who people of as a cynic incorrect group is “a said, then politically and socially neo persing perverted from members of real communi difer people” success, but not of the good kind. Members of neo success, but not of

84 Mićunović 85 edited volumes - - - - - , last Ljudska Ljudska , last ac Yu states”. Yu ­ 08 ­ Atlantic Re Atlantic , vol. 22, Fall , vol. 22, Fall http://bostonre 2018 ­ incorporated ­ http://europa.eu/ Enquiry concerning the Enquiry concerning

Beograd: Službeni glasnik, Beograd: Službeni beneft , last accessed September An ­ www.project-syndicate.org/ varoufakis ­ public , last accessed September 5, 2018. , last accessed September ­ yanis ­ The CLR James Journal . Novi Sad: Akademska knjiga, 2015. by . New York: Picador USA, Metropolitan . New York: ­ . Paris: Éditions du Seuil. Quoted here Éditions . Paris: . London & New York: Zed Books. . London & New York: . New York: Vintage Books. . New York: palladino ­ Belgrade: FPN. siècle 13_en.htm e ­ austerity ­ 97 ­ of ­ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Social_Char Kapital u XXI veku Kapital ­ , Section III: On Justice. Article 147. Human Rights and Empire: The Political Philosophy of Cosmo Human Rights Philosophy Empire: The Political and The Needs of Strangers The Global Minotaur The Global inequality/lenore Le Capital au XXI Capital Le ­ release_MEMO Enquiries concerning Human Understanding and the Principles of Understanding and the Principles Human Enquiries concerning ­ Culture and Imperialism , Routledge Cavendish. Quoted here from Serbian edition, Cavendish. Quoted here , Routledge Oxford: Clarendon Press. Quoted here is www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2018/06/ , , last accessed June 5, 2019. New Europe and its Periphery. New Europe and its Periphery. cessed August 30, 2018. the-birth-of-a-new-american-aristocracy/559130/ 5, 2018. commentary/three accessed September 5, 2018. view view.net/class from Serbian edition, prava i imperija: politička flozofja kosmopolitizma, kosmopolitizma, flozofja i imperija: politička prava 2009. rapid/press politanism Books, Henry Holt and Company. the Antiguan and Barbudan Economy”.the Antiguan and Barbudan 2016, CPA. Morals. of Morals Principles ter In Varoufakis, Yanis. 2013. 2013. Yanis. Varoufakis, of Austerity”, “The 2018. Three Tribes Yanis. Varoufakis, Stewart, Matthew. 2018. “TheStewart, 9.9 % is the New American Aristocracy”, Matthew. Said, Edward.1993. Said, Edward.1993. Bibliography (2007). Douzinas, Kostas. Palladino, Lenore, Boston Review, “Corporations Lenore, Boston Review, Palladino, and public good”, European Social Charter. 2019, Social Charter. European European Commission. 1997. “Facts About the ‘Social About the Chapter’”, “Facts Commission. 1997. European Mićunović, Natalija. 2015. “EU cultural policy cultural Mićunović, in ex Natalija. 2015. “EU and political outcomes Ignatief, Michael. 2001. Ignatief, Hume, David. 1975. Henry, Paget. and Arthur Lewis and Clive Thomas; Gaston Browne 2016. “Between Piketty, Thomas. 2013. Piketty, Paget HenryPaget

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­ ------xeno ” (1967, 3). t triggered black racism. First, ­ Muslim, and anti ­ defcits, Global Minotaur, surplus recycling mecha defcits, Global Minotaur, xenophobic episode to earlier ones, to reveal a well-en xenophobic trenched pattern in American politics. Keywords: nisms The primaryeconom The the of exploration an is paper this of aim turn to the far Right in the U.S.,ic underpinnings of the which elements It will link the xenophobic began in the early 1980s. industrial and fnancial challenges to of this turn to perceived of American capitalism. The the dominance and functioning concept of a “global Varoufakis’ use of Yanis paper will make it will link this Minotaur” these challenges. Finally, to analyze Hispanic, anti ­ Since the early 1980s, the U.S. has embarked on another far on Since the early 1980s, the U.S. has embarked The political history by a has been marked of the United States this conservative turn was a response to the leftist turn of the by the African American Civil 1960s and 70s, which were marked Movement,Rights Movement and Black Power the Student Right turn, which has drawn extensively on this paranoid style, and Right turn, which has drawn extensively unleashed rising levels of xe in the process of its development has nophobia, anti ence, with the aid of rhetorics of loss, nation, race, subversion, and ence, with the aid of rhetorics of loss, impending doom. ceived threat or crisis are claims of major local and international ceived threat or crisis are claims of major advantage of or destroy the American way of conspiracies to take in varyinglife. These claims are then feshed out degrees of coher phobic outbreaks has been heightened forms of what Richard Hof phobic outbreaks has been heightened American politics stader has called “the paranoid style in response to a per Constellated around this core of a paranoid tive thinking and political action. The specifc events tha tive thinking and political action. The in spite in nature. However, these episodes have been quite varied at the heart of these of these variations in specifc contents, pattern of repeated outbreaks of intensive xenophobic conserva xenophobic pattern of repeated outbreaks of intensive and the Decline of the Global Minotaur Decline of and the A b s t r a c t The Rise of American Xenophobia Xenophobia of American The Rise ------usu

Fortunately for us, scholars such as Bernard Bailyn (1977), Fortunately for us, scholars such as Bernard Before we examine in detail the impact of the decline of theBefore we examine in detail the impact This paper explores the economic foundations of this cur This paper explores At its core, this progressive style has been motivated by has been motivated this progressive style At its core, some of the earliest cases of xenophobia in the responses of many in the responses of many some of the earliest cases of xenophobia were importing to the Africans their fellow citizens Euro-Americans as slaves, and also to the resistance of Africans to their important foundations for a historical reconstruction of the major important foundations for a historical in American historyperiods of political xenophobia that preceded the one that we are currently going through. Larry Tise identifes America and to observe patterns of continuity and discontinuity. discontinuity. and continuity of patterns observe to and America and Larry Tise (1987) have laid Richard Hofstader, Gordon Wood, style of thinking remained fairly constant with many of the argu with many style of thinking remained fairly constant Hence episodes. earlier of discourses the from recycled being ments it is possible to reconstruct the history episodes in of the xenophobic ceived by a social group as negatively impacting their cultural status,ceived by a social group as negatively As class, gender or racial position. a result, the specif political power, the but vary, would outbreaks xenophobic particular of contents ic necessary a closer look at some cases of ear and useful that we take these outbreaks were lier outbreaks. The events that triggered everydayally signifcant changes in the order of life that were per Global Minotaur on the American conservative paranoia, it is both The Paranoid Style in The Paranoid History Political American rent episode of American xenophobic politics and shows its roots politics and shows xenophobic rent episode of American of this type of politics. in earlier episodes of abortion (1973) were symbolic of the changes produced by were symbolic of the changes produced of abortion (1973) these movements. tending of liberal democratic practices. The passage of the Civil practices. The passage of tending of liberal democratic legalization the and (1965), Act Rights Voting the (1964), Act Rights and gender inequality that have supported American capitalism. supported American inequality that have and gender and ex economic equality and the deepening drives for social and Movement, and the Women’s Movement. movements were These Movement, and the Women’s style in American call the progressive of what we can expressions of class, race exposed the practices has consistently politics, which

88 Henry 89 edited volumes ------an rature, Notes on , which had Memorial Europeans, Safn jus Europeans,

­ The Ideological Origins of the The Ideological The Selling of Joseph: A The Selling of Joseph: , he argues that a powerful driving force be , he argues that a powerful driving force . This right to enslave non colonial republicanism of this revolution was a frm colonial republicanism of this revolution ­ Virginia

After discussing the case of African slavery in colonial Ameri Safn defended his right to own slaves on the grounds that right to own slaves on the grounds Safn defended his ters to subvert the rights and freedoms of British subjects through out the empire. In other words, Bailyn suggested that the motivat ing energy behind the American Revolution was paranoid, American Revolution American hind the anti belief in a well-conceived and ongoing plot by British cabinet minis ca, Tise takes up the case of the American Revolution of 1776. up ca, Tise takes work, Drawing on Bernard Bailyn’s Anti-British Paranoia Anti-British Paranoia Revolution and the Origins of the American phobia in American political history. yea, some to be born slaves and so to remain during their lives” yea, some to be born slaves and so to (Tise 1987, 17). In short, presence and the resistance of both the early episodes of xeno Africans were important triggers to these man societies. Third and fnally, Justice Safn argued that slaveryman societies. Third and fnally, was a necessary that some humans were and venerable institution; low and despicable; […] “to be High and Honorable, some to be the State of set diferent Orders and De tifed by the assertion “that God had and thus built racial inequality into hu grees of Men in the World” there be not some strict course taken with them by Authority, they with them by Authority, strict course taken there be not some this Country”will be a plague to Thomas Jeferson will ex (17–18). same view of Africans in his 1785 text,press basically the “any lawful Captives of Other Heathen Nations may be made Bond Captives of Other Heathen Nations lawful “any (Tise “if In the case of free Africans, he asserted: 1987, 17). men” anti-slavery pamphlet, jurist,been written by another Sewall. Samuel ated these early cases of xenophobia from the proslavery lite proslavery the from xenophobia of cases early these ated As as the 1680s. to develop as early which began of an instance to response in 1700 of jurist John Safn this, he discusses the enslavement.ra and class the disrupt to threatened resistance This thus elicited ex society and of colonial American cial hierarchies excav population. Tise from the Euro-American treme responses - - - - an - st a t presi ­ year xenophobic year xenophobic ­ Building further on the Bailyn-Wood reading of the Ameri Building further on the Bailyn-Wood Following discussions of the paranoid elements in the mak Following discussions nation out of the earlier confederation of ex-colonies, was also the death of the revolutionary ideology as a working political force. He suggested that aristocrats and Federalists, under the cover of can Revolution, the next case Tise analyses is the outbreak tha can Revolution, the next case Tise analyses the Con view, Dwight.centered around Timothy In Gordon Wood’s stitutional Convention of 1787–1788, which created the American Post-revolutionary Conservative Thought Conservative Post-revolutionary Timothy Dwight,Timothy the Infidel and to Domingo (Tise 1987, 200). Thus began a fve an intense campaign against Illuminist and episode that mobilized revolutionaryFrench infuences. French Revolution and subvert existing social orders. In 1799, Rev. existing social orders. In 1799, Rev. Revolution and subvert French and Virginia in France Morse falsely claimed that groups based with Black soldiers from S were planning an invasion of America vast French conspiracy years. continued to grow over the next fve vast French those in sermons, like These fears were fed by constant references conspiracyof Jedidiah Morse to Bavarian Illuminati to support the others publicly suggested that “a French-American conspiracy others publicly suggested that “a French-American in America Federalist rule” might be in the making to undermine (Tise 1987, 199). In spite of little concrete evidence, the fear of a turned to the outbreak that gripped the nation in the 1790s, ju that gripped the nation in the 1790s, turned to the outbreak Both date the onset the revolutionarydecade and a half after war. David Osgood and 1794, when Rev. of this episode to November ing of the American Revolution, scholars like Tise and Hofstader Revolution, scholars like ing of the American The French-Illuminist Episode The French-Illuminist American government that were sharply to the right of Jeferson right of Jeferson were sharply to the government that American founding fathers. and the other fear-driven counter-subversive movement to stop this imagined movement to stop counter-subversive fear-driven Dwight and Vice Timothy In this regard, British conspiracy. theories of mind. Both articulated Calhoun come to dent John

90 Henry 91 edited volumes ------ead ead ary r mani The Tri . America was was America . Conquest of Canaan lived. As the practical difculties of ev ­ (1969). However, as already hinted, Dwight’s progressive embrace as already hinted, Dwight’s progressive However, The individual whose life and works best refected this conser The individual whose were categorized as “infdels”. This dramatic shift in the confgura were categorized tion of the conspiratorial forces can be seen in his poem, umph of Infdelity the conspiracies and machinations of the American masses, athe the conspiracies and machinations of were seen as still under ists, and radical democrats. These groups and and other Enlightenment thinkers, the infuence of French and ideological and internal religious diferences multiplied, the xe the multiplied, diferences religious internal and ideological and British anti-American nophobic fears and the paranoia around writings were replaced by machinations that drove Dwight’s earlier of the revolution was short eryday conficts of interest widened, governing increased, regional tradition America was not the promised land of Canaan, but Egypt in in Egypt but Canaan, of land promised the not was America tradition hoping for a Moses to l which they were enslaved, and thus were 1969). Bottorf and (McTaggart bondage of out them the new Canaan, King George was Satan, George Washington was was Washington George Satan, was George King Canaan, new the land to fulfll thei Joshua leading his people into the promised American African the in that here note to interesting is It destiny. fest Connecticut”. Like many Americans of his generation, the youthful youthful the generation, his of Americans many Like Connecticut”. the celebrated and revolution, the of supporter strong a was Dwight birth of the nation in his epic poem, vative and xenophobic turn was the Rev. Timothy Dwight. Timothy Dwight, a turn was the Rev. vative and xenophobic Uni was president of Yale distinguished Congregational clergyman, of Pope “the as to referred often was and 1795–1817, from versity ing that would replace the political thinking of the revolution ing that would replace after. period and the decade sense of a new and now largely internal crisis subverting and now largely internal crisis subverting sense of a new and threatening the very became order of American society once again, force behind the conservativethe creative and motivational think fears were that all of this popular activity would result in American of this popular activity would result in fears were that all democracy this into mobocracy. Real or imagined, degenerating ed unto the popular forces released by the revolution. With fears With fears by the revolution. popular forces released ed unto the smolder abolitionist sentiments still lingering, infuence of French democracying, atheism and Jefersonian the projected on the rise, revolutionary rhetoric, thrusts of the radical democratic blunted social ordering them to an elitist and subjected the revolution to fears project to do by appealing This they were able (2009, 31). ------in communist one. ­ black terrorism that ­ known anti ­ slavery another case of infdelity. resistance became ­ makes clear, these imagined restorations were to be be to were restorations imagined these clear, makes subversive response to the infdels, which lasted until the the until lasted which infdels, the to response subversive ­ The conspiracy at the heart of this particular outbreak were Between the Civil War and the 1930s, there were other out and Between the Civil War To counter this perceived triumph of infdelity, Dwight’s pri oughly infltrated by communist conspirators. In 1950, McCarthy oughly infltrated by communist conspirators. In 1950, McCarthy declared that he was aware of 205 card-carrying members of the who were working in the State American communist party, the way to socialism and communism. Asthe way to socialism and communism. evidence of this threaten conservatives saw the top layers of gov ing conspiracy, right-wing ernment, education, the press, and church as being thor economy, tives perceived in the New Deal reforms of President Franklin Roo of President Franklin tives perceived in the New Deal reforms sevelt. This program was seen as part of a broader conspiracy to control, as a step on bring the American economy under federal gressive period of the late 1960s and early 70s. gressive period of the late 1960s and capitalism that conservathe eforts to undermine American free ter 1939. This particularly intense episode peaked with its McCar peaked ter 1939. This particularly intense episode phase, which was followed by the Barrythyist campaign Goldwater way for the pro to make for president in 1964, and then declined conservative politics that we will examine before turn xenophobic ing to the current episode is the well this episode to the period af Richard Hofstader dates the onset of breaks of xenophobic politics such as the anti breaks of xenophobic Jim Crow apartheid order saw the birth of Ku Klux Klan and the major outbreak of the next and last the American South. However, Joseph McCarthy and the Communist Conspiracy Conspiracy and the Communist Joseph McCarthy crackdown. Anti crackdown. control over education and the state (1969). In this conservative conservative this In (1969). state the and education over control counter Dwight’s escaped slavery even not 1861, in War Civil the of start Greenfeld Hill Greenfeld church’s and religion, of presence increased the through efected outline creative visions in which the older social relations between the older social visions in which outline creative and governmen were restored, and other social groups the classes to almost monarchical levels. Astal authority returned his poem mary prescription was much greater respect for status hierarchies hierarchies status for respect greater much was prescription mary and ideologies developed he Thus, order. social established the and

92 Henry 93 edited volumes ------al - - managed ­ American Activities Committee, McCar American Activities ­ As the paranoia pro conspiracy, in the case of the McCarthy Using the House Un automatic adjustment mechanisms of the gold standard were no longer in efect. a stagfation crisis emerged Later in the 1970s, that disrupted the equilibrium of the Keynesian in Vietnam, in 1971, the U.S. was forced to abandon the policy of by gold. Defcits in international trade and its dollars being backed government began to accumulate, as the in the budget of the U.S Right. In addition to the transformative impact of the progressive were also occurring signifcant changes movements noted earlier, Primarily because of the cost of the war in the American economy. duced by the decline of the global Minotaur was triggered by ch duced by the decline of the global Minotaur anxiety levels of the lenges to American capitalism that raised The Rise of the Global Minotaur paign, and also to the start of the current episode of conservativepaign, and also to the start of the current politics. xenophobic this outbreak of xenophobic politics and eventually led to its de politics and eventually led to this outbreak of xenophobic of its supporters, such as William Buckley, many cline. However, to the Goldwater cam would go on to become major contributors ed. Among those blacklisted were Albert Einstein, Linus Pauling Einstein, Linus Pauling ed. Among those blacklisted were Albert (Nobel Laureate in Chemistry), Brecht, Bertolt Langston Hughes Du Bois. These hearings exposed the paranoia driving and W.E.B. pected of being part of this vast international conspiracy. Many Many of this vast international conspiracy. pected of being part this committee, made to testifywere brought before about their being blacklist with hundreds Communist Party, relationship to the thy launched a series of investigations of individuals who were sus a series of investigations of individuals launched thy dermine American free capitalism. dermine American Plan, and Arthur Burns, head of Eisenhower’sPlan, and Arthur Burns, Council of Economic parts of this international conspiracyAdvisers, as all being to un the people who got caught in the contagion, saw such well-estab in the contagion, saw who got caught the people Gen conservativeslished center Eisenhower, as President Dwight secretaryeral George Marshall, Marshall of state and author of the Department. As the French-Illu Dwight and the case of Timothy in McCarthy’sminati conspiracy, biggest one of the speech triggered in American history. of paranoid politics outbreaks of Thus, many - - - - - e c ------f re e new liberal globalization, the U.S.liberal globalization, liberal globalization of fnan liberal globalization ­ ­ was a classic account of the Ameri 1990s, fnance was clearly the domi ­ To proft without producing, this sector would have to cre Within this framework of neo Within this framework The New Industrial State of services. The classic example of this strategy of indebting other sectors to it was of course the housing sector and the creating of massive amounts of credit in the form of subprime mortgages. ate a debt-driven economy, one in which the other sectors of the to it,American economy would be indebted thus enabling it to ac cumulate capital via interest payments and other fees for a variety the leading companies in this sector had to fnd, in the words o the leading companies in this sector had without producing”. Costas Lapavitsas, ways of “profting burdened with the competitive and technical demands of industrial burdened with the competitive and technical production. Thus, by the mid this change work, make To nant sector of the American economy. omy. Like nature, economies abhor vacuums. Thus, into the vacuum nature, economies abhor vacuums. Thus, into Like omy. state and the delays in created by the fall of the declining industrial rushed fnance capital, which was not the rise of the new economy, newly created internet. However, the 2001 collapse of the frst newly created internet. However, was the frst of several generation of these “dotcom companies” emergence of this new econ developments that have delayed the can economy of the 1960s before the disturbances of the 70s. Th can economy of the 1960s before the what Alcaly called “th gap left by this fall was to be flled by economy” of e-commerce with companies doing business on the sponse to Asian competition. Roger Alcaly referred to this develop Galbraith’s New Industrial State”. ment as “the fall of Galbraith’s book, cial and commodity markets. markets. cial and commodity in portions of its industrial sector began ofshoring signifcant not survive It had to and challenges unchanged. these disruptions its he restore its normal functioning and also respond in order to This response was the neo gemony. theory, delinking and a call for a New International strategies of the 1960s could The American economy of Economic Order (NIEO). problem of third world debt.problem of As crisis world debt approached third the princi countries radicalized economists in these proportions, economic management to produce dependencyples of Keynesian American economy. At the same time, there were sharp increases were sharp increases same time, there At the economy. American and consumer ele such as autos competition in areas in Japanese greatly to the oil prices contributing increases in tronics, dramatic

94 Henry 95 edited volumes ------i - - - - ral - of re, re, fan - no ded f in - 1971 peri ­ modus operandi The rise of Varoufakis’ modern global Minotaur was closely The rise of Varoufakis’ Vital to the functioning of this new fnancial sector was the the was sector fnancial new this of functioning the to Vital backed securities, and collateralized debt obligations. These ­ ent. to reduce its defcit, Instead of implementing policies “Ameri decided to increase both defcits liberally top policy makers ca’s and intentionally” (22). debtedness. Most countries, particularly in the third world, en debtedness. Most countries, particularly to processes of neolibe up going to the IMF and being subjected structural adjustment. the U.S., In the case of things were difer sive surpluses or massive trade defcits. Thus, in the post sive surpluses or massive trade defcits. countries, including the U.S.,od many began accumulating massive dramatic rises in levels o trade and budget defcits, leading to linked with important trade and fnancial consequences of the U.S. with important linked in 1971. The rules of the gold having to abandon the gold standard could not accumulate mas standard were such that trading nations of power, “a particular form of political and economic equilibrium equilibrium economic and political of form particular “a power, of 24). 2015, (Varoufakis lands” faraway diferent, vastly straddling of the surplus that King Minos demanded from his conquered terr of the surplus that King Minos demanded to be sacrifced to the Mi tories was a number of boys and girls balance geopolitical hegemonic a of symbol a thus is latter The taur. taur”. It is a reference to the half-human, half bull creature owned owned creature bull half half-human, the to reference a is It taur”. of its unusual natu by the King Minos of ancient Crete. Because part As fesh. human of supplies regular devour to had Minotaur the ofshored industrial sector. Mino the “Global has called Varoufakis phenomenon that Yanis education. This resulted in record levels of student loan debt, card debt.which now rivals credit This was the the fnancial sector that had replaced the highly outsourced and ing without producing, as interest payments fowed from the pe as interest payments fowed from ing without producing, an riphery Yet fnancial centers of global capitalism. to these new other area of credit creation and fnancialization was higher sector fnancialized in this way, but also Third World debt and development. of proft These became major sources Third World gage in turn became new sources of credit creation for other sectors of the economy and economies abroad. Not only was the housing This fnancializing of the housing sector was facilitated by the sector was facilitated of the housing This fnancializing cy “fnancial engineering” that claimed to be able to calculate risk, as mort products such possible new fnancial thus making ------in he balancing ­ producing ­ closing dollars that fowed into these surplus closing dollars that To grasp fully the contents of this xenophobic episode, we grasp fully the contents of this xenophobic To Further, through this Minotaur strategy of accumulating through this Further, They were able to do this because, in spite of going of the in spite of going able to do this because, They were ­ must integrate here the new tensions arising from the social move can think of these issues as allies ments of the 1960s and 70s. We Allies of the Minotaur Allies of the Minotaur Episode of Xenophobia and the Current tion to the Leftist turn of the 1960s. dominance would continue until the crash of 2008, which would be dominance would continue until the crash a major factor in the further intensifyingthe paranoid style in of conservative thought that began as a reac this episode of far-Right cantly increasing their debt levels. These dramatic increases in lev cantly increasing their debt levels. These levels of indebted els of available credit produced the increased This fnancial sector. ness that led to the dominance of the defcits as the dollar remained a reserve currency, contributed creation, which seduced greatly to the processes of cheap credit and consumers into signif homeowners, corporations, students gold standard, was Varoufakis’ modern Minotaur in action. gold standard, was Varoufakis’ deliberately increasing the U.S. Street through twin capital on Wall nice little earner’ for the bankers themselves”. This systematic in nice little earner’ for the bankers as a way of re creasing and capitalizing on its defcits, by the absence of the some of the trade disequilibria produced form of capital fows to Wall Street”. These returning dollars were Street”. These returning to Wall form of capital fows “direct investments, shares, new fnancial instantly turned into least, old forms of loans and, last but not struments, new and ‘a but with outfows of U.S.but with outfows dollars. A very of these high percentage defcit in t transferred back to the United States, countries “was then ing their output of goods destined for American markets these goods destined for American markets ing their output of of gold, would be closed, not by an outfow widening trade gaps of gold. This gave the U.S.of gold. This to its own money the option of using Germa like producing countries defcits with surplus close its twin increas and most recently China. As Japan these countries kept ny, gold standard, the American dollar remained a world reserve dollar remained a the American gold standard, cur rency be closed instead trade gaps could thus one with which and

96 Henry 97 edited volumes ------ble - o on re - the gives us a good look in black issues left by the premature ending left by the premature black issues ­ This initial white resistance to afrmative action has today This initial white resistance to afrmative Each of these supporting factors could be the focus of pa Each of these supporting factors could The New in America Klassen, and Michael Levin. For white nationalists, the separation of the separation Klassen, and Michael Levin. For white nationalists, the races has become an urgent issue as the integrity and purity of the white race must be insulated from inferior Black and Brown mushroomed into a major ideology of “white nationalism”, which “white nationalism”, mushroomed into a major ideology of of its major authors in calls for the separation of the races. Some William Pierce, Michael H. Hart, Ben Jared Taylor, clude David Duke, mained a deep source of persistent resentment among African mained a deep source of persistent resentment as the calls for reparations. Americans, and also of alternatives such cans for the centuries of exclusion and discrimination that amount and discrimination that cans for the centuries of exclusion The failure of white ed to a white afrmative action program. this historic injustice has America to acknowledge and address new white nationalist groups was, of course, the Bakke case of course, the Bakke new white nationalist groups was, of of afrmative action pr 1978. This resulted in the striking down African Ameri grams, but made no provisions for compensating book that are driving them. side of these movements, and the issues led to the rise of these One of the major triggering events that pers in their own right. However, to grasp the openly white su pers in their own right. However, conservatives, we have to premacist language of current far-Right look carefully at the frst of the Minotaur’s allies. Carol Swain’s those mobilized in the cases of the projected communist and Illu those mobilized minati conspiracies. hegemony. Together, these factors have come to constitute yet an factors have come to constitute yet these Together, hegemony. threat to conservativeother deadly existential one so Americans, to responses similar counter-subversive deep that it has elicited legalization of abortion. Fourth, and fnal was the collapse of Fourth, and fnal was the collapse legalization of abortion. was a of global trading that the Minotaur managed disequilibria economic the same time shoring up American to provide, while at presence of these laborers. Third was the persistent discomfort laborers. Third was the persistent discomfort presence of these the and particularly with of gender equality, with feminist politics of afrmative action policies. Second was the intensifying action policies. of afrmative contra demands of the U.S. the growing diction between for economy and the increasing resentment of the labor, nonwhite immigrant of the Global Minotaur in the making of the current period of c making of the current Minotaur in the of the Global First servative mention four. these allies, I will Among xenophobia. anti was the unresolved ------in - - - al - - - 0s 0s Ron - s well inues to to inues president Cal ­ right theories of Vice ­ responses and led to events like the 2018 march in the to events like responses and led ­ These gathering conservative racial, gender, religious, eco These gathering conservative racial, gender, This perceived threat to American economic, and thus politi These increasingly hostile racial currents were reinforced by a by reinforced were currents racial hostile increasingly These nomic and political forces really came together with the 1979 elec tion of in Britain, and the 1980 election of the ald Reagan in the United States. With a president as leader, policy as the only legitimate site of government intervention in the economy. of the American markets attempted to revive the far and defcit reduction, cuts houn. These economists stressed debt welfare state, and monetarygovernment spending, downsizing the ton. In economics, the corresponding shift brought to power con ton. In economics, the corresponding Hayek, James Friedrich servative Milton Friedman, economists like Buchanan in particular Buchanan, and the associated fall of Keynes. cal hegemony, brought to the fore in growing numbers the politi brought to the cal hegemony, cal and economic conservatives. we saw the rise of the In politics, and Samuel Hunting Nitze followers of Leo Strauss, such as Paul levels by increasing the feeling that the hegemonic white America of of America white hegemonic the that feeling the increasing by levels rescuing. of need urgent more even in was conservatives thus increasing the levels of paranoia and xenophobia in the U.S. It It U.S. the in xenophobia and paranoia of levels the increasing thus difculties of the 197 was to this anxious mix that the economic anxiety raise would that pressures – own their of pressure add would sponse to the rise in secular authority and thinking, that cont sponse to the rise in secular authority of national econo increase with the modernization and globalization event, or group some onto projected be to had anxiety This mies. the legalization of abortion. It was an issue around which both Cath It was an issue around which the legalization of abortion. Islamic and Hindu fun rallied. In addition, like olics and Protestants re fundamentalism was also an anxious damentalism, Christian as to the reckless shooting of Black males by the police. of Black males by the police. as to the reckless shooting by part in triggered was which fundamentalism, religious growing this counter a during which one person was killed, Charlottesville, Virginia more numerous and infuential they become, the more American more American they become, the and infuential more numerous is the mortal racial 2002, 17). This (Swain degenerate” society will aroused immigration policies, which has threat posed by current people, who mistaken immigration policies continue to let in. policies continue immigration mistaken people, who people “are mor Black and Brown believe that White nationalists to whites and Asians, inferior ly and intellectually the and thus

98 Henry 99 edited volumes ------ce ------The Tea Party phase was triggered by the 2009 angry Party re The Tea on the Minotaur. However, like with the Reagan and other Republi like However, on the Minotaur. can administrations, there was no felling of the beast, and, al though severely wounded, the Global Minotaur continued to in the Republican Party took up with greater intensity all of the is in the Republican Party party were avoiding, in sues that more moderate leaders of the cluding getting rid of the defcits and thus ending the dependen members of the Christian Right, the the Militia Movement and that Obama was not Birther movement – people who believed as a faction with Party, Tea born in America and was a Muslim. The losers” and proposed the formation of a Chicago Tea Party to pro Party a Chicago Tea losers” and proposed the formation of test government intervention The proposal housing market. in the attracting lots of disafected Republicans, caught fre immediately, sponse of Rick Santelli, a CNBC commentator, to Obama’s decision to Obama’s sponse of Rick Santelli, a CNBC commentator, to the fnancial melt to include mortgage relief in his response of “subsidizing the down of 2008. Santelli accused the president The Tea Party Phase Party The Tea phases of this Conservative Movement. ment continued to move further to the right,ment continued to move further to the particularly in the pe of 2008. These moves to riod following the fnancial meltdown and the Trump Party the Tea Right; we can designate ward the Far the Minotaur, in spite of their views on the defcits. Dissatisfed in spite of their the Minotaur, as George W leaders such Republican Party with more moderate issues, this Move to address the above key Bush and their failure Blacks and women – the new infdels, or new communists. Howev – the new infdels, or new communists. Blacks and women Presidency, both the debt and the by the end of the Reagan er, conservatives Even defcit had only increased. could not do without tional communist conspiracy had waned signifcantly, and the focus tional communist conspiracy signifcantly, had waned insurgent and political wars with liberals, was now on the cultural Keynesians in positions of power. By the end of the decade, liberal the end of the decade, By power. in positions of Keynesians of this revived con and the ascent deep in recession America was servativeinterna The belief in an was well on its way. movement ideological war against liberalism, or the “L word”, by these groups by these groups or the “L word”, war against liberalism, ideological the end of the decade. would peak by and high gear, went into Conservative and replacing both attacking monetarists were ------m - to to - ridden ridden ­ time Republican fgures such as Rand Paul and Mitch and such as Rand Paul time Republican fgures ­ In a similar way, Trump’s leading role in the Birther Movement Movement Birther the in role leading Trump’s way, similar a In To deliver on his cultivated image of outsider Far-Right Re Media support came from the popular Fox Television com Television popular Fox came from the Media support was another important symbol on which Whites and White Conser America’s about anxieties their project could particular in vatives build a wall on the southern border and make Mexico pay for it, was was it, for pay Mexico make and border southern the on wall a build Conservativesdefnitely a powerful symbol onto which have pro America. of whiteness the to treats felt over anxieties their jected which he encouraged Far-Right and moderate conservatives and to dis which he encouraged Far-Right Mexicans. to on immigration nonwhite over anxieties their place dealers and promising The calling of Mexican criminals and drug economy of the Minotaur. This he did very making racist re well, economy of the Minotaur. been heard since the ca marks on public platforms that have not in way the been has infammatory Most Wallace. George of paigns if he was not to let down his Far-Right base. To get elected, Trump Trump elected, get To base. Far-Right his down let to not was he if had Conservatives that feelings the legitimate and stoke to had and the defcit about Blacks, immigration, gender issues publican, President Trump would have to rattle some cages in ways ways in cages some rattle to have would Trump President publican, did not do. He would have tothat Republican presidents before him issues economic and political gender, racial, on outspoken more be The Trump Phase The Trump servative Movement. became the party’s ran against Hilary 2016 presidential candidate, vote to vote, but won Electoral College Clinton, lost the popular phase of this Con become the president. Thus, began the Trump sulted in polls showing that Donald Trump and Ben Carson were and Ben that Donald Trump sulted in polls showing ahead of long AsRomney. trend’s increasing momentum, Trump a result of this Soon Tea Party candidates were replacing established Republican were replacing established Republican candidates Party Soon Tea right re This continuing movement to the fgures within the party. mentator Glen Beck, and radio commentator Rush Limbaugh, while Limbaugh, while commentator Rush Glen Beck, and radio mentator Brothers. Koch came from the wealthy major fnancial support concentrate in his hands, and devour the surpluses of other coun devour the surpluses in his hands, and concentrate toward out pushed the movement continuing failures tries. These things up. shake who would sider candidates

Henry 100 101 edited volumes ------to to who Muslim Muslim ­ equilibrated ­ black racists, the Birther Move black racists, ­ Muslim feelings. ­ Muslim sentiments became much more explicit in in explicit more much became sentiments Muslim ­ black and anti ­ As we saw earlier, with the rise of the Global Minotaur as As we saw earlier, These attitudes towards Blacks, Mexicans and Muslims made These attitudes towards Blacks, Mexicans Mexican, anti ­ recycling system that China joined the WTO, and became a major recycling WTO, system that China joined the and South Japan, Taiwan plank of this system along with Germany, Indeed, China soon became the biggest exporter to the U.S.Korea. world’s surplus recycler and the basis of U.S. economic hegemony, dramatically after 1971. It was the global supply of credit increased during this era of massive credit creation by the Minotaur’s surplus force of the Minotaur has not been working veryforce of the Minotaur has not been working well, particularly since the rise of China. have supplemented President Trump’s eforts to restore the badly have supplemented President Trump’s the dis wounded Minotaur to its role of balancing in the imperial this increase trade relations of America. However, has certainly been that of a bully who uses force to subordinate all has certainly been that of a bully who economic and political domi others to the imperatives of American the racist attitudes that nance. In other words, these have been embody a racialized version of Varoufakis’ Minotaur. The image Minotaur. version of Varoufakis’ embody a racialized America his eforts to make that he has cultivated and projected in – and hire American” frst”, “buy American great again – “America servatives hopes for the future of Amer could place their fears and aggressive white hero, ica. By taking on this role of a roaring has come to Trump America great again”, has pledged to “make ti into a white supremacist symbol onto which con President Trump racial issue, President Trump defnitely turned up the temperature temperature the up turned defnitely Trump President issue, racial by felt anxieties racial to recognition and legitimacy voice, giving by Conservative an the form of strong, many Whites, which have taken racists. These anti Muslim several on bans travel impose to attempts persistent his the on Thus, courts. the by blocked however, were, which countries, tics that Trump is very skilled at. Further, by including the claim that is very skilled at.tics that Trump Further, a Muslim was also an appeal to anti President Obama was ment was defnitely a meaty bone that Trump threw at them. By By them. at threw Trump that bone meaty a defnitely was ment its that clear was it when long so for going movement this keeping primary of the poli false, exposed the projective nature claims were frst African American president and what that meant in relation and what that meant American president frst African the compensatory of premature ending unresolved by the issues left For anti action programs. afrmative ------sed - dol orld’s orld’s - ikely to ikely s. s. year period of defa ­ Having thus been brought back from the brink, the question question the brink, the from back brought been thus Having With this dramatic collapse in in 2008, the reign of the GlobalWith this dramatic collapse in in 2008, the government as the regulator of the money supply. What are the the are What supply. money the of regulator the as government the U.S the should fnal, and Fifth option? this of way the in obstacles the on regime trading new a impose relations, trade existing disrupt now that credit is so cheap? If so, how to overcome the obstacles in in obstacles the overcome to how so, If cheap? so is credit that now is the popular conservative Fourth the way of this option? monetar replace market the have to found be must way a that suggestion ist base? If so, how to overcome the obstacles in the way of this op If so, how to overcome the base? and the private sector form partner Third, should the state tion? industries future of technologies the in heavily investing for ships continue with the dominance of their fnancial sectors? If so, how to to how so, If sectors? fnancial their of dominance the with continue should Second, option? this of way the in obstacles the overcome industrial ofshored their recover to attempt economies these facing these economies was: what is going to be the way forward? forward? way the be to going is what was: economies these facing to going economies these are First, options. fve consider us Let Bank. Thus began 10 years of nursing the fnancial sectors of West Bank. Thus began 10 years of nursing temporary of policies like ern economies back to health with aid na low interest tionalization, quantitative easing and artifcially placed by the coordinated actions of the central banks of the w placed by the coordinated actions of the the England, of Bank the Reserve, Federal The economies: major Central European the and Japan, of Bank China, of Bank Peoples house of fnancial cards came tumbling down. house of fnancial cards came tumbling recyclingIts re were activities creating credit and over. was Minotaur tion in the Japanese economy. Further, we can view the 2008 melt we can view the Further, economy. tion in the Japanese down in the U.S. With that as the bursting of the housing bubble. layer of the Minotaur’s the whole mountain of credit collapsing, create bubbles that will eventually burst and severely disrupt the will eventually burst and severely disrupt create bubbles that the economies. This is one way to explain functioning of these Asian crisis of the 1990s and the 25 fnancial ments, education and consumer purchases. However, if not careful consumer purchases. However, ments, education and are l dramatic increases in available credit ly managed, these economies – came into being (Karabell 2009, 3). The billions of (Karabell 2009, 3). – came into being economies countries increa systems of these the banking lars that entered invest thus the credit available for new the money supply and and an accumulator of major trade surpluses that were balanced were balanced trade surpluses that of major and an accumulator – a with U.S. “Chimerica” the period in which dollars. This was also and American between the Chinese relationship deep symbiotic

Henry 102 103 edited volumes -

------he oth g ad - le to rol in Canada ­ Mexico ­ brink strategy is clearly a com brink strategy ­ However, the country that President Trump has made the The once welcomed NAFTA agreement between the U.S., The once welcomed NAFTA As the current leader of this outbreak of paranoid Conserva paranoid of outbreak this of leader current the As nophobic scapegoat upon which Americans are being encour aged to locate the blame for the woes of the American economy and its difficulties moving forward in the current focus of the growing paranoid wrath is China. Asfocus of the growing paranoid wrath a rising hege mon that could possibly displace the U.S., it has become the xe the image of a fallen and frustrated Minotaur who must now use the image of a fallen and frustrated Minotaur as it is no longer possib force in order to proft from trading, proft from increasing its defcits. American Congress. The assertion of power in the re-structuring of American Congress. The assertion of Canada can only be de these trade relations with Mexico and submission. It calls to mind scribed as bullying these nations into Canada and Mexico was unilaterally scrapped and replaced by one Canada and Mexico was unilaterally scrapped more favorable to the U.S., the United States to be approved by the this still has Agreement (USMCA). However, leaving the organization if they don’t contribute more, imposed tar leaving the organization if they don’t TPP. the of out pulled and countries, EU of number a on ifs right, Trump has resorted to threats and the use of pressure against against pressure of use the and threats to resorted has Trump right, been accused of takin old allies and trading partners, who have with allies NATO his threatened has he Thus, U.S. the of vantage the past, Trump is insisting on America’s right to deal with its sur America’s is insisting on the past, Trump be subject to the cont pluses and defcits as it sees ft and not this on insisting of course the In mechanisms. or agencies ternational anced in some way. However, this settling of accounts will not be be not will accounts of settling this However, way. some in anced and impar standard or some other automatic with the aid of a gold in As defcits. reducing and surpluses recycling for mechanism tial dence that the rest of the world has been taking advantage of t of the world has been taking advantage dence that the rest such surpluses trade massive These stopped. be to has this and U.S., China with the U.S.as those of Japan and or bal must be reduced trends to be welcomed as sources of proft.trends to be welcomed On the contrary, trade evi of American industries are now surpluses and the ofshoring tive thought, President Trump’s post tive thought, President Trump’s surpluses of options. The trade second and the ffth bination of longer no are indebtedness increasing America’s and countries er world, and in the process crush China as a rising hegemon? If so, hegemon? China as a rising in the process crush world, and option? this of way the in obstacles major the are what - - - e - - - - - year plan following the ­ This achievement by China during the Chimerican period As the U.S. has been able to turn the status of its dollar brink period. Gone are the cozy days of “Chimerica”. That ­ project and producing more for local markets, China has been able to continue to grow faster than the U.S., contain its threat ening bubbles and make use of some of its excess capacity. fore they pop, and to fnd outlets for the excess capacity created by the massive investment programs. This has meant expanding trade globally via programs like the Silk Road Project. With this the infux of billions of U.S. dollars had also created bubbles in The Chinese government has been skillful the Chinese economy. to defate these bubbles b ly and aggressively pursuing policies move beyond the Chimerican model of development. From that producing for its large in point on, China would focus more on ternal markets. However, Chinese leaders soon discovered that has now become the major source of competition and tension between the two countries. In its fve 2008 fnancial meltdown, China announced its intentions to ment rather than development that usually comesdirect with investment.foreign business. The key advantage of these partnerships has been advantage of these partnerships has been business. The key This has been a the facilitating of the transfer of technology. ability to get past the underdevelop major factor in China’s sions from Western capitalists that no other developing coun sions from Western try of having to part has been able to repeat: the concession ner with a local Chinese counterpart as a condition for doing democratic state, these offerings have been irresistibleWestern firms. for At the same time, because of its China has been able to extract conces and political stability, cheap labor do the same with the size and low costs of itsand labor with market, the protection and stability that itsbeen strong able state to offer has foreign capital. In spite of not being a liberal into a number of economic advantages, China has been able to to be “Latin Americanized” or “Japanized” by the influx of U.S.corporate investments and the presence of the U.S. sixthin fleetthe South China Sea. post symbiotic relationship is being blown apart by threats,accusations, paranoid force, and xenophobic readings of China’s refusal

Henry 104 105 edited volumes ------plus of spir ­ Mexican ­ owned enter ­ advantage ­ meltdown periods, meltdown periods, ­ black, anti ­ oriented reforms and become even ­ Muslim targets for their racial anxieties, so he has also ­ This externalizing and offshoring of the blame for the Even more than in the cases of the EU, Canada, Japan and needs to externalize, project, and blame, he has been ablestoke, to manipulate, and legitimate similar projective needslarge in numbers of Conservative and Far-Right Americans. it in which they have been imposed. We cannot fully graspcurrent the episode of xenophobic politics in America without Drawing on his own anxious contributions. these Trumpian theory. Trump’s paranoid externalizing of America’s economic for the unilateral imposing woes has provided the justifications taken of the above tariffs and the aggrieved, into hostile spaces that have been conspiring to take advantageof the U.S., undermine its way of life, and subvert itsThey hegemony. have become the economic Illuminati of this conspiracy provided Conservative suitable Chinese, Euro Americans with targets for their eco pean, Japanese, Canadian and Mexican nomic anxieties. These targets have made much of the world phobic politics of the current period. Asphobic politics of the current period. he provided Conserva anti tive white supremacists with definite and anti difficulties of both the Meltdown and post difficulties of both the Meltdown and to the xeno distinct contributions has been President’s Trump’s notaur in the hope of fxing the problems of American capitalism by fat. However, as the failed trade talks of May 2019, and the new round of tarifs that followed suggest, China is resisting. on China’s “state-led” economy, its subsidizing of industries, its “currency manipulation”, and its “technology stealing” business partnerships. In short, Mi it is an attempt to revive the wounded quirement of having local business partners, be more democratic, and accept American dominance like Canada, Japan, Mexico and the EU. These are the objective realities behind Trump’s attacks changes like privatizing the many remaining state privatizing the many changes like to foreign capital, end the re local markets prises, open up more with the U.S. At issue is President Trump’s attempt to force China force China attempt to with the U.S.is President Trump’s At issue its market to move beyond more like the Western capitalist economies. That would entail Mexico, President Trump has gone on the attack in trying has gone on to redi Trump Mexico, President to reduce its sur China in an efort of trade with rect patterns - - - - - 0 - - scu making defcits is not likely making defcits is not likely ­ Given the foregoing analyses of the current and previous ep of the current and foregoing analyses Given the steer the country directions. in new whether or not the growing resistance to this rightward turn, and whether or not the growing resistance the pro will be strong enough to galvanize in particular, to Trump political imagination, and thus gressive tendencies of the American wounded Minotaur for his loss of proft of the issues that triggered this many to succeed. Consequently, to persist. The missing piece here is outbreak are likely xenophobic es for racial equality by African Americans, and for gender equality es for racial equality by African Americans, to increase rather than decrease. Presi by women are also likely might of the attempt to substitute the remaining dent Trump’s impacts of globalization are likely to increase, rather than decrease, to are likely impacts of globalization re Reducing the role of central banks after in the years ahead. the push is proving quite difcult.ing the fnancial sector Further, be ripe for replacement. However, the complex set of still unre be ripe for replacement. However, For it should give us reason to pause. solved issues that triggered produced by the economic and migratoryexample, the anxieties which might give us some clues as to what is ahead? At almost 4 some clues as to what is ahead? At almost which might give us course and should be close to running its years of age, this episode isodes of xenophobic politics in America, the question naturally question naturally in America, the politics xenophobic isodes of fol to this one last, much longer will arises: how what is likely and that set this one apart, signifcant diferences low it? Are there any Conclusion Conclusion

Henry 106 107 edited volumes

. . Cambridge: . Cambridge: . New York: Penguin Penguin . New York: . Cambridge: Cambridge . Cambridge: Cambridge The Major Poems of Timothy . London: Verso. . London: Zed Books. . Oxford: Oxford University Press. . New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux. Straus Farrar, . New York: New York: Simon & Schuster. & Schuster. Simon New York: Notes on the State of Virginia . Athens: University of Georgia Press. The Paranoid Style in American Politics in American and Other Essays Style The Paranoid Profting Without Producing Superfusion. The Global Minotaur The Global The Ideological Roots of the American Revolution Roots of the American The Ideological Empire of Liberty The New Economy The New White Nationalism in America The New White Nationalism Proslavery . Gainesville: Scholars Facsimiles & Reprints. . Gainesville: Scholars Facsimiles Dwight University Press. Harvard Press. University Knopf. New York: Books. Wood, Gordon. 2009. Gordon. 2009. Wood, Tise, Larry. 1987. 2015. Yanis. Varoufakis, McTaggart, William, and Bottorf, William (eds.). 1969. William (eds.). 1969. William, and Bottorf, McTaggart, Swain, Carol. 2002. Karabell, Zachary. 2009. Lapavitsas, Costas. 2013. Jeferson, Thomas. 1785 (1999). Jeferson, Thomas. 1785 Bailyn, Bernard. 1977. Bailyn, Bernard. Richard. 1967. Hofstader, Bibliography 2004. Roger. Alcaly, Henry 108 109 edited volumes

SECTION II SECTION Global vs. Local Local Global vs. and Topical Differences and Topical Ugo Vlaisavljević

Vlaisavljević 110 111 edited volumes ------lo

) within the eth the within ) thnicity: Serbo-Croatistics E members of diferent ” and the the and nationalities” diferent of members ­ thers O eeling of eeling domestic foreigners, ethnic solidarity, the Serb/Cro domestic foreigners, ethnic solidarity, F like terms: “domestic foreigners”, “ethnically related for related “ethnically foreigners”, “domestic terms: like ­ and this to such a degree that one can rightly speak of the dis ( studies Serbo-Croatian tinctive nicity and . Keywords: at diference, xenophobia powerful fuel of solidarity. At the very beginning of any ethnic grouping process, a lived and vivid experience of the alienness of others should be ex pected. However, this primordial “contrastive experience” (C. Geertz) may be inaccessible and opaque to a foreign observer, if what it ofers under the category of “ethnic is diference” of oxy in only described be can it that force contrastive minor such moron co “ethnic eigners”, elu the that force contrastive weak its to due precisely is It like. sive difference Serb/Croat has attracted a great number of arguments, major their of some marked and scholars prominent As has suggested, ethnic boundaries are marked marked are boundaries ethnic suggested, has Connor Walker As which consciousness, group ethnic The feelings. xenophobic by on view his to according should, xenophobia, with links Connor the diference between and ethnicity, be as low as stick we if However, solidarity. group of level corresponding its sol group for basis ultimate the as feelings on view Weberian to idarity, then xenophobic feelings may be considered the most enophobic enophobic X It may be taken for granted that the South Slav peoples are It may be taken cal cultures, histories and customs, the diferences between the peoples often seem pretty subtle and unimportant. In contrast to this “exterior view” for the majority of locals of true foreigners, not much diferent from each other. It is certainly the way in which It is certainly not much diferent from each other. for those among them Even foreigners usually see these peoples. who know the region well and are relatively acquainted with the Serbs, Croats and Croats Serbs, A b s t r a c t The ------pol - - - mong states, ­ nationals of diferent ethnicity ­ . It is a sort of politics that led to diference , alien to them. fedged nations. It is the politics of and ­ foreign However, a dilemma remains: is it an enmity, produced by a dilemma remains: is it an enmity, However, Given the unpacifed hostilities and unresolved conficts pro Given the unpacifed hostilities and unresolved Apparently, there is nothing contradictory there is Apparently, “ex between the that makes all the all the that makes received a number of questions concerning the ongoing war in re the question, “Why Popper has this happened?”, Bosnia. To sponded by pointing out that the nationalism which has thrown and bizarre the enmities between the locals would seem to an out and bizarre the enmities between the of his last In one to be close ethnic relatives? them sider who take interviews, which he gave to Giancarlo Bosetti in 1993, Karl Popper chauvinistic agitations of the politics, which made domestic peo chauvinistic agitations of the politics, been mutually alienated to ples foreigners, or have they already How strange such agitations? such a degree as to easily fall prey to liable. Moreover, and more important: they fnd these close neigh and more important: they fnd liable. Moreover, bors truly duced lately by the dominant politics, it is not surprising that many it is not surprising that many duced lately by the dominant politics, people perceive their neighbors, co and unre of the bordering countries, as untrustworthy and citizens groups full xenophobia, which achieved a worldwide notoriety. itics small nation wars, produced a patchwork of the Yugoslav mono-national entities and enclaves, and made South Slav ethnic each other. If nowadays the most relevant for the collective mem If nowadays the most relevant for each other. foes in the neighbor bership is to belong to an alliance against is 2007), it (Schmitt hood, then, from a Schmittean perspective friend-foe axis. It is their recent mutual enmity that has carved deep gaps in what had previously been considered multi-ethnic Yugoslav society, and made them feel diferent and foreign to terior view” foreigners and “interior view” of of locals. These peo ples, who might appear quite akin, have been divided along the kan wars are still reverberating, and that the reconciliation a and that the reconciliation kan wars are still reverberating, been achieved. the peoples has not ten consider some of their co-nationals and the citizens of the of the citizens and the some of their co-nationals ten consider dangerous ones. This even the most states, foreigners, neighboring recent Bal the fact that echoes of the most is not surprising given presently living in a cluster of mini states that emerged after the mini states that emerged living in a cluster of presently and insur diferences look real their mutual Yugoslavia, collapse of too of established states of the newly These citizens mountable.

Vlaisavljević 112 113 edited volumes ------gh a the ethnic confict ­ . The post-Yugoslav . The post-Yugoslav , has recently appeared in the , has recently appeared death struggle against people of dif ­ fake ethnic relatives fake and ­ . The enmities may pass, the ideologies of intol . The enmities may pass, the ideologies ridiculous, because it sets against each other peoples who are virtu each other peoples because it sets against ridiculous, Croats are Slavs. And the Bos The Serbs are Slavs, the ally all Slav. Islam. to converted Slavs, also are nians omnipresent fgure of foreigner: A new dominant and Communism has been replaced by this ridiculous nationalism. I say say I nationalism. ridiculous this by replaced been has Communism fake relatives fake ethnic confict, a life ­ the country ground (Bosetti civil war has no solid into chaos and 1997, 53): the wars in 90's implied and were ultimately reached through an “” warfare, but what made them inconceivably cru ethno-psychoanalyst put it as the French el and irrational was their, or fratricide, was experienced by a critical majority of insiders as an or fratricide, was experienced by a critical inter It was more than evident that the main goals of ferent ethnicity. what preceded their construction was a huge endeavor of making what preceded their construction was in the immediate nei “border fortifcations” against foreigners an intra borhood. What might appear to outsiders tion, from the threat of its as “fortresses” near one an monoethnic nation-states may appear to borrow Balibar’s famous term (Balibar 2004, 221), since other, self-determination, and thus legitimated by the international law, law, and thus legitimated by the international self-determination, the primary state and sub-state function of the newly established , the core-na borders has been to protect its majority folk tradition, and nationality, with the people akin to them, had folk tradition, and nationality, lives of hundreds of thou been a dangerous illusion paid for in the with the right of a people to sands of victims. In perfect accordance erance and hate may lose their attraction, but what this “ridiculous erance and hate may lose their attraction, helped ordinary was that the belief nationalism” people realize ethnic relatives of other faith, that they were cohabitating with the ical leaders and warlords to fnally reveal their true nature, ical leaders and warlords to fnally reveal for the most people here, close neighbors were suddenly revealed, to be eigner is perhaps a South Slav, but this “larger” ethnici or “generic” South Slav, eigner is perhaps a framework of more. It is not a referential ty does not count any prompted by their polit more, if it ever was. Allegedly ethnicity any close neighbor of diferent ethnicity neighbor close That for region. discussions of the ex-Yugoslav public thought and - - -

- - - - - ­ - - fter bout ., 9), serving ibid In our focus is a special 2 territorialization of ethnic diference

1 old dreams of independence and freedom being fulflled, and freedom being fulflled, old dreams of independence ­ Our interest here lies in the process of border fortifcation Our interest here lies in the process of world during the modern era, state borders emerged as the quint world during the modern era, state borders Although state minds. essential illustration of borders in people’s variety of borders, al territorial borders are but one among a large beit a very of signifcant one, they came to assimilate all other kinds borders are typically un borders and boundaries to the point that of the state. derstood above all as the geographical limits With the increase in the number of territorial states throughout the With the increase in the number of territorial What the region’s nationalist politics compels us at present politics compels nationalist region’s What the Cf. Benslama 1995, 36–37. Cf. the nation-state circumscribed social relations inside its bor “Gradually, ders to an unprecedented extent. It became normal to imagine all the national society that was distinct of a given state forming one citizens

1 2 at a conference in in February 2000, near-to-intra-ethnic February in Sarajevo in at a conference 2000, near-to-intra-ethnic character. cleansing tresses and spaces of Othering one’s neighbors” ( tresses and spaces of Othering one’s thus as peculiar “territorial containers”. brought about “to an unprecedented extent” by modernity, since extent” by modernity, brought about “to an unprecedented “can be walled for nation-state borders, according to Popescu, fectly right in holding that the is the crowning achieve through the construction of a nation-state ment. 2012, 8): As has explained (Popescu Popescu Gabriel is always futile, since a perfect correspondence between the two is always futile, since a perfect correspondence categories of borders, those symbolic, cultural, or social, and those the nationalists are per or territorial, is unattainable. Yet physical that their aspirations have not been met yet,that their aspirations the frst since, in corre drawn state territorial borders do not place, the recently attempt borders. Of course, the nationalists’ spond with the ethnic peoples” are fnally on their own, listening to the narratives a on their own, listening to the narratives peoples” are fnally centuries consider continues among the nationalists who and yet the unrest fed borders protect one nation from other, allegedly akin South one nation from other, fed borders protect “titular have been formed, their Slav nations. The nation-states to refect upon is this widespread compulsory upon is this widespread to refect need for “border for created a which seven new states It is the need to tifcations”. newly forti have responded. Nowadays the collapse of Yugoslavia

Vlaisavljević 114 115 edited volumes - - -

- - - - b - t nic state nicity ­ - tate tion of conscious nations? How particu conscious nations? ­ Yugoslav nationalism, that a kind of authentic nationalism, that a kind of authentic Yugoslav ­ How many ethnicities are there, apart from minority groups? ethnicities are there, apart from minority groups? How many from the ones beyond the borders with the neighboring states. Under these circumstances, the nation-state came to be seen as a container of with the borders of the state forming the walls of the society (Taylor), Borders became major tools for regulating social relations container. 2012, 14). both inside the container and across containers.” (Popescu groups have more than one ethnicity or no ethnicity at all? Wha groups have more than one ethnicity them having become modern self Are they so groups? lar or distinctive in ethnic terms are these Can these historical ethnicity? closely related as to share a common rarely meet anything truly political. rarely meet anything of ethnicities as there are particular groups, all Are there as many tarily justifes them for their most fundamental belief that eth tarily justifes them for their most fundamental anthropologists and ethnol is but politics, while on the other hand, of this part of the world ogists in their dealing with the ethnicity because otherwise unjustifably reduced the social reality would be A common critique of post-Yugoslav to either politics or ethnicity. of ideology”,nationalisms, understood as a “critique involun often cerned and brought forth. No matter how subtle the diference be cerned and brought forth. No matter might be in the given con tween ethnicity and politics of ethnicity text and at certain stages of history, it is important to maintain it, ethnicity by the newly erected ethnic-states, in the very moment of ethnicity by the newly erected ethnic-states, the triumph of post need to be dis ethnicity experience of not-yet-fully-politicized enduring overlapping seems to have reached its culmination in the seems to have reached its culmination enduring overlapping into s kinds of ethnic boundaries assimilation of all preceding And it is at this fnal stage of appropria territorial borders. ways been supplemented by a sort of ethno-politics, absorbed into by a sort of ethno-politics, absorbed ways been supplemented that,it to such an extent of ethnicity, as it often happens, speaking ethno-politics, and vice versa. This historically one is referring to is where ethnicity and the politics of ethnicity march together the politics of ethnicity march together is where ethnicity and history.throughout the modern has al The ethnicity in question and shifting so that proper political-ideological and state interven so that proper political-ideological and shifting of fnally esta the eforts needed, not only throughout tions are but in the verylishing and fxing them, tracing. This process of their case of the border fortifcation that the setting up of a nation that the setting border fortifcation case of the the proper eth It is the case when to an ethnic group. can ofer weak, porous, and constantly appear to be repeatedly boundaries - ­ ------self - ­ …, this single yet ­ of na However, in However, that does not 3 politics ) differs from the aware ethnic groups. Quot ­ self ­ Gemeinsamkeit However, Connor’s depoliticization of However, 4 depoliticized sense of nationalism depoliticized sense of For authors like Walker Connor who considers the term “eth Connor who considers Walker For authors like Weber 1978, 389). Weber The and of an essential, though frequently indefinite, homogeneity. has these notions in common with the sentiment of solidarity of ‘nation’ ethnic communities, which is also nourished from various sources, as we have seen before. But the sentiment of ethnic solidarity does not by groups that entertain a subjective belief in their common descent groups that entertain a subjective belief in their of group formation; con belief must be important for the propagation it does not matter whether or not an objective blood relation versely, ship exists. Ethnic membership ( 1978, 387; (Connor groups precisely by being a presumed identity…” “[T]he idea of ‘nation’ is apt to include the notions of common descent idea of ‘nation’ “[T]he The author cites Weber: “We shall call ‘ethnic groups’ those human The author cites Weber:

4 3 common descent and a sentiment of solidarity (thus impregnated common descent and a sentiment of by a sense of kinship). ing from the famous Weber’s writings on ethnicity, Connor explains ing from the famous Weber’s writings on ethnicity, nations” are supposed to what ethnic groups as “nations before at all: a belief in have, if they are to be considered communities aware nations, as nations are fully self-aware ethnic group”. According to this view, which Connor be to this view, According ethnic group”. self-aware ethnic groups are not lieves to be sharing with Max Weber, the eyes of the author, there is and should be a diference, albeit a there is and should be the eyes of the author, to an ethnic group without subtle one, as some people may belong knowing it, as “a which is in contrast with his defnition of nation merging of what he calls a “pristine sense” of nation and “pristine merging of what he calls a “pristine sense” ethnicity or ethnic group: since they both mean “a group of sense” of people who believe they are ancestrally-related”. ism does not immediately involve dealing with the ism does not immediately tionalism. Connor’s nation is licensed by his but to one’s state one’s connote loyalty to nonationalism” to have “inner redundancy”nonationalism” since “nationalism and the study of national treated as synonyms”, ethnonationalism are modern collective identities” have been absorbed into diverse identities” have been absorbed into diverse modern collective nationalism. forms of local ethnic posed territory of nationalism since under the banner of ethnicity century,the eighteenth latest, at the from that time that and it is “pre “primordial cultural layers” and what might be considered about spectra, or diferent subclasses, or multiple layers of a or multiple or diferent subclasses, about spectra, as questions today, are highly political All these ethnicity? common were in the past.much as they on the sup has encroached Politics

Vlaisavljević 116 117 edited volumes ------in in - - - - only only tenden belief

6 whereas according to We whereas 5 such groups, speaking of Serbs, Croats, Muslims, and Albanians such groups, speaking of Serbs, Croats, Muslims, facilitates group formation of any kind, particularly in the political political the in particularly kind, any of formation group facilitates no hand, it is primarily the political community, sphere. On the other common in belief the inspires that organized, artifcially how matter of disintegration the after even persist to tends belief This ethnicity. in custom, physi unless drastic diferences the political community, above all, language exist among its members. cal type, or, In our sense, ethnic membership does not constitute a group; it In our sense, ethnic membership Weber 1978, 923). Weber itself make a ‘nation’. Undoubtedly, even the White Russians in the face even Undoubtedly, a ‘nation’. itself make of ethnic solidarity, of the Great Russians have always had a sentiment claim to qualifyyet even at the present time they would hardly as a had hardly of Upper , until recently, The Poles separate ‘nation’. They felt themselves to with the ‘polish nation’. feeling of solidarity any Germans, but for the rest be a separate ethnic group in the face of the 1978, 387–388; (Connor they were Prussian subjects and nothing else.” Symptomatically, this passage begins where our first given quotation Symptomatically, from Connor ends. Brubaker has challenged the omnipresent tendency of group reification Brubaker cans in the United States as if they were internally homogeneous, externally externally homogeneous, internally were they if as States United the in cans bounded groups, even unitary collective actors with common purposes. I mean the tendency to represent the social and cultural world as a multi chrome mosaic of monochrome ethnic, racial, or cultural blocs.” take discrete, bounded groups as basic constituents of social life, chief chief life, social of constituents basic as groups bounded discrete, take I analysis. social of units fundamental and conflicts, social of protagonists substantial as races and nations, groups, ethnic treat to tendency the mean entities to which interests and agency can be attributed. I mean the reify to cy of Ireland, Northern in Protestants and Catholics of Yugoslavia, former the and in and the occupied territories, of Turks Jews and Palestinians or of Blacks, Whites, Asians, Ameri Hispanics, and Native Kurds in Turkey, (Brubaker 2004, 8): “My aim here is not to enter into conceptual or defini 2004, 8): “My aim here is not to enter into conceptual (Brubaker the of consequence problematic one address to rather is It casuistry. tional and race, ethnicity, of study the in granted for groups take to tendency nationhood, and in the study of ethnic, racial, and national conflict in par to tendency the mean I which by ‘groupism’, call will I what is This ticular.

6 5 ary political of genealogical priority of ethnicity over understanding 1978, 389): group formations (Weber istence of ethnic groups. Stressing an “artifcial origin of the an “artifcial ethnic groups. Stressing istence of ethnicity”,in common charac an artifcial or constructive and thus custom the German sociologist reverses the ter of ethnic groups, ber it is “the belief in common ethnicity” belief in common ber it is “the ex preconditions the that ethnicity or nationality, like any other similar approach, leads to a similar approach, other any like or nationality, ethnicity groups, reifcation of ethnic primordial ------ion - of

ch - 7 an that ethnicization social and ethnic dif cultivating Therefore, for an ethnic group formation, it is suf Therefore, for an ethnic group formation, efort as it is about But the sentiment of ethnic solidarity does not by itself not by But the sentiment of ethnic solidarity does Since, according to Weber, “ethnic membership does not Since, according to Weber, The inspiration for ethnic brotherhood that comes from the that comes for ethnic brotherhood The inspiration “But if there are sharp boundaries between areas of observable styles of life, they are due to conscious monopolistic closure, which started from small differences that were then cultivated and intensified.” (Weber 1978, 388). conscious

7 fcient for some people to have feelings or sentiments or even fcient for some people to have feelings tween ethnic group and nation is contained in the sentence he tween ethnic group and nation is contained italicized: a “nation”. make “pre-national peoples” do exist, but decisive for their identity be his arguments on cita comes their “group consciousness”. Building Connor believes that the crucial diference be tions from Weber, constitute a group”, to make plausible the hypothesis on ethnic plausible the hypothesis to make constitute a group”, was necessarygroups as “nations before nations”, it to depoliticize ethnic groups as Connor, For their “pre-existence”. and naturalize ferences. Small and entirely arbitrary diferences may thus grow to and their life styles. form “sharp boundaries” between groups other”, cultural trait, “any how superfcial, can serve no matter as a 1978, 388). The monopolistic closure has to starting point” (Weber be a group-forming power is again highly political: “monopolistic clo group-forming power is again highly political: to “induce the belief that afn due to this power, Therefore, sure”. that attract or repel ea ity or disafnity exists between groups groups. It is, therefore, through the process of groups. It is, therefore, become ethnic,these kinds of groups as communi i.e., naturalized reveals that the most efective Weber ties of blood kinship. groups, the people gathered around common memories, or having gathered around common memories, groups, the people appear “the physical similarities like “esthetically conspicuous” or “the conduct of everyday etc.,ance” become ethnic can life”, simply of the existing ethnic groups. In his understanding, political ethnic groups. In his understanding, simply of the existing frst place, but also language and religious communities in the the ethnic kind may come into efect only after “the disintegrat efect only after kind may come into the ethnic to speak of is inclined Weber of the community”. Consequently, th sentimental efects of ethnicity rather feelings, beliefs and political community is so strong that even “drastic diferences” that even “drastic is so strong political community

Vlaisavljević 118 119 edited volumes - - - e, - - before before - are not politically shaped politically formation, it testifes that that testifes it formation, ­ before they know what they than to nationalism. To the degree that it it that degree the To nationalism. to than others”, and fnally our “be ­ . Thus, to Weber’s we can add illustrations, are not for ­ are xenophobia Now we see that ethnic groups are being reifed because identity. In such cases, meaningful identity of a positive nature re In such cases, meaningful identity of a positive identity. need members Thus, . or , region, locale, to limited mains group. ethnic the to belonging of conscious be not Considered a preparatory process of nation-for step in the represents a step in the process of nation represents a step in the know ethnically what they a group of people must they know what they Slovenes who, under the Habsburg Empir the Slovaks, Croats, and before long Magyar, nor German neither were they that aware were national or ethnic their concerning opinions positive possessed they termed earlier, potential nations. His illustrations are of peoples not not peoples of are illustrations His nations. potential earlier, termed group The element. ethnic larger a to belonging of cognizant yet soli he refers – that rather low level of ethnic consciousness to which confronted when feels element ethnic the of segment a which darity and politically important very be not need element foreign a with comes closer to Weber is here clearly speaking of prenational peoples or, what we we what or, peoples prenational of speaking clearly here is Weber awakening, ethnic groups defnitely should exist even before ethnic awakening, ­ ”. There is even a stage preceding the preliminary”. There is even a stage preceding the stage of nega vague consciousness, but not a full awareness or a clear notion, of or a clear notion, of a full awareness but not vague consciousness, 388): 1978, (Connor distinctiveness their collective ing-for-ourselves”. ing-for-ourselves”. they are considered confned to a certain stage of group’s si-Hegelian dialectics may be used to support the explanation: in si-Hegelian dialectics may be used to followed by the the beginning, there was our “being-in-ourselves”, negatively defned “being are which is in itself “of a positive tively determined collective identity, of premodern local identities. It looks as if a qua that nature”: “to know nationally” are to be found at diferent stages of the development: “a group of people must consciousness group’s know ethnically what they their members “become cognizant” of who they are and where their members “become cognizant” of they actually belong. An audacious genealogical-epistemological “to know ethnically”distinction is being introduced, because and mation, taken to be the process of a group’s be the process of a group’s to mation, taken self ------t ------it ­ , has has , in ­ the aware ­ others of ­ ) in the more for ­ implicit in the aufgehoben teleological fnalism teleological When Ethnicity did not Matter in the Balkans It is an outer cognitive instance of the full-aware It is an outer cognitive instance of the 9 8 knowledge, only an “outside observer”knowledge, only an be fully can breaking book ­ ­ Ethnicity, as an allegedly embryonicEthnicity, the develop stage in ethnic group and not a nation” (Connor 1978, 388). Hans Kohn has pro 1978, 388). Hans Kohn (Connor ethnic group and not a nation” vided a striking definition of the southern Slavs in the epoch prior to their “Thenational awakening: southern Slavs, divided according to historical regions rather than ethnographic principles, without a uniform language and spelling, were no more than ethnographic raw material out of which nationalities could grow” 1944, 546). (Kohn He adds to the above-cited passage: “An ethnic group may be readily He adds to the above-cited passage: “An but until the observer, discerned by an anthropologist or other outside it is merely an uniqueness, members are themselves aware of the group’s The German historian Reinhart Koselleck has posed the historical finalism finalism historical the posed has Koselleck Reinhart historian German The everything everything can be justified, but not can be justified by any his in Fine, V.A. John historian American The 12). 2002, (Koselleck thing.” ground in what he calls “anachronis revealed how difficult it actually is not to fall (Fine 2006, 13). tic trap” as a general problem: “Any history, because it is ex post facto, is subject to to subject is facto, post ex is it because history, “Any problem: general a as escape can one Yet them. without do to impossible is It constraints. final only by introduc the schema of causal addition and narrative arbitrariness Put possibilities. past play into bring example, for that, hypotheses ing perspectivism is tolerable only if it is not stripped of its hypo differently, concisely: more Stated character. revisable therefore, and, thetical

9 8 are; and the same goes for Serbs, and Bosnians, and for the res goes for Serbs, and Bosnians, and for are; and the same of the world. self was, nationality-for-itself will be. And it is ultimately tautolog will be. And it is ultimately self was, nationality-for-itself ical: Croats are Croats because they have always been what they the true problem is a kind of is a kind of the true problem conception of passively given, potential, not-yet-aware nations. fnalism commands: wherever ethnicity The tacitly implied consciousness development.consciousness spiral of prog Given the outlined sublated ( ethnicity is being ress, in which advanced stage of the collective identity, what turns out to be aware of the group’s separate existence. Connor introduces the aware of the group’s this being fgure of anthropologist to demonstrate ethnic groups. ment of a fully self-aware people, is therefore about feelings and people, ment of a fully self-aware in this stage there is a constitutive lack sentiments. Since at self group’s level of ethnic solidarity”. ness of ethnic groupings. Defcient in their ability for self ness of ethnic groupings. Defcient in feelings and sen founded primarily on ness and self-interpretation, postulates, have “rather low timents, these groups, as the author

Vlaisavljević 120 121 edited volumes ------mu or or valu at cien l of defned”. defned”. of their their of ­ borders be self like approach to the the to approach like ­ must by at least “a segment of of segment “a least at by felt defned”. In drawing his distinctions distinctions his drawing In defned”. ­ defned, the nation defned, the ­ . The ethnic boundarydemar at this level is a foreigners defned runs against the inclination to view ethnic groups groups ethnic view to inclination the against runs defned , are ­ Again, it is important to emphasize that for Weber, there is that for Weber, Again, it is important to emphasize However, ethnic groups as “prenational peoples” are not sup peoples” are not as “prenational ethnic groups However, , therefore, be other , therefore, ethnic he calls “rational associations”, which include political ones, so that the emergence of “ethnic fctions” is rather a sign of their def what is usually considered “tribal Even cy, or decrease in rationality. any point,any that “the belief in group afnity […] even when stating for the formation of a can have important consequences especially political community”. The genealogical priority is accorded to what no doubt about an artifcial and derivative character of the com no doubt about an artifcial and derivative in that respect nities of imagined kinship. He is not ambiguous it precedes the modern political interpretations of the “phenome it precedes the modern political interpretations probably nationalism But it. calls Waldenfels as alienness”, of non germinate. to xenophobia of soil the needs ity feelings and negative out- cation line between positive in-group as nationalism, to inherent strictly not is Xenophobia feelings. group The feeling of solidarity, i.e., of ourselves as a group, appears to be be to appears group, a as ourselves of i.e., solidarity, of feeling The the feeling of foreignness an efect occurring simultaneously to solidar a group’s What makes alienness when meeting some people. analyses. The ethnic solidarity, conceived as an underlying emotional emotional underlying an as conceived solidarity, ethnic The analyses. is texture, as the explanation proposes, with a foreign element”.the ethnic element” when it is “confronted with ethnicity in the frst place. Xenophobia, or something close to it, it, to close something or Xenophobia, place. frst the in ethnicity with with others, the leve marks the most basic level of interaction Weberian the by assigned consciousness, vague and feelings group able sketch of what may be considered a Barth of what may be considered able sketch where It is the sentence of ethnic group identity. primordial creation do to has xenophobia that seems It emerges. “xenophobia” term the ethnographic contents” and the like. Even at this stage, “prenational “prenational stage, this at Even like. the and contents” ethnographic inner capacity to establish the peoples” have true most In a single sentence, Connor ofers a ethnic togetherness. be other “delimited cultures”, “ethnic as entities, present objectively purely as ing distinction between the two modal verbs: “While an ethnic group group ethnic an “While verbs: modal two the between distinction ing may nations” to expressed potentiality of “potential Thus, grammatically posed to be exclusively “other exclusively posed to be a correspond Connor introduces ethnic group and nation, between ------be - )” - - - e to ). We ; or, as it as ; or, wenig phyle , postulates that ) that at the bot , not ethnos ) than those who are ), which in spite of its ), which in spite of ‘gemeinsam’ Empfundenen ‘gemeinsam’ 10 vage Vorstellung Abstammungsgemeinschaft Ethnic communities Abstammung Nationalgefühl ), men who consider themselves of the ), men who consider themselves of the ) a vague idea ( ) in “common descent”. Whether there is any reality be Whether there is any ) in “common descent”. First sentence of the paragraph 4, entitled “Nation” and “Nation” First sentence of the paragraph 4, entitled In elaborating the themes of nation and nationality, Weber Weber nation and nationality, the themes of In elaborating presumed 'blood community', lived from the memorypresumed 'blood community', lived from the that it once en gaged in joint political action, typically a single conquest or defense, and then such political memories constituted the tribe. Thus, the fact that tribal consciousness was primarily formed by common political experi ences and not by common descent appears to have been a frequent 1978, 394). (Weber source of the belief in common ethnicity.” “However, tribes that existed before the polis were either identical with tribes that existed before the polis were “However, subsequently associated the corresponding political groups which were into a polis, and in this case, they were called tribe, as a times, the politically unorganized probably happened many . What makes this community’s feeling ethnic is a common . What makes

Glaube 10 ( felt in der Realität der Dinge in der Realität consciousness was primarily formed by common political experi formed by common was primarily consciousness not by common descent”. ences and classed as diferent and hostile nationalities”. The second classed as diferent and hostile nationalities”. ( but too often, more re same nationality are, not just occasionally, mote from the common roots ( tom of what is felt to be “in common ( tom of what is felt to be “in common must lie a community of descent ( “although in reality ber continues to explain in the same sentence: the concepts of nationality and people (ethnically understood) the concepts of nationality and people at least normally”overlap in meaning. They both “share, ( stens normalerweise “Volk” (“Nationality and Cultural Prestige”, in the English transla Prestige”, and Cultural (“Nationality “Volk” devoted to of the chapter tion), is left to the sociologist to doubt. However, what is undoubtedly is left to the sociologist to doubt. However, beliefs are most efectiv clear to him is that such feelings and social action and mobilization. is lief 1978, 389), hence “presumed identity”hind this “believed”, (Weber basically synonymous with ethno-nationality. In his understanding, with ethno-nationality. basically synonymous which is solidarity originates from a source the modern national is common, the commonness of community, above all ethnic: what crucial importance remains undefned. And yet, Weber is obliged to remains undefned. And yet, is crucial importance Weber is imprecise concepts as his notion of nationality operate with such continues to speak of feelings and sentiments (Ch. V, § 4, and Ch. § 4, and V, (Ch. and sentiments to speak of feelings continues IX, or “national feeling” forefront comes the § 5). Now to the identity”“sense of national (

Vlaisavljević 122 123 edited volumes ------h - - na - ). - - nde - ü - 11 realen Gründe des Glaubens Gründe realen trotz Abstam zweifellos starker ), merely because there are diferences in reli because there are ), merely ), Weber poses “language uniformity” or “language ), Weber sse, obwohl in der Realität der Dinge Menschen, welche sich als Na sse, obwohl in der Realität der Dinge Menschen, ü If ethnic relatedness is not a unique and sufciently reliable If ethnic relatedness is not a unique and Thus, the very to the norm (or what is postulated moment wandtschaft bestehen, nur weil Unterschiede der religiösen Konfes wandtschaft bestehen, nur weil Unterschiede sionen vorliegen, wie zwischen Serben und Kroaten. Die realen Gr und des Gemeinsamkeit des Glaubens an den Bestand einer ‘nationalen’ darauf sich aufbauenden Gemeinschaftshandelns sind sehr verschieden. Heute gilt vor allem ‘Sprachgemeinschaft’, im Zeitalter der Sprachen 1922, 224). kämpfe, als ihre normale Basis.” (Weber ‘Nationalität’ teilt mit dem ‘Volk’ im landläufigen ‘ethnischen’ Sinn ‘ethnischen’ im landläufigen ‘Nationalität’ teilt mit dem ‘Volk’ daß dem als ‘gemein wenigstens normalerweise die vage Vorstellung, Empfundenen eine Abstammungsgemeinschaft zugrunde liegen sam’ m gelegentlich, sondern tionalitätsgenossen betrachten, sich nicht nur stehen, als solche, die sehr häufig der Abstammung nach weit ferner sich zurechnen. National verschiedenen und feindlichen Nationalitäten Abstammungsver z. B. trotz zweifellos starker itätsunterschiede können Some nuances seem lost in the English translation. I offer my translation I offer my translation Some nuances seem lost in the English translation. of this very important passage along with the original German text: “Die

11 normale Basis normale dence of common descent ( dence of mungsverwandtschaft as between Serbs and Croats”. gious denominations, sentence, which supplements what is set forth as a defnition of what is set forth which supplements sentence, “There and Croats. It reads: into play Serbs brings tionality, can be strong evi for example, the despite, in nationality, diferences community”, because, as he stresses, in “the age of language con ficts” it best serves his reference to Serbs its purpose. He repeats As the frst introduced example demonstrates, religious creed or norm-giving basis as a normal should be one of them. However, ( basis for the belief in common nationality, there must be other not basis for the belief in common nationality, less “realistic reasons for the belief” ( posed common ethnic background is quite weak, while in some posed common ethnic background ties do not prevent the pro other cases, apparently strong ethnic cess of national diferentiation. nic groups, including mutually hostile ones, are often more closely mutually hostile ones, are often more nic groups, including same et who think themselves as being of the related than those the sup of national identity emerges where A strong sense nicity. exceptions: it seems that there is no signifcant overlapping be that there is no signifcant overlapping it seems exceptions: in unex The aberrations may occur ethnicity. tween nationality and eth people who believe to belong to diferent pected ways: those be normally the case) is established, it is subverted by important is established, it is subverted be normally the case) - - -

- - g als - - ), - - iden vage ), as some ) is inherently and insepara Realität der Dinge Realität ethnisches Gemeinschaftsgefühl ethnisches ) subsumed under the term ‘national’ ) subsumed under ) and not anything objective and empirically verifable. ) and not anything nationales Gemeinschaftsgefühl nationales It seems, therefore, useless and vain to critically examine It seems, therefore, useless and vain to Why should ethnicity be considered a privileged basis for the be considered a privileged basis should ethnicity Why Gemeinsamkeitsgefühle interpreted as an intrusion of the Real in the imaginary and senti by the This intrusion was marked mental world of national identity. their ethnic names of Serbs and Croats. It is their ethnicity, thing that is objectively pre-given. As we have seen, it is the mo his formula of equivalence wants to relativize ment when Weber It is the moment which could be between nationality and ethnicity. it to speak about diverse sources of national identity. Thus, it is all identity. it to speak about diverse sources of national emerges, dictated by the more surprising when ethnicity suddenly the reality of things in themselves ( whether the given basis of nationality is ethnic or quasi-ethnic.whether the given basis of nationality The is using marks when Weber term “ethnic” appears under quotation Thus, from whatever source the national sentiment may be sup Thus, from whatever source the national as a re-ethnicized posed to have been derived, it is immediately characteristic ethno-national feeling. subjective belief in common descent. What merges these feelings belief is a vague idea ( and beliefs in one and sole feeling or Vorstellung feeling ( to the ethnic feeling ( bly linked belief in what is distinctively common to another subjective one’s and nationality overlapping may still hold. What is important is to and nationality overlapping may still hold. is essentially an that the overlapping comes in the end, as it realize efect, purportedly an emotional efect, not a cause. The national toms, racial factors, etc.toms, racial factors, par any – it is then questionable whether while However, should be accorded to ethnicity. ticular importance reasons for doubt,acknowledging the ethnicity the thesis about may derive from diverse sources” – Weber proposes a whole list: proposes a whole sources” – Weber may derive from diverse power and social structure and internal “diferences in economic memories”, religion, language, cus “shared political structure”, creation of common nationality at all? If “feelings of common nationality at all? If “feelings of common creation of common tity ( groups, whereas those who speak diferent languages feel them speak diferent languages those who groups, whereas selves a nation. and Croats in order to demonstrate that the same kind of revers that the same in order to demonstrate and Croats people speakin ethnic pattern: as with the previous happen here nationality belong to diferent language believe to the same

Vlaisavljević 124 125 edited volumes ------) na ethnische ethnische ), as they , if there künstlich normale Basis normale zweifellos starker Abstam zweifellos starker ethnic solidarity of Serbs or Croats, there is national solidarity ). These two “opposing” and even hostile na “opposing” and ). These two ). ”, presenting the most striking and instructive ”, presenting the most of ethnic solidarity does not by itself make a ‘na make of ethnic solidarity does not by itself Nation .) cannot be derived from the realistic stance towards .) cannot be derived from the realistic , as they are thus considered to be parts of one larger eth to be parts of one thus considered , as they are Serbs and Croats are included into the both chapters Weber included into the both chapters Weber Serbs and Croats are es, namely, a religious creed, as is the case with Serbs and Croats. a religious creed, as is the case with Serbs es, namely, Serbs and Croats Croats is the “national Serbs What makes “National” solidarity among men speaking the same language may “National” solidarity among men speaking may be instead, be just as well rejected as accepted. Solidarity, culture value of the mass with diferences in the other great linked ibid sentiment Sprachgemeinschaft certainly complies with his theory 1978, 923): (Weber presumed and arbitrary The sec ethnic identity. any character of discuses, the case when ond extraordinary which Weber exception language-group identity, national identity diverges/departs from tional identity may be. However, to denaturalize nationality, the so nationality, to denaturalize be. However, tional identity may at least for a moment,ciologist was obliged, eth to re-naturalize his own theory and thus contradict nicity, the essentially about devoted to “ unnatural and artifcial ( examples of how amazingly are considered to be parts of one larger “language community”are considered to be ( tionalities undermine not only the real basis of ethnicity ( the real basis of undermine not only tionalities Realität) its “normal basis” ( but also nic community, “relatedness by common descent”, that is frmly asserted by Weber asserted by Weber that is frmly by common descent”, “relatedness ( and “unquestionable” as being “strong” mungsverwandtschaft accepted. Behind the at least one rejected and one accepted diference between these two kinds of . may be any transcends the sphere of feelings and subjective beliefs. It is a transcends the sphere of feelings and in themselves. Given the intu “sphere of values” rather than things ition that solidarity is a thing of collective will, it can be rejected or “the ( tion’” or solid, which frm grasp anything cannot Indeed, Weber ethnicity. stronger than the potential ethnic solidarity based on language re stronger than the potential ethnic solidarity is evident exception latedness. This second case of Serbo-Croatian Weber’sly not of the same order as the frst one. central claim that solidarity” itself among men having the same religion. It proved ------as - - - - s mar ue po - against ): a decision decision a ): outsiders is quite members who under ­ against – struggle or conflict – in members and out ­ The national diferentiation diferentiation national The eine Parteinahme 12 Kampf making or regrouping (Brubaker making or regrouping (Brubaker ­ is a basic fact of cultural life. The antinomy is a condition for the possibility of culture. , since outsiders are felt as strange and , since outsiders are felt as strange and Kampf Kampf , indissolubly links ingroup is, in the philosophical of Weber’s time and place, a transcenden against foreigners among The enigma still remains, since ethno-national boundaries The enigma still remains, since ethno-national But the more important and decisive question is how solidar decisive question important and But the more members by mutually confronting them. Judging by its ef members by mutually confronting them. culture suggests that of values entails that Because the act of taking a value position, the practice that constitutes culture, is not possible independent of irreconcilable value conflicts, Kampf 2003, 30). tal presupposition of culture.” (Oakes “Weber’s discussion of the place of ­

12 least in the periods of their group co 2004, 79). The “thick” solidarity of ethnic corresponded with the stand themselves as blood relatives is shared belief in the common kinship in the frst place) in some peo the frst place) shared belief in the common kinship in foreigners, or the degree of ple, the intensity of confrontation with has to be verytheir otherness or alienness, its intensity high, at group ethnic solidarity fect on insiders-solidarity, For it to produce an efect of ethnic fraternization (a exceptional. solidarity which implies alien to the insiders. Solidarity as a concept well as ethnic groups. Their communal bodies are made of densely inter ethnic groups. Their communal bodies which is often recognized woven personal feelings the totality of primarily the It is a particular kind of solidarity, as group solidarity. are essentially emotional: they are about the feelings of solidarity. the feelings of solidarity. are essentially emotional: they are about as constitutive for the formation of These feelings should be taken religion does not sufce: it may be accepted or rejected as a de it may be accepted or rejected religion does not sufce: a sin nations. It may draw “social circles” within cation line between nations. two between boundary set as well as nation, larger gle, ferent religious creeds open up diferent value spheres which, a open up diferent value spheres which, ferent religious creeds only in opposition to alterna remarks, “can be constituted Oakes in diference the diference, “ethnic” other any like However, tives”. between Serbs and Croats becomes understandable, because dif Croats becomes understandable, because between Serbs and for one value and against all others”. for one value and against fcity of the sphere of values and reafrm “his thesis that a val and reafrm “his thesis sphere of values fcity of the position ( a partisan sition is invariably taken is stand a which in values exclusive mutually of feld a within ity, be it ethnic or national, becomes “linked with diferences”. An An diferences”. with “linked becomes national, or ethnic it be ity, in line with Weber’sexplanation to the speci would point approach

Vlaisavljević 126 127 edited volumes - - - - - s . solidarity-among , can be reinterpreted as the , can be reinterpreted are over solidarity-against diference. The Serbs/Croats diference raises the diference. The Serbs/Croats members, before the age of nationalism, know what members, before the ­ , and not yet what they , and not yet what Building his approach on his eminent predecessor’sBuilding his approach theory, were neither German nor Magyar, long before they possessed posi were neither German nor Magyar, identity. tive opinions concerning their ethnic or national and, after him, Connor are not the only authors who, Weber Thus, to Weber’s illustrations, we can add the Slovaks, Croats, and were aware that they Slovenes who, under the Habsburg Empire, we/they are not Slovenes, together with Slovaks, are included. As we have already already have we As included. are Slovaks, with together Slovenes, 388): 1978, (Connor follows as reads example adjoined the seen, Connor follows Weber even in selecting the most instructive ethno Connor follows Weber point important most the are Slavs South the Again, material. graphic and Croats Croats, and Serbs of instead time this only reference, of they preponderance of group solidarity, then xenophobic feelings may be considered the feelings may be considered xenophobic then group solidarity, Connor’s Accordingly, conception of solidarity. most powerful fuel that ethnic co as low as the corresponding level of group solidarity. However, if However, level of group solidarity. as low as the corresponding basis of view on feelings as the ultimate we stick to the Weberian boundaries are marked by xenophobic feelings. The ethnic group The ethnic group feelings. xenophobic by are marked boundaries should, according with xenophobia, which he links consciousness, be between nationality and ethnicity, to his view on the diference feeling of alienness toward some other people who are confront some other people alienness toward feeling of of a threatening but as the members individual persons, ed, not as group. As ethnic above-quoted lines, suggested in the Connor has der for both to perceive themselves as members of diferent lower limit, What is the a sort of groups, alien to one another? to be threshold, for the other (i.e., person, group, nation) questions about “the minimum of minimum”. How diferent should questions about “the minimum of minimum”. order to be considered a someone be from another person, in How much strangeness is required in or stranger by that person? and researchers in the feld of ethnic and nationalism studies a and researchers in the feld of ethnic they probably ofer an extraordinary subtle and astoundingly “arti fcial” in order to support their main theses, gave a privileged weight to in order to support their main theses, Croats. These eminently the historical experiences of Serbs and particular experiences prove to be very challenging for the scholars ------ex hing hing Bosnian ­ it is the . At the the At . 13 Croat ­ Croatistics seeking to ­ members of diferent nation ­ felt foreign and alien and felt foreign like terms: “domestic foreigners”, “eth terms: “domestic like ­ oriented Serbo ­ diference in its originary appearance in the do we/they of the alienness of others should be expected. However, However, expected. be should others of alienness the of Apart from the psychoanalysis of small ethnic diferences, Apart from the psychoanalysis of small If some people see themselves as “contrastive” in this sense sense this in “contrastive” as themselves see people some If What makes Serbs Serbs, Sinhalese Sinhalese, French Canadians Serbs, Sinhalese Sinhalese, French Serbs What makes of is that they and the rest anybody, or anybody Canadians, French for the moment and to a degree, for certain the world have come, to contexts, to view them as contrastive purposes and in certain what is around them. See, for instance, Michael Ignatieff’s tackling of the Serb difference as it emerged in the Bosnian war (Ignatieff 1998).

13 main of lived experience of the alien, the paradigm shift in anthropology of ethnicity that yields many a fresh and enlightening a fresh and enlightening many anthropology of ethnicity that yields insights. For the ethnicity grasp the 2000, 249): considered irrevocably strange and alien to me, to us? Among to us? and alien to me, irrevocably strange considered diference is cer to the S/C attached great importance those who Geertz (Geertz Cliford cultural anthropologist tainly American which has for a long time been a major tool in examining the cases which has for a long time been a major toward what is hardly alien, of outrageous xenophobia called “Serbo-Croatistics”, but it should not be confused with the be it should Nor studies. language Slavic the of discipline traditional anthropology. Slav South the to reduced or into absorbed ars and marked some of their major arguments, and this to such a some ars and marked distinctive and fouris degree that one can rightly speak of the be may It studies. nationalism and ethnicity the within discipline nically related foreigners”, “ethnic co force contrastive weak its to due precisely is It like. the and alities” prominent schol has attracted many diference that the elusive S/C opaque to a foreign observer, if what it ofers under the category of of category the under ofers it what if observer, foreign a to opaque be can it that force contrastive minor such of is diference” “ethnic described only in oxymoron very ethnic grouping process, a lived and vivid beginning of any perience and inaccessible be may experience contrastive primordial this to other people, like Serbs do to Croats, or vice versa, it means, in in means, it versa, vice or Croats, to do Serbs like people, other to these others are the frst place, that

Vlaisavljević 128 129 edited volumes - - - - Of 14 15 Heinz Kohl’s transformation of transformation Heinz Kohl’s ­ up of Yugoslavia […]” (Eriksen 2002, 12). up of Yugoslavia ­ even volatile) interethnic relationship between them. This would have interethnic relationship even volatile) been the case with the relationship between Serbs and Croats following the break phi Bernhard Leistle is an author who strongly argues “that Waldenfels’s of responsivity allows us to develop new perspectives for an losophy thropology” (Leistle 2015 and 2017). For its significance in the local context see: Pål Kolstø 2005, 15. The new Kolstø For its significance in the local context see: Pål an aspect of a relationship, approach holds that “ethnicity is essentially and thus becomes able to grapple with diffi not a property of a group” two groups be culturally identical and yet con “Can cult questions like: that the first It is not surprising stitute two different ethnic groups?” difference: “Some groups may illustration of such an issue is the S/C yet there can be a socially highly relevant (and seem culturally similar,

15 14 supplemented by the phenomenology of the alien, developed by developed by of the alien, by the phenomenology supplemented 2011). (Waldenfels Waldenfels Bernhard German philosopher no less importance is Karl no less importance especially when 1993), (Kohl alien” of culturally into the “science anthropology, inspired by Frederik Bart, important. is crucially inspired by Frederik anthropology, - - - . - - Eth - - Max Weber . Princeton, NJ: . Princeton, NJ: . London: Hurst & , n° 24/1. . Cambridge, MA: Harvard University The idea of nationalism: A Study in Its , Vol. 14 (4): 325–340. , Vol. Lignes 4 (October): 377–400. 4 (October): o ol. 1, n . New Brunswick (USA) and London (U.K.): Transaction Transaction . New Brunswick (USA) and London (U.K.): Ethnicity and Nationalism: Anthropological Perspec Ethnicity and Nationalism: Anthropological V , . London and New York: Routledge. . London and New York: Ethnic Groups and Boundaries. The Social Organizations of The Social Organizations Ethnic Groups and Boundaries. . Boston: Little, Brown and Company. . Boston: Little, Brown and . 2 (July): 209–234. The Practice of Conceptual History: Timing History, Spacing History, History: Timing of Conceptual The Practice . Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. o The Lesson of This Century: With Two Talks on Freedom and on Talks With Two of This Century: The Lesson The Warrior’s Honor: Ethnic War and the Modern Conscience The Warrior’s Honor: Ethnic War Ethnicity Without Groups Ethnologie – die Wissenschaft vom kulturell Fremden. Eine Ein vom kulturell – die Wissenschaft Ethnologie We, the People of Europe? Refections on Transnational Citizen on Transnational Refections of Europe? the People We, Myths and Boundaries in South-East Europe Myths and Boundaries in South-East Available light: anthropological refections on philosophical top on philosophical refections light: anthropological Available Ethnonationalism: the quest for understanding Ethnonationalism: the quest for When Ethnicity did not Matter in the Balkans: A Study of Identity When Ethnicity did not Matter in the Balkans: 2002.

2004.

. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. 2004.

Journal of Classical Journal of Classical . München: Verlag C.H. Beck. . München: Verlag Vol. 10, n Vol. , London and Sterling, Virginia: Pluto Press. . Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press. Oxford: Princeton University . Princeton and . Princeton: Princeton University Press. Heinz. 1993. Michael. 1998. ­

Press. State the Democratic Studies nic and Racial tional”. Diference Cultural ship Princeton University Press. tives in the Medieval and Ear in Pre-Nationalist Croatia, Dalmatia, and Slavonia Periods ly-Modern Concepts Studies, Origins and Background Publishers. Company. ics Metropolitan Books. New York: führung John V.A. 2006. John V.A.

alibar, Etienne. alibar, Bosetti, Giancarlo. 1997. Bosetti, Giancarlo. 1997. Group, Is a . . “. Nation Is a Nation, Is a State, Is an Ethnic “A 1978. Walker. Connor, Benslama, Fethi. 1995. “La dépropriation”. dépropriation”. Benslama, Fethi. 1995. “La Rogers. Brubaker, Barth, Frederik (ed.). 1969. (ed.). Barth, Frederik Banton, Michael. 2014. “Updating Max Weber on the racial, the ethnic, on the and the na Weber 2014. “Updating Max Banton, Michael. Bibliography B Eriksen, Thomas Hylland. 2002. Connor, Walker. 1994. Walker. Connor, Geertz, Cliford. 2000. Fine, Lehne, Jacob. 2010. “Max Weber and nationalism – chaos or consistency?” and nationalism – chaos or consistency?” Lehne, Jacob. 2010. “Max Weber Koselleck, Reinhart.Koselleck, Kolstø, Pål (ed.). 2005. Pål Kolstø, Kohl, Karl Kohl, published in 1944). Hans. 2008 (originally Kohn, Ignatief,

Vlaisavljević 130 131 edited volumes - - - . New 204: Journal of Understand . Evanston: . Evanston: : Semiotica Wissenschaft und Ge Wissenschaft Studien zur Phänomenologie Studien zur Phänomenologie : . Oxford: Blackwell Publishers. . Oxford: Blackwell Publishers. The Anthropology of Ethnicity: Beyond The Anthropology , III. Abteilung, . Translated by George Schwab. Chica by George Schwab. . Translated Amsterdam: Het Spinhuis. (edited by Roth, Gunther, and Wittich, Claus). and Wittich, Claus). (edited by Roth, Gunther, Anthropology and Alterity. Responding to the Other Responding and Alterity. Anthropology Topographie des Fremden Topographie Basic concepts of the Alien. Phenomenology , Vol. 3 (1) (March): 27–45. 3 (1) (March): , Vol. The Ethnic Origins of Nations Bordering and Ordering the Twenty-frst Century the Twenty-frst and Ordering Bordering . Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp. . Frankfurt The Concept of the Political of the The Concept . Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefeld Publishers. . Lanham, MD: Rowman Grundriss der Sozialökonomik and Society Economy . Tübingen: Verlag von J.C.B. Mohr. von J.C.B. Mohr. Verlag . Tübingen: Northwestern University Press. sellschaft University of California Press. Berkeley: go: University of Chicago Press. go: University of Chicago “Ethnic Groups and Boundaries”. des Fremden 1 Classical Sociology Classical ing Borders 291-313. London: Routledge. and York Weber, Max. 1922. Weber, Max. 1978. Weber, Waldenfels, Bernhard. 2011. Waldenfels, Vermeulen, Hans, and Govers, Cora (eds.). 1994. Hans, Vermeulen, Bernhard. 1997. Waldenfels, Smith, Anthony D. 1986. D. Smith, Anthony Schmitt, Carl. 2007. Popescu, Gabriel. 2012. Popescu, Oakes, Guy. 2003. “Max Weber on Value Rationality and Value Spheres”. and Value Rationality on Value Weber 2003. “Max Guy. Oakes, Leistle, Bernhard. 2015. “Otherness as a paradigm in anthropology”. as a 2015. “Otherness Leistle, Bernhard. (ed.). 2017. Leistle, Bernhard János Boros

Boros 132 133 edited volumes ------: ethics, history, identity, society, xenophobia society, : ethics, history, identity, are no limits to communication, then the borders circum are no limits to communication, economically or politically isolated com scribing culturally, munities cannot and should not exist. Keywords The rise of xenophobic, identitarian movements across Eu The rise of xenophobic, and must not be the right an rope and elsewhere cannot swer to the challenges of our time. It is, however, probable have been born of real distress ex that these movements perienced by large segments of the population. If there is debated by philosophers, many of whom contend Identity

hereby try to propose principles for a peaceful commondifferent identities. life of though you can have double citizenship. In a precise sense,“identity” implies that X is something and not something This is only possible if that something has a clear boundary. I else. dier, as young or old. If you have one identity, you cannotin thehave same sense another identity. If you have Serbian al German identity, you cannot also have in the same sense identity, ple and in the community of nations, and your identity rep ple and in the community of nations, resents you. It mediates what you are and who you are. may identifyYou as a professor or sol yourself as Serbian or British, we do it, individuals and communities cannot exist. You yourhave name, your family, your friends, and you tell stories identity in the community of peo have a narrative You yourself. about that the expression has no semantic content,that the expression has no semantic meaning or refer this word to say that with ence. Let us suppose that we can use out identity, without stating who we are, what we do and why A b s t r a c t Political Order. Based on the Philosophies of Vlaisavljević and Rorty Rawls, Kant, Ethics and Identity: Towards a New Cognitive- New a Towards Identity: and Ethics ------

- Like an sich, en elle-même. en elle-même. an sich, proposed by philosophers has an history is an identity-building machine history is an identity-building personal identity personal The French sociologist Bruno Latour has produced a the The French History does not exist as such, All human identities evolve through time, that is, over I would like to propose an ethical model of identity based model of identity based to propose an ethical I would like Can a person or a country have an identity which is based The sis that there is no such thing as society, at least as “It is no longer clear whether there exist relations that are a substance: construct another entity? History personal and com construct another entity? constructs munal-societal identity. However, there are also considerabledifficulties in the interpretation of the term “society”. all machines, it is a construction. History constructs entity in turn but who constructs history? Can a constructed identity, historical time. Perhaps historical time. Perhaps constructed by people and for people. Does the term “history” Can we still speak of history? still have meaning in our age? tomatons completely determined by our past and culture. tomatons completely determined by the course of history. Identity is always realized or produced in Not only society, but our interpretation of history itself, If this can be changed for the good of humanity. hence identity, and but helpless, pitiful au were not possible, we would be nothing clusivity. I invoke certain theories of history and of whichsociety emphasize that ethnical and national identities aregreat to a extent human constructs, and therefore liable to change. will also discuss the identity theory of the Bosnian-Herzegovini an philosopher Ugo Vlaisavljević. Ethical identity shouldpreserve without animosity or ex particular national identities help one. Can such an identity be attained? one. Can such an identity I Kant, In my investigation on the theories of Rawls and Rorty. on universal principles? Can a person or a country existway in that such all a people or all countries are identical with every such a thing exists, is the identity of if Universal identity, him/her/it? identity might help in overcoming exclusivist identities. in overcoming exclusivist identity might help ethical foundation, and ethics is universal. In this paper I investi is universal. In and ethics ethical foundation, and politi personal identity universal ethics-based gate how ethical personal based on of citizenship cal-democratic identity Personal Identity

Boros 134 135 edited volumes ------Generally, it is sup Generally, constructs society, whereas this be changed at any time without com be changed at any society over time. society over can Something Further on, let us suppose that there are no such sub If we accept the views of Latour, what remains in the end If this statement is true, then the same must be true for for true, then the same must be true If this statement is worse, depending on human needs, desires and actions inhuman the pursuit of happiness and societal equilibrium. Beforetackle History, Politics. let us discuss Cultural we used interchangeably in specific contexts, yet they do not de used interchangeably in specific contexts, on substance. This means that they do not exist in an note any tological sense, hence they are changeable for better or for stances as History and Society,pur certain for butused be thatcan and theexist words“Identity” and “History”,“Society” poses. History, society and identity are concepts that may be golden opportunity for the societies in Eastern Europe and in and in in Eastern Europe golden opportunity for the societies Europe at large. take to conclude that there is no such thing as historical truth. to conclude take this veryis a network of people. And perhaps fact represents a and as such are liable to change at any time, though thisnot mean that they does It would also be a mis plex considerations and deliberations. or conflict with one another. All of history, all of society are constructs. socio-political nationalities and ethnicities and all Hence, they are relative to the worldview of the constructor from the point of view of society. If there is no such there cannot be such substance as historysubstanceas society, either. There can only be viewpoints and narratives that either concur struct,in an epistemological sense, history whereas is a con struct of society. something can be known only as an epistemological construct history, since history is con sense that society is a historical posed in an “ontological” Latour argues that there is no concrete whole that can be rep there is no concrete whole that can Latour argues that name “society”.resented under the communicative, linguistic, psychological, economic and interchangeemotive among people, which is constantly emerging dissolving,and leaving behind a set of disconnected human beings. specific enough to be called ‘social’ and that could betogether grouped in making up a special domain that could function‘society’” as a (Latour 2005, 2). For him, there is only the chaotic - - - - - .), - - .). If we ibid ibid – which are imagina society and .). In today’s Europe the question is what community ibid For Rorty, the expression “cultural politics” originates from the expression “cultural politics” originates from For Rorty, The personal use of words with epistemological and with limit epistemological and use of words with The personal based fctive entities. ­ common values taken from everydaycommon values taken ideolog life without further ical or religious considerations, it might be easier to attain a peaceful life. Everyone can accept that our living together should as a series of eforts to modify people’s sense of who they are, important” (Rorty, what matters to them, what is most build our communal and political structures on the foundation of ture” (Dewey 1982, 43, quot. Rorty 2007, ix). And the future as a task and the ultimate goal can be . Rorty agrees with Dewey, stating that today’s philosophy “is best seen form the basis for politics. Following Dewey, philosophy “is not in any sense whatever a form of knowledge” … but “a social hope a prophecyreduced to a working program of action, of the fu mate, with generally the same customs, then we should try not to overemphasize our diferences in thinking, which do not prove relevant to everyday practical life. Our similarities, instead, should accept the pragmatist maxim that “what makes no diference to no diference to philosophy” (Rorty, practice should make that is, to our thinking. If we live very similar lives, in the same cli with itself” (Rorty, the nations should do with themselves to construct a peaceful and future-oriented political continent. Rorty proposes that we Hegel and Dewey. his To mind, the main task of philosophy is “to contribute to humanity’s ongoing conversation about what to do and action-based realities which are not independent of our actions. To To actions. our of independent not are which realities action-based and use words is to create tion tural politics’ covers, among other things, arguments about what what term ‘cul politics. Richard Rorty writes, “[t]he of ethically based cultural about arguments things, other among covers, politics’ communicative tural create we words, Using ix). 2007, (Rorty use” to words and hence politics, have to be based on ethics. The use of words denot to be based on ethics. The use of words and hence politics, have not exist,ing concepts that do is a question or have limited existence, ed ontological relevance is also a question of ethics. In a democracy the the democracy a In ethics. of question a also is not relevance must It ontological ed politics. cultural of question a is words such of use constitution, societal democratic A war. cultural or discord cultural instigate Cultural politics in place of cultural war of cultural in place politics Cultural

Boros 136 137 edited volumes ------ur - based con ­ 2. Justice means equal chances in social exchange – and this this and – exchange social in chances equal means Justice 2. 1. All cultures and all religions are based on the same values: values: same the on based are religions all and cultures All 1. The difculty is that societies are not purely idea The difculty is that When we have the optimal principles, accept that political optimal principles, accept that political When we have the society is doomed to fail. society just no be can There democracy. of principle core the is be trusted. Today I promise that tomorrow your child will go to to go will child your tomorrow that promise I Today trusted. be that you will receive a pen school – but there is no school. I promise a Such pension. as thing such no is there but – retire you after sion If a society openly condones lying, its members become unable to to unable become members its lying, condones openly society a If no society, a such In others. with relations and lives own their plan promises and not even social institutions could his one would keep inside. God cannot have enemies created by himself. Furthermore, Furthermore, himself. by created enemies have cannot God inside. even unjustly func is why people do not accept open injustice. This power. wielding those by just be to proclaimed are societies tioning eryone to become a believer, and a person killed cannot believe in and a person killed eryone to become a believer, religion a inspire cannot God universal and unique Furthermore, God. the from enemies creates principle in which universal, not is which not exist. Any society built on and proclaiming injustice, hate and and hate injustice, proclaiming and on built society Any exist. not A religion which prescribes the annihi falsehood, will be short-lived. religion, since God wants ev lation of non-believers cannot be true justice, ethics, truthfulness and love. No society can survive without without survive can society No love. and truthfulness ethics, justice, at diferent very appear may Societies principles. these upholding these core values they can the phenomenological level, but without and religions, there are in theory steps toward constructing three just and democratic societies everywhere. structs, but invariable communities governed by traditions. Al communities governed by traditions. structs, but invariable for the the scope of this paper to develop ideas though it is beyond cultures the states based on traditional concept of transforming most pressing task becomes the creation of societies based on becomes the creation of societies based most pressing task these principles. philosophy has identifed the ideals for our common living, that is, identifed the ideals for our common has philosophy o need revolutions in our political thinking, once we no longer reinterpret all older concepts regarding identity, ethnicity, ethics, society. politics and philosophy, be based on justice, responsibility and freedom. If we agree on is im what to ask what does matter, then we have these values, portant in the organization of everyday human life, and we must ------

e by a a by e Of course, such a transformation would mean the end of Of course, such a transformation would The rise of cultural politics puts an end to culture wars in in wars culture to end an puts politics cultural of rise The 3. We can search for manifestations of justice in the folk can search for 3. We rational form of justice (and not its content) should govern public life. The specifc contents of parables, religions and folktales from public and political-legal life, only the should be excluded tures which contribute to the common good. But no specifc cul tures which contribute to the common desire for justice, in other ture, or preferred expression of people’s Only the words, no specifc religion should dominate the society. certain traditions, interpretations of history and social structures. A new history all elements of old cul and society would integrate cial benefts than others. And they should also accept that they they that accept also should they And others. than benefts cial others as others toward responsibilities and duties same the have have towards them. mation does not take place, individuals and groups who seek con mation does not take group every person, Every arise. will resources common over trol have no greater right to so and community should accept that they ple must agree on the meaning of social justice and construct their their construct and justice social of meaning the on agree must ple commonly in enshrined agreement, This it. around society political and minds. If the transfor will then transform hearts accepted law, democratic societies which are in principle based on social justice. justice. social on based principle in are which societies democratic To establish a democratic system, the participating groups and peo Herzegovina. The same is valid for the construction of a function Herzegovina. ing European Union and other multiethnic countries throughout the world. just for all people, we can start to construct societies based on those values. We can do this for people who share a territory, but belong to diferent cultures, such as the peoples of Bosnia and tales of any community, and subsequently convince people that, at a fundamental level, their concepts of good and evil are the same. Then, if we can agree on what is fundamentally good and butter is familiar to us all. butter is familiar to the poor. All people possess a sense of justice since their early child of justice since their possess a sense All people the poor. breakfast tabl felt at the searing sense of injustice hood. The and bread of slice bigger a receives child another when child small without declared democracy. Folktales of all nations celebrate the the celebrate nations all of Folktales democracy. declared without or fnancial not is it stories, such In injustice. over justice of victory of guise the in often very justice, but triumphs, that power political

Boros 138 139 edited volumes - - - - - ccepts existents, real The end of Eastern-European Communism and the opening The end of Eastern-European In what follows, when I mention “history”, I merely refer to If we cannot make sense of the existence of a society, we It is much easier to imagine the above described transforma It is much easier to ginning of certain processes of identity construction. Francis ginning of certain processes of identity construction. Francis was in a certain sense right and in a certain sense wrong Fukuyama 1992). (Fukuyama of borders was the end of one kind of historyof borders was the end of one kind of (or of one use of the It was also the be word “history”), and the beginning of another. free democratic public life is the best form of government.free democratic public life is the best There is should not look for he argues, so we no better way to live together, to denote them. alternative political forms and words thers of the United States had already discovered, namely that in thers of the United States had already their eforts to learn from history, they were able to deduce the For Fukuyama principles of the optimal societal commonwealth. those words. fa has restated what the founding Fukuyama the word. Francis are merely words, then we have an easier task as we go about tryare merely words, then we have an easier do not have to change ing to instigate changes. We and actions relative to just the way we use words and our habits Something that does not exist cannot have an end or a beginning, however the use of a word can begin and end. If we assume that there are no such things as History, Society and Politics, that these will also fail to understand history, its beginning and its end. The end and the beginning of historyThe end and the beginning tions if we refer to new theories of history.tions if we refer to Let us therefore revisit the thesis of Latour. tice from all cultures, the rational form of justice should be valid the rational form of justice should tice from all cultures, and binding for all. which do not tolerate others, do not deservenot tolerate others, which do be tolerated. Not to they are also but of a community, threaten the life only do they of jus who practice them. The distillation dangerous to the people forms themselves should remain. Of course, in private life every Of course, in should remain. forms themselves long as it a have a place, as and religion can kind of culture is just.others and and religions, cultures and absolutistic Exclusivist ------pa privileged privileged

, and simultaneously excludes the similar refer the similar excludes , and simultaneously The question is very timely: what about history in Bosnia Ugo Vlaisavljević writes: “ThereUgo Vlaisavljević Bosnian eth are three major ble, it took the Jews forty years to make the journey, and no one who had lived in slavery was allowed to enter the Promised Land. The desire for freedom and the hope for justice can be realized leave the servitude of the past, as the Jews left Egyptian slavery, there must be an exodus, both intellectual and moral, out of the old structures and into the society of hope. According to the Bi ting the past and having hope for the future. My thesis in this ting the past and having hope for the continent as a countries and the European per is that all European whole, must go through this process if they hope to survive. To country and to forget the old stories of their native countries. They entered the country to leave behind old societies, histories, was a migration of forget narratives and imperial references. It ethnic groups of the world are present, but most of them immi grated of their own free will, and by entering the country have shown a willingness to accept the original founding story of the Switzerland or the United States. However, in Switzerland, the four language communities have the same founding story, and they are separated territorially. In the United States, virtually all fall of Communism. Has it been rebooted, as computers are, or is There cer narrative? it more appropriate to speak of a continued tainly exist multiethnic, well-functioning democracies, such as vić manuscript 1). and Herzegovina? Certainly, it did not come to an end after the one Bosnian community sees as a veryone Bosnian community infuence positive imperial becomes a perilous negative identity marker and adopts as a crucial (Vlaisavlje by the other two communities.” infuence to be rejected imperial reference communities. They are diferent because ences of neighboring What imperial culture is not the same. their choice of constitutive they exercised in the past has come to determine the fate of large in the past has come to determine they exercised Each community has its own today. numbers of people nic communities, because at least three past empires had such a least three past empires because at nic communities, the local population that the acculturation strong infuence on The end or the beginning of history the beginning of The end or and Herzegovina? in Bosnia

Boros 140 141 edited volumes ------ropri (in modern empires of modern empires of ­ No doubt, Marxism/Communism gave the wrong answer to The people of , all people in Europe all people in Europe The people of Bosnia and Herzegovina, No modern, democratic state can be built on such founda No modern, democratic state can be As in in several papers, has demonstrated Ugo Vlaisavljević subject to such processes of indoctrination and socialization. East societies might require more than forty years to ern European out of the Communist past. an exodus The process of make the liberal left and national right remain contaminated, especially the liberal left and national right remain may not under Westerners in the countries of Eastern Europe. stand the extent of the damage done, because they have not been the question of how to liberate people from their past,the question of how to liberate people because it Bol process. Unfortunately, annihilated individual freedoms in the people and both of many shevik ideology has warped the minds entered their very liberate themselves minds and souls, should from slavery whether political, ethnic or religious. ideology, to any not succeed. ideologies which have and elsewhere, who are subject to imperial well-balanced societies and political communities within the framework of ethnic states. Bosnia and Herzegovina manifests at a local level all the problems of Europe who seeks unity but does tions. The sad story of contemporary Europe and of the European possible to build healthy, Union also demonstrates that it is not empire that has fallen, and to declare each other enemies just be empire that has fallen, and to declare insatiable in their lust for land cause certain ancient emperors were and power. stead of self-conscious citizens), but also in acculturating people but also citizens), stead of self-conscious work and fght for the had to People for serfdom and submission. no sense to serve, It makes in a spiritual sense, an even emperor. ate for living in today’s world. People are enemies without political are enemies without ate for living in today’s world. People beneft.purpose or practical pre The classical, not only interested in acquiring subjects which I speak were ethnic narratives and hence identities, which are derived from dat hence identities, which are derived ethnic narratives and or app and are therefore no longer useful ed political thinking Bosnia and Herzegovina diferent imperial stories have left behind stories have left diferent imperial Herzegovina Bosnia and Over imperial ethnic communities. religions and varied imperial and from these empires political, religious time, we have inherited only if we leave behind imperial cultures that have robbed us of our freedom and responsibility. ------are are - con ich may Education Education of reason. mens, and justice in the world. From this fact de and justice in the world. From good There are mental, political and geographical borders, and These propositions are conditional and normative. In a de These propositions are conditional and Political borders separating human beings should be abol Personal freedom and responsibility are the best values that responsibility are the best values freedom and Personal there has been a tendency to fortify borders in the recent past. What could be the cause? tain situation borders have to exist. Borders must exist to delineate administrative private life, and also to protect one’s a personality, units, such as national or constitutional states. results of the former. do exist,scriptive mode it is clear that borders and even that in cer digitalization and science, it is difficult to maintain intellectual exist,boundaries. Where no intellectual boundaries no geo exist either; the latter graphical or political borders should rives the dignity of all human beings. If all human beings are persons before the law. equal, they should be treated as equal Secondly, in an era when societies are based on communication, sciousness is a free, moral being who has responsibility towards human community. All human beings equally incorporate the possibility of ished. I shall mention just two arguments for this change. The first is actually an axiom, statement which requires no further A human being with con argument: all human beings are equal. Borders, xenophobia and national identity xenophobia Borders, free individuals makes for a happier, healthier public life. healthier for a happier, free individuals makes new kind of liberation, in the spiritual and mental sense, wh in the spiritual and mental sense, new kind of liberation, the use of the be achieved only by and connecting freedom and responsibility, tributes to personal a society can ensure for its citizens, and these are the core values for its citizens, a society can ensure should continue to seek a we can be built.upon which societies Yet cult when the individual remains in the same physical location and location in the same physical the individual remains cult when social environment. liberation is easier and faster when it entails a parallel geographic parallel geographic when it entails a is easier and faster liberation from the or immigrants leaving Egypt, it did for the Jews journey as proves more dif ideological exodus to America. An old continents

Boros 142 143 edited volumes ------s - - against dentity is is dentity re difer constructor, and the ­ A community with a history history. Fear, hostility and xenophobia can be a result of ethnic Identity must not lead to fear or even hate. There are other Identity must not lead to fear or even to a particular If your identity is based on your belonging Identity is a construct. In the case of individuals, it derives First a conceptual remark: for identities to exist, they must must they exist, to identities for remark: conceptual a First defnition. Strengthening individual or societal national iden defnition. Strengthening individual ­ fned against the enemy” (Vlaisavljević manuscript 2, 90). War is fned against the enemy” is (Vlaisavljević manuscript 2, 90). War the borderline of all actions in its brutality and cruelty. Hence the identity created by war is the strongest of all identities. It is a post-war political structure – mostly unjust and often dictatorial – remains as long the memory war is vivid in the popula of the which is de tion. “Ethnopolitics builds in time of war an identity, self tity may result in increased xenophobia. As Ugo Vlaisavljević has demonstrated, war is a very identity specifc “against” however should not lead to animosity, although this has animosity, “against” however should not lead to often been the case. ent from yours. If you are Serbian, you cannot be at the same time ent from yours. If you are Serbian, you must defne yourself and in the same sense Japanese. You ethnic groups. Thi other races, against the members of diferent possibilities in meeting the other or other identities. possibilities in meeting the other or other national identities a race or nation, then all other racial or it communicates that it has a Historyhas identity. and identity are both constructions. desires. In the case of larger groups, identity may be established desires. In the case of larger groups, identity by the constitution of the group, or through the ac normatively, group persists over time, tions of the group members. If an ethnic son or society can exist without an identity and boundaries. son or society can exist and a person and from the sum of his beliefs from the actions of taneously reveal what it does not contain and express. We clarify clarify We express. and contain not does it what reveal taneously and what belongs outside the concept.what belongs inside No human per science, generation, philosophy, fashion trend, human cal to defne itself in relation to it. When we defne a concept, we we concept, a defne we When it. to relation in itself defne to cal and expresses, and by that verystate what it contains we simul act have to state what it is, why it is this and not that, what belongs to it it to belongs what that, not and this is it why is, it what state to have does not.and what to a particular identi does not belong Whatever the non-identi person. Identity needs the other, ty is outside of the be enclosed. Identity is not infnite, it has its borders, and i it has its borders, Identity is not infnite, be enclosed. we identity, certain a describe we When them. within contained - - - - . - - - - based, legally anchored, inclu ­ and confdence ­ Belonging to a nation or a group means having humans Belonging to a nation or a group means There are certainly social-psychological grounds for the There are certainly social-psychological It seems plausible that if we could fnd – through dialogue – It seems plausible that if we could fnd National identity is strengthened in a veryNational identity is by specifc way human warmth and understand and feel comfortable using the lan their own organize more easily People guage of our community. life and its administration, hold political views and participate in around us who support us and whom we help in turn. We receive around us who support us and whom we help in turn. We The origins of xenophobia and national identity The origins of xenophobia This is a martial, war-based concept of family or ethnicity. What is What family or ethnicity. concept of This is a martial, war-based needed is a peace sive concept of ethnicity. itat, territory or living space is another. The hope that belonging to itat, territory or living space is another. our life in all respects is the a group, a race or a nation can protect can beneft all its members third. The common eforts of a nation emerging search for identity and its consequence, xenophobia. The xenophobia. emerging search for identity and its consequence, resources for living and anxiety over obtaining enough material hab children is such a ground. The fear of losing one’s raising one’s tity and universal values, we would increase the chances of abolish tity and universal values, we would increase ing xenophobia. which is dialogue. iden human defning for principle normative acceptable universally liberations, and politics is made by politicians, the responsibility of is made by politicians, the responsibility liberations, and politics politicians is extraordinary. not National identity should be based of the search for common values, the method but on on animosity, emerge. of political negotiations and de Since war is the continuation war. to the war-based ethnic identity. But where the war-generated identity ends, there is a chance for a new, peace-based one to 91). Following this train of thought, this train of 91). Following identity is a self-de ethnic structive one, existing on the periphery of non-existence. Peace endangers ethnic identity, writes Vlaisavljević. It poses a danger borderline identity, less an identity than a form of self-destruc than a form less an identity identity, borderline tion. Further, “to forget the last war means that the community will lose forever its ethnic identity” (Vlaisavljević manuscript 2,

Boros 144 145 edited volumes l ------es. - ey of re al The highly discussed descriptive theory an of the French The economy must be free from politics so that people may The economy must be free from politics The frst lesson to be learned from all of this is that universa The frst lesson to be learned from all What is wrong with universal models in general? Why are in general? Why What is wrong with universal models When inspired thinkers with a broader intellective scope with a broader When inspired thinkers If there is a shortage of resources on Earth, groups try on Earth, groups a shortage of resources If there is to en thropologist Emmanuel Todd is unfortunately not useful for nor thropologist Emmanuel Todd build a peaceful 2017). It does not help mative purposes (Todd continent.public life on the European In an interview for the vidual. All individuals have the right to freely manage their whole vidual. All individuals have the right to responsibility. lives and law should be based on personal organize themselves to provide for their everydayorganize needs. Economy reliability and seriousness of each indi is built on the responsibility, tice to local people, to each individual. The universal political cen tice to local people, to each individual. the US presidency, but it should not ter could be administration like everyday impact on people’s have any life and local economy. be at risk. constitution guarantees jus political system will function only if its munities. Since politics is a struggle to ensure one’s own interests, ensure one’s munities. Since politics is a struggle to that faraway politicians will leave them alone with fear people’s states, justice itself seems to their needs is not unfounded. In such structs? Most people live far away from the political center of a Most people live far away from the political center structs? verythem to imagine how such a large state, and it is difcult for the people living in local com distant institution can be relevant to and had no political-institutional history and memory. hostile toward universal con large groups of people in Europe munities. There was one great,munities. There was founding, successful and universal United States at the end of the eighteenth the foundation of the century. American continent was sparsely populated But the North suggest that there is a need for thinking on a larger scale, th is a need for thinking on a larger scale, suggest that there com and historical origins of smaller ten neglect the psychological not think on a larger scale, and local political communities a scale, and local political communities not think on a larger small territories and short timescal ways defned for relatively sure benefts exclusively for themselves. They draft political or eco draft political or themselves. They for exclusively sure benefts other groups from forces and exclude unite their nomic contracts, the territory can the resources may be found. Most people where public life more readily when they feel themselves to be members to be members they feel themselves more readily when public life of a community. ------ative truction quality schools. John Dewey has proposed quality schools. John Dewey has proposed ­ he maintains that people in Europe live in very live Europe that people in he maintains diferent fa Revolutions are destructive, and the casualties at the level To help people make peace with universal principles, we peace help people make To of individuals and in the fabric of communities are so grave that generations to heal. For this reason, revolution many they take strated on a large scale by the rise and fall of the Soviet Union. It strated on a large scale by the rise and continued as a lie-based fable, and began with an erratic ideology, ended as a farce. the whole movement was based on lies. And if we lie about reality, And if we lie about reality, the whole movement was based on lies. end; the result is des our actions cannot reach their desired unjust thinking were demon and chaos. The efects of untrue and means) while they were a minority both within society and in poli while they were means) of the political power started with a lie (the tics. The takeover and of the Winter Palace), choice of name, the fable of the siege ration of society was a fundamental misunderstanding of human ration of society was a fundamental misunderstanding nature by Marx and Marxists, especially the Bolsheviks who main (that is what Bolshevik tained that they were in the majority from a political and a legal perspective, that is, if we wish to have from a political and a legal perspective, and build good democracy, we should refrain from revolutions as a method for the amelio schools instead. The idea of revolution ety. The way to achieve this is to develop civic conversation, lan ety. guage learning and high society maintain a healthy that if we wish to found, construct and must convince them that these principles make for a healthy soci for a healthy make must convince them that these principles Responsible individualism Responsible to use theoretical and not empirical concepts. The ethnic,to use theoretical and particu but to increased should not lead to despair laristic reality in Europe values for a united Europe. eforts to fnd shared manner, and this thinking is by nature idealistic and abstract. and this thinking is Since manner, is forced what is but what should be, it it does not say or describe that “universalistic abstractions had catastrophic consequences for consequences for had catastrophic abstractions that “universalistic social to the descriptive 114). In opposition 2018, (Todd Europe” norm and the best politicians think in a sciences, philosophers Spiegel coexist by follow systems, and cannot and religious milial, societal He argues 2018). abstractions (Todd he calls universalistic ing what

Boros 146 147 edited volumes ------ciety w the revo . Democracy is responsible individualism Democracy is responsible Historic and strongest wins. teach that the In which language, in whose public spaces and schools In which language, us that there is a need for open Ugo Vlaisavljević reminds justifcation. Whereas churches and religious fgures fought justifcation. Whereas churches and religious ­ (Crichton 2018). But it has become clear, especially in the decades 2018). But it has become clear, (Crichton Rex following the Bolshevik Revolution, that the Tyrannosaurus cannot be a good example to follow. against Social Darwinism, J. P. Morgan and Dale Carnegie support against Social Darwinism, J. P. principle of the survivaled research on dinosaurs because in the of the fttest they saw prehistoric confrmation of their own life the foundation of Social Darwinism. Wealthy Americans in the nine the foundation of Social Darwinism. Wealthy teenth century out of a desire for fnanced dinosaur research self be educated to understand it and live according to it.be educated to understand it and live American The were the aristocrats, the upper class thought for a while that they They supported scientifc research and best of American society. writes of the necessity of schools over revolutions, he wants a writes of the necessity of schools over place in mankind’s mentality and social peaceful change to take one, but people need to life. The American Constitution is a good ent in kindergartens, schools, politics and business. A just so ent in kindergartens, schools, politics based on social contract, a constitution, jurisdiction and law en this ethic.forcement must be constructed to counter When Dewey here in the public space, the individual plays the main role. here in the public space, the individual beings as well, and is pres This biological device applies to human the public space, for that the civic agreement which is in a the public space, for that the civic agreement an agreement between eth multi-ethnic milieu always potentially nicities – is in truth reciprocal and fair” (Vlaisavljević 2009). And should the development towards a just society take place? towards a just society take should the development dominate “No ethnic community should ness in the public sphere: responsible, law-abiding citizens. This could be the basis of a just This could be citizens. responsible, law-abiding society. learning about the true nature of Stalinism as practical Marxism.learning about the In as moral, educate people to help them live a democracy, schools lution to triumph. “History” has given us the answer. Marxism “History”lution to triumph. and answer. has given us the Marxist where they deservedCommunism are now to be, on the proposition after his Dewey emphasized garbage heap of mankind. cannot be the way to a healthy society. Some Marxists Some society. the posed the way to a healthy cannot be sin for a good pur to commit a whether it is acceptable question to allo people in camps is, to kill and to intern pose, that

------atopical Humani or ] of public life as atopos secularization This means we should not ask atopos. [Rorty writes atopization The search for a good form for the atopical being was the The search for a good form for the atopical This is a kind of fundamentalism: the fundamentalism of This is a kind of fundamentalism: the Victory and re death, anarchy born of fghting. Sufering, is cannot be destroyed, and society has no form, but is on a per cannot be destroyed, and society has tion for secularization in Rorty’s to demonstrate what I sentences wish to express: “The typi me, agree with Habermas ones who, like cally see the main aim of Greek philosophy and the European Enlightenment. and the European main aim of Greek philosophy but called “secularization”, Atopization of public life has also been can substitute atopiza We this is a word overfraught with ideology. what democracy is but try to contribute to justice in our local and global community – and democracy itself. will realize the essence of everything. not fnd his own “essence”, Since he did foundation and celebrated he himself was out of place, without substance. Democracy is ty sistent quest for form and content. Plato called it understand the what-ness, referring to Socrates, who sought to terminate, not well understood by science, able to create art and terminate, not well understood by science, the strongest foundation for die. At the same time, human being is but not destroyed. public life. Human beings can be killed, non-fundamentalism. Democracy is founded on the non-founda are fragile, mortal, inde tion, on the human being. Human beings give them immunity from the law. The law ensures that individuals The give them immunity from the law. have the same legal weight, independent of their economic of force. physical guage. He or she has this right as long as these personal decisions this right as long as these personal guage. He or she has and consequences do not hurt other people and their practical wealth, force or infuence should religion, one’s their freedom. No should strive towards a public life based on the dignity of individu a public life based on the dignity of should strive towards als. Every to choose being has the freedom and prerogative human even lan way of life, profession and world view, his or her religion, should not always win in the legal sense in a just society. In a multi In win in the legal sense in a just society. should not always and religious leaders, as well as academics, ethnic milieu, political as a plausible normative concept for social and political develop for social and normative concept as a plausible ment. concept; we but a moral is clearly not a biological, Justice The strongest the powers of physiology. have to enforce it against venge are its attendants. No peaceful society can be built on such be built on such peaceful society can its attendants. No venge are Darwinist to question the Social Hence, we have foundations. idea

Boros 148 149 edited volumes - - - - - imperial societies like imperial societies like ­ Moller 2017, 166–167). ­ The principle upon which the solution is to be based should The principle upon which the solution Atopicity is the answer to all sceptics: we do not know who Atopicity is the answer to all sceptics: If we teach children in our schools to accept human atopicity in our schools to accept human atopicity If we teach children your action were to become through your will a universal law of na always at the same so that the maxim of your will can or: “Act ture”, (Kant 2015, § time hold good as principle of universal legislation” be clear. There is no better foundation for public life than the cate There is no better foundation for public be clear. as if the maxim of gorical imperative as Kant formulated it: “Act Principles of the solution is worthwhile to create and experience conditions of justice out of is worthwhile to create and experience of our fellow human beings. respect for the freedom and atopicity we are, all we know is that we do not know. We do not know the We know. we are, all we know is that we do not and in public life, but it consequences of justice for each individual function well. Is it too late in history No. or the Balkans? for Europe in history. are only old There There is no such thing as “too late” people with bad schools. justice. A sense of “us” will develop in the community that will tran justice. A sense of “us” will develop in Post scend religious afliation and language. and the US are living proof that such societies can Switzerland will prevail in the long run. The unifying of society will not principle your mother tongue is, be to which religion you belong, or what freedom and social but whether you are committed to personal these values and become capable of rewriting the social contract capable of rewriting the social these values and become with the and legal justice. What will happen to achieve communal in them What is inherently good identities? religious and national and to take responsibility for the way they live their lives, if we responsibility for the way and to take teach mutual respect, will esteem then a society will grow up that edge. To begin this process is already an atopic and democratic act, begin this process is already an atopic edge. To of justice (Sønge and the realization toms and institutions” (Rorty 1999, 168). We do not know what we not know what we do 1999, 168). We institutions” (Rorty toms and the ideal, just, do not know what society looks democratic are. We should start with this knowl But we know what justice is. We like. the Enlightenment’s central achievement, central the Enlightenment’s see our job as the and rely less to our fellow citizens predecessors’: getting same as our with new cus willing to experiment and to be more on tradition, - - - - iti wls who It is improbable that reasonable people cannot understand people cannot that reasonable It is improbable ing these questions, the common way can be found or constructed. the common way can be found or constructed. ing these questions, As one”. (218 BC) said: “We Hannibal will either fnd a way or make cians is to defne this common ground and to make it the founda common ground and to make cians is to defne this regard and public life. If people should agree tion of a just society these principles. All great religions profess the same fundamental same fundamental profess the All great religions these principles. pol task for philosophers, theologians and values. The pressing 7). This principle is formulated for a just society by John Ra for a just society is formulated 7). This principle behind a veil of ig justice are chosen principles of “[t]he states that 12). (Rawls 1971, norance”

Boros 150 151 edited volumes . - - - edited edited

Chan Der Spiegel , Paris, Édi , Paris, Bosnien und Vol. XI, Vol. Philosophy and Social and Social Philosophy New York: Simon & Simon & New York: Plato’s Protagoras, Protagoras, Plato’s ”. In Empires, Wars and Survival and in Empires, Wars Die Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Middle Works, The Middle Cambridge: Cambridge University Cambridge: Cambridge University Cambridge: Cambridge edited by Helmut Kurth, 207–214. Moller, 165–176. Cham, Switzerland: Switzerland: 165–176. Cham, Moller, Protagoras ­ Découverte, Paris 2006. Découverte, Paris Cambridge, MA: Harvard Press. University München: Karl Blessing. München: Karl in Plato’s in Plato’s Sarajevo. Atopos, Atopos, The End of History and the Last Man. Last The End of History and the Dragon Teeth. Dragon and Critique of Practical Reason. Critique of Practical Philosophy as Cultural Politics. as Cultural Philosophy Reassembling the Social. An Introduction to Actor-Network Theory to Actor-Network the Social. An Introduction Reassembling A Theory of Justice. A Theory of Justice. Où en sommes-nous? Une esquisse de l’histoire humaine The Free Press. The Free

Topos, Topos, ), New York: Penguin. Penguin. New York: Phônê Sarajevo: Friedrich Ebert Stiftung. Sarajevo: Friedrich Bosnia and Herzegovina. Integration. europäischer Fortsetzung der Ethnopolitik im Zeitalter tions du Seuil, 2017. 112–116. 32 (August 4, 2018): Nr. der Bürgergesellschaft”. In Über die Ziele und den Sinn ander? wir hin?, wollen Herzegowina – 2014. Wo Press. ( and Vigdis Sønge by Olof Pettersson Springer International Publishing. New York: Oxford University Press. French translation: Bruno Latour, Latour, translation: Bruno University Press. French Oxford New York: sociologie, la ger de société, refaire de Hope. by J. A.Illinois University Press. Carbondale: Southern Boydston. Schuster, Press. Moller, Vigdis. 2017. “Socrates’ Irony: A Voice from Nowhere? On Voice On Voice from Nowhere? “Socrates’ Vigdis. 2017. A Voice Irony: Moller, ­ Vlaisavljević manuscript 1 (undated). Ugo Vlaisavljević. Vlaisavljević manuscript 2 (undated). Ugo Vlaisavljević. Todd, Emmanuel. 2018. “Europa ist futsch”. Interview ist futsch”. with Roman Leick. “Europa Emmanuel. 2018. Todd, Vlaisavljević, Gegenein Ugo. 2009. “Du und dein Nachbar: vom Miteinander zum Todd, Emmanuel., Todd, Sønge Rorty, Richard. 2007. Richard. 2007. Rorty, Rawls, John. 1971. Stopper”. Richard. 1999. “Religion as a Conversation Rorty, In Latour, Bruno. 2005. Latour, Kant, Immanuel. 2015. Dewey, John. 1982. “Philosophy and Democracy”. John. 1982. “Philosophy Dewey, In 1992. Francis. Fukuyama, Bibliography 2018. Crichton, Michael. Ana Dimishkovska

Dimishkovska 152 153 edited volumes ------, inter alia ases C rial: T pinions in pinions O iscrimination D dissenting opinions, educational segregation, acial udicial udicial cial discrimination culties related to the specifc circumstances of diferent cul culties related to the specifc circumstances of tural, historical and legal traditions, and current realities, in of the Eu the vast social area relevant for the jurisprudence and elabora ropean Court of Human Rights. Identifcation tion of the conficting pleas and arguments in relation to the outcome of a single case will be used as an illustration of the ideolo importance of the diferences in underlying “legal values by gies” and diferent prioritizing of legal and societal against dif individual judges, in assuring the legal protection ferent forms of racial discrimination. Keywords: European Court of Human Rights, legal argumentation, ra es, the judicial decisions are not unanimous, but reached are accom through majority vote, and their justifications panied by dissenting opinions of the judges that disagree with the majority opinion. The point of this analysis is to practical ap shed some light on the complex nature of the against harm plication of normative mechanisms directed ful social practices, such as racism and xenophobia. The functioning of these mechanisms, enacted, through judicial activity, confronts the general challenges that stem from the interpretive and dynamic nature of legal reasoning and argumentation. In addition to these, however, the dif the judges in the selected cases also had to tackle In this paper, I try discrimi to approach the topic of racial In this paper, nation from the perspective of contemporary research on by attempting an argu legal reasoning and argumentation, mentative analysis of three cases from the practice of the European Court of Human Rights related to the segregat children. In two of the selected cas ed education of Roma J R rgumentation on rgumentation A issenting issenting elated to to elated egal A b s t r a c t D R L ------g aly le ar culiar ogical Capon, Atkinson and Chorley 2005; Lodder 1999; Prakken 1999; Prakken Capon, Atkinson and Chorley 2005; Lodder In this paper, an attempt is made to show the relevance of an attempt is made to show the In this paper, ­ The general theoretical platform that this paper is based on in that this paper theoretical platform The general volved signifcant levels of discord between the judges regardin the judgment made and its justifcation. The fnal goal of the an in arguments formulated the which in way the on light shed to is sis Rights (ECHR). All of the selected cases pertain to the same topic – All of the Rights (ECHR). of Roma children in the edu allegations of rational discrimination in of these cases, however, cational systems in their countries. Two temporary context. European The analysis presented in the paper discrimination, taken is focused on three cases related to racial Court of Human European from the recent jurisprudence of the bia, Identity and New Forms of Nationalism”. This is done by means bia, Identity and New Forms of Nationalism”. of the application of nor of exploring some argumentative aspects discrimination in the con mative regulations directed against racial and Sartor 2004). the conference – “Xenophothis approach to the general topic of the legal area, and 4) the open texture of some natural-language the legal area, and 4) the open texture legal language (see concepts that play a crucial role in the Bench nature of legal rules, which admit of exceptions and divergent in nature of legal rules, which admit of exceptions scope and meaning; 3) the de terpretations of their applicability, used forms of inference in feasibility of some of the most widely following characteristics: 1) the dynamic interaction of values that following characteristics: 1) the dynamic and their diferent hier underlie the normative structure of law circumstances; 2) the pe chization in diferent legally relevant gal reasoning, are far less straightforwardgal reasoning, are far to than they may seem as a l The complexity of legal reasoning be at the frst glance. to the activity is related, among other things, and argumentative at least,due to the comes to more complex ones. This is when it rules and between the values, principles, fact that the connections of and articulated within the framework facts to be established gal reasoning, especially in institutional, judicial contexts, can sig in institutional, judicial contexts, gal reasoning, especially legal controversies – the fnal outcome of many nifcantly infuence volves logical-argumentative approach to legal reasoning. One of reasoning. One of approach to legal volves logical-argumentative in the diferent ways approach is that assumptions of this the key in le techniques are being applied which logical and argumentative Introduction

Dimishkovska 154 155 edited volumes ------d - - fu r stif - the im lar le y the ac the majority decision, there are divergent contra and pro However, the status and the role that dissenting judicial the status and the role that dissenting However, The theoretical interest in dissenting opinions as an integral The theoretical interest in dissenting

reasons views on the practice of making them public, i.e., giving a larger au dience the opportunity to gain insight into the dynamics and cation is an important discussion subject in contemporarycation is an important discussion subject theories Recognizing the fact that of legal reasoning and argumentation. it possible to identifydissenting opinions make both and evaluate ence on subsequent similar cases. context of legal ju opinions have or should have in the general strength of the argumentation by which diferent positions regar strength of the argumentation by which may be a crucial facto ing the fnal decision are being defended controversy and its in that determines the outcome of the legal The signifcance of the quality of the justifcation of a particu The signifcance of the quality of the cases in which the decisions gal stance is even more obvious in the In such cases, the of collective judicial bodies are not unanimous. portant forms of legal argumentation. Asportant forms of legal argumentation. Feteris puts it, in the gen acceptability of a legal thesis eral context of legal reasoning, “[t]he (Feteris 1999, 1). is dependent on the quality of the justifcation” part of the justifcation of judicial decisions is motivated b part of the justifcation of judicial decisions is one of the most ceptance of the idea that legal justifcation The problem of dissenting opinions in the context of of dissenting opinions in the context The problem of judicial decisions justification rent legal thinking and its normative efects. rent legal thinking such opinions are presented as rich sources of real-life material for as rich sources of real-life material such opinions are presented feld argumentative phenomena in the legal theoretical study of factors of the evolution of the cur as important and, on the other, intends to emphasize the double signifcance of dissenting opin the double signifcance of intends to emphasize hand, context of legal reasoning. On the one ions in the general nation. The overall infuence of these changes was directed to of these changes overall infuence nation. The and groups protection of individuals of the wards strengthening discriminatoryagainst direct or indirect this paper practices. Thus, some of the dissenting judicial opinions in diferent stages of opinions in diferent dissenting judicial some of the point, of the cases in development to important have contributed of racial discrimi to the problem the existing approach changes in ------g f law, f law, tion, risk of Opponents of the Opponents 1 making. Also, it may moti making. Also, it may ­ Tribalat 2007; McIntyre 2016; Rees QC and Pat Tribalat ­ century US Supreme cases from the practice of the th The later perspective on the importance of dissenting opin The later perspective on the importance adopted different solutions regarding the role of the dissenting judicial adopted different solutions regarding the role opinions and the formal-procedural possibilities of filing them. In this status of dissent the point of interest is not the formal however, paper, the theoretical aspect of ing opinions in particular systems, but, rather, the controversies related to them and their argumentative role in the global framework of legal reasoning. In an institutional sense, different legal systems and traditions have In an institutional sense, different legal systems

1 is supported by some famous historical examples. Among the most is supported by some famous historical of racial discrimina infuential of them, relevant for the topic are two 19 rick 2009). dynamics in the feld o ions, especially as factors of normative new trends in the development of global normative consciousness new trends in the development of global (see Aziziand legal regulative in respective areas 2011; Ginsburg 2010; Langenieux powerful argumentative attacks. Finally, by elaborating and justifypowerful argumentative attacks. Finally, legal issues, dissenting ing alternative ways of treating the current audience may anticipate opinions made available to wider social vate the adherents of the majority opinion to elaborate stronger of the majority opinion to elaborate vate the adherents oferin of their own arguments, capable of and sharper versions better justifcatory more support for their stance and resisting the practice of dissenting judicial opinions’ publication believe that judicial opinions’ publication believe the practice of dissenting and independence judicial integrity, such a practice manifests transparency process of decision of the nacy the principle of system, and 3) it may jeopardize of the legal secrecyother hand, supporters of of judicial deliberation. On the with three main reasons: 1) public judicial dissent carries a public judicial dissent main reasons: 1) with three it decision; 2) of the fnal, majority the legal authority weakening determi of consistency, completeness and undermines the image view that dissenting opinions of one or several judges should be of one or several dissenting opinions view that fnal judgment, together with the published support their stance descendants of African Americans brought to the US as slaves. In descendants of African Americans brought Civil Rights a group of them, known as rather, the other case (or, was going opinion Cases, 109 U.S. 3 (1883)), Justice Harlan’s Court. In one of them (Dred Scott v. Sandford, 60 U.S. 393 (1857)), Court. In one of them (Dred Scott v. and Justice McLean were the dissenting opinions of Justice Curtis to the full citizenship opposing the majority opinion that denied heterogeneity of deliberation inside the court. of deliberation heterogeneity

Dimishkovska 156 157 edited volumes ------er hu 2018).

D.H. and Others v. and Others v. D.H. D. H. and Others v. the Czech Republic the Czech Republic D. H. and Others v. Handbook on European Non-Discrimination Law breaking legal thinking that,breaking suggestive according to the ­ The importance accorded to the principle of non-discrimina The importance accorded to the principle world (see One of them is particularly relevant for the purpose of this paper: case in the of the ECHR the “landmark decision” tensive secondary the complex dynamics literature and refected non-discrimination princi of interpretation and application of the ple in the rapidly changing social circumstances of the modern and CJEU important judgments in cases case law comprise many have generated intensive dis related to racial discrimination. They social circles, inspired ex cussions, both in professional and wider vention), as interpreted by the European Court of Human Rights by the European as interpreted vention), by the Union, as interpreted European and the law of the (ECHR), The recent ECHR Union (CJEU). Court of Justice of the European rary context is based on two pillars: prohibition of dis European European Europe’s crimination provided in the Council of referred to as the Con Convention on Human Rights (hereinafter tion in the current legal discourse is based on the recognition of tion in the current legal discourse is based the enjoyment of all oth the fact that this principle infuences the protection of this principle in contempo man rights. Generally, the “landmark decision” Judicial dissent in cases of racial discrimination of racial Judicial dissent in cases context: European in contemporary and segregation rope, which concerns educational segregation of children of Roma educational segregation of children rope, which concerns countries. ni origin in their respective related to racial discrimination. Theoretical attention will rather be Theoretical attention will related to racial discrimination. segment of the contemporaryfocused only on a limited context re in Eu application of non-discrimination law lated to the practical however, as it has already been mentioned, the emphasis will not mentioned, the emphasis will not as it has already been however, in cases historical aspect of judicial dissent be put on the general ground the in appealed “to Hughes, Evans of Justice Charles formulation day”telligence of a future In this paper, (cited in Ginsburg 2010, 4). against the majority decision that supported racial segregation. that supported racial majority decision against the at the time, mi of their, justifcation since, the argumentative Ever of a bold, the characteristics has epitomized nority stances, - - - - ial - - - - - are - case”. D.H.

4 read in connection with Article 2 of Proto 3 (Appl. No. 57325/00, judgment (Chamber) of 7 (Chamber) 57325/00, judgment (Appl. No. 2 The applicants in this case were a group of Czech children of children a group of Czech in this case were The applicants In 2006, almost seven years after the initial complaint had In 2006, almost seven years after the

enjoyment of any right set forth by law shall be secured without discrimi right set forth by law shall be secured without enjoyment of any language, religion, political such as sex, race, colour, ground nation on any or other opinion, national or social origin, association with a national or other status. 2. No one shall be discriminated birth property, minority, ground such as those mentioned in authority on any public against by any paragraph 1”. Hereinafter referred to as “the ARTICLE 14 – Prohibition of discrimination: “The enjoyment of the rights be secured without dis and freedoms set forth in this Convention shall religion, language, ground such as sex, race, colour, crimination on any association with a na political or other opinion, national or social origin, birth or other status”. property, tional minority, of discrimination: “1. The ARTICLE 2 of Protocol 1 – General prohibition 2 3 4 the Czech Republic the Czech tion of discrimination), fore the ECHR consisted, essentially, of the claim that segregation of the claim consisted, essentially, fore the ECHR the right origin represented a violation of based on race or ethnic (prohibi in Article 14 of the Convention to education, recognized educational needs. Thus, in 1999, the probability of a Roma child Thus, in 1999, the probability of a Roma educational needs. higher “special school” was more than 27 times being assigned to a be child. The argumentation of the applicants than for a non-Roma According to the statistical data, there was at the time a dispropor data, there was at the time a According to the statistical spec Roma school children classifed as having tionate number of Roma descent, and 1999, had period between 1996 who, in the schools for children with mental disabilities. been placed in special February 2007), of 13 November Chamber) 2006; judgment (Grand more extensive analysis. be subjected to a which will col 1 (right to education). fer to the pupils’ ethnic origin, but to their learning disabilities as fer to the pupils’ ethnic origin, but to made in these schools to help certain categories of pupils to ac made in these schools to help certain (para. 48 of the Chamber judgment); 2) the quire a basic education” placement in special schools did not re rules governing children’s things, the Government has “succeeded in establishing that the things, the Government has “succeeded Republic was not introduced system of special schools in the Czech that considerable eforts solely to cater for Roma children and been lodged with the Strasbourg Court, the Chamber rejected it by six votes to one. The main justifcatory arguments for such a deci held that,sion were the following: 1) the Chamber other among

Dimishkovska 158 159 edited volumes ------c be x -

on. low ling, - ceived parents However, the one judge – Judge Cabral Barreto – who was the one judge – Judge However, in Judge Cabral Barreto’s dissenting opinion. Judge Costa, who ad in Judge Cabral Barreto’s mitted that he had voted with the majority “only after some hesita arguments and that he found some of Judge Cabral Barreto’s tion” potential (para. 5 of Judge Cabral Barreto’s dissenting opinion). dissenting opinion). potential (para. 5 of Judge Cabral Barreto’s judge – Judge Costa – e Also, the concurring opinion of another pressed a concern that resonated with the arguments articulated es between them and the pupils attending the ordinaryes between them and the pupils attending schools. or above-average learn That prevented Roma pupils with average cognitive and intellectual ing capacities from achieving their full their special circumstances, required a specifc form of educati their special circumstances, required “diferent treat State’s that the Czech he emphasized However, aggravated the diferen ment” of the applicants had additionally Cabral Barreto agreed with the Court’s recognition of the exis Cabral Barreto agreed with the Court’s in the education sphere tence of the State margin of appreciation pupils who, because of and the necessity of taking into account er, these concessions, according to Judge Cabral Barreto, amount these concessions, according to Judge Cabral er, State of the the Czech ed to an express acknowledgement by discriminatoryof by the applicants. Judge practices complained for the majority population and did not take Romany specifcs into Romany take for the majority population and did not Roma pupils made up consideration; 3) in some special schools, togeth of children. Taken tween 80% and 90% of the total number vant period in the instant case, Roma children with average or vant period in the instant case, Roma in special schools on the above-average intellect were often placed 2) the tests were con basis of results of psychological tests; ing reasons: 1) Czech government had previously conceded (in a re government had previously ing reasons: 1) Czech for the Protection of Convention Framework port related to the coincides with the rele that at the time which National Minorities) prejudice. the fol fled a dissenting opinion based on against the decision the present case did not justifythe present case did the applicants the allegations of of racial in special schools had been the result that their placement children, regardless of their ethnic origin; 4) the applicants’ ethnic origin; 4) the of their children, regardless in special placing their children action against any failed to take in concludes that the concrete evidence schools. Thus, the Court revealed by psychological tests; 3) the system of special schoo 3) the system by psychological tests; revealed for the Court, aim of adapting with the legitimate was established of or disabilities needs and aptitudes system to the the educational - - - - - d - - - - a ex - of Ar Roma ­ breaking ­ Windischer 2007/8, 25), this ground ­ Windischer 2007/8, 24). After the appeal in 2007, Windischer 2007/8, ­ discrimination law. Described as a “remarkable ­ 1) To apply and further refine the concept of indirect dis 1) To This Grand Chamber judgement became an object of wide The decision of the Chamber by which the initial complaint Chamber by which the initial complaint The decision of the crimination. This kind of discrimination is conceived as a situ tion that occurs when an apparently neutral rule – in thisthe testingcase, and evaluating method – disadvantages a person or most important and far-reaching aspects of the judgement in of the judgement in aspects most important and far-reaching this sense include: discrimination, but, at the same time, established some new principles and opened new directions in disseminating and (see Devroye 2009). The deepening anti-discrimination practices reversal” (Medda of the previously ap judgement reaffirmed or clarified some plied principles of protection of individuals and groups against academic and social interest and an important reference in the context of non isted a reasonable relationship of proportionality between the isted a reasonable relationship of proportionality 208 of the Grand Chamber means used and the aim pursued” (para. judgment). tection, the Court stated that it was not “satisfed that the tection, the Court stated that it was not children and non diference in treatment between Roma justifed and that there children was objectively and reasonably the applicants in the context of education, fnding a violation the applicants in the context of education, 2 of Protocol 1. Recogniz ticle 14 read in conjunction with Article required special pro ing that the Roma, as a vulnerable minority, malistic” (Medda the decision. The Grand reversed of the ECHR the Grand Chamber against there had been indirect discrimination Chamber held that had been rejected, was appealed against by the applicants. It also was appealed against by the applicants. had been rejected, academics, hu NGOs, backlash, by many a strong public provoked etc.,man rights activists, being described as “conservative and for opinion). opinion). to low level schools, with little opportunity to mix with children of mix with children of opportunity to schools, with little to low level that of securing an education hope and without any other origins dissenting progress” (para. 4 of Judge Costa’s will permit them to veryof that “under cover out to the danger clearly pointed strong, socially disad tests, virtually an entire, or intellectual psychological itself condemne population fnds section of the school vantaged,

Dimishkovska 160 161 edited volumes ------(he who al , if the actual intent discrimination), the burden prima facie prima affirmanti incumbit probatio ). Therefore, once the person alleging discrimination es ). Therefore, once the person alleging 4) address To structural arrangements and institutionalized 3) To shift the burden of proof when a presumption of 2) To reaffirm the admissibility of statistical evidence. .). of a given measure or policy, without being objectively Chamber judgment is addressing not only the acts of discrimina tion against individuals, but also the structural discrimination re sulting from systematic social disadvantaging of a particular practices that violated the human rights of racial or ethnic groups. One of the aspects described as “innovative” in the Grand shifts to the defendant (the respondent State, in the case in point) which has to show that the difference in treatment is not discriminatory. op. cit. that the effect of a policytablishes a rebuttable presumption or discriminatoryis practice ( part, of the authorities, the bur knowledge within the exclusive den of proof may be regarded as resting on the authorities to provide a satisfactory and convincing explanation” (para. 179, plication of the principle […]. In certain cir leges something must prove that allegation) cumstances, where the events in issue lie wholly, or in large dential rules in cases of alleged indirect discrimination is shifting As the Court has pointed out, “Convention the burden of proof. themselves to a rigorous ap proceedings do not in all cases lend discrimination is established. Besides the admissibility of statisti discrimination is established. Besides the strictness of evi cal evidence, another aspect of lessening of discrimination. Statistical data, however, are not treated as a a are not treated as Statistical data, however, of discrimination. prerequisite for a finding of indirect discrimination (para.op. cit 188, The judgement of the Court confirmed that statistical data data the Court confirmed that statistical The judgement of that, and sig examination, will appear to be reliable on critical nificant, can be sufficient for the claimant to rise a presumption tion (para. 175 of the Grand Chamber judgment). tion (para. 175 of justified by a legitimate aim, puts persons of a particular with other per in comparison origin at a disadvantage or ethnic racial or policysons, that measure discrimina may amount to indirect a group sharing the same characteristics. In other words, discriminatory of the explicit in the absence even effect ------e k - - ked ation , Judge Jung č i č ). Therefore, the op. cit. .). op. cit This decision of the Grand Chamber, however, was not unan was not however, This decision of the Grand Chamber, 5) To establish that there is no waiver of the right not to The frst reason for opposing the majority decision adduced of the case. states Argument 1: “Double standard” in assessing different a) en from all four dissenting opinions, in order to gain deeper insight en from all four dissenting opinions, in the adherents of the into the essence of the controversy between regarding the fnal outcom majority and of the minority opinions of the Article 14 of the Convention, read in connection with Article of the Article 14 of the Convention, read is made to systematize 2 of Protocol 1. In what follows, an attempt the majority decision ta the main reasons and arguments against imous: four out of seventeen judges (Judge Zupan imous: four out of seventeen judges (Judge voted against the wiert, Judge Borrego Borrego and Judge Šikuta) yet still fnding no viol decision and fled dissenting opinions, right of these children not to be subjected to discrimination on racial grounds. of the pupils were Roma” (para. 203, of the pupils were Roma” Court finds that even the consent given by the parents of the cannot prevail over the Roma children placed in special schools dinary schools that were ill-equipped to cater for their children’s dinary to cater for their children’s schools that were ill-equipped which their children ris social and cultural differences and in isolation and ostracism and special schools where the majority of any sort of constraint.of any previous Chamber’s Reversing the ap proach to that aspect of the case, the Court finds that “[t]he or faced with a dilemma: a choice between Roma parents were ment is related to the issue of the liability of the parents of Roma children placed in special school and the status of their consent to that measure –whether it was duly informed and free be subjected to racial discrimination. This aspect of the judg discrimination. This aspect of the be subjected to racial cient basis to conclude that the applicants as members of that the same discriminatory necessarily sufered community treat ment (para. 209, ethnic or racial group. In Court’s opinion the fact that the relevant that the relevant opinion the fact racial group. In Court’s ethnic or time had a dispro at the material as applied in practice legislation is a suf on the Roma community, prejudicial efect portionately in the dissenting opinions is that the Czech Republic was not alone in the dissenting opinions is that the Czech

Dimishkovska 162 163 edited volumes - - - a - - , - hings č i n). č - ent be of the

educational troubles of Roma children (cf. para. para. children (cf. troubles of Roma educational ­ In sum, the criticism towards the majority decision espoused In sum, the criticism towards the majority The second argument that can be extracted from dissenting dissenting from extracted be can that argument second The Argument 2: Legitimate aim of the difference in treatment of the difference aim Argument 2: Legitimate all children – compulsory for education b) b) for the large population of Roma children was either neglected or for the large population of Roma children treated even less efectively. these dissenting judges, represented an instance of the “double these dissenting judges, represented the situation in some other standard” treatment in comparison to member states, in which the problem of the lack of education EU positive intent of the Czech Republic to make an efort to tackle Republic to make positive intent of the Czech children was misinterpreted the special educational needs of Roma principle. That,as a violation of the anti-discrimination according to nity is faced” (para. 15 of Judge Jungwiert’s dissenting opinio nity is faced” (para. 15 of Judge Jungwiert’s to the claim that that the in these two dissenting opinions amounts probably preferable and less risky to do nothing and to leave t probably preferable and less risky to no efort to con to make as they are elsewhere, in other words section of the Roma commu front the problems with which a large ber states, as shown by ample factual evidence that he adduced, by ample factual evidence that he adduced, ber states, as shown of resolve problems related to the education had been unable to “the implication is that it is In his words, and Travellers. Gypsies would never have happened had the respondent State approached had the respondent State approached would never have happened ad neglect”. Similar argument was the problem with “benign mem vanced by Judge Jungwiert, EU according to whom the old opinion, it was absurd to fnd it responsible for the violation opinion, it was absurd he continues, principle. The alleged “violation”, anti-discrimination the Czech Republic was the only Contracting State that had in fact State that had was the only Contracting Republic the Czech special tackled the in his Grand Chamber judgment); consequently, 198 and 205 of the in having encountered difculties in providing schooling for Rom in providing encountered difculties in having other European children. As the Court itself, by it was emphasized Judge Zupan According to had similar difculties. States had viding a compulsory education for all children. According to the expli the in system education inegalitarian the Jungwiert, Judge of cation successively and 1920 in back established been had Republic Czech opinions is contained in the claim that the diference in treatm opinions is contained in the claim that tween Roma and non-Roma children pursued a legitimate aim: pro ------ad pe o their blems blems ement ement of the the of of spe an ordinary ordinary an .). In the same vein, the dissenting opinion of of opinion dissenting the vein, same the In .). op. cit Besides the previously mentioned reasons of dissenting Besides the previously mentioned reasons able to follow the ordinary curriculum. curriculum. ordinary the follow to able racism” c) Argument 3: “Fighting racism through to be treated as positive action on the part of the State designed to to designed State the of part the on action positive as treated be to needs to overcome the obsta help children with special educational become and preparedness of level diferent their by imposed cles ciation regarding the optimal way to tackle the educational pro optimal way to tackle the educational ciation regarding the and historical circumstances. The system in its specifc social was solution, perfect a being not although argued, he schooling, cial longed (para. 11, of s the argument that the establishment Judge Šikuta developed margin of appre within the scope of the state’s cial schools was fully school in order to have a chance to succeed through positive discrimi a chance to succeed through positive school in order to have they be disadvantaged population to which nation in favour of the of a child in a special school; possibility of transfer back to of transfer in a special school; possibility of a child primary school, etc. from a special school Jungwiert’s opin In Judge attend to children getting of aim positive a served procedure this ion, improved through a body of procedural safeguards: parental consent consent parental safeguards: procedural of body a through improved schools; recommendations their children in special for placing to the plac the right of appeal psychology centers; educational unduly harsh, superfuous and, above all, unwarranted […]. The grand Chamber asserts that all parents of Roma children, ‘even as suming’ them to be capable of giving informed consent, are unable tion and the consequences of giving their consent [for placing tion and the consequences of giving their of the Grand Chamber (para. 203 children in the special schools]” words, “Such assertions are judgment). In Judge Borrego Borrego’s Court is not satisfed that the parents of the Roma children, wh Court is not satisfed that the parents and often poorly were members of a disadvantaged community up all the aspects of the situa educated, were capable of weighing opinion, was present in the formulation of the judgment.opinion, was present in the formulation Thus, in into question the capacity of one of its paragraphs, the Court calls stating that “the duty, Roma parents to perform their parental senting opinions – that of Judge Borrego Borrego – contains an senting opinions – that of Judge Borrego Chamber judgment.ditional critical remark to the fnal Grand It Roma parents that,concerns the negative stereotyping of in his judges for their not adhering to the majority decision, one of dis judges for their not adhering to the majority

Dimishkovska 164 165 edited volumes - - t ------

or the the or ropor ). op. cit. case were the impli ). He further stated the the stated further He ). D.H. op. cit. .). ibid According to some of the dissenting judges, another prob According to some Argument 4: Changing the role of the Court – evaluating the global – evaluating the global the role of the Court Argument 4: Changing individual applications of responding to instead social context ing racism through racism ( ing racism d) to choose their children’s school” (para. 14 of Judge Borrego Bor school” (para. 14 of their children’s to choose a Borrego such For Judge Borrego opinion). dissenting rego’s tradition of fgh of the sad human an example stance represented 50 of its judgment, room of the Grand Cham and turn the hearing of problems the and life real from divorced tower”, “ivory an into ber the minor applicants and their parents (para 10, parents were forgotten” (paras. 7–9, parents were forgotten” the of abandoning an introduce could practice a such that concern and 49 paragraphs in Chamber the by followed procedure, standard the individual applications […]. None of the applicant children the individual applications […]. None of at present were minors still were who applicants those of parents their and applicants the of circumstances individual The hearing. the comment on this paragraph reads as follows: “This, then, is the the is then, “This, follows: as reads paragraph this on comment Commission (European ECRI second a become to role: new Court’s of examination an with dispense and Intolerance) and Racism against siders that the applicants as members of that community necessarily necessarily community that of members as applicants the that siders not does it Accordingly, treatment. discriminatory same the sufered Borrego’s Borrego Judge cases”. individual their examine to need judgment, in which the Court stated the following: “[...] since it has has it since “[...] following: the stated Court the which in judgment, [...] had a disp been established that the relevant legislation the Court con community, tionately prejudicial efect on the Roma text, which resulted in the Roma becoming a specifc type of disad 5 of Judge Borrego Bor vantaged and vulnerable minority (para. the of 209 paragraph the cited He opinion). dissenting rego’s ion of Judge Borrego Borrego, who claimed that, “in contradiction contradiction “in that, claimed who Borrego, Borrego Judge of ion Grand entire the assume”, bodies judicial all which role the with the overall social con Chamber judgment was devoted to assessing Court itself, regarding its obligation to respond to individual applica its obligation to respond to individual regarding Court itself, the is the global social context in which tions instead of evaluating opin concern is elaborated in the dissenting sue had emerged. This lematic aspect of the fnal judgment in the lematic aspect of the of the for the interpretation of the role cations of that judgment ------imilar be Šikuta between children at

had been diference in treatment diference . case it was wrong to suppose that the groups whose situa . case it was wrong to suppose that the Another argument against the majority decision that was majority decision against the Another argument D.H Argument 5: Need of reinterpreting the sense the sense 5: Need of reinterpreting Argument similar situations” “persons in of the expression e) fact, the real tending ordinary schools on the one hand, and children attending regardless of whether they were of special schools on the other, pil in the corresponding type of school was made solely on the ba pil in the corresponding type of school the psychological test – same sis of the results achieved by passing for all children regardless of their race. He further claimed that, in same conditions of access: non-Roma children were attending spe same conditions of access: non-Roma children were attending cial schools and, at the same time, Roma ordinarypu a of placement the Šikuta, Judge to According schools. considered as being “persons in otherwise situations”, being similar The reason for such a claim was the fact that in treated diferently. types of school under the dividuals of both “groups” attended both tion was to be compared were Roma children attending special tion was to be compared were Roma at (or all children) schools, on one side, and non-Roma children they were not to be Hence, tending ordinary schools, on the other. relevantly similar situation, i.e., to determine the basis on which the relevantly similar situation, i.e., to determine opinion, in Judge Šikuta’s comparison between them is made. In the and the aim sought to be realized. So, in order to establish whether So, in order to establish whether and the aim sought to be realized. a discriminatory it is necessary treatment occurred, frst to deter are considered to be in mine which persons or groups of persons objective and reasonable justifcation; that is, where it could objective and reasonable justifcation; or there was “a reason shown that it pursued “a legitimate aim” able relationship of proportionality” between the means employed er hand, Judge Šikuta emphasized that the Court’s case law clearly that the Court’s emphasized er hand, Judge Šikuta otherwise in treatment of “persons in established that a diference it had an not constitute discrimination where similar situations” did crimination is generally defned as treating diferently, without an without defned as treating diferently, crimination is generally s justifcation, persons in relevantly objective and reasonable On the oth of the Grand Chamber judgment). situations (para. 175 lar situations”, which plays a crucial role in the defnitions related to related in the defnitions role a crucial plays situations”, which lar the very on the one hand, the dis concept of discrimination. Thus, elaborated in one of the dissenting opinions – that of Judge opinions – in one of the dissenting elaborated in simi of the expression “persons – is related to the interpretation

Dimishkovska 166 167 edited volumes ------pur - ions ions ··· Roma origin. However, such diference, continues such diference, However, Roma origin. and other applicants, formulated the core of reasons, reasons, of core the formulated applicants, other and ­ . case provides a very important opportunity to illustrate illustrate to opportunity important very a provides case . D.H. From the argumentative point of view, the legal complexity complexity legal the view, of point argumentative the From D.H . case has shown that the dissenting opinions played an import . case has shown that the dissenting opinions Grand Chamber judgment, not afecting the fnal out although come of the case, point out to the actual or potential “points of vul They Court. the of approach adopted newly the of nerability” Chamber. In fact, these reasons and arguments were incorporated incorporated were arguments and reasons these fact, In Chamber. reversed decision. Sec new, in the argumentative foundation of the the opposing judges four the of opinions dissenting the ondly, which, although not accepted by the majority at the time when they they when time the at majority the by accepted not although which, the of framework the in prominence gained elaborated, frst were Grand the by judgment the of reversal” “remarkable subsequent Firstly, the dissenting opinion of Judge Cabral Barreto related to to related Barreto Cabral Judge of opinion dissenting the Firstly, rejected the com which the frst decision made by the Chamber, plaint by of the main arguments for and against the fnal judgement in the the in judgement fnal the against and for arguments main the of D.H case. the of development the of stages main two the in role ant controversy in point, increasing the quality of legal justifcations and and justifcations legal of quality the increasing point, in controversy with synchronization in principles legal of application the furthering This short descriptionthe constantly changing social circumstances. of the of dissenting opin the main idea of this paper: the signifcance legal the of aspects multiple the into insight deeper a getting for had been subjected to discriminatoryto subjected been had placement their by treatment in special schools. ed less favorably than non-Roma children attending that same spe non-Roma children attending that ed less favorably than the he did not share the opinion that cial schools. Therefore, of their belonging to the Roma community, applicants, because Here, in his view, there was neither legal nor factual ground to con was neither legal nor factual ground there Here, in his view, been treat attending special schools had clude that Roma children cation. Further, he argued that the expression “persons in other the expression “persons he argued that cation. Further, to children have been applied situations” should wise similar special school, both Roma and non-Roma. attending the same Roma or non justifcation and and reasonable had an objective judge Šikuta, compulsory all children with aim – providing sued a legitimate edu ------r not not r . - D.H (Appl. No.

case), the applicants, of Roma ethnic ori the applicants, of case), Sampanis and Others v. Greece v. Sampanis and Others Sampanis In this case, the decision of the Court was unanimous. Ac In the case cording to the ERRC, this judgment “reinforces the position stem and Others case that the segregation of ming from the D.H. against the representative of an ethic minority. Therefore, the the minority. Therefore, ethic an of representative the against connection in read ECHR, the of 14 Article of violation found Court 1. Protocol of 2 Article with 2005 and emphasized that the placement of the Romani pupils in in pupils Romani the of placement the that emphasized and 2005 not been the result of spe the segregated school environment had criteria discriminatory on based was and testing adequate and cial the Roma children to the segregated annex, set up in prefabricatedthe Roma children to the segregated responsible fo containers. The Court held the state authorities the school year 2004– having enrolled the Romani children during dren. The non-Roma parents staged numerous protests, described described protests, numerous staged parents non-Roma The dren. concluded Court The character. racist of incidents as Court the by send to decision authorities’ the on impact an had events these that from the primary school. Their relocation from the local primary primary local the from relocation Their school. primary the from who parents non-Roma local the of reaction the to due was school same school as Roma chil did not want their children to attend the enroll their children in the local primary school during the school school the during school primary local the in children their enroll the to annex an in them placed subsequently and 2004–2005 year local primary Roma, fve kilometers away school, attended only by ferred to as the in the “Psari” area of Asprogin and residing in a settlement located to refused authorities education the that complained Attica, pyrgos, 32526/05, judgment (Chamber) of 5 June 2008; hereinafter re of 5 June 2008; hereinafter (Chamber) 32526/05, judgment Sampanis and Others v. Greece: Greece: Others v. and Sampanis consent of parental status the problematic commented on in the following section of the paper. paper. the of section following the in on commented revision. The way in which the principles established in the principles established way in which the revision. The judgment,elaborated in the dis of the arguments as well as some be will cases, subsequent similar two in reappear opinions senting deserve special attention in the treatment of further similar cases, cases, similar further of treatment the in attention special deserve of the argu and strengthening sense of sharpening either in the partial or full their of sense the in or them, for support mentative

Dimishkovska 168 169 edited volumes - - - - pa - - peril by by peril case clearly reaf (Appl. No. 15766/03. case”. Sampanis . Grand Chamber judgment, in in judgment, Chamber Grand . Oršus D.H : legitimate aim of difference in aim of difference : legitimate was brought by ffteen Croatians of Roma ori was brought by ffteen Croatians of Roma 5 Oršus and Others v. Croatia Oršus and Others v. .). Thus, this judgment strengthened the preference to to preference the strengthened judgment this Thus, .). ibid The case For the purpose of this paper, of particular interest are the the are interest particular of paper, this of purpose the For Hereinafter referred to as “the

5 judgment (Chamber) of 17 July 2008; judgment (Grand Chamber) 2008; judgment (Grand of 17 July judgment (Chamber) of 16 March 2010) Oršus and Others vs. Croatia means of its achievement and proportionate treatment parental consent as un-informed and being made under pressure. pressure. under made being and un-informed as consent parental school’” ( being not of right the to waver no be can there that principle the discriminated against, even to the cost of devaluating the existing “he had to choose between the schooling of his children in ordinary ordinary in children his of schooling the between choose to had “he would be placed in classes, with the risk that their integrity ‘ghetto the in education their or people, non-Romani ‘furious’ this position by citing the dilemma with which some of the appli this position by citing the dilemma with choice whether to sign the cants were confronted in making the applicant, frst the of testimony the to According consent. rental frmed the stance taken in the frmed the stance taken of instance as it of criticism harsh Borrego’s Borrego Judge of spite reinforced Court the Furthermore, racism”. through racism “fghting munity often without education, were able to assess all the aspects aspects the all assess to able were education, without often munity of 93 (para. consent” their of consequences the and situation the of judgment in the the judgment). The schools. Thus, “in the circumstances of the case, the Court is not not is Court the case, the of circumstances the “in Thus, schools. com applicants, as members of a disadvantaged convinced that the paragraphs 92 and 93 of the judgment, which concern the status of of status the concern which judgment, the of 93 and 92 paragraphs segregated in children their placing for consent parental the Romani children in inferior schools and classes is illegal and that Eu and classes in inferior schools Romani children this” (European responsibility for must take ropean governments Centre 2008). Roma Rights Roma children educational, emotional and psychological damage. gin who complained that they were victims of racial discrimination, gin who complained that they were victims comprised solely of Roma as they were isolated in a school class pupils. The applicants claimed that this separation had caused ------l - ge - - - ar - uage uage case, the Sampanis Lefèvre and Vučinić) issued Lefèvre and Vučinić) ­ case was not unanimous; on Oršus only classes being constituted solely on being constituted only classes only classes, fnding a violation of Article Article of violation a fnding classes, only ­ ­ The comparison of the argumentative structure of this dis However, unlike the judgment in the the judgment unlike However, The applicants appealed against this fnding to the Grand Grand the to fnding this against appealed applicants The applied and to the conclusion drawn from them. dissenting from extracted arguments the with opinion senting phasized in the dissenting opinion, was not related to the key prin to the key in the dissenting opinion, was not related phasized ciples that were laid out in the judgment, which were clearly ac cepted by the dissenting judges, but to the way in which they were Kovler, Gyulumyan, Jaeger, Myjer, Berro Myjer, Jaeger, Gyulumyan, Kovler, a joint, point of partly dissenting opinion in which they stated their This disagreement, as it was em disagreement with the majority. Grand Chamber judgment in the the contrary, it was passed with a slim margin – nine votes to eight. Jungwiert, the eight dissenting judges (Judges Vajić, Moreover, justifcation for the Roma together with Article 2 of Protocol 1. 14 of the Convention taken get language problems; there was no evidence of processes to as get language problems; there was no grade higher to children Roma the move and improvement sess reasonable and objective no been had there held Court The classes. of the Grand Chamber judgment). Thus, the tests determining their their determining tests the Thus, judgment). Chamber Grand the of specifcally on the lang placement in such classes did not focus followed did not t skills; the educational program subsequently dren receive schooling, the Court considered, however, that there there that however, considered, Court the schooling, receive dren proportionality ensuring of capable safeguards adequate no were 184 (para. pursued aim legitimate the and used means the between Chamber of the ECHR. In its fnal judgment, while recognizing the the recognizing while judgment, fnal its In ECHR. the of Chamber chi Croatian authorities to ensure that Roma eforts made by the fore, the Court ruled that there had been no violation of Article 2, that there had been no violation of fore, the Court ruled or Article 14 (pro (right to education) Protocol 1 of the Convention tection against discrimination). and established with a legitimate aim that the pupils acquire, as a legitimate aim that the pupils acquire, and established with soon as possible, profciency of teaching. There in the language sis of their race and origin. The Court, however, accepted Croa accepted Court, race and origin. The sis of their however, Roma of tia’s justifcation langua insufcient command of Croatian the criterion of pupils’ After an unsuccessful appeal to domestic institutions, the appli to domestic institutions, appeal After an unsuccessful had violated the segregation that to the ECHR cants complained on the ba amounted to discrimination to education and their right

Dimishkovska 170 171 edited volumes ------ir ir - to - t” t” - - r vein, ciency ciency joint joint ham shed shed .). ibid speaking Roma. The inter ­ cases, the dissenting judges “consider “consider judges dissenting the cases, . case shows that what was above described as as described above was what that shows case . D.H . case, as previously mentioned, this issue was raised. case, as previously mentioned, this issue D.H D.H and Sampanis The second key argument that appears in the joint partly dis argument The second key case. The dissenting judges were satisfed that the allegedly allegedly the that satisfed were judges dissenting The case. special position of the Roma population in general than one based based one than general in population Roma the of position special on the facts of the case, as the focus and scope of the case were al applicants the by lodged as claims the beyond interpreted and tered in the dissenting opinion of Judge Borrego Borrego. In a simila in the dissenting opinion of Judge Borrego that the fnal Grand c in this case, the dissenting judges found ber judgment “became in some respects more a judgment on the vidual cases, vis-à-vis its evaluation of the global social contexts and and contexts social global the of evaluation its vis-à-vis cases, vidual this case, the Roma popula the status of an entire population – in tion. In the there existed an objective and reasonable justifcation” ( justifcation” there existed an objective and reasonable Court in dealing with indi senting opinion considers the role of the during their primary education in the circumstances of the present present the of circumstances the in education primary their during acceptable means for a limit case had a legitimate aim pursued by words, other In hand. at alternative discernable without period ed pils. Therefore, fnding that this case can clearly be distingui pils. Therefore, fnding that this case can both from times at classes Roma-only in applicants the of placement the that struction in regular, mixed classes, while the interest of the second mixed struction in regular, in their education owing group was not to be held back too much the insufcient linguistic profciency of a large number of other pu other hand, Croatian pupils and Croatian soon as possible, prof est of the frst group was to acquire, as able to follow the in in the language of teaching and thus become ities was motivated by the duty to ensure a fair distribution of avail by the duty to ensure a fair distribution ities was motivated hand, one the on – pupils of groups both among resources able the on and, language, Croatian speak not did who children Roma preciation is allowed to the State authorities in employing method method employing in authorities State the to allowed is preciation 18 of learning difculties” (para. of addressing the applicants’ adopted by Croatian author The solution partly dissenting opinion). on their insufcient command of the language, which means on on means which language, the of command insufcient their on of ap In such circumstances a wider margin pedagogical grounds. Oršus “based on the had not been treatment of the applicants diferent exclusively rather but grounds, ‘suspect’ other any or origin ethnic opinions in the opinions in in treatmen aim of the diference of the “legitimate an argument the in minority judicial the of reasoning the in role key a played ------d sons sons re e risk of of risk e urts” urts” .). They also criticized the lack of a of lack the criticized also They .). discrimination law, may infuence infuence may law, discrimination ­ op. cit .). The fact that the opinions of almost half of the the of half almost of opinions the that fact The .). op. cit The problems of xenophobia, racial discrimination and segre The problems of xenophobia, events in issue lie wholly, or in large part, within the exclusive exclusive the within part, large in or wholly, lie issue in events knowledge of the authorities. Therefore, the obligation of the not is treatment in diference the that prove to spondent be far more difcult, if not impossible, for the vulnerable and mar individuals or groups to prove the allegations of discrimi ginalized the where circumstances the particularly concerns This nation. in relevantly similar situations”. Ad 1): The selected cases made it it made cases selected The 1): Ad situations”. similar relevantly in application of the prin obvious that without alleviating the rigorous it would the alleging party, ciple of placing the burden of proof on den of proof to the respondent state, as a result of the admissibility admissibility the of result a as state, respondent the to proof of den discrimination, of presumption the raising in evidence statistical of of the expression “per and 2) diferent possible interpretations tative point of view, the most interesting and most important princi important most and interesting most the view, of point tative and judgments analyzed the in elaborated arguments and ples 1) the shifting of the bur dissenting opinions were the following: controversies in the feld of anti and groups not to be sub the protection of the right of individuals sense, from a logico-argumen jected to racial discrimination. In that many diferent angles: legal, philosophical, sociological, economic, economic, sociological, philosophical, legal, angles: diferent many in way the illustrate to made was attempt an paper, this In etc. the resolving in applied reasoning, legal of techniques the which gation in the contemporary European context can be treated from from treated be can context European contemporary the in gation Concluding remarks Concluding judges of the Grand chamber were unifed around these two main main two these around unifed were chamber Grand the of judges could they that role the and importance their indicates arguments of this issue. play in the future development being told that it took upon itself the task of the national co upon itself the task of the national being told that it took (para. 19, ply the notion of indirect discrimination “it could appear that the ma “it could of indirect discrimination ply the notion decision of the high to replace a used its own discretion jority simply th its own. In so doing, the Court runs est national court with before the Court” (para. 15, before the this judgment an justifcation for argumentative more convincing on how to ap without clear guidance the conviction that expressed

Dimishkovska 172 173 edited volumes ------is - ry in

tion tion renc sig t ar f legal nd ar ent ent (Aristotle 2009, book V). Nicomachean Ethics Nicomachean expresses what is known as “the formal formal “the as known is what expresses 6 known Aristotle’s formulation according to which jus formulation known Aristotle’s ­ The controversy concerning segregated education of Roma The controversy concerning segregated For an elaborate treatment of the philosophical aspects of the concept For an elaborate treatment of the philosophical aspects of the concept of justice, see Aristotle’s

6 tice is preserved when equals are treated the same, and unequals unequals and same, the treated are equals when preserved is tice are treated diferently, persons and situations is one of the main challenges of legal reason is one of the main challenges of legal persons and situations ing. The well respondents in the case of alleged discriminatory in the case of alleged respondents treatment. 2): Ad thesis that estab support to the cases gave additional The selected and dissimilarities between difer lishing relevant similarities discriminatory, once the presumption of discrimination has been been has discrimination of presumption the once discriminatory, modifca a signifcant procedural raised, represents successfully and applicants of positions the in inequality initial the balances that soning of collective judicial bodies and inspire wider social dialogue soning of collective judicial bodies and our collective existence. over fundamental issues and values of mine the authority of the fnal judgement and the image of cons mine the authority of the fnal judgement they tency and completeness of the legal system, in reality, justifcatoryincrease the overall argumentative and quality of rea guments which, accepted or not, are useful in better preparation of other similar cas of the argumentative terrain for the treatment even though they may seem to under es in the future. In that way, es in underlying “legal ideologies” and diferent prioritizing o es in underlying “legal ideologies” and thus showing the axiologi and societal values by individual judges, articulate reasons a cal complexity of legal reasoning; 4) they the argumentative structure of legal justifcation; 2) they may the argumentative structure of legal of the legal area in nifcantly infuence the normative evolution 3) they refect dife question, inspiring “remarkable reversals”; children made it possible to gain insight into the following charac children made it possible to gain insight refect their importan teristics of the dissenting opinions that to sharpening and enriching gumentative role: 1) they contribute cases described above, reveal the difculties and the challenges cases described above, reveal the difculties rule. general this of application concrete the individuals, groups and situations are equal or unequal to one an and situations are equal or unequal to individuals, groups in eve in a specifc and justifable way other must be determined the in opinions dissenting The occasion. relevant legally particular, principle of justice”. However, the aspects and the degree to which which to degree the and aspects the However, justice”. of principle - - - . - . - 95, North 37, no. 2: 7: 19–55. . 15, no. 6: 1075– doi 10.1007/s12027-

Making Process: A ­ . Dordrecht: Springer. Minnesota Law Review Minnesota Law 7, no. 1: 81–101. Adelaide Law Review Review Law Adelaide http://www.errc.org/cikk. 12: 49–68, . 2018. Vienna: European Union Agency. 2018. Vienna: European ERA Forum , Appl. No. 57325/00 (ECHR Feb. 7, 2006). , Appl. No. 57325/00 (ECHR 13, 2007). Nov. , Appl. No. 57325/00 (ECHR . Translated by William David Ross. Revised with William David Ross. Revised by . Translated European Yearbook of Minority Issues European Yearbook Journal of Logic and Computation Journal of Logic https://www.theses.fr/2007LIMO1007 , Appl. No. 15766/03 (ECHR Jul. 17, 2008). , Appl. No. 15766/03 (ECHR 16, 2010). Mar. , Appl. No. 15766/03 (ECHR , last accessed February 17, 2019. Fundamentals of Legal Argumentation Fundamentals of Legal On Legal Justifcation and Dialogical Models of Argumentation Models and Dialogical Justifcation On Legal Nicomachean Ethics Nicomachean Tribalat, Anne. 2007. “Les opinions séparées des juges de l’ordre judici Anne. 2007. “Les opinions Tribalat, ­ an Inclusive Education?” an Inclusive Education?” Dordrecht: Springer. Dordrecht: Springer. 431–459. Republic: Towards and Others vs. Czech ropean Court of Human Rights. D.H. for Fundamental Rights/Strasbourg: European Court of Human Rights – Rights/Strasbourg: European for Fundamental Council of Europe. des sci de droit et Faculté aire français”. PhD diss., Université de Limoges, ences économiques, Segregated Education of Roma in Greece”. of Roma in Greece”. Segregated Education php?cikk=2956 no. 1: 1–8. western Journal of International Human Rightswestern Journal of International 1950 (November 4). Case for Dissenting Opinions?”. Case for Dissenting Opinions?”. 011-0209-9. ue in Legal Argument”. 1097, https://doi.org/10.1093/logcom/exi058. an introduction and notes by Lesley Brown. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Brown. Oxford: Oxford and notes by Lesley an introduction Windischer, Roberta. 2007/8. “Dismantling Segregating Education and the Eu 2007/8. “Dismantling Segregating Education Roberta. Windischer, ­ Capon, Trevor, Atkinson, Katie and Chorley, Alison. 2005. “Persuasion and Val Alison. 2005. “Persuasion Atkinson, Katie and Chorley, Capon, Trevor, ­ Oršuš and Others v. Croatia Oršuš and Others v. Croatia Oršuš and Others v. Medda McIntyre, Joe. 2016. “In Defence of Judicial Dissent”. McIntyre, Joe. 2016. “In Defence of Judicial Dissent”. Lodder, Arno R. 1999. Lodder, Langenieux Ginsburg, Ruth B. 2010. “The Role of Dissenting Opinions”. Handbook on European Non-Discrimination Law Feteris, Eveline T. 1999. T. Feteris, Eveline European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights the Protection and Fundamental Freedoms for European Convention Court Judgment on European Welcomes Roma Rights Centre. 2008. “ERRC European D.H. and Others v. the Czech Republic the Czech and Others v. D.H. Republic”. the Czech and Others v. 2009. “The Case of D.H. Devroye, Jennifer. D.H. and Others v. the Czech Republic the Czech and Others v. D.H. Bench Azizi, Josef. 2011. “Unveiling the EU Courts’ Internal Decision Internal Courts’ EU the “Unveiling 2011. Josef. Azizi, Bibliography Aristotle. 2009.

Dimishkovska 174 175 edited volumes - 25, no. 3: 329–346. 25, no. 3: 329–346. , Appl. No. 32526/05 (ECHR Jun. 5, 2008). (ECHR , Appl. No. 32526/05 17, no. 1: 118–139. Arbitration International Arbitration Ratio Juris Ratio Law”. efcial Role?” Sampanis and Others v. Greece Others v. Sampanis and Prakken, Henry and Giovanni Sartor. 2004. “The Three Faces of Defeasibility in the of Defeasibility 2004. “The Three Faces Henry Prakken, and Giovanni Sartor. a Ben Can they Fulfl “Dissenting Opinions: 2009. Rees QC, and Rohn Patrick. J. Peter Igor Milinković

Milinković 176 177 edited volumes ------nationalist elements. In the frst ­ constitutional identity, Hungary, migrant crisis, constitutional identity, immigration policy. The risk that this line of argumentation immigration policy. The risk that this line of argumentation ­ neo-nationalism constitutional provisions. Constitutional identity, understood constitutional provisions. Constitutional identity, a means of in ethnocultural sense, is increasingly becoming promoting policies with neo concept of constitutional identity will the part of the paper, the national be explored, as well as the interpretation of it by on the Hun constitutional courts. The second part will focus in which garian Constitutional Court’s case law and the way justifythe notion of constitutional identity was used to an ti will become a means of justifying neo-nationalist political measures will be considered in the fnal part of the paper. Keywords: migrant crisis has further strengthened the neo-nationalist migrant crisis has further Central Some of the sentiments and rhetoric across Europe. countries opposed to the EU’s eforts to resettle European states, justifyingimmigrants in the EU anti-immigrant policies protec by referring to the need of the constitutional identity of Hungarytion. In December 2016, the Constitutional Court the country’sissued a decision in which the judges referred to constitutional identity to justify refusal to the government’s apply the EU’s migrant relocation scheme. The Court inter Hungary’spreted the concept of constitutional identity as value not created by the Hun as a fundamental self-identity, but merely acknowledged by the Law, garian Fundamental In recent years, many European countries have seen a rise in countries have European In recent years, many and nationalism. Asxenophobia a reaction to the current is char so called “neo-nationalism” phase of globalization, the stances. The by strong anti-immigrant and anti-EU acterized A b s t r a c t Argument in the Hungarian Constitutional Court’s Case Law Court’s in the Hungarian Constitutional Argument as a Shield of New Nationalism? Nationalism? of New as a Shield Identity on the Use of the Constitutional Some Reflections Constitutional Identity Constitutional ------ts

- - - forms nationalism ­ nationalism” is nationalism” ­ state” (Blaschke and Torres and Torres (Blaschke state” ­ called “neo ­ nationalism as “a subset of nationalism as “a subset of ­ nationalist, support such conclusions. Sedgwick, ­ The phenomenon of neo-nationalism is not a characteristic In recent years, many European countries have seen a rise in countries have European years, many In recent multaneously established in other countries such as Australia, New Zealand and, to an extent, Canada (Banks and Gingrich 2006, 18). Eger and Valdez describe neo er parts of the world). Although, as Banks and Gingrich noted, and Gingrich noted, er parts of the world). Although, as Banks loud and conspicu neo-nationalism may have become particularly parallel and comparable movements are si Europe, ous in Western gration and opposition to the EU (Sedgwick 2013, 211). (Sedgwick gration and opposition to the EU countries alone (similar movements also exist in oth of European for example, identifes the four main planks that political plat for example, identifes the four main common: protection of na of the neo-nationalist parties have in protection of welfare benefts, opposition to immi tional identity, ject transcending the idea of the nation the political parties that are 2002, 14). Analyses of the programs of considered neo “Neo-nationalism is a reaction towards globalization and post-in “Neo-nationalism is a reaction towards perspectives are understood dustrialism. Its political strategies and as a political pro of the EU to be alternatives to the development and economics” (Sedgwick 2013, 211) has been advocated by other 2013, 211) has been advocated by and economics” (Sedgwick produced in 2002 on behalf authors as well. According to a report Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia: of the European of the current phase of globalization” (Banks and Gingrich 2006, of the current phase of globalization” as “a response to 17). The understanding of neo-nationalism identity, levels of sovereignty, threats posed by globalization at the tral EU decisions, as well as their populist appeals to the mass cul as their populist appeals to the mass decisions, as well tral EU (Banks and Gingrich 2006, 3). Neo tures of the present” efec “as one specifc reaction against various can be understood the most conspicuous reactions of new European nationalisms to reactions of new European the most conspicuous recent transnational and global developments wards the relatively on cen stance towards immigration, or are “the neo-nationalists’ characterized by strong anti-immigrant and anti-European Union by strong anti-immigrant and anti-European characterized some of According to Banks and Gingrich, stances. (hereinafter: EU) xenophobia and nationalism. Described as “the re-emergence of re-emergence of Described as “the and nationalism. xenophobia conditions” global and transnational under diferent nationalism 2006, 2), the so (Banks and Gingrich Introduction

Milinković 178 179 edited volumes ------An com - - nationalism opposes ­ nationalist ideology and propaganda” (Banks and nationalist ideology and propaganda” ­ Within the neo-nationalist discourse on “threatened identi Within the neo-nationalist discourse on Neo-nationalist parties build their support on the senti Neo-nationalist parties In this paper, a danger of the possible (ab)use of the constitutional a danger of the possible (ab)use In this paper, identity argument as a means of promoting a neo-nationalist agen da will be explored. Central and Eastern European countries have begun to use the con the use to begun have countries European Eastern and Central illiberal policies and cept of constitutional identity “to promote law”safeguard themselves from EU (Bast and Orgad 2017, 1592). monplace in European constitutional practice and theorymonplace in European to use the terms ‘national identity’ and ‘constitutional identity’ inter politicians and courts in 2016, 82). Recently, changeably” (Cloots Lisbon Treaty, the EU is under the obligation to respect the nation is under the obligation to respect EU the Lisbon Treaty, re the Lisbon Treaty al identities of the Member States. Although it has become “ fers to the Member States’ national identities, creasingly prominent role. This concept, as enig which is described a means of setting up the matic and contested, has been used as According to Article 4(2) of the law. limits to the application of EU Gingrich 2006, 17–18). is starting to play an in ties”, the concept of constitutional identity as local culture, in a defensive and often pessimistic manner as local culture, in a defensive and often against alleged centers that pose a threat, are frequently a central element of neo tial element, according to some authors) is the protection of cultur is the protection tial element, according to some authors) al identities or local cultures. As Banks and Gingrich observed: “At notions of what is constructed tempts to reinvigorate essentialized ments of “threatened identities” (Banks and Gingrich 2006, 17). identities” (Banks and Gingrich 2006, ments of “threatened (essen of the neo-nationalist political agenda important element tion of globalization” (Cox 2004, 3). Because of its protective di 2004, 3). Because of its protective (Cox tion of globalization” mension, neo-nationalism is best described by the metaphors of shield or wall. tion state” (Eger and Valdez 2015, 127). Neo and Valdez (Eger tion state” that is “constitutive of the veryto the erosion of borders defni curring in a context of settled boundaries whereby increased calls into question authority or supranational ethnic heterogeneity na or sovereignty over an already established who has access to nationalism that can be considered a boundary-maintenance that can be considered nationalism pro to these au project”. According than a nation-building ject rather nationalism oc “a modern form of implies prefx “neo” thors, the ------86, id not of a constitution

Diferent understandings of the concept of constitutional Diferent understandings of the concept Although constitutional identity is described as “a relatively is described as constitutional identity Although of having a constitution (polities with a constitution difer

feld 2012, 757). Firstly, there is an identity that derives from the feld 2012, 757). Firstly, fact the contents from those without it). Secondly, identity emerge in literature. Rosenfeld diferentiates between identity emerge in literature. Rosenfeld three distinct general meanings of constitutional identity (Rosen fundamental political decisions that constitute the substance of fundamental political decisions that constitute time by parliament and any the constitution can be eliminated at 2008, 79). (Schmitt be replaced through some other decision” constituted powers, established by the constitutional provisions, constituted powers, established by the Ascan only change “constitutional laws”. Schmitt stated: “That ‘the to mean that the be changed should not be taken can constitution’ that are simply “constitutional laws” (Schmitt 2008, 74–89, 125, 2008, 74–89, 125, that are simply “constitutional laws” (Schmitt 2016, 419). Provisions that represent a “true” 151, quoted in Polzin The the constituent power. constitution could only be amended by cording to Schmitt, a constitution consists of two diferent kinds of decisions (a “true” provisions: those representing the fundamental less important constitutional provisions and other, constitution), of material limits to constitutional amendments on the idea of con of material limits to constitutional amendments foundation of all other pow stituent power as “the comprehensive 2016, 419). Ac 2008, 64, 125–130, quoted in Polzin ers” (Schmitt tional amendments. According to Bilfnger, a legislator needs to re a tional amendments. According to Bilfnger, (Bilfnger 1931, spect the fundamental core of the constitution 2016, 418). Carl Schmitt based his understanding quoted in Polzin troduced in the works of Carl Bilfnger and Carl Schmitt.troduced in the works During the authors developed the concept of constitu period, these Weimar tional identity to justify constitutional limits on constitu material depend on its physical characteristics, but on its constitution” (Aris characteristics, but on its constitution” depend on its physical con in Rosenfeld 2012, 756). In German totle 1962, 98–9, quoted stitutional theory, identity was frst in the notion of constitutional roots of the concept of the constitutional identity can be traced of the constitutional identity can be roots of the concept d claimed that the “identity of a state back to Aristotle, who recent and enigmatic notion in constitutional law and theory” in constitutional law enigmatic notion recent and The older. the origin of this concept is much 2017, 1596), (Polzin Different conceptions conceptions Different identity of constitutional of the concept

Milinković 180 181 edited volumes ------y: - ap tion - es hts in one in which a consti in which a

Rudnicka pointed out, “constitutional identity is a ­ The principle of respect for national identities of the mem As Kabat Rudnicka 2018, 145). ­ ber states was introduced for the frst time by the Maastricht Treaty Treaty Maastricht the by time frst the for introduced was states ber at enacted tools the of one “as Union) European the on Treaty (the (Faraguna concerns” constitutional national tackle to level European and national constitutional courts courts and national constitutional Constitutional identity in the case-law identity case-law in the Constitutional Justice of Court of the European whereas on the other with the ethnic concept of the nation (Ka whereas on the other with the ethnic bat comprises original, one can say pre-constitutional values and/or el comprises original, one can say pre-constitutional history,ements, such as common language, customs, etc.”. On the with the civic, one is dealing one hand, according to this author, narrower concept than national identity, since it refers to the con since it refers to the narrower concept than national identity, whereas national identity stitutional values and state structures, al norms, eventually coinciding, at a textual level, with other norms al norms, eventually coinciding, at a textual 2008, 338, Poblete of diferent political communities” (Núňez quoted in Amaiquema 2015, 25). cording to Núňez Poblete, constitutional identity “expresses some cording to Núňez Poblete, as a set of norms or pre-con sort of meta-constitution, understood of other constitu stitutional principles that defne the meaning otherwise, made, resulting would be a “constitutional revolution” and identity of the people or the constitution) in an essentially new Ac ruled by such constitution (Martí 2013). political community Marti diferentiates between two ideas of constitutional identit between two ideas of constitutional Marti diferentiates or constitution (understood as defnitional the identity of the – the constitution, which cannot be amended sential elements in fed fve diferent, and largely independent, pertaining discourses 2017, 1597–1599). identity (Polzin to the concept of constitutional tution operates seems bound to play a signifcant role in the sh to play a signifcant seems bound tution operates rig cultures envision fundamental identity (diferent ing of its even contradictorycontrasting and, sometimes, identi way). Polzin provide distinct elements of constitutional identity (a federal con constitutional identity elements of provide distinct of polity than a diferent kind for example, sets up stitution, the context a unitaryestablishing Thirdly, state). ------gal - - - - s, s, al ity', rs the the rs law. After the adop law. ­ This change in the meaning of the identity clause has infu This change in the meaning of the identity The provision on the respect for national identities of mem The provision on the law of the European Court of Justice and in scholarship, and and scholarship, in and Justice of Court European the of law ­ identity concept led to its transformation into “the battleground or lie” law the meeting point, the limits of the authority of EU where 2017, Davis, Monty 2010, 202, quoted in Faraguna (Chalmers, enced the European court of justice (ECJ) case enced the European of the national the “constitutionalization” tion of the Lisbon Treaty, – and more precisely, constitutional – meaning of the identity – and more precisely, sociological and historical reference of the clause, by weakening 2017, 1620). (Faraguna clause” “constitutionalization” of the concept of national identity was not “constitutionalization” of Lis argues, “the Treaty ed by other authors as well. As Faraguna the enrichment of the le bon gave a remarkable contribution for tent that the Lisbon Treaty […] focuses on state structures”, ac tent that the Lisbon Treaty in emphasis from nation cording to Besselink, “there is a shift identity as such to constitutional identity” 44). The (Besselink 2010, mains the sole responsibility of each Member State”. In the Lisbon State”. mains the sole responsibility of each Member “the political and constitu version of the national identity clause, the ex 2010, 44). “To tional aspect is much enhanced” (Besselink spect their essential State functions, including ensuring the spect their essential State functions, law and order and territorial integrity of the state, maintaining national security re In particular, safeguarding national security. Member States before the Treaties as well as their national identi Member States before the Treaties political and consti ties, inherent in their fundamental structures, It shall re self-government. tutional, inclusive of regional and local ber states was rephrased in the Lisbon Treaty. According to Article According in the Lisbon Treaty. ber states was rephrased “The the equality of Union shall respect 4(2) of the Lisbon Treaty: case identity' and 'constitutional ident “the link between 'national (Reestman 2009, 376). yet been made” had not that appeared later, tional identities of its Member States.”). For its frst ten yea tional identities of the both in existence marginal rather a led clause identity national mocracy”. 6(3) of the Amster was replaced by Article This provision principles democratic to reference the when 1997, in Treaty dam read: “Thewas omitted (new provision the na Union shall respect 2017, 1619). According to Article F (1) of the Maastricht Treaty: “The Treaty: Maastricht the of (1) F Article to According 1619). 2017, Member State identities of its respect the national Union shall the principles of de are founded on of government whose systems

Milinković 182 183 edited volumes ------he - l - ed - nly gun ­ Vardyn Vardyn ­ 391/09 Runevič ­ Lisbon period, according to Lisbon period, according ­ 202/11 Las) (Cloots 2016, 83). (Cloots 202/11 Las) ­ National constitutional courts use the concept of national National constitutional courts use the In its decisions, even before the adoption of the Lisbon Trea the adoption of the even before In its decisions, be contrary to the French Constitution (CC Décision no 2006–540 be contrary Constitution (CC to the French DC). In the Lisbon Judgment, Constitutional Court the German the mutuality in the duty to respect the constitutional “recognized tional Court determined, in its decision from July 2006, that o tional Court determined, in its decision which are inherent when a Directive infringes rules and principles may this act be declared to in the constitutional identity of France Italian Constitutional Court which set a trend among constitutional Italian Constitutional Court which set law priority to fundamental courts to limit the refusal of the EU Constitu 46). The French constitutional principles (Besselink 2010, constitutional identity to draw the “red lines” against deeper Euro constitutional identity to draw the “red pean integration (Theil the 2014). According to Besselink, it was Republic” (Case C-208/09 Sayn-Wittgenstein) and “protection of a Sayn-Wittgenstein) C-208/09 Republic” (Case C (Case national language” ofcial State’s Case and Wardyn; meaning of national identity as protected under the identity meaning of national identity as protected clause. According to the ECJ, the national identities of the Member “the status of the State as a States include, amongst other things, tal right or legitimate interest in question is to be protected (Bes tal right or legitimate interest in question the selink 2010, 45). Since the entry force of the Lisbon Treaty, into ECJ of its judgments, expressed the opinion on the has, in several not indispensable that a restrictive measure issued by the authori not indispensable that a restrictive measure a conception shared by al ties of a Member State corresponds to way in which the fundamen Member States as regards the precise tected under Article 1 of the German Basic Law. The ban was al The ban 1 of the German Basic Law. tected under Article and ser of the free movement of goods legedly an infringement of the laser game. The ECJvices of the provider concluded that it is the ban, imposed by the Mayor of Bonn, on the use of laser the ban, imposed by bas pretend to kill other people for fun, games in which people this game is contraryon the assertion that as pro to human dignity most signifcant example from the pre most signifcant example Besselink, is the ECJ Omega judgment. concerned The Omega case ty, the ECJ has recognized the relevance of particular constitution the relevance the ECJ recognized has ty, justify States in order to in Member al arrangements a particular which otherwise or distinction exception The could not be applied. 1621). The identity clause has become an important element of t become an important identity clause has 1621). The ECJ reasoning. legal - - - - - ts - - - ). In - iga

nationalist politics will be considered in the fnal nationalist politics ­ immigrant policy, Hungary wire fence built a razor ­ The arrival of over one million asylum seekers and migrants seekers The arrival of over one million asylum The migrant crisis has further strengthened the neo-na The migrant crisis has further strengthened along its entire southern border with Serbia and Croatia. In 2015, in order to legitimate its anti-immigrant policy, the Hungarian govern ment conducted national consultations concerning the issues of garian government took the position that the transfer of migran garian government took the position to Hungary must be prevented. As a drastic manifestation of the ofcial anti Member States’ governments that opposed plans for the accom Member States’ governments that opposed of their respective modation of the migrants in the territories the verycountries. From beginning of the migrant crisis, the Hun tional identity was adopted, will be briefy analyzed as well). analyzed tional identity was adopted, will be briefy from some of the EU strong reactions in 2015 provoked to Europe tion of constitutional identity, the position of the Hungarian Con tion of constitutional identity, stitutional Court will be examined (the social and political context the country’sin which the Court’s decision concerning constitu immigrants and distribute them among the EU Member States, justifying anti-immigrant policies with the need to protect their Asconstitutional identity. example of this kind of interpreta an tionalist sentiments and rhetoric across Europe. Some of the Cen Europe. tionalist sentiments and rhetoric across tral European countries opposed to the EU’s eforts to resettle The concept of constitutional identity of constitutional The concept law case Court’s in the Hungarian Constitutional part of the paper, based on the example of Hungary. based on part of the paper, putting European integration in peril” (Kovács 2017, 1703). The risk integration in peril” (Kovács putting European means of constitutional identity will become a that the concept of promoting neo trend in East Central European jurisprudence is that constitutional jurisprudence is European trend in East Central thereby understanding of identity, courts “apply an ethnocultural recent years, there has been a certain shift in the interpretation of interpretation of a certain shift in the there has been recent years, of some Eastern constitutional courts identity by the constitutional the recent countries. According to Kovács, and Central European identity of Member States as both a national constitutional obl both a national constitutional Member States as identity of was founded albeit that the latter obligation, as an EU tion as well 2010, 47 fn. 28 (Besselink States’ constitutions” on the Member

Milinković 184 185 edited volumes - - -

------KDNP party alliance (131) voted for the proposed KDNP party alliance (131) voted for the ­ Soon after the failed attempt of the amendment adoption, Soon after the failed attempt of the amendment After the unsuccessful referendum on the EU relocation the EU After the unsuccessful referendum on stitutional judges referred to the country’s constitutional identity in justifying the government’s refusal to implement the EU’s mi grant relocation scheme. the concept of constitutional identity appeared again in the deci the concept of constitutional identity Court of December 2016 (De sion of the Hungarian Constitutional In this decision, the Hungarian con cision no. 22/2016 (XII.5.) AB). votes short of the two-thirds majority required for the constitu votes short of the two-thirds majority tional amendment’s approval. mai 2018, 28). Although all members of parliament belonging to mai 2018, 28). Although all members the ruling Fidesz Seventh Amendment fell two constitutional changes, the proposed fundamental responsibility of the state”. The new paragraph 4 fundamental responsibility of the state”. would also be added to Article R: “It is the responsibility of every state institution to defend Hungary’s constitutional identity” (Hal posal was to add a new sentence to the National Avowal that National Avowal posal was to add a new sentence to the would read: “We hold that the defense of our constitutional is rooted in our historical constitution, is the which self-identity, quotas, the Hungarian Prime Minister Victor Orban submitted the quotas, the Hungarian Prime Minister Law aimed at Fundamental Seventh Amendment to the Hungarian The pro identity. the protection of the Hungarian constitutional was only around 40 percent, instead of the required 50 percent (Halmai 2018, 28). (Gessler 2017, 85). Although 92% of those who cast votes and 98% 85). Although 92% of those who cast 2017, (Gessler by an supported the government’s position of all the valid votes valid because the turnout the referendum was not swering “no”, tion to the Council of the EU decision on the mandatory of the EU tion to the Council for quotas migrants and the referendum was considered relocating 160.000 a long governmental campaign on migration” “the culmination of to Hungary The the approval of the National Assembly?”). without opposi referendum was the government’s reason for calling the on the compulsory in Hun citizens of non-Hungarian resettlement garywant to allow the Eu read: “Do you referendum question (the citizens the relocation of non-Hungarian ropean Union to mandate immigration and terrorism (the questions included in the question questions included and terrorism (the immigration mi connection between for emphasizing the criticized naire were was held the referendum In October 2016, terrorism). grants and - - - - - ate ay ay lectively, without the assessment of their individual and personal personal and individual their of assessment the without lectively, situation, without their consent, and without the application of ob criteria? prescribed jectively If state bodies, agencies, and institutions are not entitled or or entitled not are institutions and agencies, bodies, state If organ state which legislation, EU vires ultra implement to obliged can declare the violation? interpreted in a w Whether Article XIV (1) and Article E can be restricts Hungarian state bodies, agencies, and or that authorizes of foreign persons col institutions to allow the transfer of a group Are state bodies and institutions entitled or obliged to implement implement to obliged or entitled institutions and bodies state Are stipulated rights fundamental the with confict which decisions EU may institution Hungarian which not, If Law? Fundamental the by declare this violation? the to bound powers of exercise the (2), E Article under Whether extent necessary may restrict implementation of an ultra vires act. 3. 1. 2. The case was brought by the Ombudsman, who asked the (Kelemen 2017, 25–26): (Kelemen tion of the collective expulsion of foreigners, contained in Arti tion of the collective expulsion of foreigners, this issue in a separ cle XIV (1) (the Court decided to examine proceeding). The Ombudsman posed three more questions other Member States, through the institutions of the European Union” (Article E(2)). The Ombudsman first asked the Court violates the prohibi whether the collective transfer of migrants may, to the extent necessary to exercise the rights and fulfil the some exercise from the Founding Treaties, obligations deriving of its competences set out in the Fundamental Law jointly with only under a lawful decision.Mem a as Union According European tothe thein second provision:participating to view a “With ber State and on the basis of an international treaty, Hungary The first provision prohibits collective expulsion, stating that foreigners staying on the Hungarian territory may be expelled asylum seekers to Hungary: the “collective expulsion” clause of Article XIV(1) and the “joint exercise of competences” clause of the EU provision contained in Article E(2) (Kelemen 2017, 25). Court to interpret two constitutional provisions in the context of the Council of the EU decision ordering the transfer of 1294

Milinković 186 187 edited volumes ------hat rmina Constitutional identity is an indeterminate notion that can Constitutional identity is an indeterminate On June 20, 2018, the Hungarian National AssemblyOn June 20, 2018, adopt The Court interpreted the concept of constitutional identity of constitutional interpreted the concept The Court of migrant crisis by Hungarian government has shown, the risk t of migrant crisis by Hungarian government will become a means of justi the concept of constitutional identity fying neo-nationalist policies is real. tional identity has been increasingly interpreted in ethnocultural tional identity has been increasingly interpreted as a means of le its (ab)use terms, which opens up possibilities for elements. Asgitimizing policies with neo-nationalist the treatment be interpreted diferently. In recent years, the concept of constitu be interpreted diferently. Conclusion an obligation of every It can be expected that organ of the State”. strengthen the ethnocultural the new constitutional provisions will interpretation. elements of the constitutional identity the interpretation of constitutional identity is the new Section 4 of the interpretation of constitutional identity Law: “TheArticle R of the Hungarian Fundamental protection of culture of Hungarythe constitutional identity and Christian shall be tional Avowal text: “We text: the protection of our identity hold that tional Avowal of constitution is a fundamental obligation rooted in our historic approach to more indicative of an ethnocultural Even the State”. ed the Seventh Amendment to the Fundamental Law of Hungary, to the Fundamental ed the Seventh Amendment on the obligation of the constitutional which contains provisions the Na A new sentence was incorporated into identity protection. tion of its sovereignty, i.e., its independent statehood. i.e., its independent tion of its sovereignty, stitutional provisions. Consequently, constitutional identity cannot identity cannot constitutional provisions. Consequently, stitutional Hungary treaty. by way of an international be renounced can only te identity through the fnal be deprived of its constitutional as Hungary’s self-identity, a fundamental value not created by the not created by a fundamental value as Hungary’s self-identity, the con acknowledged by but merely Law, Fundamental Hungarian - - - , - - - 18: Ger Europe Review of Review Worlds, Worlds, . Final Report. tity before and after 15–16: 23–33. German Law Journal, German Law East European Quarterly East 6.3: 143–151. nationalism in Europe and nationalism in Europe ­ 45: 79–94. Territorialisation and the Reconfg and Territorialisation ­ Racism in Rural Areas in Rural Racism nationalism in Western Europe”. nationalism in Western ­ LL.M. in Natural Resources Final Thesis Ianus – Diritto e fnanza, National Constitutional Identity in the European Identity in the National Constitutional 43.1: 23–42. , 18: 1587–1593. International Relations, International Relations, , Vol. 6: 6–36. , Vol. , 31(1): 115–130. , 18: 1617–1640. Neo-nationalism in Europe and beyond: perspectives from social an Neo-nationalism and beyond: perspectives in Europe , edited by Andre Gingrich and Markus Banks, 1–26. Berghahn , edited by Andre Gingrich German Law Journal German Law Utrecht L. Rev. Utrecht Netherlands Journal of Legal Philosophy, Journal of Legal Netherlands an Sociological Review an Sociological EU”. at the Centre for Research uring of National Boundaries” (paper presented on Social Inclusion Annual Conference: Mobile Boundaries/Rigid 2004). Macquarie University, gration”. gration”. Lisbon”. and Xenophobia Monitoring Centre on Racism Study for the European (EUMC). and International Environmental Law. Reykjavik: University of Iceland. Reykjavik: Environmental Law. and International beyond”. In thropology Books. Union and the Principle of Primacy. of Primacy. Principle Union and the tional Constitutional Identity”. Courts”. Jurisprudence of the East Central European 1703–1720. Court on Interpretation of Article E) (2) of the Fundamental Law”. Court on Interpretation of Article E) (2) of the Fundamental European Law, and East Central Integration”. to European man Law Journal man Law 45, No 1–2: 85–97. Vol. Rudnicka, Danuta. 2018. “National Identity as a Useful Tool for Setting Limits Useful Tool Rudnicka, Danuta. 2018. “National Identity as a ­ Faraguna, Pietro. 2017. “Constitutional Identity in the EU – A Shield or a Sword?” in the EU Identity Pietro. 2017. “Constitutional Faraguna, Eger, Maureen A., Sarah. 2015. “Neo Valdez, Eger, Cox, Lloyd. 2004. “Border Lines: Globalisation, De Lloyd. 2004. “Border Lines: Globalisation, Cox, Cloots, Elke. 2016. “National Identity, Constitutional Identity, and Sovereignty in the Constitutional Identity, 2016. “National Identity, Cloots, Elke. Besselink, Leonard FM. 2010. “National and constitutional iden Besselink, Leonard FM. Guillermo Ruiz. 2002. Jochen, Tores, Blaschke, Bast, Jurgen, and Orgad, Liav. 2017. “Constitutional Identity in the Age of Global Mi Identity in the Age of Global 2017. “Constitutional Bast, and Orgad, Liav. Jurgen, Banks, Markus, Gingrich, Andre. 2006. “Introduction. Neo Banks, Markus, Gingrich, Bibliography Bibliography Jonathan A.Amaiquema, Flores. 2015. Kovacs, Kriszta. 2017. “TheKovacs, Rise of an Ethnocultural Constitutional Identity in the Kelemen, Katalin. 2017. “TheKelemen, of Na Hungarian Constitutional Court and the Concept Kabat Gessler, Theresa. 2017. “The Theresa. 2017. 2016 Referendum in Hungary”.Gessler, The Hungarian Constitutional of Constitutional Identity. “Abuse 2018. Halmai, Gábor.

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- - - - - nationalism, ­ German Law Jour German Law Politics, religion & ideolo The Oxford Handbook of Compar The Oxford National Constitutional Identity and Identity National Constitutional International Journal of Constitu International Journal of level Thuggery”. ­ . Durham and London: Duke University Press. . Durham and London: Duke 18: 1595–1615. , edited by Michel Rosenfeld and Andras Sajo, 756– , edited by Michel Rosenfeld , edited by Alejandro Sáiz Arnáiz and Carina Alcoberro, Sáiz Arnáiz and , edited by Alejandro Constitutional theory Constitutional 14.2: 411–438. , 599. German Law Journal, German Law Constitutional Law Constitutional Islamic Activism, and Street

­ 15 , , 14(2): 208–233. nal gy ny.hu/download/f/3e/61000/TheFundamentalLawofHungary_20180629_ FIN.pdf. Integration”. EU Constitutional Courts Draw for Future idea of constituent power: The development of the doctrine of constitution idea of constituent power: law”. al identity in German constitutional tional Law, Soul”. Constitution v. Identity of the People”. In of the People”. Identity v. Constitution European Integration Intersentia. 17–36. Antwerp: ative Press. 776. Oxford: Oxford University Anti Theil, Stefan. 2014. “What Red Lines, If Any, Do the Lisbon Judgements of European Do the Lisbon Judgements of European Theil, Stefan. 2014. “What Red Lines, If Any, The Fundamental Law of HungaryThe Fundamental (as in force on 29 June 2018). http://www.korma Polzin, Monika. 2017. “Constitutional Identity as a Constructed Reality and a Restless Identity as a Constructed Reality and a Restless Monika. 2017. “Constitutional Polzin, Identity”. “Constitutional Rosenfeld, Michel. 2012. In Polzin, Monika. 2016. “Constitutional identity, unconstitutional amendments and the amendments and the unconstitutional identity, “Constitutional Monika. 2016. Polzin, Martí, José Luis. 2013. “Two Diferent Ideas of Constitutional Identity: Identity of the Identity: Identity of Ideas of Constitutional Diferent 2013. “Two Martí, José Luis. Sedgwick, Mark. 2013. “Something Varied in the State of Denmark: Neo Sedgwick, Mark. 2013. “Something Varied Schmitt, Carl. 2008. Dean Komel

Komel 190 191 edited volumes - - 1 ------, also the critical sensu stricto he made possible many humanitarian campaigns, he made possible many

ceive, but something provoked, produced, and implemented. In order to determine the “dehumanization syndrome”, we should frst defne the terms “humanization”, “humanity”, which today “humanitarianism”, “humanness”, “humanism”, would not be have largely lost their meaning, even where this expected, as, e.g., in the feld of fundamental human rights. tion is often referred to in the media. If we say “Europe”, of course, we usually mean European institutions for “security but above all, and cooperation”, public, which is at work in various EU countries and beyond that are sup and which represents certain humanistic values posed to be created precisely with the aim of spreading the critical public. With regard to “the territories of the former Yugoslavia”, it is frst necessary to recognize that the process has triggered the “dehuman of disintegration of Yugoslavia ization syndrome”, regardless of how much it had already been present in the remote or less distant past. Dehumaniza passively re tion is not just something that one would only The very phrase “the territories of the former Yugoslavia” sounds somewhat uncanny, as if this were a zone that all of the member states had left with their citizens, and after a reorganization, repopulated it.thorough cleansing and To day, when one of the main refugee paths runs through these spaces, the terrifying uncanny is even more likely to come to this is happening “before the door”,the fore, especially since “at the door”, and “behind the door” as the situa of Europe, ture and Literary Humanities of the of Arts and Theory at the Faculty University of Ljubljana, and is a member of the Slovenian Academy of Committee of Sciences and Arts. As for Peace president of the Writers PEN International, especially in the midst of the bloody wars waged on the soil of the for in the1990s. mer Yugoslavia I would like to dedicate this paper to my friend and poet Boris A. I would like Novak, who is otherwisea professor at the Department of Comparative Litera

1 A b s t r a c t A b s t r a Post-Yugoslav Syndrome of Dehumanization of Post-Yugoslav Syndrome ------g Commis in 1990 , as the Constitu Teleks Austria” (Dežman 2012; see (Dežman Austria” ­

sensu stricto 2 Jože Dežman addressed to the Jože ”, violated the legal acts of graničarji dehumanization, former Yugoslavia, humanity, hu humanity, Yugoslavia, dehumanization, former Italy and FLR/SFR Yugoslavia tionality, but can also be a consequence of – auto-phobic and xenophobic – political rhetoric of identity, nationalism and ac companying phenomena, which are now – in an only slightly at work. – (again) renewed form Keywords: manness, migrants, refugees Dehumanization can arise from the denial of identity and na can arise from the Dehumanization ­ merely moving within border territory, is nowhere to be found. armed confict broke On 16 June 1991, just 10 days before Border shootings are also illegal acts ( allowed by no Yugoslavi tion is the law – the highest law), as they are People’s an legal act.member of the Yugoslav The possibility that a in the feld guide, inArmy discharges their frearm is mentioned the option of shooting at some which (under peacetime conditions) is who or border, sovereign a from away or toward feeing is who one One of the most oppressive circumstances for the political circumstances for the political One of the most oppressive Miro Cerar, professor of law at the University of Ljubljana, professor of law at the University Miro Cerar, sion on Concealed Mass Graves in Slovenia Mass Graves sion on Concealed National assembly and Government of the Republic of Slovenia “the Proposal for research and criminal processing for the shootings of border guards on civilians-refugees while fleeing across the state border FPR/ SFR Yugoslavia also Čelik 2013). In 2012, historian, museum curator and the first chairman of the In 2012, historian, museum curator and the first

2 out due to Slovenia’s declaration of independence, which in itself out due to Slovenia’s and some studies, are quite unpleasant. volved shooting at refugees at the borders, either those feein refugees at the borders, either those volved shooting at to new or those attempting to immigrate their current countries reports as far as can be inferred from media ones. The numbers, authorities in the former Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia in Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia authorities in the former Yugoslavia (Cerar 1990): (Cerar Yugoslavia current Foreign Minister, wrote in the magazine wrote in the magazine current Foreign Minister, by the hands of loyalists to about how these shootings, carried out armada called “ the Yugoslav Prime Minister of the Republic of Slovenia from 2015–2018, and Prime Minister of the Republic of Slovenia

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- - - v and That 3 Yugoslav Yugoslav ­ (Dumančič 4 . political space political (originally “Дом за вешање”, “Home for : “They didn’t even leave the dead alone. They drew a white border They drew a white border the dead alone. even leave : “They didn’t Time of the Gypsies Time Since I grew up right by the Italian border, I used to hear by the Italian border, Since I grew up right “Political geography is about the interaction of these entities and a sec geography “Political ond triangle of space, place and territory. In this triangle, space (or spa is the core commodity of geography. tial patterns or spatial relations) Place is a particular point in space, while territory represents a more my father’s feet. I was not allowed to light a candle by his head.” by father’smy feet. to light a candle not allowed I was 2012). of “illegal immigrant” status, was portrayed by in his of “illegal immigrant” status, was portrayed film to commemorate Hanging”). In 2012, there was an exhibition organized to remember those these events, where one of the people old enough times said into two. His legs father’s Barbed wire split his corpse line right on my grave. us allowed on guard When the soldiers his head in Italy. rested in Yugoslavia, at flowers lay only – that was a few times a year – I could to visit the grave The situation on the border between Italy and Yugoslavia, where even Yugoslavia, The situation on the border between Italy and those buried in a cemetery by the state border had received a kind split

4 3 Nicolaidis 2010), is, from both historical and modern perspectives, Nicolaidis 2010), is, from both historical a decisive factor in forming a external political policy. This is especially true, considering “defend external political policy. This is especially ing the border”,a “po which ranges from “building walls” to having confict (see Beche litically open borders” to, of course, armed sessment, applied, as it were, in retrospect, does not mean a great by an analysis of all the rel deal, especially when not accompanied in terms of internal and evant conditions and relationships – both tige and reputation. Especially after the fall of Yugoslavia, such inci fall of Yugoslavia, tige and reputation. Especially after the proofs of undemocratic and dents were used as a one of the key communist regime. Such an as totalitarian nature of the Yugoslav certainly did not make for a good impression about the ex for a good impression certainly did not make deal on its international pres a great staked socialist regime, which about shooting refugees at the border from local residents. about shooting refugees phant advance of liberal democracyphant advance of liberal after the fall of communism of history”.and/or even the “end 1990s, which the European and global public long tried to brush and global public long 1990s, which the European aside as an unnecessary, fringe episode in the otherwise trium group of ffty refugees from Sri Lanka, and one was seriously in Sri Lanka, and one ffty refugees from group of absurd, especially in incident seems a chest wound. The jured with crisis” in the evolution of the “Yugoslavian the light of further led directly to the disintegration of the Yugoslav Federation, we Federation, of the Yugoslav to the disintegration led directly in the immediate a shooting incident witnesses to were frsthand at Holmec. the border crossing vicinity of were fred at a The shots ------at

- oods it is unlike hand accounts, which ­ . It has not yet been re . It has not yet been again claim victims among victims again claim

once and that would It is necessary are indeed variegat to stress here that there When in the course of Yugoslavia’s disintegration, conficts disintegration, course of Yugoslavia’s When in the formal attempt to define and delimit a portion of space, inscribed with a formal attempt to define and delimit a portion that recognises geography Political characteristics. and identity particular space, place and territory politics and policy, these six entities – power, but a piece of political geographical research – are intrinsically linked, does not need to explicitly address them all.” (Jones, Jones and W 2015, 3). refugee crisis situation. relatively rarely comprise the crux of media interest. If, indeed, me media interest.relatively rarely comprise the crux of If, such interest, form of short it is usually in the dia accounts do take and much rarer on the overall statements about the general mood, these people have fed. Insight into the conditions prevalent these people have fed. Insight into the camps that spring up, can among refugees on the road and in the of frst perhaps be formed only on the bases such endeavors are their own sort of criminal activity. Nonetheless, criminal activity. such endeavors are their own sort of problem, which is caused this fails to address the humanitarian in the places whence mainly by the wars and social conditions ed and lucrative business enterprises that emerge to proft from ed and lucrative business enterprises and their agents, and th refugees, powered by criminal networks “push backs and denial of access to asylum”, “inadequate provision “push backs and denial of access to asylum”, “numerous cases of violence of information and interpreting”, and Slovenia 2018). and ill treatment” (Amnesty International of migrants”. According to their own representatives and those of migrants”. According to their own forces are doing their job from respective governments, border but humanitarian organizations have reported on professionally, media and humanitarian organization reports suggest many casual organization reports suggest many media and humanitarian caused in “border situations”, said to be ties among the refugees by the extraordinary “waves circumstances brought about by the as a illegally to cross borders those who attempted but authorities resort to shooting of refugees, ported that border come members of the EU, and with others waiting for their own ac and with others waiting the EU, come members of describe arise conditions that people would cession, there would ly, in the light of all the violence committed thereafter, that anyone anyone that committed thereafter, of all the violence in the light ly, namely that, the following: thought about quarter of a century a republics having be Yugoslav with two of these liberated later, broke out for borders that were classifed within the Yugoslav Fed the Yugoslav were classifed within for borders that out broke the constitutive republics, interior borders of eration as

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on 14 July 2018 (Videmšekon 14 July 2018): body. It was his duty to bury him, he told them. After the few hours hours few the After them. told he him, bury to duty his was It body. side Croatian the on station police the at cell a in spent Suleiman that they told him that Ali’s body was in the morgue in Za of the border, that way no was there while while, a for there be would it That greb. He told the Croatian cops what had happened. At frst, they did not not did they frst, At happened. had what cops Croatian the told He him fnd his cousi want to listen to him. He begged them to help He almost went under. To protect himself, he let go of Ali’s hand. he let go himself, protect To He almost went under. waving his He screamed, Ali was exhausted and he got swept away. see him anymore. arms. Soon Suleiman couldn’t Slovenian police of What ensued was an encounter with told by the cousin of one of the drowning victims: told by the cousin of Suleiman fnally con to step into the Kolpa. But Mosen was afraid it,vinced him to go for otherwise the Croatian police were going to him that their friends were going to help catch him. He assured them. They went for it. wanted to turn back after a But he already friend started to panic.few steps. He screamed, calling for help. His At least 12 people have died in Slovenia on their way from Bosnia died in Slovenia on their way from Bosnia At least 12 people have side of the border – or Five were on the Slovenian and Herzegovina. ofcial numbers. The unofcial toll is These are River. the Kolpa much higher. on a story based such example specifcally, He also recounted one Boštjan Videmšek, who as a journalist saw the situation on journalist saw the who as a Boštjan Videmšek, Delo Delo – not to Ljubljana – but towards the Croatian border, where he was where border, – not to Ljubljana – but towards the Croatian handed over to the Croatian police. asylum. They told him this would be possible the following day, the following day, asylum. They told him this would be possible him to Ljubljana. The next day he frst when they would take and then he was driven learned that his cousin, too, had drowned, do anything, but that they would inform the Croatian authorities, but that they would inform the Croatian authorities, do anything, in Črnomelj. He was held and then they took him to the station there for several hours, trying to submit a request for international cers, where Suleiman tried to explain them that his brother had cers, where Suleiman tried to explain to They told him that they had been unable drowned in the river. paper the ground with his own eyes, wrote the following in the piece en wrote the following with his own eyes, the ground in daily news published titled “Smrt in the Kolpa”), (“Death v Kolpi” ------is the only word that the author of the arti is the only word that It is certainly impossible to equate somebody “shot with no no with “shot somebody equate to impossible certainly is It turned to Bosnia and Herzegovina from Croatia, Croatian police de from Croatia, Croatian and Herzegovina turned to Bosnia dehumanization. Pure money. his took and phone cell his stroyed Dehumanization he could go to Zagreb. That was the only – and last – bit of informa the only – and last – to Zagreb. That was he could go loaded into fellow-migrants were before he and his tion he received all nearly with As Herzegovina. and Bosnia to of shipped and van a had been re Kladuša, who in Velika with whom we spoke the people debates regarding the strategies required to protect the continent continent the protect to required strategies the regarding debates fundamental the respecting while migrants”, of “wave the from security to addition in However, law. humanitarian of principles which instances of border crossing are to be treated as criminal of which instances of border crossing are as well as countries, EU various in institutions highest The fenses. extensive of midst the in currently are itself, Union the of seat the fence currently strung along this river, patrolled by police units who, patrolled fence currently strung along this river, depending on the circum in accordance with valid legislation and to as instructions precise have borders, EU along arising stances legal grounds on the border by security forces” and somebody wholegal grounds on the border by security At drowned. and river” “dangerous a cross to set risk” own their “at wire barbed a is there that is reality inevitable the time, same the time, and much more, but it would be difcult to erase the moniker difcult to erase the moniker time, and much more, but it would be of “dehumanization”. marked by humanitarian catastrophes. Assessments by humanitarian can be made marked the the role of policy, regarding the conduct of security authorities, Community’sappropriateness of the European actions during this tion that the Balkan Peninsula, or southeastern Europe in general, in general, Europe or southeastern tion that the Balkan Peninsula, entire history,has experienced, nearly throughout its one form of being heavily all of them refugee or migrant crisis or another, shed light on the exact circumstances which led to such an inhu shed light on the exact circumstances the lands of the former Yugo mane situation regarding refugees in borders are located. It leads to the realiza slavia, where today EU as “dehumanization” remains open and can be answered in difer remains open as “dehumanization” unclear. of dehumanizing situation remains ent ways. The context in order to of the circumstances can be provided A broader analysis cle could fnd to describe Suleiman’s testimony. The designation The designation testimony. Suleiman’s cle could fnd to describe but not describe or defne the situation, does “dehumanization” on it.simply draws attention understand The question of what we

Komel 196 197 edited volumes ------ism. ism. - Eu ­ stic with with or anti ­ is a phenome , which forms the per se Political motivations motivations Political 5 for and against migrants and against for same European humanistic, cultural, and political val same European humanistic, and political cultural, The historical lesson that can perhaps be gleaned from theThe historical lesson that can perhaps Viewed up close, though, it is clear that the pro Viewed up close, though, it is clear that On this basis, which is pushed to the background as much as as much to the background which is pushed On this basis, See the analyses of Vlaisavljević 2007.

5 , with the caveat that the same European values are espoused , with the caveat that the same European emotions are generally politically motivated. case of Yugoslavia is that the “national problem” is that the “national problem” case of Yugoslavia non that arises under specifc circumstances, and that nationali (which includes the variant “inter-nationalistic”) cannot be univer (which includes the variant “inter-nationalistic”) with re position be taken sally defned, nor can a single, unifed gards to them. guess that it concerns new forms of right-wing nationalism and nationalism and guess that it concerns new forms of right-wing internationalism, but the split is not as clean as it might left-wing and “international” seem, as the terms “national”, “nationalistic”, Namely the changing labor market has carvedNamely the changing labor market out not just new monetary class, whose infuence and elites, but also a new political power are wrought upon the public. Otherwise we could wager a both in the name of protecting migrants, as well as protecting the both in the name of protecting migrants, a less humanitarian and more pragmat continent from them. From by the labor market. the situation is dictated ic point of view, the infux of migrants is a phenomenon stemming from the need the infux of migrants is a phenomenon to defend the ues who would like to secure majority on this basis. to who would like constructed in relation to ropean sentiment cum political identity the acceptance or rejection of refugees can carvethe acceptance or to the up Europe what in as a political and economic entity, extent that it crumbles plenty of political aspirants there are, however, truth no one wants; identities. It sufces to remember what happened during the adop the during happened what remember to sufces It identities. Agreement, parlia leading up to European tion of the Marrakesh mentary by division that is directly determined Political elections. pressed to take a stance pressed to take political and right-leaning a division into left- ideological basis for possible, the public’s mobilization is forced to the foreground is forced to the public’s mobilization possible, is thus communication channels. The public through a wide range measures ahead of the wave of migrants, and criminal corporations corporations criminal and migrants, of wave the of ahead measures have to deal these institutions living from migrants, making a to prevent terror taking steps problem, namely another security ------eolo ks mo prima efect of efect

with controlling producing the , which poses an inherent problem problem inherent an poses which , lasting efects, sneaks into places ­ open political discussion open political resist rationalization All of this “reality of the real” becomes, when transmitted All of this “reality of the real” becomes, This holds especially true when political identifcation seeks true when political identifcation seeks This holds especially , not just in reproducing something adequately. This efec , not just in reproducing something adequately. , seem as cruel and harsh as the aforementioned dehumaniza , seem as cruel and harsh as the aforementioned should be ever closer, is the manipulative afectation that creates should be ever closer, fashes of memories, feelings, perceptions of beliefs, views, id of us ourselves. gies, world-views, sensations, and, ultimately, tion of people who are actually in fight, fol which we can actually upset about it.low in the media without getting terribly The efect when in truth reality present here of distancing us from reality, truth, this “hidden propaganda” which just supports the efects of truth, this “hidden propaganda” and does not,dehumanization – is, of course, not identical facie reality power games triggered by tive mimesis willingly lends itself to the other articles. In them just like political rhetoric and publicizes online, to quote Baudrillard, “realer than real”, “hyperreal”. The real”, “hyperreal”. online, to quote Baudrillard, “realer than is in function of social media and networks been imported “from the street”. This does not allow us to attain been imported “from the street”. This the channeling of certain the reality of the “street”, which triggers political rhetoric and identifcation therewith. where we least expect it. It is thus insufcient, or at least counter productive, to replace networks, where it seems to have in media and social “hate speech” rhetoric that considers itself or is considered by others as leftist rhetoric that considers itself or is considered Indeed, hate speech”. and explicitly distances itself from “hate speech often, and with long ric that stokes and mobilizes xenophobic viewpoints, and can serve xenophobic and mobilizes ric that stokes Xenopho for “channeling” the actual objective. merely as a pretext bic, racist, up in a viewpoints can also be wrapped and nationalistic and demands its own public promotion, which it marked more or public promotion, which it marked and demands its own rhetoric; in our case it is the rheto less by seemingly “recognizable” not the same as that which motivates a populace in and of itself, that that itself, of and in populace a motivates which that as same the not and establishes “requirements”. drive” which creates an “internal limitation on “rational discourse” in tackling a “political movement”. movement”. “political a tackling in discourse” “rational on limitation “see political identifcation to which a certain That in regards generally is adherents mobilizes emotively basis their on and tives” are by their very nature impossible to rationalize completely; more more completely; rationalize to impossible nature very their by are precisely they the recognize appropriately must which analysis”, “critical their in

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------itself itself tor of a hu humankind caused by world world by caused humanity posthuman identity century as a substitute for (Paić 2018), which demotes (Paić 6 st technosphere the planetary dehumanization dehumanization the planetary , as data show that we are currently dealing with the , as data show that we are currently dealing It must be emphasized in any discussion about the “syn discussion in any It must be emphasized The manipulative nature of communication techniques can techniques nature of communication The manipulative Considering the conceptual clarification of “dehumanization”, it is cer Considering the conceptual clarification of “dehumanization”, “nonhu “inhuman”, tainly important to distinguish between “subhuman”, Loughnan, Shi (Haslam, Kashima, and “transhuman” “posthuman” man”, and Suitner 2008), but all of these conceptual distinctions depend on the understanding, misunderstanding or nonunderstanding of “dehumaniza tion”.

6 subhumanity tioning that the label “dehumanization” comes up incomparably tioning that the label “dehumanization” which began to be much more more often than “humanization”, frequent at the beginning of the 21 drome of dehumanization” that its essence is a mix of difcult rela that its drome of dehumanization” First,level. conceptual its afect men which bears of it all tionships, imperialism is what we are witnessing – after all it is imperialism is what as it uni dehumanizing universalities, inasmuch generating all of this, consumption. and production general to itself subordinates versally solely serves it can of world domination. Consequently, the purpose not even be said that the sufering of millions, fnancial crashes, nationalisms, dicta crashes, nationalisms, of millions, fnancial the sufering global with together war, for spots hot terrorism, militarism, ships, which grab, power multinational the of indicators all are warming, not be understood in isolation, but only in the broader context of of context broader the in only but isolation, in understood be not crisis, migrant the power: social gaining in invested machination the countless other inhuman conditions. of II (Dhar 2018), War World biggest refugee crisis since the end of of global poverty and without even getting into the problems man being is, or how that human being can become dehumanized. can become dehumanized. man being is, or how that human being here, it seems worth recom In the context of the discussion begun less favored denomination mending the introduction of the even humanity to the point where the establishing of humanity to the point where the establishing is all that remains. The term “posthumanity” drastically increases in actual clarity about what the rating, without any reduced to “the culture of dwelling on the Earth”, as is proclaimed the Earth”, reduced to “the culture of dwelling on it is a priori confronted by a slew of new-age movements, because by the challenge of the “civilization”, which proved to be somewhat inappropriate in con which “civilization”, people living on this planet,sidering the future conditions for the thus understood certainly cannot be or other ones. “Humanization” - - - for for - - - - - of hu

and of their humanity . David Livingstone . David Livingstone This understanding can 7 itself in today’s controversy dehumanization the proper understanding of one’s manifests Subjecting others to indignities; or, in a more Kantian vein, in a more Kantian vein, indignities; or, Subjecting others to treating them merely as means. Verbally likening others to nonhuman animals or inanimate objects. objects. inanimate or animals nonhuman to others likening Verbally Denying the subjectivity, individuality, agency, or distinctively individuality, the subjectivity, Denying human attributes of others. that others undergo mental states. Denying others in such a way as to erode, obstruct, or extinguish Treating some of their distinctively human attributes. Conceiving of others as inanimate objects. , which essentially includes understanding both , which essentially includes understanding Conceiving of others as less human than members of one’s ingroup. of one’s Conceiving of others as less human than members Dehumanization thus directly afects and slanders the hu Dehumanization thus directly afects (7) (8) Conceiving of others as subhuman creatures. not only lacks a unifed defni The term “dehumanization” (3) (4) (5) (6) The Oxford English Dictionary states that the term “dehumanize” The Oxford English Dictionarythe term “dehumanize” states that in the nineteenth century.made its debut early then, it has Since connected meanings, including: acquired a range of loosely (1) (2) The end of World War II saw the immediate rise of a broad rise of a broad II saw the immediate War World The end of The social psychological analyses of dehumanization (see Bandura, Un The social psychological analyses of dehumanization derwood 1975; Haslam and Loughnan 2014) could not be and Fromson just tryfully reflected within the frame of this article. We to present some conceptual difficulties of the philosophical approach to the phe nomenon of dehumanization in order to demonstrate the problem of its subjective and intersubjective experience.

7 . Wherever such an understanding is impossible, wherever empa . Wherever such an understanding is impossible, maneness of a human being, or the possibility that maneness of a human being, or the possibility it for humanity is insufcient,thy dehumanization steps to the fore. not be anything other than not be anything maneness tion, but defes claims to understanding. manization” (Smith 2016, 418): 2016, (Smith manization” not have such a broad reach as not have such a broad “dehu between eight meanings of the term Smith distinguishes Sloterdijk, and others soon joined the bandwagon. This “crisis the bandwagon. and others soon joined Sloterdijk, it seems, still humanism”, and posthumanity”,about “humanization which nonetheless does intellectual discussion about the “crisis of humanism”, promulgated promulgated the “crisis of humanism”, discussion about intellectual Foucault, though Derrida, by Sartre and Heidegger, primarily

Komel 200 201 edited volumes -

- 8 - a -

- - - - and ay, - triggers dehu less human ways – but ­ or ­

9 But how can it be taken can it be taken But how looking form, walked on two legs, looking form, walked . This agency, which Aristotle . This agency, which ­ , is conducted by our awareness , is conducted by our . The following contextual adden agents praxis ) and difers from other types of act ) and difers from other ness.’ Now, take someone and imagine that their take ness.’ Now, ­ somehow, and we essentially do not know how, do not know how, and we essentially somehow,

phronêsis sufcient ( ­ wrong By expressly committing violence against someone By expressly committing violence against ), as it diferentiates each human individually. ), as it diferentiates and If dehumanization can be described as an action – the ques If dehumanization can be described as that seemed human – had a human human language, and acted in more spoke 2011, 10); see also Bain, Vaes (Smith which was nonetheless not human” and Leyens 2014. Chomsky’s critics A wide discussion on this subject has recently provoked Bricmont’s 2018, 157): “Jean (Chomsky on “humanitarian imperialism” “Think It literally means something like of the word dehumanization. ‘removing the human What’s left? When the humanity has been stripped away from them. their slaves, what remained of them? founding fathers dehumanized or Nazis dehu Native Americans colonists dehumanized When European Jews, what remained? In their eyes, what was left was a creature manized acknowledgement that the person is a human. Dehumaniza acknowledgement that the person is poiêsis

­ 9 8 right tion can thus occur in the absence of violence, even in a “humane” violence, even in a “humane” tion can thus occur in the absence of way and using “humanitarian measures”. manization. a consequence of the initial whose humanity we have denied is just non ization, as well as for facing and ultimately overcoming it.ization, as well as for facing and ultimately In short, that humaneness applies to merely the act of not acknowledging in and of itself, human individual or a group of people the humaneness that to a human being already belongs conception of dehuman dum is extremely important for the mere tion then, of course, arises as to whether we can qualifytion then, of course, arises as to whether it as an act, stripping humaneness aw or is better to speak of a process – of formulated as self of ing ( cial beings. It can probably only be conceded that humanity is only be conceded that humanity cial beings. It can probably something that everyone them “has” of their own accord, for they are selves, and in which conviction, the “belonging” that comes from being made in God's conviction, the “belonging” so do not derive their humanity from being image. Humans likely steal from them. It is also not the same as thought and speech, the same as thought them. It is also not steal from philosophical as a living being after defne human which should through religious It is probably also unlike, anthropological lessons. might be made void or even taken away. void or even taken might be made Certainly place? humanity in the frst how can one have away and which we then can have an umbrella, same way that one not in the ------. The importance Michel Foucault Menschheit for and according to one to and according for acknowledgement, which is This self-awareness, this aware This self-awareness, a priori 10 What is Enlightenment, This very aspect of respect and consideration of every human human every of consideration and respect of aspect very This Here inevitably arises an unanswerable question: when does question: arises an unanswerable Here inevitably ical change that affects the political and social existence of all people on ical change that affects the political and social the face of the earth. Or are we to understand that it involves a change But the ques affecting what constitutes the humanity of human beings? tion then arises of knowing what this change is. Here again, Kant’s an case, beneath its appear In any swer is not without a certain ambiguity. it is rather complex.” ance of simplicity, In his reading of Kant’s Essay definition of “humanity of explicitly emphasises the difficulties with the third difficulty appears here in human beings” (Foucault 1984, 35): “A Kant’s text in his use of the word ‘mankind’, of this word in the Kantian conception of history is well known. Are we caught up in the process of to understand that the entire human race is Enlightenment as a histor Enlightenment? In that case, we must imagine of policy.” of policy.” against what John F. Kennedy called ‘the monolithic and ruthless conspir Kennedy against what John F. acy’ based in the Kremlin (or sometimes in Beijing), a force of unmitigat over the entire world. The ed evil dedicated to extending its brutal sway formula covered just about every imaginable case of intervention, no Soviet Union gone, either matter what the facts might be. But with the would have to be the policies would have to change or new justifications devised. It became clear very quickly which course would be followed, and on the institutional basis casting new light on what had come before concept ‘humanitarian imperialism’ succinctly captures a dilemma that concept ‘humanitarian imperialism’ since intellectual community Western leaders and the has faced Western there the , the collapse of the Soviet Union. From subver was a reflexive justification for every resort to force and terror, in defense undertaken sion and economic strangulation: the acts were

As requires of us an such, it 10 individual and all people in general is quite pertinent to our under individual and all people in general is quite in the lands of the for standing of the syndrome of dehumanization history More or less throughout all of and itsmer Yugoslavia. that humans – in their own humanity – share the world with other own humanity – share the world with that humans – in their must act accordingly. beings and consequently related to a human’s dignity and thus, the very dignity and thus, related to a human’s fundament of hu humans This does not presuppose that man rights and freedoms. than other living beings, but merely “valuable” are somehow more acquire other values, but everyoneacquire other values, has it self. ness of humanity, cannot at all be acquired in the same way we at all be acquired in the same way cannot ness of humanity, deavor to make their world (more) humane, or to become an ac humane, or to become (more) their world make deavor to in its dehumanization? complice a human individual even learn of their own humanity and at what and at what of their own humanity even learn a human individual decide either to en group of persons certain person or point does

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------In In 12 . syndrome ) + dromos, ‘a + dromos, ‘a ) syn- Yugoslav ­ , upon, of course, course, of upon, , (Engels 2010, 230). , ‘with’ (see , ‘with’ , ‘concurrence of symptoms, con , ‘concurrence of symptoms, syn- ‘place where several roads meet’, ‘place where several ).” (Online Etymology Dictionary Dictionary Etymology (Online ).” syndrome is necessary to humanize these lands is necessary syndromos All the other large and small nationalities and peoples peoples and small nationalities and the other large All dromedary there have been examples of what can only be termed termed be only can what of examples been have there 11 bearers of progress took an active part in history, and still retain ­ This is another reason to speak of the post This is another reason 3). “Among all the large and small nations of Austria, only three stand 3). “Among ard and the Magyars. Hence they are their vitality – the Germans, the Poles now revolutionary. that storm. For in the revolutionary world long are destined to perish before reason they are now counter-revolutionary.” June 1914 and the centenary commemorations of this event at the relentlessly of the region kept same spot in 2014, the political makeup of international and changing following almost unpredictable shifts borders various political internal borders. Between and across these 2015, 1). (Štiks and (dis)integrated.” communities (co)existed “This splendid territory has the misfortune to be inhabited by a con of which it is hard to say glomerate of different races and nationalities, (Marx 2010, Engels and civilization” and progress for fit least the is which surface of history after the ‘collective suicide’ of European nations be surface of history of European after the ‘collective suicide’ imagined during the tween 1914 and 1918, was conceived and variously preceding ‘long nineteenth century’. The ‘state of the South Slavs’ was shocks between 1918 and especially sensitive to the geopolitical seismic twice following two 1991. It came into existence twice and vanished it left behind five states ‘hot’ wars and the end of one ‘cold’ one. Initially of writing. Between the whose number has risen to seven at the time Ferdinand on the Latin Bridge in Franz assassination of the Archduke “One could say that Yugoslavia was a legitimate child of its century. was a legitimate child of It Yugoslavia could say that “One ‘short twentieth centu lasted almost exactly as long as ’s ry’ which spanned the years between the outbreak of the First World that fatal in 1914 – following, in the words of Lawrence Durrell, War of the Soviet ‘echo of a pistol-shot’ in Sarajevo – and the disintegration other states that surged to the many like Union in late 1991. Yugoslavia,

12 11 literally ‘a running together’, from (see running, course’ drome" is: “’a number of symptoms occurring together’, 1540s, from from 1540s, together’, occurring symptoms of number “’a is: drome" Greek medical Latin, from from course of people’, of dehumanization. The etymological defnition of the word "syn The etymological defnition of the word of dehumanization. being humanity, has already been humanized. humanized. been already has humanity, being biosis of all these means and causes, whose fundamental common common fundamental whose causes, and means these all of biosis just by to acknowledge that a certain humanity, thread is the refusal truth, it is one and the same whether this is achieved through mili whether this is achieved one and the same truth, it is ideological, cultural, educational, religious, economic, political, tary, the process was a sym other means. Generally humanitarian, or any cataclysms planned and willing (if not eager) dehumanization and willing planned that it the presumption

- - . - - %20 ­ a that, as as that, Journal s“. of each human individual. of each human individual. Humanness and Dehumanization backs and denial of access to asylum ­ value appropriation of a symptom appropriation . 22. 3. 1990. 7–9, https://www.casnik.si/ , last accessed July 19, 2018. Teleks Ph. (eds.). 2014. 9 (4): 253–269. ­ is an inalienable http://www.amnesty.si/media/uploads/fles/Slovenia%20 per se backs%20and%20denial%20of%20access%20to%20asylum%2C%20 ­ and Memory in a Transnational World. London and New York: Tauris Academ Tauris London and New York: World. and Memory in a Transnational ic Studies. wp-content/uploads/2014/09/cerar-ustrelitve-na-meji.pdf. London and New York: Taylor & Francis. Taylor London and New York: of victim through difusion of responsibility and dehumanization in Personality of Research in Slovenia”, in Slovenia”, Push Amnesty%20International.pdf The question certainly arises as to how to “heal” this syn The question certainly mnesty International Slovenia (2018). “Push Cerar, M. 1990. “Ustrelitve na meji”. Cerar, Bechev, D. and Nicolaidis, K. (eds.). 2010. Mediterranean Frontiers. Borders, Confict and Nicolaidis, K. (eds.). 2010. Mediterranean Frontiers. Borders, Confict D. Bechev, Bandura, A., Underwood, M. 1975. “Disinhibition of aggression B. and Fromson, Bain, P. G., J. and Leyens, J. Vaes, Bain, P. Bibliography A through various forms of “work and spirit”. the imposed tyrannies of humanization. Thus, the region has no the imposed tyrannies of humanization. for the acknowledgement need for a new humanization, but rather already manifested here and recognition of the humanness that be emphasized that the territory of the former Yugoslavia saw in that the territorybe emphasized of the former Yugoslavia be a good way and what could even time the development of many of dehumanization, but also called the art of confronting the terror proven to be one of the most essential causes of dehumanization. the most essential causes of dehumanization. proven to be one of Humanness it needs to various human communities. Thus, The same applies to ry to accept and admit to it, goal, but rather the moment as this is arrives; otherwisewhere the resolution it syndrome just repeats has been is to force humanization, as this The worst thing self. drome, but in the case of dehumanization, to cure is not our prima of dehumanization, to cure is not drome, but in the case not only characterize social movements centered on nationalism and and nationalism on centered movements social characterize only not xenophobia, can be viewed as the humanness. else’s someone of expropriation the triggers such, 2019). “Syndrome” indicates a process of establishing identity and and identity establishing of process a indicates “Syndrome” 2019). state as express some resultant identifcations that triggering does which politics” “Identity activities. of stages earlier of product

Komel 204 205 edited volumes - - . Annual - . New York: . New York: . Volume 8. . Volume tu - ­ Zagreb: . bljana: Družina. fe Publishing. ­ , edited by P. , edited by P. zarezala – Stroj Poročilo Komisije Komisije Poročilo ­ . Kranj: Modrijan. Čovjek . Edited by Davor Džalto. . Edited . Sarajevo: Mauna An Introduction to Political Geogra to Political An Introduction https://www.etymonline.com/word/ Marx & Engels – Collected Works Marx & Engels – Collected https://www.delo.si/sobotna-priloga/ The Foucault Reader The Foucault Marx & Engels – Collected Works Marx & Engels – Collected , last accessed July 4, 2018. , July 14, July , . New York: Routledge. . New York: Delo 26, 2: 248–258. . . London and New York: Bloomsbury Publishing. . London and New York: . 65: 399–423. http://www.cadtm.org/Nowhere-to-run-The-worst-refugee- Pripitomljavanje nacionalizma 70777.html ­ https://www.rtvslo.si/kultura/razstave/meja Yugoslavia Peace, War, and Dissolution War, Peace, Yugoslavia Social Cognition , last accessed July 13, 2019. Resnica in sočutje. Prispevki k črni knjigi titoizma. grobov/297666 Less than human: why we demean, enslave, and exterminate and we demean, enslave, than human: why Less ­ kolpi ­ Stražarji državne meje v Sloveniji (1918–2013) državne meje v Sloveniji Stražarji v Tehnosfera I. Žrtvovanje i dosada: Životinja – I. Žrtvovanje Tehnosfera Nations and Citizens in Yugoslavia and the Post-Yugoslav States. One Hun and the Post-Yugoslav Nations and Citizens in Yugoslavia ­ prek ­ dred Years of Citizenship dred Years Sandorf i Mizantrop. Press. St. Martin’s 416–443. Volume 12. Marx Lawrence & 3–12 . Digital Edition: and Engels 1853–54, Volume Wishart. syndrome inhuman, and superhuman: Contrasting humans with nonhumans in three inhuman, and superhuman: Contrasting humans cultures”. of Psychology Review and Politics Place Space, phy: Marx & Wishart. Lawrence 1848–49, 227–238. Digital Edition: and Engels Books. Pantheon 32–50. New York: Rabinow, smrt di cember 9, Vlade RS za reševanje vprašanj prikritih grobišč 2009–2011. Lju reševanje vprašanj prikritih Vlade RS za war”. CADTM, crisis-since-the-second-world-war Introduction by Andrej Grubačić.Introduction Oakland: PM Press. Videmšek, B. 2018. “Smrt2018. B. Videmšek, Kolpi”. v 2007. Vlaisavljević, U. Štiks, I. 2015. Smith, D. 2011. Smith, D. theory and practice 42 Social of Dehumanization”. L. (2): Smith, D. 2016. “Paradoxes Paić, Ž. 2018. Online Etymology Dictionary. 2019. “Syndrome”, Online Etymology Dictionary. 2019. “Syndrome”, Jones, M., Jones, Rh. and Woods, M. (eds.). 2015. Jones, M., Jones, Rh. and Woods, 2010. “British politics”. In Marx, K. and Engels, F. Haslam, N. and Loughnan, S. and Infrahumanization”. 2014. “Dehumanization Haslam, N., Kashima, Y., Loughnan, S., Shi, J. and Suitner, C. 2008. “Subhuman, Loughnan, S., Shi, J. and Suitner, Haslam, N., Kashima, Y., Engels, F. 2010. “The In Magyar Struggle”. Engels, F. Foucault, M. 1984. “What is Enlightenment?” In Dumančič, M. 2012. “Meja zarezala tudi prek grobov”. MMC RTV SLO, De Dumančič, grobov”. M. 2012. “Meja zarezala tudi prek MMC RTV SLO, Dežman, J. 2012. Dežman, J. 2012. S. since the second world 2018. “Nowhere to run – The worst refugee crisis Dhar, Chomsky, N. 2018. Chomsky, 2013. Čelik, P. Muharem Bazdulj Muharem

Bazdulj 206 207 edited volumes - - - - ia - - - - ase of Bosnia ase of C birthday has been leg th Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bosniaks, nationalism Bosnia and Herzegovina, ationalism: The ationalism: N frst variant declines. In essence, we can predict the unifca frst variant declines. In essence, we can predict having the tion of these two versions of nationalism into one Bosnian name and Bosniak essence. Keywords: idea that Bosnia and Herzegovina is the national state of Bos idea that Bosnia and Herzegovina with Serbs and Croats as minorities. niaks (Bosnian Muslims), between these two nationalisms is a fu the border However, id one. As the Bosniak nationalism is getting time goes by, annihilating totally of prospect the with stronger and stronger brought up the Bosnian one. Since the generations who were era are slowly leaving public scene, and during the Yugoslav being with less and less Bosnian Serbs and Bosnian Croats able to identify themselves more with the Bosnian patriotism the demo than with that of Serbia or Croatia, as well as with graphic changes that for the frst time in history have made the Bosniaks the absolute majority in Bosnia and Herzegovina, In this paper I focus on a specifc type of nationalism in Bosn In this paper I focus on a its two variants: the Bosnian and today and and Herzegovina tends to be more secular and the Bosniak one. The former and is theoretically open not only to Bos more Yugo-nostalgic Serbs and Bosnian Croats. However, niaks but also to Bosnian spe and Croats do not really feel any it is expected that Serbs and Croatia. The latter is a pretty cial afnity towards Serbia school” nationalism, based on the typical version of the “old aces of aces F As everybody knows, the life and death of Lord Byron, the kans and especially with the struggle of Greeks against Ottoman occupation. His death in Missolonghi, among the Greek freedom fghters, just three months after his 36 most famous romantic poet, are inseparably linked with the Bal most famous romantic poet, are inseparably linked A b s t r a c t A b s t r a Two endary for almost two centuries. However, although enchanted by the Greeks to the greatest extent, in his writings Lord Byron often mentioned other ethnic groups from the Balkans. One such ­ - - - lk - Re The , I think that century. The century, we th th is a much more re bošnjački Bosnian century) Bosnia was the and th song. The crucial issue here is the (Byron 2019). Bosniak (as adjective) means (as adjective) bosanska bosanska 1 ? Croatian/Serbian/Croatian/Bosnian/Montenegrin ­ where in describing one of the heroes, Byron frst Bosniac century until the mid and the rule of Ban Kulin, up th bosanska or Although in contemporary English there is no dilemma Of course, Byron is a great poet and in terms of poetry, the However, before we proceed toward the 20 However,

Or “Bosniak”, as it is usually written in our times. century when King Stjepan Tomašević was defeated by the 1 th end of the 12 should briefy discuss the medieval history of Bosnia. Since the Byron’s verse refers to verse refers Byron’s of 19 fact that he wrote the poem in the beginning bošnjačka bošnjačka about this and problem. OK, we do have this guy whose arm in war was strong, and that strength has been remembered in Bosniac song. So, does the adjective Bosniac here mean that the song in question is are not here to discuss poetry. However, if a contemporary trans poetry.are not here to discuss However, lator into Serbo would try to translate this verse, he or she would face a particular use of this adjective is purely ornamental. He wants to suggest in the fo from his poem is considered a hero that the character lore of some exotic peoples from the Balkans. Unfortunately, we member’d yet in Bosniac song member’d his huge oeuvre. It is contained in a verse of his long poem in a verse of his It is contained his huge oeuvre. Bride of Abydos says that “in war” then continues: his arm “was strong” and example is more interesting than the others. Unlike other Balkan countries and provinces which are mentioned dozens of times in Byron’s complete works, there is a single reference to Bosnia in Balkans that was intermittently independent and vassal, or semi-vassal to Hungary During the larger entity. or some other (end of the 14 reign of King Tvrtko Ottomans, Bosnia was one of the few South Slavic states in the 15 population dominantly belonged to the Bosnian Church, which, strongest among these states. In historical accounts, the crucial controversy about medieval Bosnia is the status of the Bosnian Church. During the major part of medieval Bosnia’s existence, its cent issue. diference between terms

Bazdulj 208 209 edited volumes - - e - - - s - - s - - e - century and with Aus th Hungarian aim was to discourage identifcation of Bos Hungarian aim was to discourage identifcation ­ The most relevant historians of Islamization in the Balkans Ottomans frst conquered Bosnian capital Jajce in 1463, typically divided by religion and not by ethnic afliation. Everytypically divided by religion and not by thing changed by the end of the 19 long and that Islam was embraced not only by the members of Howev and Orthodox. the Bosnian Church, but also by Catholics duringer, most of the Ottoman era, the population of Bosnia was terwards. (like Nedim Filipović) argued that the process was a few centuries vert to Islam than to the Catholic Christianity. That was why they over of Bosnian citie allegedly helped Ottomans in their taking Islam collectively soon af and fortresses and allegedly embraced legend about the “Bogumil treason”, based on the idea that, be legend about the “Bogumil treason”, cause of the pressure that Vatican exerted on Bosnian kings to to con were more likely abolish the Bosnian Church, its members process of occuppying the entire Bosnia took decades, some his the entire Bosnia took decades, process of occuppying torians still use the proverbial phrase that “Bosnia silently fell” in spite of its obvious falseness. The origin of that phrase is in the followed by the imminent killing of the last Bosnian King in th killing of the last Bosnian King followed by the imminent town of Ključ where he had previously fed. Although Hungarians th armies soon took Jajce back and although and other Christian (Serbian) Orthodox believers. (like Bogumils or Patarens) remains unknown. It is also important to note that, in addition to the members of the Bosnian Church, medieval Bosnia also had a signifcant number of Catholics and according to the greatest number of interpretations, was neither what way ex in purely Catholic, However, nor purely Orthodox. actly it was heretic, and how close it was to more famous heresies well as the Orthodox and Catholics. At the same time, he insisted after that the local language be referred to as Bosnian. However, a decade or so, having realized that it was too late for imposing nian Catholics and Orthodox with Croats and Serbs. That was the reason why Benjamin Kallay, Bosnian governor, insisted on the idea of Bosnian ethnicity that would include Bosnian Muslims, a tries under the Habsburg rule (Croatia, Dalmatia, Vojvodina) the national emancipation of Serbs and Croats had already started, the Austro tro-Hungarian occupation. Since in the other South Slavic coun tro-Hungarian occupation. Since in the ------d - - - Hun ­ - Muslim interest in upgrading the ­ beg Bašagić in 1891 still servebeg Bašagić as a ­ During the World War II, a number of Bosnian Muslims in Nevertheless, instead of Bosnian Serbs and Croats embrac Nevertheless, instead status of the Muslims also came at an opportune time for the federal party leadership around Marshal Tito, whose intention was to use Bosnia and the Muslims as internal and external sulted in the increasing influence of nations and religions fol sulted in the increasing influence of no 1994, 5). As Hopken lowing the 1960s” (Simon Wolfgang Bosnian ticed: “Ultimately, the sixties and seventies. In the words of Gerhard Simon: “In the of Gerhard Simon: “In the the sixties and seventies. In the words case of Yugoslavia, liberalization of policy toward religions, in of the political system, re addition to increasing federalization Communists were at least partly aware of the specific national sentiments of the Bosnian Muslims. Despite of it, that was not enough to gain the status of a separate ethnic group up until ats, a few sided with Mihajlović’s “Yugoslav Army in ” direct liaison with the Third Reich. How and some tried to make partisans. the supported majority the 1943, after especially ever, side with either Serbs or Croats. considered themselves Cro “the Independent state of Croatia” to avoid this dichotomy by identifying as Slovenes. themselves However, in political terms, by gathering around the Yugoslav Muslim Organization, the majority of Bosnian Muslims evaded to sive after the establishment of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats an sive after the establishment of the Kingdom Slovenes. From the anecdotal point of view, it is interesting to note that some intellectuals of Bosnian Muslim origin attempted ing Bosnian ethnic identity, in the fnal decade of the Austro identity, ing Bosnian ethnic garian rule, Bosnian Muslims had been pressured into identifying inten Serbs or Croats. It became even more themselves as either nationalism, these verses assert an historical truth and are not seen as a propagandistic message. tro-Hungarian perspective, the Serbian and Croatian identities im the Serbian and Croatian identities tro-Hungarian perspective, posed from the outside. From the perspective of today’s Bosnian memory of Kallay’s mission. They say that recently, for not more than ffteen years, there were no Serbs and Croats in Bosnia and the Aus Brod. From to Bosanski from Trebinje Herzegovina, new identity on Bosnian Serbs and Croats, Austro-Hungarian au and Croats, Austro-Hungarian on Bosnian Serbs new identity a couple of vers idea. Nevertheless, dropped the whole thorities by young Safvetes wrote

Bazdulj 210 211 edited volumes ------ial - - - However, the idea of “Bosniak nation” survived, the idea of “Bosniak nation” especial However, There was something quite peculiar in choosing the desig There was something quite peculiar early days of the party was Adil Zulfikarpašić who had Zul­ recentlycome back from the emigration. After the split in the party, fikarpašić along with Muhamed Filipović formed a new party place among its founders was occupied by the persons sen place among its founders was occupied tenced in the famous process against “Muslim intellectuals”1983. inHowever, besides Alija Izetbegovic, the key figure in the Democratic Action was formed in Sarajevo. The party had not a The party had not a Democratic Action was formed in Sarajevo. it was defined as “the par national designation in its name, yet historical context”. A spec ty of Bosnian Muslims’ cultural and of the and abolishment of the one-party-systemYugoslavia, in while the ban of political organization based on nicityeth still persisted in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Party of the nation and members of (huge) religion. ly in the emigration circle led by Adil Zulfikarpašić. After the fall bizarre characteristic of the Serbo-Croatian language, where the re of names the unlike capitalized, written were nations of names ligions, helped in distinguishing between the members of (small) gious one. It was thus possible for Macedonian Muslims, for ex gious one. It was thus possible for Macedonian ample, to feel, at least partly, as members of “the new nation”, though not for Muslim Albanians and Turks in Yugoslavia. Almost nation of Muslims for an ethnic group. It was less connected to identity and more to the reli the regional or national (Bosnian) evident goal of eventually exploiting this situation in foreign policy, in relations with Arabic and other Muslim countries” 1994, 331). (Popovic goslavia was compelled to reinforce its position through the support of its own Muslim community. The Yugoslav Muslims were thus granted freedoms and material advantages, with the play a leading role in the bloc of ‘Non-Engaged’ – later, ‘Non- in the bloc of ‘Non-Engaged’ – later, play a leading role states, Yu which were predominantly Muslim Aligned’ – nations, reasons for the change in Tito’s policy towards Bosnian Muslims. Nevertheless, the global constellation was at least as important. to Marshal Tito had decided noted: “After Alexandre Popovic buffers against the ever-increasing national antagonisms and controversies brought on by the federalizing process” (Hopken 1994, 232).These few sentences correctly describe the internal - , ------nti - - Croatian, like before) as ­ Herzegovina, there are Muslims who consider ­ In the beginning of the 1990s, yet before the disintegra In the beginning of the 1990s, yet before In line with the suggestions of the political and intellectual The six groups she identified were not, nevertheless, pre spirit of the "Islamic Declaration", see themselves simply as "Mus spirit of the "Islamic Declaration", lims". In addition, there are those Muslims who in the 1981 census declared themselves "Yugoslavs". This already complex picture is made more so by the presence of persons like Fuad Muhić, who who thereby com and describe themselves as "atheist Muslims", pletely divorce religion from nationality. Today in Bosnia who consider them those themselves primarily "Muslim Croats", selves "Muslim Serbs", those who consider themselves "Bosnian Muslims" [i.e., "Muslim in the ethnic sense"] and those who, in the tion of Yugoslavia and the war in Bosnia, Sabrina Petra Rametwrote (Ramet 1994, 129): Muslims, but also Franciscan monks like Matija Divković. Neverthe Divković. Matija like monks Franciscan also but Muslims, by Bos expected that this term would be used less, nobody really nian Serbs and Croats. also opted for Bosnian (and not Serbo also opted for Bosnian prece It is worth noting that among the their mother tongue. dents of using the term Bosnian for the language were not only elite, on the census in the spring of 1991, Bosnian Muslims ide in the spring of 1991, Bosnian Muslims elite, on the census fed themselves as Muslims regarding their nationality, but they feat on the elections in November 1990 and the Party of Demo the Party 1990 and elections in November feat on the won. cratic Action called Muslim Bosniak Organization. The name suggested affili The name Bosniak Organization. called Muslim only to Muslims nation, open not the idea of Bosniak ation with de suffered a terrible this party others. However, but also to during the event from September 1993 called the “Bosniak Par liament” the decision was made that the nation formerlyas known “Muslim” would from that day on be known as “Bosniaks”. Muslims who declared themselves Yugoslav also saw them Muslims who declared themselves Yugoslav selves as “atheist Muslims”, and vice versa. After the started,war had the first two groups were marginalized even more, and cisely divided. The first two were marginal enough, butthe among last four there was much overlapping. I dare say that many

Bazdulj 212 213 edited volumes ------on be secular identity. In fact, inten secular identity. Muslim nationalism ­ Herzegovina, it may turn out that the Muslim nation ­ Summing up the history of Bosnian Muslims’ recognition After the Dayton Peace Agreement and integration of the of the and integration Agreement Dayton Peace After the up of Yugoslavia and the war among Serbs, Croats and Muslims over Bosnia of Bosnia cannot survive as a unit and will be divided between the “big brothers”. ever be it turned out that it is now harder than However, 1960s, the CP of Yugoslavia ofcially recognized the Muslims of Bosnia as a nation. Rather than being intended as a concession to the Islamic faith, this acknowledgement was supposed to give Muslims a quasi A strict divisi sifed signifcantly beginning in the late 1960s. After the break tween profane and sacred Islam was impossible. The most unusual case of nation-forming, from both the Europe The most unusual case of nation-forming, an and the communist perspectives is the nation of the Muslims of Serbian and Croatian ethnic background in Bosnia. From the Herzegovina along with the minorities, while Bosniak was just ­ in 1994 (Simon 1994, 6): er from the Bosnian designation. and his projections about immediate future, Gerhard Simon wrote however, the terms Bosnian and Bosniak began to overlap more and more, while among the Bosnian Serbs and Bosnian Croats altogeth themselves more need to exclude there was more and ly, the term Bosnian included all the constituent peoples of Bos included all the constituent peoples the term Bosnian ly, nia the name of one of the three constituent peoples. In practice, Croats into Bosnia-Herzegovina, at least formally, the need for Bosniak and Bosnian increased. Theoretical the division between tween Bosniak and Bosnian was waiting to occur. territories controlled by the armies of Bosnian Serbs and Bosnian Since some sixteen or seventeen months before that, Bosniaand Herzegovina had been recognized as independent state the confusion be United Nations, a member to the and became themselves as a part of either Serbian or Croatian nation. The place is, nevertheless, the overlapping be thing that has taken tween Bosniakness and Bosnianness. fore to imagine a situation in which Bosniaks will start seeing fore to imagine a situation in which Bosniaks will start seeing - - g - in ir - - d de - e ims a Among the public and the media in Sarajevo, the word It is relatively easy to conclude that, in 1991, the Mus The last prewar population census in Bosnia-Herzegovina in Bosnia-Herzegovina population census The last prewar Bosnian” is often used when trying to defne those political ­ with regional designations (Posavska stranka, i.e., Party of the ter ritory of Sava river valley), and the media called this “the meeting of pro-Bosnian parties”. brenica regarding the joined lists on the elections in Republik brenica regarding the joined lists on with the adjective Bosniak Srpska. These included some parties their name, some having the adjective Croatian in the name, some forces that do not consider themselves exclusively Bosniak, but are seriously advocating Bosnian patriotism. For example, in parties took place in Sr March 2018, a meeting of ten political on the difference between Bosniak and Bosnian. on the difference between Bosniak “pro mother tongue. One hundred thousand inhabitantsnot did themselves as being Bosniak, but have aschosen their Bosnian mother tongue were generally those who still insisted ter the term Serbo-Croatian was abandoned by almost everyter the term Serbo-Croatian was abandoned body, it is quite logical to conclude that virtuallywho declared all the themselves people Bosniac also chose Bosnian as their Democratic Action, did not declare their motherBosnian, tongue declaredas it as Serbo-Croatian. However, and af Yugoslavia after the total disintegration of years later, twenty-two Bosnian than declaring themselves Bosniak. lims who, contrary to the suggestions issued by the Party of (ethnic) Bosniaks. In the frst case, the number of Bosnian Musl the frst case, the number of Bosnian (ethnic) Bosniaks. In of Bosnian by approximately of the speakers the number exceeded more spoke 100,000 case, approximately 270,000; in the second may be concluded that in 1991, in Bosnia-Herzegovina there were that in 1991, in Bosnia-Herzegovina may be concluded 2013 of Bosnian, unlike than the speakers more Bosnian Muslims the number of exceeded of Bosnian of speakers when the number mother tongue, which was 37.2%. However, in 2013, 1,866,585 was 37.2%. However, mother tongue, which 52.9%. It mother tongue Bosnian which was people declared their census was held in 2013. On that census, 1,769,592 inhabitants that census, 1,769,592 held in 2013. On census was to 50.1%. Regardin which amounted as Bosniak clared themselves as the 1,631,991 people declared Bosnian the language, in 1991, was held in 1991. On that census, 1,902,956 inhabitants declare 1,902,956 inhabitants in 1991. On that census, was held the frst the war, was 43.5%. After as Muslim which themselves

Bazdulj 214 215 edited volumes ------al - s rb - - e - - the - m he s, in - wing nationalist activist Sejfudin Tokić was the head ­ During the era of the Socialist Yugoslavia, Bosnia-Herze During the era of the Socialist Yugoslavia, Also, all the parties based in Sarajevo which consider them Sarajevo which consider parties based in Also, all the in the way that other republics were. Statistics made it impossi ble. However, after the disintegration of Yugoslavia and with the new statistical data, the idea of Bosnia-Herzegovina as a “normal” nia-Herzegovina. govina was specifc among the republics, since it was not nation and Croat had been printed, while other designations needed to be flled in by citizens, there was no real division and Bosniaks, for the frst time in history, became the absolute majority in Bos for Serbs to become the most numerous among the constituent peoples in Bosnia-Herzegovina. However, due at least partly to the options of Bosniak, Se the form of the census ballots where something similar was also possible in Bosnia-Herzegovina. Some case Bosniaks divided them activists even spread rumors that in it would be possibl selves into Bosniaks, Bosnians and Muslims, ic believers identifed themselves as ethnic Muslims, and not Bo ic believers identifed themselves as where this population i niaks (and, signifcantly not in Serbia, absolute numbers, the most numerous), there were fears that hement media campaign was launched with the aim of “stopping divisions among the Bosniaks”. Since on the censuses in Croatia who declared as Islam and Montenegro near a half of the people of the movement called: “It is important to be Bosniak”. After of the movement called: “It is important information had leaked that during the trial census, a signifcant as Bosnians, a ve number of young people identifed themselves There were similar concerns in Bosniak political elite before t concerns in Bosniak political elite before There were similar and after politician, prominent left-wing census of 2013. Once wards right ward Yugoslav identity. Dejan Jović demonstrated very Dejan identity. convinc ward Yugoslav ingly that young people in Yugoslavia were discouraged by the Communist Party to identify themselves ethnically as Yugoslavs. some similarities and some diferences in their attitude toward to communist attitude regards to Yugoslav Bosnian identity with the League of Communists of Bosnia-Herzegovina and the stron and of Bosnia-Herzegovina of Communists the League Par Democratic among them (Social the most infuential gest and ty of B-H) is the legal and political heir of the League. There are selves left wing, generally vehemently decline to describe them decline wing, generally vehemently selves left derived fro of these parties have Bosniak. Almost all selves as ------al - - y pa aks. , Stav state as a whole? ­ is owned by Turkish media company and that it is Stav The proponents of the Bosnian nation like to insist on the The only possible form of Bosniak nationalism is Bosnian nation ism, meaning to fght for the Bosnian nation state with all the triots, through uniting nationalism of the Bosnian people around their ancient state and historical experience of plurality, tolerant However, perhaps this is a theoretical dilemma only. On On only. perhaps this is a theoretical dilemma However, on the question of the compatibility of subgroup versus national Thus, within multiethnic states, one won identities and loyalties. ders whether one can truly be loyal to one’s own ethnic subgroup member of the nation and still remain a loyal From that perspective, the from the nine In many cases, intergroup confict within multiethnic states turns the sense of nationality – Americans. The arguments of their op – Americans. The arguments of the sense of nationality 1999, 112): by Jim Sidanius (Sidanius ponents were reiterated diference between the ethnic and the national. They like to use its popula as an example: although States of America the United tion is made of dozens and dozens ethnic groups, they are all – in (national) state re-emerged, with the only dilemma being: wheth with the only dilemma state re-emerged, (national) or the Bosni state of the Bosnians be the national er it should ety said (Opinion poll 2019): alist enough. Nevertheless, some of the answers are worth quot alist enough. Nevertheless, some of ing. Senadin Lavić, professor at the Faculty of Political Sciences main Bosniak cultural soci and the president of “Preporod”, the obviously close to Party of Democratic Action as the strongest Bosniak national party. The summary of all the answers would that Bosniaks actually are not nation probably be something like among the Bosniaks as the dominant social phenomenon exist?” The question, as it is, seems very signifcant, and it is also worth noting that overlapping. This can be illustrated by some of the answers from in March of 2017 by news magazine the poll organized based in Sarajevo. The topic of the poll was: “Does nationalism identity. nationalism are mainl the practical level, Bosniak and Bosnians ties is the main obstacle for creating common Bosnian national

Bazdulj 216 217 edited volumes ------liti or

sm is e the Herzegovina ­ honest patriot. […] Bosniaks did not become nationalists not even after the bloodiest genocide against them. In conclusion, to say that Bosniaks are nationalists is equal to saying that patrioti nationalism. niaks would, in all probability, be declared nationalists. But patrio be declared nationalists. niaks would, in all probability, tism is not nationalist, it is just the love given to the one and only homeland without the alternative on this planet […]. Bosniaks simply gave too much blood for their country to ever be able to deny it, for whatever reason. The ground beneath their feet is theirs, and it is their legacy to their children and children of every If someone would defne patriotism as nationalism, then the Bos If someone would defne patriotism as nationalism, tion, ethnos and demos, cultural and political identity […] Unf tion, ethnos and demos, hostages to our own ignorance. we have all become tunately, about the processes we are going through. That is a mission that intellectual groups need to work on together with political and that the times are coming for Bosnian po business ones. I think de knowledge and expertise would become cal options when the ciding factors in each and every aspect of life. In that time, we na the distinctions between people and would be able to detect and democratic.Bos nation, of the question of the Bosnian The nian patriotic nationalism is bigger than any individual statement and it should be approached as the key question of the Bosnian future, which means that we should have superior knowledge As a sociologist, Lavić is aware of the diferences between theologian, is also interesting, because he is not that familiar with the terminology of political sciences but is stating essentially the same thing (Opinion poll 2009): niaks and “all the patriots” in which, I guess, the patriots ar niaks and “all the patriots” in which, persons who do not see themselves as Bosniaks, but perceive Bosnian as their mother tongue. The answer of Rešid Hafzović, a common identity of being Bosnian. Since he knows that the ma common identity of being Bosnian. Since jority of Bosnian Serbs and Croats decline to politically identify this group consisting of Bos themselves as Bosnians, he imagines cultural and political identity and it is quite obvious that he sug cultural and political identity and it is in Bosnia gests that Bosniaks, Serbs and Croats should have their separate cultural identities and politically a - - - - - er - as as - national competi ­ Herzegovina, but ­ H Presidency and also President of the ­ as sportsmanship or elegance of the game. After Bosnia-Herzegovina was recognized as independent in sports has also been widely studied: sporting competitions are typically framed as national competitions and co to support most spectators are more likely tors on the basis of their nationality rather than using criteria such In addition, there is one specifc example of “banal nation In addition, there is one specifc example It should be noticed that when Hafzović mentions “honest nic identifcation started playing for Bosnia huge majority among the fans are still Bosniaks. Almost a quart century after the Dayton Peace Agreement, Bosnian national Party of Democratic Action, directly asked the head coach to have him for political reasons. As more and more foot time went by, and handball players of Serbian and Croatian eth ball, basketball ethnically Croatian player called Pavo Dadić played in the national against Croatia because Alija Izetbe team of Bosnia-Herzegovina gović, President of the B even while the war was still going on. The huge majority of sportsmen playing in them were Bosniak. There is even an urban legend that the media have reported, that in 1996, a mediocre state, the national teams in the most popular sports were created alism” which Bilig also discussed, which is also relevant in this con which alism” text, and it concerns sport. As Ingrid Piller said (Piller 2011, 78): place which is more than a place, more than a geophysical area”, it irresistibly reminds us of Hafzović’s notion of “the one and only the alternative on this planet”. homeland without memorably investigated. When he says, for example: banal “A mysticism, which is so banal that all the mysticism seems to have evaporated long ago, binds ‘us’ to the homeland – that special hoping to evoke is obviously nationalist. It is especially true if we consider the notion of “banal nationalism” which Michael Bilig cial diference between nationalism and patriotism is quite a naïve one, especially if we remember the phrase about “giving too much blood for their country”. The sentiment this phrase is patriots” he is in agreement with Lavić who perceives Bosniaks with Lavić who perceives he is in agreement patriots” cru idea of some course, Hafzović’s as such. Of being “patriots”

Bazdulj 218 219 edited volumes ------EN EN - the Herze ­ Herzegovina and ­ Herzegovina” (Burić 1998), ­ The diferences between the proponents of Bosniak nation The diferences between Theoretically, this “banal nationalism” is more Bosnian than I think that Bosniaks cannot exist without Bosnia that Bosnia-Herzegovina cannot exist without Bosnian Serbs and Bosnian Croats. In my opinion, no multiethnic organization, insti tution or entity is an obstacle for the prosperity of Bosnia and while Pećanin wrote (Pećanin 1998): 1998): wrote (Pećanin while Pećanin the same reason. Mustafć said that the idea is wrong because: idea is wrong because: the same reason. Mustafć said that the “This is the time for strengthening common Bosnian institutions and universal cultural values of Bosnia son to establish Bosniak PEN center” (Duraković 1998). Vocal pro Vocal 1998). son to establish Bosniak PEN center” (Duraković ponents of Bosnian nationalism such as journalist Senad Pećanin and theatre director Dino Mustafć were opposed to the idea for PEN center on multinational level. Serbian PEN and Croatian PEN PEN and Croatian PEN PEN center on multinational level. Serbian existed from before, but PEN center of Bosnia-Herzegovina did not exist. […] I hope that Bosniak writers would have enough rea to come. Nedžad Ibrišimović, one of the most respected modern Bosniak writers, said in an interview from March 1998: “I think that Bosniak writers made a mistake when they participated in creating center of Bosnia-Herzegovina had already been established in 1992. It was a great opportunity to observe the beginnings of the arguments that would be more intensely developed in the years alism and those more attached to the Bosnian one, are sometimes best perceived when it comes to the institutions. In 1998, there PEN center although the P was an initiative for forming Bosniak is, at least partly, veryis, at least partly, “ba often also a manifestation of Bosniak nal nationalism”. lation strongly backs Croatian national teams, and the same ap Croatian national teams, and the lation strongly backs plies to the Serbs in and the Serbian national team, passionate support of the Bosnian national football team Bosniak. But since in the regions with Croatian majority, the popu in the regions with Croatian majority, Bosniak. But since govina (the white one with six golden lilies), as well as other sym as six golden lilies), white one with govina (the bols less connected with the state after Dayton and more with the period of war. football team has never played a match on the territory a match on the has never played football team of Repub during the fans’ paraphernalia In addition, among lika Srpska. of Bosnia of the Republic there are always fags matches, - - - s ------leader of the ­ Herzegovinian Islamic Community, Mustafa Cerić. ­ identity? It is not really a polite question, but since we are lucky that we live in freedom and democracy we may just say: YES. establishing the Bos 13 years after the failed initiative for We are the nation that up until this day does not have its encyclo pedias, lexicons, literary histories, and what is the strangest thing, and in the days when this language is being denied, the history of Bosnian language […]. Are we even allowed to show our own names, but also frst names of some of the locally famous writer some of the locally famous also frst names of names, but enough? Is that a reason important and journalists]? Ibrišimović used is a simple one: Bos The argumentation Bosniaks, and that includes the PEN than already exists. What would be the diference between the future Bosniak PEN and the there for would be no place Because there have? one we already Marko, Gojko, Goran, Vlado, Ilija, Ivan [typical Serbian and Croatian rather than scientific, suspicious with the in made additionally but also ex not only Zukorlić, volvement of clergy, Bosnian their journalist talked with both members of the Academy and based the investiga their opponents. The thesis the journalist tion on was that the motive for the Academy had been political gro. The Academy was established in June 2011, and in the De gro. The Academy was established in was formed in Senate of the Academy cember of the same year, Sarajevo. Radio Free Europe made a report at the time in which torial criteria, but it should also be noted that the key figure in the initiative was Muamer Zukorlić, at the time a spiritual leader of Serbia and Montene of the Muslims from the Sanjak region tablished. Interestingly enough, statutory meeting was not held in Sarajevo, but in Novi Pazar, on the territory of Serbia. One of the ethnic and not terri the reasons was probably to emphasize niak PEN center, we saw a very similar argumentation regarding the establishment of the Bosniak Academy of Arts and Sciences. Academy was successfully es the PEN center, unlike However, niaks should have everything that other nations have. Twenty years later, journalist and editor Filip Mursel Begović is on the same trail (Begović 2018):

Bazdulj 220 221 edited volumes ------for for the conditio sine qua non wing political afliations. wing political afliations. ­ conditio sine qua non Although in the case of PEN center, the Bosnian side won, religious inspiration like Nedžad Ibrišimović and Džemaludin Latić, while the patrons of the Bosniaks’ Academy of Arts and Sciences included persons like Muamer Zukorlić and Mustafa Cerić. cally they are often right wing, traditionalists and anti-communists. cally they are often right wing, traditionalists fgures in the initiative key So, it is not just a coincidence that the concerning the Bosniaks’ PEN center included authors famous for Some of them were parts of the ruling system during the socialist era. On the contrary, among the typical Bosniak nationalists there while politi intellectuals who insist on their religiosity, are many state. Having this in mind, it is not unusual that among the propo state. Having this in mind, it is not unusual nents of Bosnian nationalism there are many secular intellectuals and also those with liberal and left cases. One was focused more on the state, and the other more on the state is the nation. For the former, nation is the nation, for the latter, while in the case of the Academy the Bosniak claimed victory, the opposing argumentations were basically the same in both these opinion: “We generally do not have enough people who deserve to be members of any Academy so we do not really need any new ones” (Karabegović 2011). bring Bosnia and Herzegovina anything good, and it just helps to destroy what Bosnia and Herzegovina was and what it should also be in the future.” Sociologist Jusuf Žiga was of a similar foundation for new divisions and Bosnia and Herzegovina is al divisions and Bosnia and Herzegovina foundation for new ready a divided society. I do not think that another division would help Bosnia and Herzegovina in any way, or that it would out political ambitions” (Karabegović 2011). Enver Mandžić, and Her of Arts and Sciences of Bosnia member of the Academy zegovina, had a different opinion: “This Academy is making a tions. Bosniaks did not have any. That is why we decided to form we decided to form That is why not have any. tions. Bosniaks did with would be scientific institution only, This such an Academy. suspicions by explaining that Zukorlić and Cerić helped the Acad and Cerić Zukorlić by explaining that suspicions from the Bal other nations “All and then added: emy financially institu Bosniaks already have their national the kans except Retired philosophy professor and a member of the Bosniac Sciences of Bos of Arts and (but also of the Academy Academy nia and Herzegovina) Muhamed Filipović declined those kinds of ------Herzegov ­ against the most elitocide Although both Bosnian and Bosniak nationalists tend to This thesis certainly calls for deeper investigation, but just When speaking about the foundations of Bosnia about the foundations When speaking avoid addressing any aspect of the Bosnian civil war from the ear avoid addressing any ly 1990s, seeing it exclusively as a Serbian (and later Croatian) ag gression, Bosniak nationalists like to insist on the involvement of Bosniak nationalist saw that a kind of Bosniak nationalist saw that a kind of prominent anticommunist Bosniaks. vehemently against it. They declared that an unpatriotic act, of Bosnia-Herze among other things, because the foundations govina as a state had been built during the anti-fascist struggle. the majority led by the Party of Democratic Action, decided to name an elementary a huge part of the public, school after him, especially those who consider themselves Bosnian patriots, were out of him and even named one of the Sarajevo streets after him. twen after it.This was during the war and immediately However, ty years later when the Parliament of the Sarajevo Canton, with court declared him guilty for cooperation with the occupying forces and sentenced him to death. After the disintegration of Yugoslavia, parts of Bosniak political elite tried to make a martyr spired intellectual who lived in Sarajevo and for some time in an some time the at published and II, War World the during Rome ticommunist and anti-Semitic texts. After the liberation, Yugoslav the case of Mustafa Busuladžić that has had a great public,the case of Mustafa Busuladžić that politi cal and even diplomatic importance during the last year or so. a cleric and religiously in Mustafa Busuladžić (1914–1945) was and the importance of Islamic culture to Bosniak identity. as brief illustration it is useful to concentrate for a moment on tion. They are more prone to insist on the supposed continuity of Bosnia as a state and Bosniaks as a nation from the Middle Ages onwards. They like to make special emphasis on the Ottoman era though they would not forget that in the frst two decades after as a na II, Bosnian Muslims were not recognized War the World Mrkonjić Grad on the ZAVNOBIH meeting. However, they usually forget to put these decisions in the context of Yugoslavia as a al reluctantly respect ZAVNOBIH, whole. Bosniak nationalist ina as a state, Bosnian nationalists focus on the partisan resis focus on the Bosnian nationalists ina as a state, tance movement from the World War II and the decisions made in

Bazdulj 222 223 edited volumes - - - in - - - - ry While on the level of everyday politics, when faced with the sections of the territory with their own majority, this context changed, and probably for long, not to say for good. With the old er generation leaving the public scene and the new generation the Yugoslav era and totally diferent social context. With the change of the social system, revival of religion, the war, war crimes, ethnic cleansing, concentration of all the ethnic groups on 1997), etc. In trying to document this “phenomenon”, they tend about multiethnic to use huge amounts of anecdotal evidence life, mixed marriages, etc. Almost all of these examples are from tion, this almost mystical vision is very common among the Bos write about “Bosnian be nian nationalist who often speak and ing”, “the soul of Bosnia”, “Bosnia the Good” (Mahmutčehajić sort of “utopian harmony” that supposedly ruled Bosnia-Herze govina during the socialist era and, by extension, in some other real historical founda any historical periods. Although without the strongest possibility seems to be the unifcation of the two the strongest possibility seems to be the form of Bosniak nationalism. The main force behind Bosnian nationalism is the memory or even imagined memory of some proper opponents. In that context, the question arises concerning Although it is ve the future of these two kinds of nationalism. hard and very complicated to make these sorts of assumptions, the demands by Serbian and Croatian nationalists in Bosnia-Her the demands by Serbian and Croatian zegovina, proponents of Bosnian and Bosniak nationalisms are not in real confict, in many aspects of internal politics they are War II, which condemned war criminals of all the allies of the oc cupying forces, whichever ethnic background they had. may allow that some war crimes, if only a negligent number of them, were committed by the Bosnian army, if only to allow for the analogy with the ofcial communist rhetoric after the World number of “incidents” that may have happened were not planned. they agree with the general outline, though Bosnian nationalists nationalists tend to decline all the accusations of the war crimes committed by the Bosnian army with the argumentation that no such crimes can be committed in a defensive war and that a small the (ex-)Yugoslav Army led by (ex-)communist generals, while Bosnian nationalist perceive Serbian anticommunist nationalism as being the guiltiest. In a typically nationalist gesture, Bosniak - - - - to - the es in fulflling prophecy, ­ Herzegovina as a state is more and ­ notion that such result is, at least partly, self notion that such result is, at least partly, we fnd ourselves at the beginning of a completely new story. resented for some also a step in the same direction. These views were sometimes declared even paranoid, but there is a distinct possibility that history would prove them right. However, with the some of the witnesses dared to see this as an attempt of assert some of the witnesses dared to see this legacy. The diference be ing a claim on the complete Bosnian name of the language rep tween the name of the nation and the the quoted Byron verse, maybe its ambiguity is just a temporarythe quoted Byron verse, maybe its ambiguity thing. Even in 1993, when the Bosniak parliament decided to change the ofcial name of the nation from Muslim to Bosniak, Croats. Their allies here also include the ignorance and inertia of inertia of here also include the ignorance and Croats. Their allies international community, including some people who assume that the situation is already like that. If we in the end go back to outcome for them would be for Bosnia-Herzegovina to become is of Bosniaks, in the same way that Serbia the national state national state of Serbs and Croatia is the national state of the relation to Bosniak nationalists, Bosniak nationalism may prove nationalists, Bosniak nationalism may relation to Bosniak be practically the only way of being a Bosnian patriot. The desired more reduced to Bosniaks, in time they will become a veryin time they will become to Bosniaks, more reduced domi less and less Bos patriots. With among the Bosnian nant majority into consideration all their diferenc nian nationalists, taking brought up in the new context,brought up Bosnian nationalism Bosniak and would most probably be more and more alike. Since the total with Bosnia identifcation

Bazdulj 224 225 edited volumes - - - - , last , last http:// Muslim http://stav. / , edited by An ­ , last accessed na ­ 1 ­ Muslim Communities Muslim Communities pravo ­ 281/97/tekst597.htm https://www.bhdani.ba/ ­ , nase ­ 67 bosnjacima ­ ­ https://www.bhdani.ba/portal/ medu ­ bosnjaci ­ . Zagreb: Durieux. , last accessed February 2019. 25th Muslim Communities Reemerge Muslim Communities edicija , last accessed February 2019. 25th ­ https://genius.com/Lord-byron-the-bride-of- , edited by Andreas Kappeler et al., Durham , edited by Andreas Kappeler , nacionalizam ­ li ­ Postoji li nacionalizam među Bošnjacima”, Bošnjacima”, li nacionalizam među Postoji , edited by Andreas Kappeler et al., Durham and Lon , edited by Andreas Kappeler et al., Durham and Dobra Bosna Dobra “ , last accessed February 2019. 25th 281/71/inter.htm Intervju Nedžad Ibrišimović dana, postoji ­ ­ Ko parazitira i lešinari na iskomadanom tkivu Bosne i Herce parazitira i lešinari na iskomadanom Ko “ 67 ­ magazine. stava The Bride of Abydos ­ 281/98/tekst598.htm , edited by Andreas Kappeler et al., Durham and London: Duke Uni London: Duke , edited by Andreas Kappeler et al., Durham and ­ vijesti.com/pokrenuta https://www.bhdani.ba/portal/arhiva ­ Stav 67 ­ dreas Kappeler et al., Durham and London: Duke University Press. dreas Kappeler et al., Durham and London: Duke Reemerge versity Press. Reemerge Communities University Press. don: Duke ba/anketa February 25th 2019. govine”, accessed February 25th 2019. portal/arhiva Reemerge Muslim Communities University Press. and London: Duke accessed February 25th 2019. arhiva abydos-annotated www.bh Simon, Gerhard. 1994. “Introduction”. In Simon, Gerhard. 1994. “Introduction”. Ramet, Sabrina Petra. 1994. “Primordial Ethnicity or Modern Nationalism”. In 1994. “Primordial Ethnicity or Modern Nationalism”. Ramet, Sabrina Petra. Popovic, Alexandre. 1994. “Islamic Movements in Yugoslavia”. In in Yugoslavia”. Popovic, Alexandre. 1994. “Islamic Movements Pećanin, Senad. 1998. Pećanin, Mahmutčehajić, Rusmir. 1997 : Mahmutčehajić, Rusmir. Opinion poll of Hopken, Wolfgang. 1994. “Yugoslavia’s Communists and the Bosnian Muslims”. In Communists and the Bosnian Muslims”. In 1994. “Yugoslavia’s Wolfgang. Hopken, Duraković, Jasmin. 1998. Duraković, Byron, Lord. 2019. Burić, 1998. “Intervju Ahmed. s Dinom Mustafćem”, Bibliography na identitet”, ‘Bošnjaci’: naše pravo edicija Begović, Mursel. 2018. “Pokrenuta Michał Kozłowski Michał Kozłowski

Kozłowski 226 227 edited volumes

------act, it Sri Lanka in Modern Age Sri Lanka

Nira Wickramasinghe, Egypt, empowerment, Egypt, gender relations, social Unfortunately, mainstream political history has remained insensi history has remained mainstream political Unfortunately, to the understanding of na that gender is crucial tive to the fact tionalism. the Middle East and more widely in the “Islamic world”. They They world”. “Islamic the in widely more and East Middle the repro are perceived in terms of uninterrupted and efcient of case the on Focusing model. patriarchal strict a of duction dynamic the for argue will I half-century, last the during Egypt character of these relations and try to demonstrate their es social contra sentially political nature. I will also show growing decades. last the of politics gender by produced dictions Keywords: change There is a widespread misconception about gender relations in in relations gender about misconception widespread a is There

There was a famous speech by addressed There was a famous speech by Gamal rectly preceding his seizing power, cracking down on the Islamist rectly preceding his seizing power, opposition and establishing a progressive and largely secular dicta torship. I will quote it at length: able on YouTube and went viral among leftists and liberals in and went viral able on YouTube subtitles, well beyond Arab world and, due to its English Egypt, that.to Nasser here, what we imply is the period di When we refer poraries to be of global historical importance, and this was not one poraries to be of global historical importance, minute extract,of them. This speech, or rather a two gained its his became avail when the recording toric momentum ffty years later, to the members of the ruling Arab Socialist Union in 1966. In f to the members of the ruling Arab Socialist president all, Egyptian went rather unnoticed at the time. After considered by his contem gave a signifcant number of speeches A b s t r a c t Dynamics and Contradictions and Contradictions Dynamics East the Middle in Politics of Gender Goodbye Nasser: Goodbye - - - - ry: - - ood, ood, upts]. Arabic ­ Amr Allah, who forbade women from from women forbade who Allah, Amr ­ Hakim bi ­ Yet it is not the authenticity, nor intensity of Nasser’s it is not the authenticity, dedica Yet me to put a tarha on 10 million women myself?” if Nasser’s faded since its peak Even allure has indisputably And he replied, “No, as the leader, you are responsible.” I told him, “Sir, “Sir, him, told ion is that every for himself the rules. person in his own house decides I responsible.” are you leader, the as “No, replied, he not And she’s and medicine, of school Cairo the in daughter a have you her wear a tarha?” you make didn’t wearing a tarha. Why tell you to if you are unable I continued, “If you… [crowd’s cheering interrupts] can how tarha, the wear daughter, your is who girl, one make was to make wearing a hijab mandatory was to make and demand that ev in Egypt, woman Every (scarf). tarha a wear street the in walking woman ery yells “Let him wear it!”, crowd er walking [someone in audience will say that we have re they that a law, make And I told him that if I turned to the days of Al and only allowed walking at night,walking during the day and my opin In ‘53, we really wanted to compromise with the Muslim Brotherh with the Muslim wanted to compromise In ‘53, we really willing to be reasonable. if they were and me with sat he and Brotherhood Muslim the of head the for met I asked he thing frst The request? he did What requests. his made tion to women’s cause that made the public become hypnotized cause that made the public become hypnotized tion to women’s Fragility of progress of progress Fragility manners of self-styled or real revolutionaries. It was pushed for or real revolutionaries. It was manners of self-styled Ali of Algeria, Kassem of Iraq. Ben ward by Bourgiba of Tunisia, Some important reforms ensued. Nasser was no exception. Arabic renaissance. And some form of social empowerment of Arabic renaissance. And some form of component of this promise. women was an integral, if not central, A lip service advancement belonged to good political to women’s visionary. might have been organizationally shapeless Nasserism and ideologically elusive, yet, rep by the sheer virtue of its scope, and the most compelling promise of Egyptian resented for many arguably the most powerful political fgure in Arab modern histo arguably the most powerful political the faces of the global Non- as a leader of decolonization, as one of as pan Aligned Movement, as a reformer and a modernizer, in the late 1950s, and his political legacy is in shambles, he remains

Kozłowski 228 229 edited volumes ------Had ­ important. ­ Tariqa al ­ was still sufering was still sufering Zawaj ‘ala al ­ Ikhwān apologetic and self ­ inevitably belongs to the legacy of the darkest ages of to the legacy inevitably belongs darkest of the Arabic secular nationalism may indeed make us believe Arabic secular nationalism may indeed make ­ Discourses and representations from the era of the trium based on the compatibility of education and dreams of a couple. based on the compatibility of education and Abdel Fateen by context diferent a in put was equality of issue The Wife (My Aam” Modeer “Merati flm 1966 the directed who Waahab, a of anxiety the showed comedy 1966 The Manager). General a is general his is wife his that fact the with grapple to had who man company. state-owned a in manager The scene was from the 1968 movie “Al The movie portrayed a genera (Marriage in the Modern Way). itha” the and monarchy, the under lived who those between gap tional independent an as Egypt see to born was which generation, new the Karim, Salah groom, a for price the be shouldn’t Money country. be should Marriage audience. his tell to wanted director, movie In one memorable scene in Egyptian cinema, popular Egyptian ac cinema, popular Egyptian In one memorable scene in Egyptian their during colleagues, male her convince to tried Hosni Soad tress cooking and cleaning that Mediterranean, the at vacation summer they When women. and men between equally conducted be should live in the era “Have you forgotten that we refused, she said loudly, of equality?” tarha Hakim. This narrative was non Hakim. This narrative ­ man reminds us (Osman 2012): 2012): man reminds us (Osman on the side of Nasser and his followers. The veil embodied the con and his followers. The veil embodied on the side of Nasser temptible past. was victorious course toward modernization This cultural production. Asalso refected in Egyptian Zaki Os Ahmed superstition and fanaticism represented by the ruinous reign of Ca represented by the ruinous superstition and fanaticism lif Al it delivered verdicts. HistoryIt required no justifcation, itself was purpose was signifcant.narrative in He referred to a progressive which applause. Surely, at that very Surely, applause. time the of delegitimization was clearly a part and the ridicule persecution that the kind of weapon Nasser chose for Nevertheless, strategy. with this rather masterful piece of political rhetoric. masterful piece with this rather What indeed overwhelmed veil with which the Islamic was the facility them The mockery by the enthusiastic was confrmed could be mocked. phant pan the history’s course has been reversed. The drive toward equality ------­ - - - - of o 1960s no western state engaged in ­ states. Just like them, they espoused a espoused they them, like Just states. ­ Egypt in the late 1950s and early 1960s has had quite a com sponsored industrial projects. Maternity leave and related jobsponsored industrial projects. Maternity ­ substantial diference: family law largely remained within the d the by implemented and recognized tradition and religion of main civil spouses, between equality of principle no was There state. pening in the , the role of the Egyptian state in the the in state Egyptian the of role the Bloc, Eastern the in pening the room for state in economy remained limited. Consequentially, another was there But too. limited was employment in tervention of gender equality fell short of the magnitude characteristic of theof gender equality fell short of the magnitude the reasons for that was amajority of socialist countries. One of what was hap larger ideological picture of Nasser’s regime. Unlike war welfare state was not keen on women’s participation in the la on women’s war welfare state was not keen envisage not did and areas, limited strictly of outside market bor project Egyptian the time, same the At terms. equal on employment self-aware and voluntarist, albeit limited in scope, vision of women’s women’s of vision scope, in limited albeit voluntarist, and self-aware empowerment. In truth, in mid such an efort. It is often forgotten that the glorious western post protection measures were introduced. Such a concept of state-fem protection measures were introduced. since developed being policies the after modelled clearly was inism the 1920s by socialist party amended in order to assure women’s access to jobs in public admin amended in order to assure women’s extensive of framework the within importantly, more and, istration state stitution of 1956 (together with 1961 amendments) did not only only not did amendments) 1961 with (together 1956 of stitution explicit contained also but women, and men between equality state were laws Labor discrimination. gender-based against provisions ization and female empowerment.ization and female being implemented. The Con prehensive policy of “state feminism” der transformations. The specifcity of the Egyptian case does not case does The specifcity of the Egyptian der transformations. highlights the variety of ruptures, but rather imply exceptionalism, modern within the context of gender, continuities and alternatives cent gender history the contemporary is just as illustrative of Arab world and its context, of gen as of the globally occurring patterns legitimate speech have been redefned at the expense of women’s expense of women’s redefned at the speech have been legitimate have been lost, advancements social Many threatened. or equality. story the Egyptian But there is more to re than this. In fact, Egypt’s between men and women has been put to a halt,men and women has between patriarchal and The renewed and reinvigorated. ideas have been authoritarian The conditions as a mere illusion. be dismissed backlash cannot

Kozłowski 230 231 edited volumes ------zed zed - - - the - gen The strength of the state’s feminism was also its weakness. feminism state’s The strength of the sponsored labor market, and despite steady urban expansion, sponsored labor market, ­ time too short. Illiteracy rural women from efectively excluded state has remained predominantly rural to this day. Egypt ment, af particularly taking into account the fact that immediately female literacy was actually in retreat (Hatem 1994, ter the war, 44). Still too little was done, resources were too scarce and the aimed at providing free education for all, female illiteracyaimed at providing free education for dropped by mere 5% percent, % by to reach the still staggering rate of 78.9 the end of Nasser’s achieve reign. This was an unquestionable speech, the average fertility rate was 6.33 children per woman, speech, the average fertility rate was in sub-Saharan Africa. De number which today can only be found in the early 1960s, taken spite considerable governmental eforts sively in the hands of male politicians. The socio-economic context sively in the hands of male politicians. had emerged was even in which this state promulgated feminism delivered his memorable more of a burden. In 1966, when Nasser evolution of the political elite; second, the of women’s the autonomy of women’s evolution of the political elite; second, reduced and, last but not the collective claims had been drastically emancipation was lying almost exclu least, the fate of women’s movements from the previous era, small but ambitious and vigor movements from the previous era, small had three major consequenc ous, were now banned. This situation the fate and advancement depended on es: frst, entire women’s es, which let it produce immediate efects in certain areas of es, which let it produce immediate efects state efectively monopoli der relations. On the other hand, the collective agency in favor of emancipation. Autonomous women’s ture. However, the latter was never to happen in Egypt. Egypt. in happen to never was latter the However, ture. resourc possessed vast political and economic On the one hand, it countries also undertook. The country began with the old sufragist sufragist old the with began country The undertook. also countries and education extending by followed rights, political of postulate achieve equality within family’slabor rights, to fnally struc legal gressive” countries of the period, seemed to have followed a classi countries of the period, gressive” Western path the emancipation, gradual of pattern reformist cal ily rigths. This however was hardly an exception in the 1960s, 1960s, the in exception an hardly was however This rigths. ily standard was marriage in (equality West industrialized the including bloc”). In fact,only in the “communist “pro as most of the Egypt, rights of married women remained restricted, right to divorce un restricted, right women remained rights of married brothers and sis equality between was no inheritance even, there from fam “illegitimate” excluded threshold of wedlock ters and the ------­ - - -

ng in iza feminism has quickly become a ­ Following the assassination of by an Islamist Excessive fertility rate, combined (and structurally connect (and structurally rate, combined fertility Excessive radical, the Egyptian regime has adopted a double strategy: a po radical, the Egyptian on militant Islam, accompanied with gradual inte lice crackdown gration of the traditionalist agenda into state social, economic and men it stood at 10% while for women, it rose to over 40% (Hatem men it stood at 10% while for women, 1994, 48). ests. The benediction of state of economic liberal curse. By 1986, or 10 years after the start reaching 14.7 %. But for tion, overall unemployment have doubled, males in the context of the rise in relative shortage of resources. In males in the context of the rise in relative fact, no regime could survive growing male discontent and, conse economic inter men’s governments tended to prioritize quentially, reproductive labor was to be reprivatized or, in other words, sent in other words, or, reproductive labor was to be reprivatized However, labor. back to the realm of female unpaid reproductive to socially appease underlying this political shift were attempts trating women’s partial retreat from the labor market, or rather its partial retreat from the labor market, trating women’s its push for cost cutti more lucrative sectors, was the IMF and a big chunk of Under the terms of new austerity, the public sector. elite, now converted to free market ideas and (strictly supervised)elite, now converted to free market political Islam, suppressed but political pluralism, with the forces of partner in orches third key never eradicated during the 1960s. The ficts of interest between genders. By 1976, dark clouds started ficts of interest between genders. By this translated to unobvi women. Politically, looming over Egyptian reconciliation of the post-Nasserite ous and quite short-lasting was based on the assumption that women empowerment would that women empowerment was based on the assumption and social oppor cost for male economic zero come at little, if not con of radiant progress was to ease or abolish tunities. The vision face the consequences of skyrocketing demographic growth (part of skyrocketing face the consequences third healthcare developed under Egyptian to the public ly linked that Nasser’s It is hardly surprising way socialism). feminism state er’s al-Sadat sought both the new leadership under Anwar death, to of the regime and economic measures ideological reformulation ed) with overwhelming illiteracy division of traditional farming and but also only class-biased empowerment not made women’s labor, after Nass the wind was changing. Not long extremely fragile. And Limits of regression regression Limits of

Kozłowski 232 233 edited volumes - 0 - - - - at - the 00). In the wake of Tahrir Square revolution, girls’ literacy stood of Tahrir In the wake In point of fact, Egyptian and other Arabic women seemed and In point of fact, Egyptian remained relatively high, the demographic transition was frmly work. In 1971, fertility rate stood at 6.14, while during the Tahrir Square revolution in 2006, it was less than half of that (3. students. In 2016, it stood at almost 35% (World Bank 2016), while (World students. In 2016, it stood at almost 35% Most rose signifcantly. the overall enrolment in higher education women importantly perhaps: even if the fertility rate of Egyptian and 2008. In 1971, when Nasserism still stood strong, girls’ enrol and 2008. In 1971, when Nasserism still ment in tertiary (regardless of the fact of education was marginal or below 4% of all an Ikhwan leader’s daughter studying medicine) at 86%, while it was just over 38% in 1976, at the beginning of at 86%, while it was just over 38% in 1976, median age at the conservative Bank 2017). Women’s turn (World 18 to over 21 between 198 time of their frst marriage grew from ly badly paid. Public spaces for women were also tightened. Yet not were also tightened. Yet ly badly paid. Public spaces for women all trends were reversed. of the labor market. To this day, their share has not exceeded 23% their share has not exceeded this day, To of the labor market. (The Global Economy 2017), and that despite growing urbanization these jobs are usual Understandably, and expansion of wage labor. too weak, both economically and socially, to articulate a viable po too weak, both economically and socially, were efectively pushed out litical opposition to this trend. Women Resistance and change Resistance der-oriented politics that the West was to discover soon, although was to discover that the West politics der-oriented context.in a drastically diferent Major ideological shifts of the past,Major ideological shifts the class the economic system, government,issue of the form of by this, to became overshadowed had pioneered the gen Egyptians say the least. certain way, In a bor. In this sense, the specifcity of the Arabic conservative In this sense, the specifcity of turn bor. driven. that it remained almost entirely gender the late 1970s was this conservative agenda concerns mostly, if not exclusively, the the this conservative not exclusively, if mostly, agenda concerns disposal, women’s and resources at basic rights question, women’s of la in public sphere, and gendered division gender segregation educational policies. The same strategy was latter applied by the applied by the strategy was latter policies. The same educational of the Algeri in the years government Algerian post-revolutionary in each case, making clear: 1990s. And it is worth of the an Civil War ------ar - r the The ideological project of reconstructing and reinforcing so The ideological project of reconstructing Obviously, statistical averages camoufage both urban/rural camoufage both averages statistical Obviously, understand why the unlimited sexual access to women was one of understand why that re appeal and why the major covenants of the ’s cruitment strategy proved to be so successful. have all plagued Egyptian men during the last three decades. Addi have all plagued Egyptian gender segregation and the persistence of dowrytionally, exposed young men to the prospect of celibacy. It is therefore easy to many stronger in the appeal of Islamist movements. Yet this promise was Yet stronger in the appeal of Islamist movements. High unemployment,not kept. extremely brutal labor relations, they and migrant labor in the Gulf, growing inequalities, cronyism, male authority and prestige within the framework of male egalit male authority and prestige within the which Benedict An dignity, ian brotherhood. This promise of male resonated even derson rightly attributed to modern nationalism, Egyptian household. Egyptian a promise of reinstituting cial control over women initially carried very education and fertility de strong correlation between female mechanism of empower cline rate does not quite explain the inner behind the walls of the fortress that was the ment that worked Yousef Courbage develop a powerful argument according to which Courbage develop Yousef to the length of female educa this frst struggle was tightly linked Yet, other factor. than any 2014) rather and Todd tion (Courbage families, resources they use and alliances they forge, are much families, resources they use and alliances than labor or political con harder to trace and far less spectacular and more. Emmanuel Todd ficts. But they matter as much, if not riage should be understood as a direct consequence of young as a direct consequence of riage should be understood of control over their own lives and loosening increasing women’s struggle within their Surely young women’s the patriarchal grip. cess by which those who have been denied the ability to make stra make who have been denied the ability to cess by which those such an ability”tegic life choices acquire 17). If so, (Kabeer 2001, frst ma decline and postponement of the both the fertility rate limited and modest, Egyptian women’s empowerment has been of empowerment has been women’s limited and modest, Egyptian as “the pro Naila Kabeer defnes empowerment their own making. a massive character of gender relations’ evolution. And more im relations’ evolution. character of gender a massive policies and domi the current of state they went against portantly: In this sense, we can afrm that,nant ideological trends. however discrepancies and class divisions. Both remained signifcant in Both remained and class divisions. discrepancies fgures showed that accumulated It still remains true case of Egypt.

Kozłowski 234 235 edited volumes ------st - nfa ter - is - and the restoration of the revamped ancient and the restoration coup d’état coup trend. And it is true that the women’s cause has sufered trend. And it is true that the women’s ­ The case of Egypt, and more generally the case of the Arab and more generally the The case of Egypt, The Tahrir Square revolution, as the culminative moment of moment as the culminative Square revolution, The Tahrir According to Amnesty International, mass sexual assaults had fr in 2005, and these incidents became a been reported in Egypt (Amnesty years 2011–2013 widespread practice in the Tahrir always mean enhancement of wellbeing – it is about relative in always mean enhancement of wellbeing essential life choices. Those choices crease of the capacity to make very often come at a high price, both individually and collectively. tions have in fact been extremely politicized and dynamic,tions have in fact been extremely politicized even if proved to be particularly u the confguration of power relations vorable to emancipatory Also, empowerment does not aspirations. several spectacular setbacks, incongruences and zigzags. But it several spectacular setbacks, incongruences result of simple and unin wrong to perceive those setbacks as a relations. Those rela rupted reproduction of traditional gender world, is usually ofered as an example of women’s empowerment of women’s world, is usually ofered as an example counter economic prospect of the country and the regime’s own stability. economic prospect of the country own stability. the regime’s and to regain rate decline is likely Nevertheless, as for 2018, the fertility its pace. distant from the egalitarian perspective of the Nasser’sdistant from the egalitarian perspective era, seems expansion combined with to understand that further demographic relations, threaten both from capitalistic labor exclusion women’s ty rate decline and an increase of the average age of marriage (Sa ty rate decline and an increase of the of slow but sure trend. And lem 2015) putting an end to decades regime, being quite Egyptian this despite the fact that the new/old tionary turmoil, even if nourished by emancipatory aspirations, co years emancipation at risk. In fact,puts the course of the Tahrir incided with a slight, including both fertili but measurable reversal, revolution, the Muslim Brotherhood’s election victoryrevolution, the Muslim fol ensued, lowed by a revolu be reminded to what extent a should regime in 2013. We en violence and abuse, which could not be solely attributed to se which could not be solely attributed en violence and abuse, servicecurity forces or secret of (Kingsley 2013). In the aftermath yet ambiguous articulation. It should come as no surprise that the surprise that the It should come as no articulation. yet ambiguous presence of unprecedented by deeply marked activism was Tahrir anti-wom and at the same time gave space to women (Dean 2013) the Arab Spring, should be understood not so much as an attempt much as an attempt not so should be understood the Arab Spring, their powerful, as but rather, all of these contradictions, to resolve ------

- - -

- - at - - Azhar). De ­ But it was another government with seemingly religious ori But it was another government with The Egyptian gender tale also involves a curiosity of geopo The Egyptian ity rate collapse in the recorded history. When Islamic Republic re in 1979, Iranian enlightened monarchy self-styled placed Persia’s women bore 6.42 children on average. The number fell to 1.66 in per women, down from 7.31 in 1975 (World Bank 2016). (World per women, down from 7.31 in 1975 that saw the fastest fertil biggest foe) entation (and Saudi Arabia’s dented system of gender segregation, domination and repression dented system of gender segregation, the demons of wom at home, the kingdom did not quite escape births In 2016, its fertility rate was 2.53 growing autonomy. en’s ing radical Muslim Brotherhood and traditionalist Al ing radical Muslim Brotherhood and traditionalist spite the relative success of Saudi missionary efort abroad, and implemented an unprece even though Saudi Arabia has efectively ed Egypt both indirectly, through experiences of male migrant through experiences of male migrant both indirectly, ed Egypt religious through massive Red Sea, and directly, across the workers religious authorities (includ endowments often undermining local pendent on the Saudis for investment, credits and, even more im the allocation of its extensive workforce surplus. The portantly, gender ideas has penetr Saudi style Salafsm with its retrograde al infuence within the Arab world. Egypt, once uncontested leader, once uncontested leader, al infuence within the Arab world. Egypt, gradually fell behind Saudi Arabia, ultraconservative kingdom which used to be Nasser’s remains de strategic adversary. Egypt litical nature. The decay of Egyptian progressive politics historically litical nature. The decay of Egyptian country’scoincided with relative decline of the political and cultur Instead of conclusion of conclusion Instead more violence but, rather, that the violence can no longer be con that the violence can more violence but, rather, cealed. both public space and public sphere. But at the same time: in public sphere. But at the same time: both public space and there is violence does not necessarily mean creased visibility of olence could ever be. It seems clear that it was rendered possible rendered possible clear that it was ever be. It seems olence could men and their ex control over young loosing social due to family place in and remove women fghting for a plicit desire to punish International 2015). But it is important to notice that this was the that this was the important to notice 2015). But it is International out of the against women came that public violence frst time vi extent than domestic to much greater was politicized shade and

Kozłowski 236 237 edited volumes ------l - as , edited . Stock July 5. . New York: Columbia . New York: Foreign Policy, Foreign , December 9. Forbes A Convergence of Civilisations A Convergence Refexions on the Measurement of Women’s empowerment on the Measurement of Women’s Refexions Mortgaging Women’s Lives: Feminist Critiques of Structural Adjustment Critiques of Structural Lives: Feminist Mortgaging Women’s London: Zed Books. Sparr, by P. Against Women in Egypt”, Amnesty International, January. Amnesty International, in Egypt”, Against Women University Press. holm: SIDCA. Kabeer, N. 2001. Kabeer, Guttman, A. 2015. “Set to Takeover Science”, Science”, Guttman, A. 2015. “Set to Takeover In in Egypt”. 1994. “Privatization and Demise of State Feminism Hatem, Mervat F. Courbage, Y. and Todd, E. 2014. and Todd, Courbage, Y. Dean, L. 2013. “Women Stood Their Ground in Tahrir”. Amnesty International. 2015. “Circles of Hell: Domestic, Public and State Violence Amnesty International. 2015. “Circles Bibliography the empowerment’s temporalities in diferent sections of the so the empowerment’s temporalities in cial world. gardless of what the future may bring, it already becomes clear gardless of what the future may bring, gender dynamics lies not that the specifcity of Middle Eastern discrepancymuch in its anachronism, as in the fagrant between ing equality. Moreover, education was ofered as a substitute for Moreover, ing equality. is usually a poor equality in other domains. But then instruction re means of appeasement. It is rather an enhancer of dissent. Yet, ence and engineering – proportion unseen in the developed west – proportion unseen in the developed ence and engineering 2015). In fact, conduct quite both regimes ern countries (Guttman an awkward policy refus of ofering knowledge and consequently were female. But Iran took educational revolution even further. further. took educational revolution even were female. But Iran 65% of university students (World for approximately make Women to sci has reached 70% when it comes Bank 2016). The number broad access to education, although for quite diferent politica although for quite diferent broad access to education, Arabia of all university graduates in Saudi motives. In 2015, 52% keep women away from the labor market, both scored below 20% both scored below labor market, away from the women keep not prevent wom but they did Bank 2018), (World of participation women over reproduction. Both ofered en from taking control 2016 (World Bank 2016). Despite signifcant diferences between signifcant diferences Bank 2016). Despite 2016 (World leaving women gender practices (Iran regarding the two countries managed to both societies more opportunities), with relatively - - - - , last ac Egypt Inde Egypt https://www. https://data.world https://data.world - - , last accessed September 20, 2019. , last accessed September 20, 2019. , last accessed September 20, 2019. , last accessed September https://erf.org.eg/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/911. , July 5. , March 19. , last accessed September 20, 2019. , last accessed September bank.org/indicator/sl.tlf.totl.fe.zs bank.org/indicator/SE.TER.ENRR.FE?end=2016&loca tions=EG&start=2016&view=ba tions=EG&view=chart Working paper 911”, Working pdf theglobaleconomy.com/Egypt/Female_labor_force_participation/ cessed September 20, 2019. The Guardian pendent https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.ADT.1524.LT.FE.ZS?loca World Bank. 2018. “Labor force, female (% of total labor force)”, “Labor force, female (% of total labor force)”, Bank. 2018. World World Bank. 2016. “SchoolWorld enrollment, tertiary, female (% gross)”,

World Bank. 2017. “Literacy rate, youth female (% of females ages 15–24)”, World The Global Economy. 2017. “Egypt: Female labour force participation”, force participation”, Female labour 2017. “Egypt: The Global Economy. Salem, R. 2015. “Changes in the Institution of Marriage in Egypt from 1998 to 2012. Salem, R. Egypt of Marriage in in the Institution 2015. “Changes Kingsley, P. 2013. “80 sexual assaults in one day – the other story of Tahrir Square”. Square”. – the other story assaults in one day 2013. “80 sexual of Tahrir P. Kingsley, Osman, A.Z. socialist era”. at Egypt’s movement: A stop 2012. “Women’s

Kozłowski 238 239 edited volumes uestions Solutions Solutions Q SECTION III SECTION pen O and Aleksandar Prnjat Aleksandar

Prnjat 240 241 edited volumes

------denotes an aver prima facie , identitarian nationalism, national cultural identity, change it does not apply in the case of wealthy foreigners change it does not apply in the case of wealthy who contribute to the economy of the country they come to. Keywords: ism, xenophobia reaction to the frst one and acts as a defense against the cul reaction to the frst one these two To tural subordination carried out by colonizers. identi categories, the author adds a new kind of nationalism: with an tarian nationalism. This type of nationalism shares ti-colonial nationalism a defensive rhetoric, but it also advo which cates the preservation specifcity, of the home culture’s In is believed to be threatened by impoverished immigrants. today’s immi we see this in the reaction to Muslim Europe, to set grants. The author argues that the right of foreigners but tle in other countries as immigrants cannot be unlimited, to also suggests that the demand of identitarian nationalists preserve their own cultural identity from foreigners who In this paper, the author considers the concepts of xenopho the author considers the concepts In this paper, distinguishes between three diferent bia and nationalism. He classical nationalism, 2) anti-colonial forms of nationalism: 1) nationalism. The frst is based nationalism, and 3) identitarian civilizational superiority of one’s on a belief in the racial and nation, and is used to justify messianic colonialism as a kind of a The second type emerges as civilizing of the “inferior” Other. It could be said that xenophobia It could be said that xenophobia A b s t r a c t Xenophobia and Identitarian Nationalism Nationalism and Identitarian Xenophobia outsiders have their own customs, their own beliefs, and their own manners, all of which appear to the subject as diferent, unusual, and strange. sion to foreigners, an aversion to those who are not from “here” – who are not from “here” sion to foreigners, an aversion to those to the region or country referring “here” on which the subject has These anyway. “here” stay and come who but – identity their staked ------rent . Spe them defnition of xenophobia is is of xenophobia defnition 1. prima facie prima facie truth. Even faultier a defnition would result if we would result faultier a defnition truth. Even ­ European colonizers used to justify colonizers European their colonization of The decision to label an aversion to foreigners “xenophobia” an aversion to foreigners “xenophobia” The decision to label The aforementioned The aforementioned cifcally, they would seek guidance for spiritual salvation from Indi cifcally, such individuals often accept lo today, an religious teachers. Even society is still cal cultural norms. In their minds, Western tion of the Indian subcontinent under British rule. It was only later tion of the Indian subcontinent under on in history would come to India that British and other Westerners with the belief that that culture had something to ofer superiority. They only “civilized” these barbarians. They tried to pro They only “civilized” superiority. them. Of course, through vide eternal life for them. They educated This was the situa their own customs. kept all this the colonizers with native populations. by laying claim to cultural their conquered territories and nations less polite or perhaps even barbaric – they wanted to be well-re less polite or perhaps even barbaric – the attitude of conqueror ceived and accepted. Contrast this with their superiority in their dealings types, who always emphasized entertainers usually stood out to the native population as dife entertainers usually stood out to the but these visitors would never insist on their cultural in some way, the inhabitants to be superiority in places where they considered their adopted culture’s norms and the expectations to adhere to their adopted culture’s role in the way foreigners them. They play an even more important period, groups of travelling relate to that culture. In the medieval depends on the type of aversion and the type of foreigners in ques in foreigners of type the and aversion of type the on depends involved. These relations tion. It depends on the power relations often come to the fore when observing how foreigners navigate etc.), polit meant to designate certain negative the term is actually ical attitudes and hostilities. igins in the fear of the unknown, but the term “xenophobia” is not is not the unknown, but the term “xenophobia” igins in the fear of in which other compound nouns many Like primarily about fear. (Judeophobia, Russophobia, is applied the Greek word “phobia” states simply that it is a fear of foreigners. Staying away from a cer is a fear of foreigners. Staying away states simply that it have its or or being suspicious towards it may tain group of people so general, that, for reasons which will be presented below, we can that,so general, below, will be presented for reasons which a half only call it to the word’s etymological meaning which were to refer only

Prnjat 242 243 edited volumes ------

- 1 - nd In contrast to messianic nationalism, which seeks to supply In contrast to messianic nationalism, Defensive nationalism emerges in colonized places as a reac places Defensive nationalism emerges in colonized Lack of respect by colonial authorities for the culture of the colonial authorities for the culture of Lack of respect by Important insights on anti-colonial nationalism can be found in a study by Important insights on anti-colonial nationalism can be found in a study Manela 2007.

1 ethnic homogeneity, and it always results in the oppression of ethnic homogeneity, territories. As a result, leads to the subjugated population of this defensive nationalism. This these territories developing their own type of nationalism is often infuenced by ideals of religious a the world with a universal cultural practice, the defensive national the world with a universal cultural practice, forms – not by colo ism of small nations can develop microcolonial by colonizing neighbouring nizing distant overseas countries, but ing them with a messianic character that was promoted as beneft ing them with a messianic character that ting the entire human race. England and America, held lectures on Vedanta and yoga during Vedanta England and America, held lectures on the he emphasized one of his Hindu counter-missionary campaigns, practices, thereby endow universal aspects of these teachings and Under certain circumstances it may even eventually adopt some Under certain circumstances it may even When Swami Vivekanan features of that same messianic ideology. early twentieth centuries in da, at the end of the nineteenth and tractive. of the colonizers. tion to the messianic or civilizing nationalism to afrm and elevate everything own culture and tra is one’s that attaching especially positive ditions. Sometimes they will do this by fnd unat the colonizers connotations to those practices which selves with their new masters by accepting certain aspects of the masters by accepting certain aspects selves with their new to preserve cultural norms. Others, in their struggle colonizers’ or strives adopt a defensive nationalism, which regain their identity, colonized is so common as to be almost an ofcial position, and is so common as to be almost an ofcial colonized subordi two types of reaction on the part of equally common are them members will attempt to ingratiate nated cultures. Some scorn for these practices. the convert and embrace wholeheartedly the cultural practices of practices of the cultural and embrace wholeheartedly the convert diet, environment,their new and dress code, things like including veryso forth. Or at the or least they do not show open disdain scientifcally and technologically superior, but it is spiritually impov but it is spiritually superior, and technologically scientifcally so fervently because they believe erished. And spiritual supe in the the mindset of they often adopt Hindu religious systems, riority of - - - - n ial - the favouring of .). Although such def ibid ” ( 2. Exceptions to this can be found in those cases where the to this can be found in those Exceptions In the case of nation states, these defnitions largely coincideIn the case of nation states, these defnitions This defnition is closely related to the colloquial use of the This defnition is closely related to the The term nationalism is sometimes used to denote any form form is sometimes used to denote any The term nationalism When the colonized are freed from their former oppressors, former oppressors, are freed from their colonized When the mitted by members of our armed forces against the civilians of the or other side. Examplesthe US– of this could include during the 1990s. wars in the territories of the former Yugoslavia term “patriotism” and real patriotic feelings are used to mobilize a and real patriotic feelings are used to mobilize term “patriotism” them into ignoring certain population for warfare or to anesthetize moral impulses, for example the urge to condemn atrocities com frmative and commendable meanings; most citizens of any state state any of citizens most meanings; commendable and frmative would identify normal circumstances. themselves as patriots under with the notion of patriotism. But one of the diferences betwee with the notion of patriotism. But one generally connotes af patriotism and nationalism is that patriotism one nation over another in such a confict another in such one nation over term in everydaynitions concur with the usual use of this language, broad. they might be objected to as being too according to whom the meaning of the term nationalism “can best according to whom the meaning of the national claims” (Sto be seen as a situation of confict between it as “ janović 1999, 17) and therefore he defnes or citizens of other nation states. or citizens Stojanović’s understanding of it, term. It is also related to Svetozar of preference for the members of one’s own ethnic or cultural of preference for the members of one’s own nation state as the members of one’s group, that is to say, ethnic and cultural groups, viewed in relation to members of other the violence that arose after they relinquished their rule. the violence that arose ly in the belief that the colonized “were better of when they were “were better the colonized ly in the belief that As to do with if the former oppressors had nothing under our rule”. this liberates the potential for mutual oppressions applied from mutual oppressions the potential for this liberates the opportunity This then provides postcolonial state. within the cynical of the rejected empire to rejoice for the former oppressors minority groups who do not ft these ideals. The violent potent ft these ideals. The who do not minority groups known. nationalism is well of defensive

Prnjat 244 245 edited volumes ------ople ional in 3. Granting foreigners the right to enter a certain territoryGranting foreigners the right to enter or An aversion to foreigners can be expressed as eye-rolling An aversion to foreigners can be expressed Although it is very follows the way the broad, this defnition In support of the objection that such defnitions of national In support of the objection and economic considerations. No country wants to accept outsid ers who present a security risk – for example, terrorists or pe with a deadly infectious disease. Most countries today want pejorative meaning. that right is a state decision. It is based on certain security denying date even one’s own nationals, those who might in some respects date even one’s for ethnic, reasons. In any religious or cultural appear “strange” is coined with a critical intent and has a case, the term xenophobia cellation of hospitality to those immigrants already in the country,cellation of hospitality to those immigrants deportation. Extreme ex which can include drastic measures like liqui would include attempts to physically amples of xenophobia and unspoken indignation over their distinctive characteristics, but indignation and unspoken immigration and the can also as an open call for a ban on further than to construct a special new meaning – philosophical or socio than to construct a special new meaning logical – for the same expression. term “nationalism” is used in ordinaryterm “nationalism” language, and perhaps then it is best to retain it, rather simply with some added specifcations, vilian victims on the other side. The kind of protection of nat other side. The kind of protection of vilian victims on the the requires usually involves intervention military that terests nation. of the members of the other partial or total extermination team of one’s country all the way to the urge for military protection protection military for urge the to way the all country one’s of team which no one unbiased could con nation, of the interests of one’s sider a legitimate request, potential ci regardless of the number of ism are too broad, it could be argued that they cover too wide a wide too cover they that argued be could it broad, too are ism sports national the of support the from ranging meanings, of range they do use it to describe themselves, they use it consciously to dif they use it to describe themselves, they do use nationalists. themselves from ferentiate Due to this history,Due to this after the countries formed of the some citizens situations feel uneasy in Yugoslavia of the former disintegration to identify are asked where they when as patriots. Or themselves ------n to y ap t out 4. Because of the amount of water that is flling the boat,Because of the amount of water that it It is somewhat inadvisable to draw an analogy between the the between analogy an draw to inadvisable somewhat is It Authorities of a democratic legal state may be concerned legal state may be concerned Authorities of a democratic might even help get the water out. However, if all the drowning might even help get the water out. However, people tried to get onto the boat, is obvious that it would imme it diately sink. the boat would be fatal to those currently on it.the boat would be fatal to those currently Nearby in the wa them or three of Two ter there are about thirty people drowning. might be able to get onto the boat without making it sink. The turning the boat, but waves continue to pour water in. sink. The water is very it could seems like cold and the sinking of outside of the boat would endanger his/her life. Let us imagine that that imagine us Let life. his/her endanger would boat the of outside a in yourselves found children, little including family, your and you no imminent danger of over boat in the middle of a storm. There is those he/she does not want on the boat. However, certain similari those he/she does not want on the boat. However, least, at have, you boat, a of owner the As overlooked. be cannot ties staying his/her if boat your into stranger a take to obligation moral a right of a state to deny entryright of a state to deny into its territory not for those who are to boarding deny to boat a of owner an of right the and citizens its side North America and Europe, rule of law and respect for human rule of law and respect for human side North America and Europe, rights are often reserved of the privileged classes. for members man rights, and despite the fact that this ideology is sometimes the fact that this ideology is sometimes man rights, and despite states, espe to interfere in the business of other used as an excuse tha one should not lose sight of the fact cially the weak ones, they extradite him/her to another countrythey extradite him/her is an ob in which he/she rights Despite the fact that the issue of human ject of persecution. of hu has been transformed into the ideology in some discourses about how their citizens perceive their legitimacy perceive about how their citizens if they refuse to or if supporter of rule of law or human rights, provide asylum to a asylum seekers who are persecuted and threatened in their own in their own and threatened who are persecuted asylum seekers same principles. for advocating those countries tourists or investors. Modern states that publicly advocate the states that publicly investors. Modern tourists or ob and rule of law human rights like certain principles plication of protectio obligation to provide some kind of moral viously have

Prnjat 246 247 edited volumes ------cli those ifcantly The analogy with the boat is not tenable in the following im The analogy with the boat is not tenable I want to emphasize the fact that one is not in a position to the fact that one is not in a position I want to emphasize Who should have priority if the drowning people are our rel drowning people have priority if the Who should the destruction of the economy, which were the reasons for the the destruction of the economy, immigration in the frst place. But if the cause of migration is mate change, the inability to survive in areas where extreme state where there is famine, will increase. But not in the case of un state where there is famine, will increase. of a large number of in limited immigration. Unlimited settlement habitants could mean a complete collapse of the rule of law and larger number of immigrants, not everybody will sufer: the stan greatly decrease, but the dard of living of those already there will entered, if they come from a standard of living of those who have portant aspect: if all thirty drowning people tryportant aspect: if all thirty drowning people to climb on the boat, it will overturn, and those who are now in the boat and all of settling a sign who tried to enter it will die. In the case pects of their children in order to provide better opportunities to pects of their children in order to provide economic immigrants. existing population. One cannot see why the citizens of that state the citizens existing population. One cannot see why their own economic would have a moral obligation to undermine decrease the future pros structure to such an extent that it would does not mean that three or four times more inhabitants could not does not mean that three or four times But be settled on the territory than there are now. of that state such settlement, the in most cases, would completely jeopardize take all the drowning people onto the boat. all the drowning indicates This clearly take number of immigrants. It that one state cannot accept an unlimited physical condition, that everyone condition, physical to survive has the same chance and that everyone can par from the water, once they are rescued water out of the boat.ticipate equally in throwing ly and allies, over foreigners who come from countries that we con who come from countries that ly and allies, over foreigners justifed provid These questions are sider hostile or competitive?” and individuals are in the same medical ed that all the drowning groundless aversion?” Also: “Is it morally justifed to give priority to Also: “Is it morally justifed groundless aversion?” friend come from countries that we consider those foreigners who questions such as: “Is it morally justifed to give priority to justifed to give such as: “Is it morally questions who we found lik previously met and individuals we had drowning felt a had previously met and to whom we able over those we atives, neighbours and friends? For an ethnic nationalist, For an ethnic and friends? atives, neighbours “compatri to some sort of veryots” refers are also distant relative. There ------or afect ­ distant future distant future ­ so ­ 2 this time secularism is no longer directed against the Church, but against 2017, 10–11). Muslim immigrants (Brubaker Sometimes, the advocation of secularism comes from the left too, but

This new form of nationalism shares with the defensive na This new form of nationalism shares with Let us focus on the issue of the growing new nationalism If they want to preserveIf they want do cit society, well-regulated their 2 Identitarian nationalism is directed primarily against poor Identitarian nationalism is directed primarily mechanism against the threat to cultural identity, identitarian na identity, mechanism against the threat to cultural preservingtionalism appropriated this rhetoric of cultural identity for its own purposes. tries create a narrative of endangerment surrounding one’s cultur surrounding one’s tries create a narrative of endangerment the Because the intellectual left has legitimized al identity. as a defensive narrative of anti-colonial defensive nationalism vulnerability of one’s own identity. Classical nationalism strives to Classical nationalism own identity. vulnerability of one’s whereas the defensive national preserve own racial identity, one’s nations and the new nationalism of the rich coun ism of colonized in our societies. peoples a common belief in the essential tionalism of colonized arrival of foreigners. According to this ideology,bring foreignerstheir own cultural norms with them that relinquish.they refuse Theyto continue to practice their religion and customs one’s nation as a culturally superior force thathere brings we find salvation, a more modest form of nationalism.narrative Its dominant is the endangerment of one’s cultural identity by the in Europe and the United States. Contrary to theform messianic of nationalism, which is based on an ideology that treats ed areas begins to look like nothing more than a dress rehearsal for the fnal premiere. because of climate change, the fight we’ve seen from war change, the fight we’ve because of climate ganize life at the mercy of their destiny? Compared to the mass in the not to face are likely migrations that we izens of any state have the moral right to leave people who are to areas in which it is no longer possible feeing from afected droughts or uncontrolled foods have occurred, for those who have occurred, or uncontrolled foods droughts survive,struggle to of living will not of the standard the question one. be a decisive foreigners. By refusing to assimilate, they, as the narrative of they, foreigners. By refusing to assimilate,

Prnjat 248 249 edited volumes ------s g others. 3 century. Pol Referring to th 5. colonial nationalism. It is based on defensive eforts, colonial nationalism. It is based on defensive ­ The rise of German identitarian nationalism as a reaction to nationalism as German identitarian The rise of Xenophobia and identitarian nationalism lack any vigor in sit and identitarian nationalism lack any Xenophobia 3. Identitarian nationalism. It is a defensive nationalism 3. Identitarian nationalism. It is a defensive 2. Anti To summarize, I would propose that we can distinguish be propose that we can distinguish I would summarize, To racial It is based on a belief in one’s 1. Classical nationalism. For a balanced account of Weber’s nationalism, see Bellamy 1992.

3 porarily are treated similarly. The common attitude towards porarily are treated similarly. very immigrants and generally they are expected to con wealthy Foreigners who are not verytribute to the local economy. wealthy but who still contribute to the economy and stay with us only tem uations where wealthy foreigners are concerned. There are few uations where wealthy cheap labor from Poland in the late 19 cheap labor from Poland sistance to foreigners can be seen in the structural similarities it can be seen in the structural similarities sistance to foreigners at German fear of migration that was directed has with the older the infux of Muslim immigrants during the migrant crisis follow during the migrant of Muslim immigrants the infux to force that immigrated labor to the Turkish previous resistance is not merely a religious-based re decades ago. That this Germany identitarian nationalism claims, change the character of the host change the character nationalism claims, identitarian a bad, damaging way. culture in ish peasants who settled in Germany, Max Weber wrote that they Max Weber in Germany, ish peasants who settled 1994, 9). (Weber “were gaining ground” which advocates the preservation culture the specifcity of one’s of In today’sand is directed against poor immigrants. we see Europe it levied against Muslim immigrants. ethnic entities, nor against ethnic and religious minorities in one’s religious minorities in one’s ethnic entities, nor against ethnic and own society. that is, it has the function of defending one’s nation against cultur one’s that is, it has the function of defending the possibility of It does not exclude al subordination to colonizers. other smaller state and undertaking messianic missions against and civilizational superiority. When expressed in a colonial context, and civilizational superiority. mission of civilizin such action is justifed by the messianic tween three : tween three types ------Xe h. - - ale - e earn and smaller faux pas It is true that tourists stay briefy whereas poor immigrants There is no moral panic, nor are there hostile feelings to do not invest in local economy and are potential users of various forms of social welfare. Another diference between these two types of foreigners is that poor immigrants provide a low-cost of lenience. tend to stay for a very long time or even forever. Poor immigrants given even when they disrespect local customs and local laws and given even when they disrespect local them for their regulations. Nobody chastizes with a high degree incidents are tolerated by the local population nophobia is barely present – on the contrary, I would say rather sin entirely not is it Perhaps predominates. that xenophilia is it that cerely felt, but it is plainly visible nonetheless. Foreigners are for aspects of traditional culture will change more or less, but it does aspects of traditional culture will change verynot tend to bother anyone much, even when some old cus for tourists. toms have been turned into folklore entertainment because of the traditional culture of the region, including its archi because of the traditional culture of the tecture, culinary and musical heritage. Everything customs, be honest, be in this situation diferent comes a tourist attraction. To ings they gain from tourists during the summer months. The place ings they gain from tourists during the because of its natural becomes a holiday destination. Not only landscape, etc.beauty – the sea, the beach, the beautiful also – but has acted as a tourist destination for enough years, its economic has acted as a tourist destination for extent that most of the peo structure becomes altered to such an or indirectly from th ple who live in it beneft either directly wards foreigners in this situation, partly because so much of the lo this situation, partly because so much wards foreigners in a loc fnancially from their presence. Once cal population gains to have an infuence on the views and opinions of the local yout on the views and opinions of the local to have an infuence This observation not incorrect. is not see any But most of them do it.thing alarming about usual foreigners, whom they have never seen before. They might they have never seen before. They usual foreigners, whom the foreigners start by returning year after year, also point out that ing. Only some of the older inhabitants, most often those whose those whose inhabitants, most often some of the older ing. Only guests do not the beach, and where more distant from houses are these un might grumble occasionally against stay during holidays, tourism is an example of this. Let us imagine a small place on the small place on the Let us imagine a an example of this. tourism is start of sum to pour in at the where tourists start sea coast of any sunbath including even and unusual customs, They bring new mer.

Prnjat 250 251 edited volumes ------m - , - and , 40 (8): ire to Filozofja i društvo Filozofja Political Writings Political 20 (1): 17–41. Ethnic and Racial Studies Ethnic and Racial . New York: Oxford University Press. . New York: Ethnic and Racial Studies Ethnic and Racial 14 (4): 499–507. The Wilsonian Moment: Self-Determination and the International The Wilsonian Moment: Self-Determination Max Weber, edited by Peter Lassman and Ronald Speirs, 1–28. New York: Lassman and Ronald Speirs, 1–28. New York: edited by Peter Max Weber, Cambridge University Press. 1191–1226. Nationalism Origins of Anticolonial 15: 13–24. History of European Ideas ulist moment in comparative perspective”. The concern of an identitarian nationalist to preserveThe concern of an the rent research approaches”. Wimmer, Andreas. 1997. “Explaining xenophobia and racism: A critical review of cur and racism: Andreas. 1997. “Explaining xenophobia Wimmer, Weber, Max. 1994. “Theand Economic Policy”. National State In Weber, Manela, Erez. 2007. 1999. “Nation, Nationalism and Citizenism”. Stojanović, Svetozar. Brubaker, Rogers. 2017. “Between nationalism and civilizationism: the European pop and civilizationism: the European Rogers. 2017. “Between nationalism Brubaker, Bellamy, Richard. 1992. “Liberalism and nationalism in the thought of Max Weber”. Richard. Bellamy, Bibliography immigrants will not become wealthy tourists, nor will they return immigrants will not become wealthy will not lose in Europe to their homes, so identitarian nationalism its strength in the times ahead. preserve the social services and collective goods of the state, Wimmer 1997). Indicating the which they themselves might use (cf. Poor fears. these reduce not will fears, some behind motives selfsh state welfare to survive. des his/her community is partly a selfsh cultural identity of ments, sometimes with a hint of xenophobia and identitarian na to to such a degree as the kind expressed tionalism, but never wards poor immigrants who will sooner or later need the help of religious backgrounds when they are very wealthy. Naturally, co of their wealth will cause negative even then, their showing sitive to the diferences between the cultures that immigrants There is less sensi local cultures. them and their own bring with ethnic diferences of foreigners of other tivity to the cultural labor force to employers and at the same time are a threat to oth at the same time to employers and labor force en be more those jobs. There will always their they take ers when could be more sen of course. They by poor immigrants, dangered Dušan Janjić

Janjić 252 253 edited volumes ------co owers: P ld diversity, ethnicity, globalization, power ethnicity, diversity, O aspect of politics in the Western Balkans. Balkans. Western aspect of politics in the the today, conficts armed massive for space narrowing a Despite and e risks of political, social, ethnic and religious conficts Bal Western nomic and security instability have piled up in the pertain context,issues this the In are kans. important particularly with Serbia and Macedonia Northern of relations to ing are These Srpska. of Republic with Herzegovina and Bosnia and potential hotbeds of confict and challenges for cooperation. Keywords: The awakening of ethnicity and identity crisis is a fertile soil of ethnicity and identity crisis The awakening nationalism and extremist mobiliza for strengthening ethnic of terrorism as a form of ethnic and tion, including the spread religious confict. mobilization was reached in While the height of nationalist nationalism remains an important the early 1990s, extreme eality and R This text aims at raising certain questions, and prompting a This text aims at raising certain questions, People who study the subject of modern society, in an efort society, who study the subject of modern People no knowledge and feeling of both of these elements, the past, and the future should the future (Kissinger 2014, 348–349). That is why be built on solid foundations. These are not populist and other eties. Its intention is to launch a discussion on issues which merge eties. Its intention is to launch a discussion the past and the future. As Henry the en Kissinger once wrote, counter of the past and the future cannot be understood if there is search for answers that would help in explaining and understand search for answers that would help in soci as well as other Balkan and European ing the Serbian society, and complex tasks. Many of these tasks are related to the social of these tasks are related to the social and complex tasks. Many historywhich a person belongs. The frst task is to and culture to that we belong to. understand the position of the society to understand and explain to themselves and others the reality and to understand and explain to themselves challenges face many logic behind the mechanisms of this society, A b s t r a c t Globalization and Challenges Challenges and Globalization of Preserving Diversity New ------

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- - r th on - g century. This is particularly evident when observingwhen century.evident particularly is This po the th al processes at the supranational level, which changes the estab lished global political, economic, social and cultural relations. The es sential determinant of these processes is the technological development that brings a spatial-temporal reduction of the world. Globalization can be defned as economic, political, social and cultur In this paper, the term “globalization” is used in the meaning meaning the in used is “globalization” term the paper, this In Higher interconnection between people, their lives and des Higher interconnection between people, Facing the legacy completely should not impede addressing Facing stemming from the fnal years of the Cold War. And concerning the And concerning of the Cold War. from the fnal years stemming of the 19 issues” are simply “frozen certain challenges Cold War, propagandistic imagerypropagandistic but exist in reality, world that do not of the of building “Potem public on. Instead use to lead the which leaders challenges to many to respond it would be advisable kin Villages”, and 20 and and ecological) is being knit at a tremendous speed, eliminatin and ecological) is being knit at a tremendous democratic making and wealth, increasing distance, geographical 2010): form of government universal (Bušljeta the main objective to increase economic growth and wealth. In that that In wealth. and growth economic increase to objective main the common a as world the of image the to refers “globalization” sense, economic political, (technological, interdependence which in space al/planetary manifested in all as social processes and relationships, going beyond bo pects of world afairs, including the connection with states, national and (nationalities) nations particular of ders modern societies and nations. all the glob This concept encompasses of the English word “Globe”. ships between contemporary (independent of the circumstances connections between geo past), the complex processes of making of vital importance to people, graphic locations, but also the issues tinies, social and national histories, is characteristic of modern exis tinies, social and national histories, is the complex relati tence. This speaks of the need to understand from the “history of new the present”, and search for the origin of most re to understand that even the phenomena. It is important kind of vacuum. emerge in any cent issues did not new issues (climate change, cyber security, operations of “non- change, cybernew issues (climate security, to gain it often does. It is extremely helpful state actors”), although a look as well as to take endeavor, on this a “broader perspective” litical agenda of today’s Serbian leadership.

Janjić 254 255 edited volumes ------r - - lib - re ns and and ns ftting rism as a conficting psychological psychological conficting century when a new economic th due to the emergence of new and/or reinforcing of old This paper investigates the following three megatrends, This paper investigates the following Globalization is erasing the clear diferences between the na the clear diferences between the Globalization is erasing This proves that the old model of national (ethnic) identity is Ethnicity and religious identity have become the decisive Ethnicity and religious identity have become Megatrend 1 – Transition and Identity: The awakening of ethnic of awakening The Identity: and Transition – 1 Megatrend This paper discusses the most recent phase that was con recent phase that discusses the most This paper ism and extremist mobilization, including the spread of terro ism and extremist mobilization, including of ethnic and religious confict. form ity and identity crisis as a fertile soil for strengthening ethnic national strengthening soil for ity and identity crisis as a fertile which have a direct impact on Serbia’s development, particularly which have a direct impact on Serbia’s relations between ethnic communities and states ethnic identity, in those states: and the position of national minorities regional integration of the world (such as the European Union – EU, Union – EU, as the European regional integration of the world (such NAFTA). – Agreement Trade Free American North and ASEAN, tion. This strengthens the infuence of international institutio tion. This strengthens frame is a linkage that goes beyond corporations. Globalization o and establishes regionalization works of national governments tional and international, previously important for the perception of of perception the for important previously international, and tional and weakening is states national of importance The world. the for regional and international interconnec there is a growing need ideologies. , i.e., the fall of political blocs. The dominance political blocs. The i.e., the fall of Berlin Wall, fall of the dominance of was established; the over socialism of capitalism and ethno-nationalism over socialist ideals eral democracies and wave called globalization appeared. This phase culminated with the culminated with the This phase globalization appeared. wave called facing a crisis, expressed in the domain of stereotypes, tion of one’s own identity has grown. Ethnic and nationalist mobili tion of one’s as an efective way to avoid losing one’s zation is seen by many own identity. and ethnicities, shaking up traditional models of building and and ethnicities, shaking up traditional globalization and fecting identities. In addition to accepting to the challenge of annihila into its values, the search for answers factors in the formation of cultural and national identity. Globaliza national identity. factors in the formation of cultural and with other people, cultures tion has brought frequent encounters ceived in the second half of the 20 the second half of ceived in ------nd, nd, - -

- , a Central , i.e., confronta internal territorial political institutions political conficting ideological doctrines ideological conficting combined with ethnic elements, which aggra combined with ethnic The process of transition has only just begun in most former However, there are shortfalls; frst, this is producing an un However, Capitalism has triumphed over communism and socialism in al Capitalism has triumphed over communism activities, suc The triumph is the result of fruitful economic While the height of nationalist mobilization was reached in the the in reached was mobilization nationalist of height the While based nationalism in the Western Balkans. Strong ties between between ties Strong Balkans. Western the in nationalism based ­ socialist/communist countries, and it has left difcult economic and social situation being the source of and the main fuel for politi causing consequently the extremism and use of cal instability, But it is the only way to create wealth for all nations and people. people. and nations all for wealth create to way only the is it But This is what gives legitimacy to capitalism (Rubenstein 2012). sustainable boom – growth and inescapable decline – crash; seco sustainable boom – growth and inescapable worldwide. countries many between gaps the including inequality, cessful in creating opportunities for many people to ensure higher people to ensure higher cessful in creating opportunities for many economic security. most all corners of the world, and ironically, many of the most promi many most all corners of the world, and ironically, and socialist countries. nent capitalists come from former communist across the world, particularly in North Africa, Middle East and across the world, particularly in North Africa, from learned lessons analyze to interesting is it reason, this For Asia. Caucasus. South especially and USSR the of collapse the ment have crime, organized and terrorism violence, extremism, political and Yugoslavia former the in wars the during strengthened much itics in the Western Balkans. Hate speech that continues to be dis itics in the Western steps signifcant any of absence the and media some by seminated the persistence of resent towards reconciliation, have allowed for vates the issues of national minorities. vates the issues of of pol nationalism remains an important aspect early 1990s, extreme tions, etc.) over the economic and, in particular, energy, fnancial, energy, tions, etc.)economic and, in particular, over the political, military of and police power; escalation conficts, and political escalation of conficts between escalation of conficts institu (political parties, government tion of political organizations building one’s own identity without annihilating others, and the others, identity without annihilating own building one’s territory national puts which option, dominant second, the in issues spotlight, its extension to imaginary requesting boundaries; ethnic stereotypes; in the domain of in the domain of stereotypes; to one’s over persons belonging battle to win ferce ideological options: the frst, most infuential for one of the two own nation

Janjić 256 257 edited volumes ------pi ch - s. aliza injustice injustice term breakdown of leading fnancial term breakdown ­ The 2008 global fnancial crisis represented the end of a rapid rapid a of end the represented crisis fnancial global 2008 The The fnancial crisis had become an economic disease that The fnancial crisis had become an economic This crisis led to a short The period of extreme globalization has brought with it the has brought of extreme globalization The period ascent of the winners in the “new world order”, thus severely shaking Union and the United States, which until then had beenthe European Trump, Victor Orbán, or Brexit in the UK, a number of political par Trump, as well as religious and other move ties and movements in the EU, ments in northern Africa and the Arab world. focused on their own interests and ideologies. They did not pay at focused on their own interests and ideologies. fears were tention to the revolt of “ordinary The people’s people”. events, such as Donald addressed by certain world leaders or prove that they too felt the consequences of the fnancial crisi prove that they too felt the consequences and fnancial elites were obsessively caused a social crisis. Political and unfairness of relations between societies around the world. The The world. the around societies between relations of unfairness and was opened. Govern question of responsibility of governments to trying desperately were banks and banks, accusing were ments tal was impossible and states needed to provide cash. Investors Investors cash. provide to needed states and impossible was tal the of cost the of issue the raised This capital. without left were rise to the feelings of global fnancial crisis which had given traditional real estate investment, as the frm belief in the growth out turned it fact, In unfounded. be to proved prices estate real of taking place, access to ca that a deep system decompression was systems, and stock market crashes. However, at the end of this cy crashes. However, systems, and stock market Investments declined. also productivity and investment cle, the afected This money. have did investors though even dropped cess of globalization, which is also evident from a sharp decline in which is also evident from a sharp cess of globalization, and global trade. global capital fows culminated in the global fnancial crisis of 2008, marked by the by fnancial crisis of 2008, marked culminated in the global glob fnancial balloon at the center of bursting of the thriving the pro This has temporarily slowed down tion – the United States. they had not have before. That has brought about a number of before. That has brought about a number they had not have Asia. crises in Latin America and East ever so severe fnancial This opening of borders, especially for capital and the international for capital and the borders, especially opening of monetaryand economies societies pushed many system, which has whi can join in and enjoy the fow of money to believe that they violence, such as terrorism, or a large-scale involvement in non-for a large-scale involvement such as terrorism, or violence, crime. and organized mal economy ------d - - ons - is lo is mak The rise of today’s seems to be a xeno Also, the trust in Euro-American society has dropped, The crisis awoke deep social fears – the fear of not being deep social fears – The crisis awoke understanding of na the European especially The Western, It is often associated with the “non-interference” and “avoidance” and “avoidance” It is often associated with the “non-interference” of alliances with other countries, as well as with the involvement in own state. wars which do not directly concern one’s a policy of isolationism, the one of neglecting and/or avoiding states, economies, cultures, co-operation and contacts with other own borders, organizations, cultures, , etc. and closing in one’s ing nations less open to others. This is best confrmed by the s ing nations less open to others. This is of Brexit and in the promise gans and policies of Donald Trump First”. This is back control” or “America benefts in the UK – “Taking the failing nationalism. Voters in the USA, Hungary Italy, the failing nationalism. Voters and other government electi countries, fear that foreigners will infuence standard. All this and that immigrants will usurp their living tionalism (Friedman 2016). tionalism (Friedman and foreigners for phobic attempt to blame economic difculties the nation and its leadership to protect national interests. The priority is not the protection of the global and regional systems. of ethnic na This is a fertile ground for further strengthening i.e., too much power being concentrated in the hands of a single person. Examples of this are Russia’s President Putin, China’s Xi Jinping, etc. This raises the question of the need and ability of immigrants will not be assimilated. which has led to a transformation of regimes into dictatorships, an “immigrant nation-state”, there is a growing fear that new immi an “immigrant nation-state”, pose a high costs for the United States and grants will produce is also a great alarm that culture. There challenge for the nation’s tion as a place of birth and the only culture, was shaken by mass im and the only culture, was shaken tion as a place of birth this 2016. In the United States, although migration in 2015 and able to fnd a job, the fear of not earning enough money for foo fear of not earning enough money able to fnd a job, the and other needs. state of panic. In the EU and the US, and the state of panic. In the EU the preva this issue has become elections. including presidential of political campaigns, lent issue the driving forces behind globalization. Deep changes have occurred. Deep changes forces behind globalization. the driving and exacer has been burdening the issue of immigration Since then, the to almost countries, European Western developed the bating

Janjić 258 259 edited volumes - - lt - -

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- - - ts ts sks sks ions ions economic economic Until recently, it was strongly believed that neoliberal econo Until recently, Megatrend 2 – Transformation of (nation) state in the context of (nation) state in the context Megatrend 2 – Transformation The present crisis can only be understood as a structural cri The present crisis can only be understood Today, it is almost evident that such a policy had led the world world the led had policy a such that evident almost is it Today, Today, nationalism vs. globalism is defned as a political con globalism is defned nationalism vs. Today, my will be replaced by a post-capitalist economy in which, as part of of part as which, in economy post-capitalist a by replaced be will my designed be will market the reforms, social and economic expected the and individuality between relationship the balance to as so ed to govern the state and run the elections. the state and run the elections. ed to govern has revealed the limitations of traditional representative democracy the limitations of traditional has revealed of societies, vol and its inability to respond to the growing complexity in real time and amounts received of money need ume of information of globalization and strengthening of regional and global integration and strengthening of regional and global of globalization This only points to the need for bottom-up policyThis only points to the need for bottom-up change and new within the framework of refections on international cooperation 2018). (Woods long-term strategic interests and values One Road (OBOR), which is not based on free trade arrangements which is not One Road (OBOR), divisions, but on real roads, electricity transmission sys or market industrial policies and investments in infrastructure. tems, mixed ferent models of development, economic growth and international global capitalism is China’s relations. One such challenge faced by – known as the One Be Geopolitics of Infrastructure Development and challenges with potentially wider (regional) consequences. and challenges with potentially wider to the need of having dif sis of capitalism, which cannot respond issues related to ethnic relations in Northern Macedonia, relat relations in Northern Macedonia, issues related to ethnic and Herze as well as between Bosnia Kosovo, between Serbia and hot spo Srpska. These are possible confict govina and Republika of political, social, ethnic and religious conficts, as well as of political, social, ethnic throughout multiplying, are regions certain of instability security and important particularly are There Balkans. Western the and world the aggressive populist movements and politics. Despite the fact that that fact the Despite politics. and movements populist aggressive the ri wide armed conficts has narrowed, the space for possible wins (Kaletsky 2018). wins (Kaletsky ofwars, as it created space for the development into the two world fict. However, the alternative to the current populist nationalism is current populist alternative to the the fict. However, all, reality always realism. After elitism but economic not globalist ------ties at at ties over over , in 25 lmost lmost to the the to states, ­ nationalism. Two types of confict have been domi types of confict Two nationalism. ­ In most cases, in Europe, post-communist authorities were authorities were post-communist In most cases, in Europe, Thanks to German unifcation, one state no longer exists, but but exists, longer no state one unifcation, German to Thanks In Central and Eastern Europe, as well as in the Western Bal as well as in the Western Europe, In Central and Eastern forced to invoke democracy in their eforts to suppress endeavors forced to invoke to transform their states into authoritarian or totalitarian police also trying or to join their kin to establish their own states, stronger get movements secessionist intensify, conficts existing the migration. mass and wars in end to this all for rare not is it and the majority of new independent states wanting to evolve as nation the majority of new independent states the cases where minority lead ally (ethnically) homogeneous. And in are Kosovo) in Albanians or Croatia, in Serbs of case in (like erships all new states were established along the ethno-nationalistic princi all new states were established along the Hence, heterogeneous. ethnically being their of regardless ple, in elites political to problems poses minorities ethnic of existence thanks to the disintegration of the USSR, and former Czechoslovakia of model The tripled. states independent of number the Yugoslavia, and minorities, local most for attractive extremely is nation-state the tential locations for interethnic confict; among these conficts tential locations for interethnic confict; threat or use of threat.authorities apply serious pressure, including population, are at risk. Considering that many ethnic conficts can eas ethnic conficts can many population, are at risk. Considering that a serious challenge ily spin out of control, these conficts are as 129 identifed as po with as many stability of this part of Europe, 35% of the population of this region, were identifed as “minori 35% of the population of this region, were 16 of these minorities are ruling majorities of newly es risk”. Today, region’s the of 20–25% i.e., people, million 93 and states, tablished kans, there are numerous locations in which potential conficts locations in which potential conficts kans, there are numerous economic status could break out.the legal, political and Already in around and people million 143 around i.e., minorities, thirty 1990 er, and on the other, national (ethnic) conficts which are characteris national (ethnic) and on the other, er, SFRY. and Czechoslovakia USSR, the states: federal multiethnic of tic everywhere Serbia, Montenegro and Roma of (with the exception removed from pow with the old regimes were the forces linked nia) eral democracy with the new idols: unlimited free market economy, economy, market free unlimited idols: new the with democracy eral ethno nation and a the one hand, political conficts in which nant since then: on community in a more just way. This belief proved to be wrong. The The wrong. be to proved belief This way. just more a in community to up evolving been has which process the started 1989 of events this very of socialism and lib indisputable value day and replaced the

Janjić 260 261 edited volumes ------ge ing on is dividu t im A particularly difcult political issue is the status of “new na A particularly difcult political issue is However, the nature of the existing diferences makes it im makes the nature of the existing diferences However, If judged by constitutional and legal provisions, minorities If judged by constitutional and legal provisions, In order to ensure territory successor states and border stability, would have to ensure equality of all people, and particularly of members of these minority groups; the frst step in this directi tional minorities”, i.e., members of ethnic communities which in the tional minorities”, i.e., members of ethnic had the status of “state-building peoples”. former USSR and SFRY tonomy of minorities which would support maintaining their cultur tonomy of minorities which would support eforts to discoura al and ethnic diferences, with simultaneous separatist movements. regionalism. Since the position of minorities has a signifcan regionalism. Since the position of minorities states to survive,pact upon the ability of newly established one of balancing the au the most important issues is that of adequately with the arguments concerning the freedom of minorities. with the arguments concerning the freedom power and instead requires federalism and possible to centralize geneous state does not allow room for compromises with the mi geneous state does not allow room for own concerning one’s norities, because ethno-nationalist rhetoric is not in correlation right to national self-determination nation’s are in a much better position than is the case in reality. The biggest case in reality. are in a much better position than is the and nationally homo problem is that the paradigm of an ethnically norities. Minority protection is established with regards to in norities. Minority protection is established al rights (, Croatia, Slovenia, etc.), and group rights (Serbia autonomy (Hungary). and personal Montenegro) OSCE minority standards and other forms of regional protection and other forms of regional protection OSCE minority standards or on bilat of Independent States, Council of Europe), (Community mi states regarding the protection of national eral agreements of almost all post-communist regimes resorted to legal reforms re regimes resorted almost all post-communist have these reforms of minorities. Generally, garding the protection on the legal provisions of the UN, been based upon international European Union, would recognize the newly established states the Union, would recognize European Therefore, and later on also all the others). (frst the Baltic states, internal needs, but rather a kind of “courtship” to Europe. Namely, Namely, Europe. to kind of “courtship” but rather a internal needs, a introduced as were regarding in 1991, guarantees afterwards Community, the the European condition under which states which would eradicate, at their very would eradicate, states which the minority beginning, a settlement with and to reach aiming at autonomy, movements of comprehend was not a result Most often this the minorities. ------e st - - - na rary rary crisis. crisis. ms were were ms Herzegovina. ­ ethnic wars; creation of of creation wars; ethnic ­ century, Serbian society was facing facing was society Serbian century, st Herzegovina – with Croatia, Serbia and Montenegro) Montenegro) and Serbia Croatia, with – Herzegovina ­ The example of Serbia is illustrative for all of these develop The example of Serbia is illustrative for Like in numerous examples throughout the world, here too, too, here world, the throughout examples numerous in Like Globalization increased the signifcance of alliances, strategic strategic alliances, of signifcance the increased Globalization our historyThe last decade of teaches us two lessons: frst, The period since 1987, via October 2000, until today, has has today, until 2000, October via 1987, since period The all with its representatives in Kosovo and Bosnia all with its representatives in Kosovo ments: at the beginning of the 21 and Macedonia, and taking the example of the other former battl and Macedonia, and taking the example feld – Bosnia of frst community, international the with cooperation course of and own citizens (taking the example of Kosovo, cooperation of Alba (taking the example of Kosovo, own citizens the (taking neighbors the with communities), other and Serbs nians, Albania Montenegro, Serbia, with cooperation Kosovo, of example to be a long one, often painstaking, but inevitable in contempo to be a long one, often painstaking, but can certainly with learning and beginner’s mistakes world. Troubles is one of cooperation with one’s be reduced provided the road taken and left defeated. proved democratization and independence achieving of process the ble, efcient states, or modern societies; and second, the inter or modern societies; and second, the ble, efcient states, not in by the principle of integration, did guided tional community, tervene instead, it even relied on protectorates in local conficts; and the entities may be described as antagonized in many ways. ways. many in antagonized as described be may entities the and sta are not able to establish either ethno-nationalist movements also a challenge for the Western Balkans as a region with a popula Balkans as a region with a the Western also a challenge for states between relations which in people, million 20 exceeding tion “new minorities”, and ethnic conficts become more serious. conficts become and ethnic “new minorities”, is This etc. NATO, EU, the in like memberships “club” and partnership to guarantee citizenship as well as some afrmative action mea afrmative action as well as some citizenship to guarantee is of “foreign nationalities” reality the treatment in sures. However, directed again State policies are bad and unspecifed: extremely cialism; disintegration of Yugoslavia through a series of inner or civil civil or inner of series a through Yugoslavia of disintegration cialism; wars which also had characteristics of inter UN and EU state; federal former the of territory the on states new been one of the most turbulent in Serbian political history. This has has This history. political Serbian in turbulent most the of one been been the period of multiple events: the fall of communism, i.e., so numerous problems with regard to the functioning of the economy economy the of functioning the to regard with problems numerous afairs. These proble and security system, as well as in foreign of the recent global particularly intensifed with the onslaught

Janjić 262 263 edited volumes ------and ticu tate state, n links. ­ Milošević Milošević ­ party system and elections elections and system party ­ The problem of Serbia is that the state is inefcient and The problem of Serbia is that the state The present and the future (of Serbia) must be comprehend The present and the future (of Serbia) democratic system which has been built in the post been built in the system which has democratic ­ lem of building Serbia as a nation-state by considering at least two options which represent diferent goals and diferent conditions within which the process of building of the nation-state will evolve: develop its own characteristics and advantages. On the other hand, develop its own characteristics and advantages. disintegration would contin this means that the trend of Serbia’s ue. Therefore, it is necessary to perceive the solution to the prob rational integration, or its external, international integratio rational integration, or its external, international of globalization by joining re Such state cannot react to challenges preservegional and global integrations, and simultaneously and the issue of the country’s future has not yet been clarifed, are Serbia a gaining strength. There is a strong tendency to make either its internal, which would not be able to realize “failed state”, weak to be able to support the strengthening of internal social weak to be able to support the strengthening today’snational integrative connections. Therefore, Serbia may be in which processes indicating that state” as an “unfnished marked support for national identity, as well as the mechanism for the pro support for national identity, tection of local resources. ed in the context of globalization. On the one hand, globalization ed in the context of globalization. On the individual nation links states and reduces the power of the state as a it imposes the need to strengthen and on the other, stimulated high corruption of politicians, as well as radical changes changes radical as well as politicians, of corruption high stimulated and social norms, etc.in cultural models and the ruling moral introduction of comprehensive and socially painful reforms; par and socially painful reforms; introduction of comprehensive acquired which process privatization the of management bad larly and sector production the destroyed tycoonization, of features litical decisions made by other political stakeholders and states, in by other political stakeholders litical decisions made expressed in a refer citizens of Montenegro’s cluding the decision SRY/SCG; the leave and statehood their restore to endum hood, but this was not based on political intentions and plans of the the of plans and intentions political on based not was this but hood, and po but was rather the end result of defeats Serbian leadership, within the undemocratic regime of Slobodan Milošević and the the and Milošević Slobodan of regime undemocratic the within pre s 2000 until now); Serbia restored national era (from 5 October sanctions and the ten-year long thus introduced international isola thus introduced and the ten-year long sanctions i.e., world, the and Europe in countries leading with war the ; tion multi restoration of the (1999); NATO ------t - of called “normal state”; ­ shall apply if the present model of Eu shall apply if the present is the realization of “European future”, which future”, of “European is the realization century, Serbia found itself on the same side with “histori in the period after 2011 and until joining the EU (most like until joining the EU after 2011 and in the period In reality, this is Serbia’s starting position, since at the end of starting position, since at this is Serbia’s In reality, - in the period after joining the EU and until 2050, it will be and joining the EU - in the period after option The second The frst option ­ th lasting tasks aimed at establishing an optimum balance be lasting tasks aimed at establishing an strengthening of the state and raising its efciency strengthening of the state and raising in facing (equal to the frs internal social, as well as global challenges and option), i.e., alliances which building new regional and global supports, the EU. also do not exclude ­

­ - sively oriented towards the past, deprioritizing the present and the future. Therefore, the confrontation with the consequences of the by now is yet to happen. reforms realized no clear vision and strategy for managing the state in the process no clear vision and strategy for managing Serbian leadership society. of transition from a socialist to capitalist has not been ready to enter this process and has also been exces tween ethnic loyalty to the national community and citizens’ loyalty loyalty and citizens’ tween ethnic loyalty to the national community to the deep identity crisis to the state, made more difcult due it is visible that there is Serbia and the Serbian nation. In addition, and turning toward development, internal stability and strengthen are hard and ing of international reputation and infuence long cal losers” for the frst time in its history. Recovery from big losses the 20 this second option is highly feasible, the following prioritiesimposed: are pen either because Serbia would not join the EU, or becausewould EU reorganize and leave Serbia outside the circle of integrated”“closely countries. Considering that one of the variants in the transfer of certain state functions to European bodies. state functions to European the transfer of certain may hap proves to be unsuccessful, which ropean integration necessary i.e., the nation-state to gradual deregulation, to submit ly in 2025–2030), it is necessaryly in 2025–2030), from a weak, to transform Serbia level of a it to the and take which it is today, state” i.e., “unfnished modern and efcient, i.e., so imposes the following priorities: imposes the

Janjić 264 265 edited volumes ------on. r the - Herzegovina, and Monte Herzegovina, ­ Balkan cooperation, di ­ Albanian–Serbian reconciliation would be the backbone, a Albanian–Serbian reconciliation would independent will become a recognized Whether Kosovo Following the rule: “When the united, they are stronger!”, Example 1: the Benelux was the result of serious, bloody, in Example 1: the Benelux was the result of serious, bloody, Example the result of serious Union was 2: the European Applying also Western European experience, the Western Western experience, the European Applying also Western Like other independent states in the Western Balkans, Ser in the Western independent states other Like French conficts. French ­ religious and other types of conficts, and religious and other types of conficts, ­ which democratic political elites will emerge on the basis of strengthened democratic procedures and institutions, and in towards establishing which, at the national level, action is taken rectly involving Albania, Montenegro and Macedonia. rectly involving Albania, Montenegro state could be solved only by peaceful means, in circumstances in historic turning point in the Balkans. It could be the basis fo historic turning point in the Balkans. It creation of a broader framework of inter to the EU via an easier route. This can by no means be a “common” via an easier route. This can by no means be a “common” to the EU but rather an area with unimpeded political or state community, and ideas. communications, fow of people, goods Western Balkans Benelux (Croatia, Bosnia Balkans Benelux (Croatia, Western Balkans of the six (WB6) or eight (WB8), or the Western negro), these states and bring them could accelerate the development of man ter II, primarily the Ger War and bloody conficts during World Balkans may lean upon two examples: Balkans may lean upon two examples: a community in which they live good and happy lives, with a realis they live good and happy lives, with a community in which future. also be the case in the foreseeable tic hope that this would history, mutual wars, with much more casualties they were waging and Balkans, than the wars in the Western and lasting much longer to create in the past they have still managed after all the hardships “Balkanization”. In this regard, there are many things which can be things which are many In this regard, there “Balkanization”. course of their long In the and Germany. France learnt from Britain, Therefore, these states must turn toward their common future, to turn toward their these states must Therefore, Balkans. Western own region, the and towards their EU wards the and and overcoming their nationalistic pasts This requires facing bia has no chance to ensure a sustainable level of development if of development if a sustainable level chance to ensure bia has no mutual cooperati and without on individual eforts, relying only ------ce - the hnic g g the y in strategic posi ­ While the question of energy security has been a policyWhile the question of energy security con recoveryRussia’s after the collapse of the Soviet Union, and Finding themselves at a particular crossroads between the at a particular crossroads between the Finding themselves Megatrend 3 – Growing importance of interaction between en of interaction Growing importance – 3 Megatrend nuclei which for the region would represent what the Club of represent what for the region would nuclei which been for the EU. Rome has once again to attempt to destabilize the region by stirring up new once again to attempt to destabilize violence and threatening new conficts. The fear that the presen and especially in Serbia, of Russian energy in Southeast Europe, Western Balkan region have been even more fustered. It is be Western is the beginning of an lieved that Russian presence in the region entirely new phase in the resolution of the crisis, in which Serbia is sian return to Europe is seen as a cunning and perfdious political sian return to Europe its economic and tool, a part of its hidden agenda to re-establish to Russian moves in political infuence in the region. Reactions role of “energy superpower”. Balkan region, news In the Western return – this time through energy deals – of the resurgent Russia’s this Rus Moreover, was received with great caution and attention. from exploitation of its massive natural resources, have created from exploitation of its massive natural and concerns in Europe considerable political, security and energy experience in playin across the world. Russia has a remarkable of the general public discourse. infuence resultin its signifcant economic growth and political cern in the past, only recently has the issue of energy become a often discussed not onl highly publicly debated question; it is forums, but as part expert circles and socio-political and economic threats, are essential in guaranteeing the security of oil and gas threats, are essential in guaranteeing supplies for the EU. tion – a crucial element in Europe’s energy security dilemma. Peace Peace energy security dilemma. in Europe’s tion – a crucial element the et region, which have been afected by and stability in this of the last centuryconfict at the end several and which still face Caucasus and Europe, and bordering the Middle East and North Af and bordering the Middle Caucasus and Europe, are – by virtue of their geo Balkans rica, the Western for Serbia, Western Balkans and Russia. Balkans Serbia, Western for ergy and security, and the importance of understanding the relation of understanding and the importance and security, ergy challenges are key security and ethnic conficts ship between energy

Janjić 266 267 edited volumes ------s , Vol. Vol. - , Sep rainian rainian Social Europe The Financial Sociologija ekologije, ekologije, Sociologija Geopolitical Futures Geopolitical , July 16. Project Syndicate@Kaletsky, Project Syndicate@Kaletsky,

Social Europe skepticism and political populism in sever and political populism in skepticism ­ . London: Allen Lane. World Order: Refections on the Character of Nations and the on the Character Refections Order: World January 9. Times, Times, ternational Cooperation”. tember 28. June 25. of History Course 19, No. 2. The current Ukrainian crisis has afected Russia dramatically. crisis has afected Russia dramatically. The current Ukrainian referen the Crimean The 2014 Maidan revolution in Kiev, There are multiple crises in Europe today, both internal and both internal today, multiple crises in Europe There are tensions, though being basically nega The current EU-Russia Woods, Ngaire. 2018. “Overcoming Crisis of Globalisation: Rebuild Politics, Rethink In Crisis of Globalisation: Rebuild Politics, Ngaire. 2018. “Overcoming Woods, Kissinger, H.A.Kissinger, 2014. from Adam Smith”. letter to capitalists Rubenstein, David. 2012. “A Kaletsky, Anatole. 2018. “Nationalism”. Anatole. Kaletsky, Bušljeta, Anita. 2010. “Globalizam – Ideologija globalizacije?” Bušljeta, Anita. 2010. “Globalizam Everything”. George. 2016. “How 2008. Changed Friedman, Bibliography uprising and would not mind having something similar in Moscow. in similar something having mind not would and uprising sian society. Whereas the majority perceives the Ukraine case as a as case Ukraine the perceives majority the Whereas society. sian the at minority radical the Russia, in revolution the against warning is inspired by the Uk fringes of the Russian political spectrum tarian relations between the two countries. tarian relations between the two countries. have deeply divided Ru dum, and the ongoing war in East Ukraine to prevent the European project from further dissolution. project from further dissolution. to prevent the European do not only with economic,This impact has to humani political, or tive for both, are admittedly being used by the EU leadership to leadership being used by the EU tive for both, are admittedly and enemy, in the face of a putative common strengthen the Union al major EU countries signify countries al major EU the depth of the crises, while simulta one of the feasible solutions to them. neously indicating after the confict in Georgia. after the Euro external. The rising would go well beyond its economic and political capacities, and and political well beyond its economic would go problems, la up in serious security undoubtedly end that it would even greater border changes, became and potential tent confict(s) Slobodan Divjak Slobodan

Divjak 268 269 edited volumes ------In ffensive making pro O ­ ancient Athens, an orm of F esult of the esult of R Machtpolitik: Machtpolitik: communitarianism, liberalism, multiculturalism, reit communitarianism, liberalism, multiculturalism, critique of this conception can’t be found in the works of oth be found in can’t critique of this conception in the world. er thinkers Keywords: erative universalism, value relativism In this text the author tries to prove that radical multicultural In this text the author tries relativism, by its insistence on an ism leads to absolute value particular cultures and norma internal connection between at Michael Walzer’s also criticizes tive orders. The author and universalism in his con tempt to reconcile contextualism type of Slobodan Divjak’s ception of “reiterative universalism”. Machtpolitik based upon the right of the stronger. Machtpolitik elativism as a as a elativism R ulticulturalism as a ulticulturalism Liberalism is not a homogeneous concept. The liberalism In this text I treat multiculturalism as a form of communitarianism. communitarianism. of form a as multiculturalism treat I text this In M ommunitarianism their internal system, prone to cient Rome, the Ottoman Empire, Holland, Great Britain, Russia as an empire, Soviet Russia... Humanitarian military interventions are a tics is not an expression of their internal orders, because what tics is not an expression of their internal dominates is world history, were, independently of the most powerful states but rather on democratic procedures” (Habermas), the bearers of (Habermas), but rather on democratic procedures” groups. Concerning the formal rights are individuals, not cultural it could be said that this poli international politics of liberal states, politics, economic politics, and culture. In such a system – which politics, economic politics, and culture. of constitution “can be fully developed in the course choice substantial values, cesses that are not based on the previous or some sort of economic politics (for example, neoliberalism), but example, neoliberalism), or some sort of economic politics (for order which is compatible a conception of legal and constitutional ideology, of worldview, with the pluralism of diferent conceptions the abovementioned orientations is undefensible (Robson, 2014). the abovementioned orientations is undefensible way of life, a party program a about which I talk is not a worldview, Every attempt to show that there are essential diferences between A b s t r a c t of C Value - - - - - a ------is - - - - By insisting on the internal connection between particular By insisting on the internal connection Multiculturalism is frequently defned as contemporary is frequently Multiculturalism the necessary consequence of such an understanding of a legal system is radical criticism of every type of universalism – both the meta substantial) one and the post-metaphysical (that is to say, physical particular culture that lies in its foundation. Thus, the essence of particular culture that lies in its foundation. every social context, legal system becomes a concrete is which strongly determined through an appropriate cultural tradition. A cultures and normative orders, multiculturalism actually contextu cultures and normative orders, multiculturalism as a refection of the law since each law has to be particular, alizes tance – that is to say, a legalized rule that no one can make deci rule that no one can make a legalized tance – that is to say, has explicitly autho sions instead of an individual unless he/she them to do so. rized tain cultural tradition. From a liberal point of view, a cultural tradi a liberal point of view, tain cultural tradition. From as an optional content of choice; the tion cannot be excluded legally guaranteed primacy of individual rights is of prime impor ences, from diferent concepts of good life, whose integral part ences, from diferent concepts of good he/she will choose an indi culture. It is up to the individual whether from a cer concept of good life or one that originates vidualized stitutional order. Liberalism does not deny the importance of par Liberalism does not deny stitutional order. human lives, as it grants to ticular cultures or cultural traditions in own prefer on one’s each individual the right to choose, based acter of legal and constitutional orders of communities and states. acter of legal and constitutional orders aims at reintegrating Thus, one could argue that multiculturalism tradition and a legal and con what liberalism tore apart – a cultural private sphere. This basic objection to liberalism leads to the cen basic objection to liberalism leads to private sphere. This con idea – insistence on the internal tral point of the multicultural the char character of particular cultures and nection between the one of the main multiculturalist objections to liberalism is that the objections to liberalism one of the main multiculturalist of consti cultures irrelevant in the process latter made particular within the of modern states, by placing them tuting the legal order particular culture in human life, the importance which is allegedly human life, the importance which is particular culture in the fact that by liberalism. This view often ignores marginalized expressed will. expressed of movement that confrms the importance oretical and practical part of antiliberal imperial politics since liberal institutional order institutional order since liberal imperial politics part of antiliberal imposed on a peo cannot be individual freedoms with its negative of their freely must be the result force. Such an order ple through

Divjak 270 271 edited volumes ------ur - - es, in - , not prius As they assigned to the cultural tradition the status of an A particular cultural tradition is postulated as a A particular cultural tradition is postulated According to them, reason independent of tradition, which reason independent of tradition, which According to them, substantial, of the liberal kind) one. The essence of multicult one. The essence of the liberal kind) substantial, ­ they get “socialized” from the very first day of life (MacIntyre 1984, 221): “What I am, therefore, is in key part what I inherit, a specific past that is present to some degree in my present. I find in relation to that essential fact, also including the individual, Individu as community. a member of the particular contextualized al activities are shaped and determined by the culture in which essential component of a particular context, multiculturalists context,essential component of a particular multiculturalists and communitarians brought all the intra-contextual moments view of an outstanding follower of communitarianism, give orga view of an outstanding follower of communitarianism, expression to concepts and theories already embodied in nized forms of practice and types of community”. from such a tradition by both of these orientations. Rationality only from such a tradition by both of these principles immanent in the given context, explicit the within makes “Philosophical theori which it functions (MacIntyre 1988, 390): only in radical multiculturalism but also in radical communitarian only in radical multiculturalism but also are perceived as deduced and law morality, ism, so that rationality, sonalized person, there cannot be a morality or a law or a con sonalized to reason, neutral and independent with regard text-transcending cultural traditions. would be, according to them, a mere intellectual construction that,would be, according to them, a mere over real life, as it has if used in the real world, performs violence no grounding in it. contextless, deper Just as there cannot be any universal normative (moral and legal) order, which would be valid in which would be valid (moral and legal) order, universal normative of mor is only a liberalist chimera. A system all contexts and times, a reason that would be deduced from such al and legal principles the community pertinent to it.the community pertinent on itself and on its own internal logic,would, relying only deduce a cepts of good and justice, and their abilities for constituting moral justice, and their abilities for constituting cepts of good and and context of a particular cultural tradition judgments only in the fundamental level that is the root of everything level that is the fundamental else, multicultural them, indi According to reason as such. universal ists contextualize their own con their own self-understanding, viduals can develop (de be no law in singular, which there can within alism is contextualism, the status of the a particular culture plural. By granting but only in - - - - ), as - he tional Vernunft positioning, ­ Critique of Practical Rea Critique of Practical status: in his a priori ), which is determined by the empirical data which exist by the empirical data which exist ), which is determined On the other hand, as a communitarian or “culturalist”, Mac On the other hand, as a communitarian As ontologization of reason, Kant as a critic of metaphysical According to Hegel, at the height of metaphysics, reason is reason at the height of metaphysics, According to Hegel, By connecting reason to a concrete socio-cultural context, socio-cultural reason to a concrete By connecting who have maintained otherwise either have covertly been adopting the standpoint of a tradition and deceiving themselves and perhaps others into supposing that theirs was just such a neutral ground or else have simply been in error. It is an illusion to suppose that there is some neutral standing It is an illusion to suppose that there is some which can aford ra ground, some locus for rationality as such, resources sufcient for enquiry independent of all traditions. Those , relevant for the discussion here as it points to his relationship , relevant for the discussion here as it Verstand Intyre points out the following (MacIntyre 1988, 222): Intyre points out the following (MacIntyre gized norms, regardless of any cultural tradition and all empirical norms, regardless of any gized sources. pure practical reason, the reason unmediated by empirical data, as pure practical reason, the reason unmediated an autonomous rational power that, formal following its internal de-ontolo logic rules, produces purely formal, non-teleological, cribes to reason the son and legal – Kant treats t with the normative order – both moral nothing but empirical phenomenal manifestation of reason as an nothing but empirical phenomenal manifestation all-encompassing principle. it contains everything that is “other” the within itself (the empirical, be a self the fnal), turns out to sensual, the particular, empirical given is so any power, and self-uniting self-developing, conditional and independent, based in itself: unlike understanding conditional and independent, based in itself: unlike ( positive being, reason ( outside of it as an independent might have. un it absolutely external conditions, which makes deprived of any the essential one but also the post-metaphysical, pure procedural also the post-metaphysical, the essential one but that, autonomous power any reason, thus abolishing as such, it radical multiculturalists and radical communitarians actually reject actually reject radical communitarians and radical multiculturalists reason as as such, not only the metaphysical the universal reason myself part of a history and that is generally to say, whether I like it or not, whether I recognize it or not, one of the bearers of a tradition”.

Divjak 272 273 edited volumes ------p ition in in ition cultural origin, origin, cultural ­ cultural identity, the multicultural ideal is coexis the multicultural cultural identity, ­ By rejecting every trans-contextual, i.e., universal standard, standard, universal i.e., trans-contextual, every rejecting By Furthermore, if a specifc cultural tradition is treated as the However, if the aforementioned multicultural logic is conse if the aforementioned However, Thanks to this abolishment of reason’s autonomy, which neces autonomy, reason’s this abolishment of Thanks to the foundations on which Islam is based. based. is Islam which on foundations the the accepts actually communitarianism, as well as multiculturalism, parties that do not reject Islam are legal in it,parties that do not reject Islam are legal so they are reduced to to a greater or less pro-Islamic fractions that can be reform-oriented question not do reforms the that condition the under but extent, er limited in that it allows only for the parties that respect fundamentallimited in that it allows only for the parties tradition is based. For ex presuppositions on which the given cultural the only but Iran, contemporary in exists system multiparty ample, diferent ways, and some of them might even be oriented against tra against oriented be even might them of some and ways, diferent is system legal whose countries in scenarios, best-case the In dition. party pluralism is possible,connected to a cultural tradition, a limited substantial basis of the entire institutional system, it follows that that that that follows it system, institutional entire the of basis substantial parliamentarism, for in suchinstitutional system is closed for classical relate to cultural trad a political system diferent parties can between their (individual) and their community’s identity based on on based identity community’s their and (individual) their between the specifc cultural tradition. tions. In other words, as in such a legal system most individuals are are individuals most system legal a such in as words, other In tions. diferent cultural conce deprived of the right to choose between established is relationship necessary the will, their to according tions live within that system are expected to follow only substantial values values substantial only follow to expected are system that within live are they say, to is that tradition, cultural own their of customs and and customs of other tradi forbidden to accept substantial values quently followed through, it turns out that it leads to the intra-con it turns out that it leads to the quently followed through, function the in put is system legal the If holism. and monism textual who cultural traditions, then the individuals of protecting concrete of society into the sphere of state’s constitutive principles, to a difer of state’s of society into the sphere on the character of collective rights. ent extent and depending which are treated as political units. It is obvious that realizing the latter latter the realizing that obvious is It units. political as treated are which sphere the from principles cultural and ethnic of “return” a demands can be summed up as coexistence within the state of the individuals individuals the of state the within coexistence as up summed be can ethno of diferent of the groups of diferent ethno tence within the state sarily leads to anti-universalism, the multicultural ideal is, in essence, essence, in is, ideal multicultural the anti-universalism, to leads sarily ideal liberal the While ideal. modern, or liberal, the to opposition the ------e every every e ality, ality, , he wrote, singling out the topic topic the out singling wrote, he , Thick and Thin In the face of such problems, multicultural and communitarian communitarian and multicultural problems, such of face the In there are the makings of a thin and universalist morality insid there are the makings of a thin and universalist all at not is two these of story the but – morality particularist and thick formed and difer the statue and the stone. They are diferently like ently related, as we shall see. Walzer which in way the is mind to comes immediately What “There is a thin man inside every fat man”, Georg Orwell once wrote, wrote, once Orwell Georg man”, fat every inside man thin a is “There Similarly, stone”. of block every inside statue a is there […] as “just contextual, universal standards? contextual, universal ­ the Introduction to his xi): 1994, (Walzer discuss to about was he which difers from one place to another, and thus represents the spe and thus which difers from one place to another, was distinction a Such community. particular each for basis moral In cifc justice. of realms the on book his following Walzer, Michael by made them have attempted to make a distinction between “thin” universal universal “thin” between distinction a make to attempted have them which was supposed to be common to all particular commu morality, relativist mor nities, and “thick”, “solid”, more encompassing, ing of justice, or to modify their starting premises to a certain extent. against the elementaryabove-mentioned phenomena, which go feel extent. certain a to premises starting their modify to or justice, of ing of number a relativism, extreme of accusations dodge to order In pra the of all of approve also to whether dilemma: a face pluralists widows, stoning of adulterers, public whippings in sport stadiums, dis adulterers, public whippings in sport stadiums, widows, stoning of into ac inferior races, etc.crimination of allegedly If all of this is taken count, if there are no su these actions, is how to criticize the question ic rule, absence of individual rights, lack of women’s rights, burning of of tion of slavery, despot of people in order to maintain the mass killings burning rights, women’s of lack rights, individual of absence rule, ic shown that customs which can hardly be accepted from the position position the from accepted be hardly can which customs that shown of elementary an essential compo civilization could be humanity and institu traditions. Some examples include the nent of some cultural point of view of absolute relativism, because if that standard is absent, absent, is standard that if because relativism, absolute of view of point but must be treat ordered cannot be hierarchically cultural traditions has far so experience historical the However, valid. equally as ed contextualized morality. Given his assumption that universal morality morality universal that assumption his Given morality. contextualized not does Walzer morality”, particular and thick each “within exists to external something as morality universal minimal treat establishes the relationship between the “thin”, minimal, and “thick”, “thick”, and minimal, “thin”, the between relationship the establishes

Divjak 274 275 edited volumes ------om, om, nnection nnection his the the his law universalism universalism law ­ law version of universalism” (Walzer 1989, 510). “The end [of [of end “The 510). 1989, (Walzer universalism” of version law ­ Walzer has two main complaints for the formalist (or proce has two main Walzer In his Tanner Lectures, “Nation and Universe”, Walzer analyzes analyzes Walzer Universe”, and “Nation Lectures, Tanner his In By tying thin universal morality to the contextualized one, Wal morality to the contextualized By tying thin universal garde, the ones who already possess all the knowledge and le garde, the ones who already possess all ­ dural) morality. First of all, on careful inspection, the procedural dural) morality. minimum includes in itself more than a minimum. When the rules are set based on which a debate will be conducted about the issues then certainly confdence; we can recognize covering then certainly confdence; we can recognize by the confdence it inspires” (513). avant is “What everybody: by accepted be day one will that codebook gal pride, not If people? such to appropriate feeling and mind of state the its monistic nature – one truth, one law – this universalism will develop phant terms as the victory (511). Thanks to tribe” of the universalizing develop will universalism this – law one truth, one – nature monistic the its believers, true selected, chosen, the for mission a – mission a into Messiah, one millennium for the entire humanity: “I will call t Messiah, one millennium for the entire covering trium can be described in militarist and this type of universalism, S. D.] amples – Judaism and Christianity. This type of universalism claims claims universalism of type This Christianity. and Judaism – amples one Justice, one correct un that, as there is one God, there is one Law, one salvation, one system, political good or life good of derstanding post-metaphysical provenance on the other. other. the on provenance post-metaphysical using historical ex the main characteristics of substantial universalism zer actually tries to develop a concept of contextualist universalism in in universalism contextualist of concept a develop to tries actually zer prove of the metaphysical order to avoid the substantial universalism the of universalism (procedural) formalist and side, one the on nance with particular morality and becomes independent only during the the during only independent becomes and morality particular with social crises, or during political confrontations. times of personal and maximalist morality; both of them are expressed in the same idi both of them are expressed in the same maximalist morality; ori historical, cultural, religious, and political and they share the same co morality breaks free from this internal entation. Minimalist that minimal morality comes before the particular, maximalist morali comes before the particular, that minimal morality the in included are meanings Minimalist around. way other the but ty, the morality in which a moral minimum is rooted, and from which it is is it which from and rooted, is minimum moral a which in morality the contextual abstracted, is a full-bloodied and temporarily occasionally not is It people. a as possess people which morality particular ized, “contextualized morality”, but as its immanent part, as its expression. expression. its as part, immanent its as but morality”, “contextualized as morali morality, of maximal is not the foundation Minimal morality the veryty is from integrated; thus, “thick” and culturally beginning ------hing hing - hers e, re n doctrine, doctrine, n emen As already pointed out, in contrast to the metaphysical and and metaphysical the to contrast in out, pointed already As Second, when discussing justice understood in a procedural procedural a in understood justice discussing when Second, there is not one exodus, one divine redemption, one moment of liber there is not one exodus, ation, for all mankind, the way there is, according to Christia one redeeming sacrifce. Liberation is a particularist experienc case every in is it time, same the At people. oppressed each for peated land of Egypt, And the Philistines from Caphtor, Kir? from Syrians the And that indicate they because important are questions These Are ye not as children of the Ethiopians unto me, O children of Israel? . . . Have I not brought Israel out of the tioned essay “Nation and Universe”. When analyzing certain Biblical Biblical certain analyzing When Universe”. and “Nation essay tioned asks God which in one the to attention special pays Walzer fragments, (Amos 9:7): procedural universalism, Walzer attempts to set up a contextualized contextualized a up set to attempts Walzer universalism, procedural through outlined clearly most are characteristics whose universalism, Judaism in the afor the analysis of its roots in the version of interests and cultural expressions: “But the minimum is not the foun interests and cultural expressions: “But 1984, 18). dation of maximum, only a piece of it” (Walzer devoid of any personal or social characteristics, as completely deper personal or social characteristics, devoid of any no because everyone by claimed is morality Minimal rules. sonalized subjective from abstracted is it why is That it. claims particular in one thin, but then we became thick”. Therefore, procedural philosop thin, but then we became produced be not could or not is that morality any rejecting for argue somet Minimal rules are treated as through their own procedure. sense, this is where minimalism comes before justice: “we used to be minimalism comes before justice: “we sense, this is where standards and the like, about the questions that actually cover a actually cover the questions that about and the like, standards to morality turns out assumed “thin” way of life, so the particular 1984, 12–13). be quite “thick” (Walzer of justice that should provide freedom and equality for all the par freedom and equality that should provide of justice to achieve con the debate are left then participants in ticipants, involvement,political structure, social the about sensus distributive

Divjak 276 277 edited volumes ------]. ]. - - - deter ­ ifer in in ifer tly com propose propose defender defender the laws laws the eir own own eir religious language, diferent peoples, peoples with dif religious language, ­ tion can replace procedural reiteration. There cannot be a replace tion can replace procedural reiteration. There virtues. and values real are virtues and values the if sort that of ment 1989, 519). (Walzer are identities cultural their as nations, various as just Therefore, people for itself. Hence, we determine our way of life, and they do, do, they and life, of way our determine we Hence, itself. for people will d and they do, up to the nth they – and each determination determinations [… signifcant ways from preceding and concurrent provides a sufcien There is no covering law or set of laws that is the case that plete blueprint for our works and theirs. Nor so that substantive imita agreed to by one people cover all the others, Self-determination is a value that I have to defend, if I defend it at all, all, at it defend I if defend, to have I that value a is Self-determination made. be often will choices wrongful or unworthy that believe I if even if the however, in a particular way, I may oppose self-determination critically violate to sure virtually or sure are case that in choices agent’s count myself as a important moral principles; but I would still each themselves, for choose to have People self-determination. of In non from covering-law universalism is its particularist form and its pluraliz its particularist form universalism is from covering-law of the Philis to think that the exodus have no reason ing tendency. We of Israel, or that it culmi with exodus is identical tines or the Syrians are peoples those of laws the that even or covenant, similar a in nates 1989, 513). (Walzer, or ought to be the same. a good experience, for God is the common liberator. Each people has has people Each liberator. common the is God for experience, good a every in God same the God, single a of hands the at liberation own its I is universally hateful. fnds oppression case, who presumably diferent it makes What universalism. reiterative argument this call to mination; hence, every form of collective liberation and each aspect of of aspect each and liberation collective of form every hence, mination; All the na have a particular character. collective self-determination content the but torture, and tyranny against struggle the share tions quite diferent, have diferent experiences in liberating themselves, themselves, liberating in experiences diferent have diferent, quite they also, for the very same reason, have diferent forms of self tural characteristics of the liberated nation. self-liberation, and the goal of this self-liberation is self-determination, th all have diferent experiences of ferent cultural traditions, self-determination, is self-liberation this of goal the and self-liberation, varywhose content will accordingly – according to the history and cul , ------did did ey want reover, reover, urely for Thick and Thin and Thick At the beginning of the already mentioned book book mentioned already the of beginning the At Taking all that into account, Walzer’s minimal morality should should morality minimal Walzer’s account, into that all Taking To summarize, they protested against the phenomena that are are that phenomena the against protested they summarize, To ed to be able to believe what they read in the newspapers; they ed to be able to believe what they read in the in […] What they meant by the justice not want be lied to anymore. arbitrary to end an enough: simple was however, signs, their on scribed arrests, equal and impartial law enforcement, the abolition of the privi garden variety jus leges and prerogatives of the party elite – common, 2). 1994, (Walzer tice. wanted to hear true statements from their political leaders; th wanted to hear true statements from their truth, but in defense of something that was so elementary that it it that elementary so was that something of defense in but truth, though Even justice. and truth of theory any of part been have could protesters culture, and history of explanations diferent had they banners, regardless of the fact that he would have probably advoca banners, regardless of the fact that he pro However, and “justice”. ted somewhat diferent ideas of “truth” and justice of theory certain a of defense in marching not were testers same culture, mostly unknown to him. However, he immediately felt a felt immediately he However, him. to unknown mostly culture, same to their cause; mo sense of solidarity with them and allegiance same the carried and them joined have could he that certain was he in the chapter on moral minimalism, Walzer reminisces television im reminisces television in the chapter on moral minimalism, Walzer the when people carried ban ages of the 1989 mass protests in Prague, of members were Protesters “Justice”. and “Truth” reading ners described in negative terms: to be opposed to tyranny, suppression, suppression, tyranny, to opposed be to terms: negative in described torture, cheating, arbitrary arrests, etc. mal rules, in relation to which a consensus exists, or could exist, on the the p a minimal set of certain fnal values or not be interpreted as on exist, could or exists, consensus a which to relation in rules, be mal could type Walzerian a of morality Minimal humanity. entire of level comes to its history and cultural tradition. such a struggle. The same goes for self-determination. The wish for for wish The self-determination. for goes same The struggle. a such one from varies content its but all, to common is self-determination it when itself for story a is nation every because another, to nation of that struggle will be irreducibly diferent. will be irreducibly of that struggle sub a general is why That never be formulat of that struggle can concept stantially determined of case in valid be would that rules general any list one can nor ed, the integral part of tyranny as tyranny. Members of other nations and and nations other of Members tyranny. as tyranny of part integral the Prague the join to need the feel Walzer, like would, who culture

Divjak 278 279 edited volumes ------one, one, or ex rmed It is clear that, by introducing minimal standards into the sto As soon as one steps onto the terrain of the discussion on po on discussion the of terrain the onto steps one as soon As determination of peoples, whether one speaks of external (sub determination of peoples, whether one ­ ety that fulflls moral standards could be considered as a moral Walzer limited his plural concept and, to an pluralism extent, his because correctedmulticulturalists theradical of ab relativism solute jugating a previously free nation by another one) or internal violence violence internal or one) another by nation free previously a jugating illegal an of because group a or individual an of power to (coming by already establishing the premise that only a soci However, coup). ry, Walzer wants to deny legitimacy to tyrannical regimes, political political regimes, tyrannical to legitimacy deny to wants Walzer ry, of logic the over violence through established were that systems self that violated the minimal standards would be a defcient society” society” defcient a be would standards minimal the violated that 10). 1994, (Walzer, tential alternatives to Czech communism, the agreement stops, fortential alternatives to Czech standards. moral minimal of limits the beyond goes discussion that – communists Czech the of that like – regime political or society “A and ‘justice’ that makes it possible for us to join the Prague marchers” that makes and ‘justice’ 1994, 10). (Walzer nist society was morally an insufcient society because it perfo nist society was morally an insufcient abolishment the for (demands standards moral minimal over violence ‘truth’ of minimalism the course of is “It oppression). and tyranny of strators had not had, in reality or in imagination, similar marches in in marches similar imagination, in or reality in had, not had strators for sympathy feel to unable been have would they cultures, own their commu cultures. Czech the expressions of mass discontent in other range within our own culture. So, while we march in spirit with the the with spirit in march we while So, culture. own our within range (Walzer parade” own our fact in have we Prague, of women and men demon who felt compassion with the Prague 1994, 7–8). If the ones tened to stories about, tyranny and oppression. We see the point of of point the see We oppression. and tyranny about, stories to tened and ‘jus we give to ‘truth’ signs. At the same time, however, the Czech expressive full their them allow we meanings; additional own our tice’ perienced them through the stories woven into their own culture. culture. own their into woven stories the through them perienced lis have we or remember, too we lies; told be to want don’t too “We Czech protesters, while supplanting the banners on truth and justice justice and truth on banners the supplanting while protesters, Czech protests similar upon calling cultures, own their from meanings with part homeland, where they either took that took place in their protesters, also had the experience of tyranny, or listened or read read or listened or tyranny, of experience the had also protesters, the of their own cul an immanent part the stories which form about it in join also thoughts, their in least at could, they why is That ture. ------ntial ntial - iduals iduals iference iference in the the in hey have. have. hey hat is to to is hat he agents agents he determination implies implies determination ­ democratic societies ofers to individu ­ determination are linked. However, the very fact that that fact very the However, linked. are determination ­ This will become clearer if we consider Walzer’s idea of the re if we consider Walzer’s This will become clearer Walzer always connects the discourse on collective self-deter als a legally guaranteed possibility to shape their own lives inde pendently of their relations with others so that diferent indiv can have diferent forms of life, depending on the chosen substa character of individual self-determination. The primacy of individual brings the diference in the character of individual rights also individual of primacy The self-determination. individual of character rights that is at work in liberal product of this tradition. In the second case, in the case of traditional traditional of case the in case, second the In tradition. this of is product that good substantial particular the and tradition cultural societies, individual rights. This d derived from it precede and condition membership in a specifc cultural tradition. In the frst case, t membership in a specifc cultural tradition. in the case of liberal-democratic societies, individual rights as pri say, a as good substantial particular a or tradition, cultural precede mary thing else, including the form of the state, is derived from them. In an thing else, including the form of the state, as they are de other type, individual rights have secondary character, from is, that are, they than primary more is that something from rived In one type of community, individual rights have an originary character rights that t difer with respect to the character of individual character originary an have rights individual community, of type one In if every else, that is to say, if they are not derived from something dition that each particular community that pretends to legitimacy and and legitimacy to pretends that community particular each that its dition by accepted be to has it that – satisfy to has integrity its of respect could communities that note to fails here Walzer However, members. to refuse any given object status – as commodities, ‘hands’, slaves, or or the right of t proves of “the right of subjective nullifcation, slaves, ‘hands’, commodities, as – status object given any refuse to 1993, 173). In doing so, he sets up the minimal con whatever” (Walzer that he also legitimizes individual rights, for there can be no individual individual no be can there for rights, individual legitimizes also he that be rejects tyranny rights. Walzer without individual self-determination ap himself rights. Ascause it denies individual a matter of fact, Walzer mination with the one on individual self-determination. These two two These self-determination. individual on one the with mination types of self Walzer legitimizes something like individual self lationship between collective and individual self-determination. lationship between creator explicitly admits, as it contains elements of the normative normative the of elements contains it as admits, explicitly creator liberal ideal. diferent than the ideal, albeit cannot be interpreted as fully inclusive when it comes to the objec inclusive when it interpreted as fully cannot be is concept Walzer’s if hand, other the On pluralism. value tive than its see that it is more exclusivist one could thought through,

Divjak 280 281 edited volumes ------l and and l by rich rich by life ac ving in ac liberal Mus ­ the citizens of that state. For example, the citizens of non of that state. For example, the citizens the citizens lim states who would renounce Islam and its customs would be treat other the On rights. individual their lose would and delinquents as ed its cultural tradition. As in the latter case a particular, concrete cultural cultural concrete particular, a case latter the in As tradition. cultural its it, predetermines largely and system normative the precedes tradition of life of way the prescribes extent great a to system normative that ferent types of state: the liberal state, where law is distinct from the the – to equate two structurally dif attempt to join what cannot be joined from distinct is law where state, liberal the state: of types ferent by predetermined is form legal whose state the and tradition, cultural distinctive cultural and religious patterns. Walzer’s idea – common to to common – idea Walzer’s patterns. religious and cultural distinctive factually society of concept liberal the that – pluralists postmodern an all is That untenable. simply is life of way Western uniquely a implies ent from the way of life of the citizens who are of Western origin, but but etc.)nese, Hindus, Mexicans, Japanese, Indians, is signifcantly difer origin, Western of are who citizens the of life of way the from ent follow they as difer, cultures Western from come who ones the even way of life of the members of these societies; this is confrmed way of life of the members of these societies; empirical data – for example, in the USA, which is formally a liberal de (Chi citizens its non-Western mocracy, the way of life of a number of tural traditions. As normative system in liberal-democratic societies is is expressions of their cul cause their moral and legal norms are mere societies liberal-democratic in system normative As traditions. tural the and it between relationship necessary no is there formal, purely ditions and substantial goods. On the other hand, traditional societies societies traditional hand, other the On goods. substantial and ditions with accordance in be not would that living of way the forbid legally goods derived from them be their cultural traditions and substantial ing in accordance with diferent individual life projects and li diferent individual life projects and ing in accordance with mora cultural traditions exactly because cordance with diferent tra they are based are distinct from cultural legal principles on which ual cannot do anything that would put into jeopardy the realization of an individ precede individual actions. Thus, the community participate of realization the jeopardy into put would that anything do cannot ual with liv Liberal democracies are compatible both collective decisions. al life independently of their relationship with others and with the the with and others with relationship their of independently life al of members which in decisions collective these whole: a as community else, unless authorized by them, has the right to make decisions in in decisions make to right the has them, by authorized unless else, substantial particular a societies traditional in as However, name. their person rights, individuals cannot shape their good precedes individual values. Of course, this is just an option – if they want, individuals can can individuals want, they if – option an just is this course, Of values. their own tradition and shape the specifc cultural also accept one no as themselves, for it do they case that in even but cordingly, ------rights rights able? In In able? had, that that had, the oth does not not does n it, with no no with it, n with others, thus representing a determinations, but also for diferent kinds kinds diferent for also but determinations, ­ in the community determinations is related to the fact that there are diferent diferent are there that fact the to related is determinations When, while writing about individual self-determination, Wal self-determination, writing about individual When, while Why would not a thesis according to which there is a pluralism pluralism a is there which to according thesis a not would Why ­ fact, it is entirely possible to inherit a life and still possess it as one’ s one’ as it possess still and life a inherit to possible entirely is it fact, light upo own; and it is also possible to fnd a life, literally room be to has there autonomy, of account any In all. at forethought not only for diferent self 520). 1989, (Walzer self-possession. of […]. There is no single mode of “having” a life of one’s own. We are in own. We mode of “having” a life of one’s […]. There is no single a life must be made before it can be clined to think that such undertaking, an career, a project, a as life individual an of think we is, this But plan. the to according enact then and plan we that something individuality; it is simply our – collective – understanding of In individual. an being of way authentic or legitimate only the suggest The same argument holds for the individual as for the people/nation people/nation the for as individual the for holds argument same The determination correspond? This ambiguity is the efect of Walzer is the efect of Walzer determination correspond? This ambiguity ­ the forms of individual self-determination, everything seems accept self-determination, the forms of individual frst. at able zer emphasizes that the same argument valid for peoples/nations is is peoples/nations for valid argument same the that emphasizes in zer pluralism to readers his directs then and individuals, for valid also hand, in liberal societies each individual has the right to change his/her his/her change to right the has individual each societies liberal in hand, in these beliefs note that the change and one should religious beliefs, in the way of life. also implies a change to an extent er individuals equally, and the individual self-determination that neces and the individual self-determination er individuals equally, place sarily takes basic two These community. particular a of members the of consensus mination: the individual one, in which the individual does not have to to have not does individual the which in one, individual the mination: relationship with other individuals or his community,enter into any apart from respecting purely formal limitations that afect all self two types of individual not making the said distinction between and, related to it, between the two basic types of individual self-deter tion here within the same society, or whether the pluralism of individ tion here within the same society, ual self individual of forms various which to communities, particular of forms itself, that thesis is certainly acceptable, but the problems arise when when own identity be accept of ways in which individuals shape their arise problems the but acceptable, certainly is thesis that itself, of individual self-determina one wonders if there are various forms

Divjak 282 283 edited volumes ------ndividu he com determina ­ pluralist concept of the situated self, the the self, situated the of concept pluralist ­ determination imply diferent approaches to to approaches diferent imply determination ­ Such an interpretation of this form of individual self-determina Such an interpretation of this form of individual dividual identity is in their concept considered as a mere expression of of expression mere a as considered concept their in is identity of dividual pluralism the of possibility the for allow to trying identity, collective “radically a between distinction the introduce identities, individual words, a particular community is here considered as an entity constitu words, a particular community is here considered radical pluralists (communitari Of course, some of the tive of the self. to avoid the objection that in Michael Sandel, in an attempt like ans), comprehend a wider subject than the individual alone, whether a fam comprehend a wider subject than the individual to this extent they de ily or tribe, or city or class or nation or people, other In 172). 1982, (Sandel sense” constitutive a in community a fne treated as something that would be separate from the values of the the of values the from separate be would that something as treated in immanent beliefs and practices the from and community particular self-understandings constructive our as far so in “And community: that tion fts into the postmodern for that con community, self that owes its identity to the constitutive is which identity, individual shaping of possibility the negates cept the common substantial good of the community, if the community is is community the if community, the of good substantial common the one based on the principles of direct democracy. any limitation, i.e., if an individual’s identifcation with the community/ any also could identifcation voluntary that course, Of voluntary. is of state creation the in participation individual’s the of consequence the be al self-determination if an individual is so entrenched in the life of the the of about some kind of i tion, but in that case we could also speak life the in entrenched so is individual an if self-determination al as community/state the regard not does he/she that community/state individual self-determination, the underlying assumption is that indi the individual self-determination, someone Perhaps from community identity. vidual identity is deduced case one could not talk about self could claim that in this an integral part of the community/state identity as this instance is, is, instance this as identity community/state the of part integral form an any from principle in separated character, formal purely a of having kind other the conceptualizing In tradition). cultural particular a of follows a certain collective tradition, his identity remains separate separate remains identity his tradition, collective certain a follows be can tradition cultural no for community/state, the of one the from ous that in conceptualizing the individual self-determination of the the of self-determination individual the conceptualizing in that ous of t is that the identities underlying assumption frst kind the individual an when (even separated are individual the of and munity types of individual self types of individual individual identi collective and the relationship between the issue of It is obvi identity. identity and individual community ties, i.e., between ------al, reli ch it is is it ch hits multi interpreting being, I am able to refect on my history history my on refect to able am I being, interpreting ­ In specifc communities whose legal order is based on a sub In specifc communities whose legal order based, establishes continuity with the life of its ancestors and the life life the and ancestors its of life the with continuity establishes based, Gray John As tradition. same the of members born be to yet the of phase, communitarian-postmodern his in it, put would inherit a life and possess it as one’s own”, but that is also the only basic basic only the also is that but own”, one’s as it possess and life a inherit as communities these within self-determination individual of model the current generation, thanks to the cultural tradition on whi mon good, and the law served and development. to its maintenance to possible “fully words, Walzer’s repeat to only, not is it good, stantial nian citizens had the freedom to participate in the common good, good, common the in participate to freedom the had citizens nian clearly way a in gods pagan Athenian the to respect show to had they an integral part of the com as those gods were defned by the law, mined by the good, has to order members of that community to fol mined by the good, has to order members was, Athens classical the as much As religion. that practice and low democracy, in which Athe generally speaking, the birthplace of direct individual members of that community, for they cannot be subject to to subject be cannot they for community, that of members individual integral part of the substan their free choice. If a certain religion is an then its legal system, as predeter tial good of a particular community, gious, ethical, ideological), and one does not see how it could be de gious, ethical, ideological), and one does termined otherwise, such as that the then those substantial values, the of life of way the in immanent be to have law, the precedes good cultural pluralism. However, I believe that the crucial thing is the fol I believe that the crucial cultural pluralism. However, determined is community particular a of good substantial a If lowing. values (cultur as a specifc combination of concrete substantial community is constitutive of the self-understanding of the subject. If If subject. the of self-understanding the of constitutive is community then it can how subject’, ‘wider a of part as self a become has self the this” (Forst 2002, 11). Forst’s remark distinguish itself from how the self, which is only ‘partly’ which and com defned by ‘attachments how the self, a how to as or distance this establishes community, the to the of mitments’ self-understanding the all after if possible is identity of ‘revision’ ever, as noted by Rainer: “Sandel does not give any indication as to 1982, 179). How distance myself from it” (Sandel and in this sense to to as indication any give not does “Sandel Rainer: by noted as ever, uated self”, which has the capability to refexively distance both from from both distance refexively to capability the has which self”, uated Sandel what to close are they Hence, community. its from and itself, self a claims: “As situated self”, which does not have any possibility to distance itself itself distance to possibility any have not does which self”, situated and identity, collective its from community, particular own its from partially sit “relatively, speaking, and refexively from itself, therefore

Divjak 284 285 edited volumes ------ire ire ers of a of ers norms, ribe, this na ”. And MacIntyre (MacIntyre 1984, 220): 220): 1984, (MacIntyre MacIntyre And ”. heritage Therefore, only the basic forms of human life, whose essential essential whose life, human of forms basic the only Therefore, its these roles. As such, I inherit from the past of my family, my city, myits these roles. As my city, I inherit from the past of my family, such, expectations rightful inheritances, debts, of variety a nation, my tribe, constitute the given of my life, my moral start and obligations. These particularity. moral own its life my gives what part in is This point. ing also is own” one’s as it possess and life a inherit “to course, Of [I]t is also that we all approach our own circumstances as bear [I]t is also that we all approach someone daughter, or son someone’s am I identity. social particular of member a city, that or this of citizen a am I uncle; or cousin else’s I belong to this clan, that t this or that guild or profession; inhab for me has to be the good for one who tion. Hence what is good constructed as the constructed incommensurable values are inserted into the collective identities identities collective the into inserted are values incommensurable postmod as put by another is Or, not chosen, but inherited. which are it as [...] much as in only lives “tradition Bauman: Zygmunt ernist, cultural-ethical or religious-cultural substance, and exclude ideologi cultural-ethical or religious-cultural substance, and exclude cal-political values and orientations, which would then enable ideo only or ethnically, and culturally a within pluralism political and logical tial good precedes individual rights. Of course, the common substan tial good precedes individual rights. Of to include the ent tial good does not have to be “thick” enough way of living; it can be “thinner”. For example, it can include only the components are predetermined by the preceding common good, are are good, common preceding the by predetermined are components in which a common substan appropriate for particular communities pending on his/her subjective preferences, but something that he/ pending on his/her subjective preferences, is that something such, as and others, with living in encounters she necessary for his/her identity. particularistic community based on the traditional cultural forms, aparticularistic community based on the by certain legal specifc collectivist way of living, guaranteed community could select,is not something that a member of that de tural pluralists, in that context, a collectivist idea of good life turns turns life good of idea collectivist a context, that in pluralists, tural thus and chooses who subject the of preference mere a be to out a in Conversely, identity. individual of component necessary a not rights does not imply an antecedent individualization of human life, life, human of individualization antecedent an imply not does rights of choice a it, wants she/he if individual, the for enables also it but according to multicul the collectivist concept of good life. However, possible in a liberal-democratic society as the primacy of individual individual of primacy the as society liberal-democratic a in possible ------ich ons is in in is ons ck” or or ck” party federal democratic republic, with with republic, democratic federal party ­ Hence, these two examples clearly demonstrate that a commu Hence, these two examples clearly demonstrate After the 1979 revolution, Iran was constitutionally established established constitutionally was Iran revolution, 1979 the After zens to radically criticize the common substantial good, to leave it and, and, If such a primacy it would enable their citi existed in certain countries, it leave to good, substantial common the criticize radically to zens life. good of concept a themselves for shape to so, chose they if a community individual rights have to be conditioned by the respect respect the by conditioned be to have rights individual community a for the common good. The primacy of individual rights cannot guaran good. substantial public the of development and reproduction the tee “thin”, is irreconcilable with the primacy of individual rights, for in such such in good, whether “thi nity established on a particular substantial for rights, individual of primacy the with irreconcilable is “thin”, ditioned by the respect for the Muslim principles; the media wh ditioned by the respect for the Muslim The Supreme Leader ap transgress these principles lose their license. points heads of the national TV and radio. expected to defend the existing Islam-based system, but the conser expected to defend the existing Islam-based more a of favor in are reformers and changes, to opposed are vatives liberal policy of the media is con within the Islamic context. Freedom commonly understood (political parties as such are banned), and only only and banned), are such as parties (political understood commonly the – currents political basic two represent which fractions, Islamic are these of Both allowed. are – one reformist the and conservative the hands of the Supreme Leader of the revolution, as a priest. Even Even priest. a as revolution, the of Leader Supreme the of hands the as government of the peo though there is a constitutionally recognized pluralism political no is there president, their elect freely who ple, as a theocracy, so political authorities derive their legitimacyas a theocracy, so political authorities derive from Is – priests the among concentrated is power the of most Hence, lam. of political decisi the fnal say and the power to veto a number Pakistan is defned as a multi Islam as the state religion. gion but have to follow the given version of Islam. Political subjects in the given version of Islam. Political gion but have to follow and cultural val are not allowed to question Islam Iran and Pakistan Constitution, 1991 its In programs. political their in it to related ues they have the status of a state religion, which means that the citizens citizens the that means which religion, state a of status the have they own reli have the freedom to choose their of these countries cannot a community, as these would be legally protected. One could see that that see could One protected. legally be would these as community, a specifc countries, these In Pakistan. and Iran of examples the using as good public common of level the to elevated are Islam of versions religiously and culturally homogenous population. However, political political However, population. homogenous culturally and religiously not would community a such within programs ideological subjects’ such of foundations religious-cultural or cultural-ethical the question

Divjak 286 287 edited volumes ------ves ves legitimacy in in legitimacy democratic framework, each indi democratic framework, ­ In particular communities which are preceded by a substantial substantial a by preceded are which communities particular In Walzer faces another problem with his thesis on the right of in Conversely, within the liberal within the Conversely, Of course, neither Pakistani nor Iranian government can be de can be nor Iranian government neither Pakistani Of course, tion do not have fully recognized individual rights, at least not in the the in not least at rights, individual recognized fully have not do tion these of members as treated be cannot they so word, the of sense full Muslim in women (like members full as not least at or communities, Athens some classes of people were excluded from individual rights rights individual from excluded were people of classes some Athens communities, particular contemporary some in slaves), and (women which could not be labeled as tyrannies, certain parts of their popula good, individual rights need not be universalized, i.e., they do not have have not do they i.e., universalized, be not need rights individual good, ancient democratic the in as Just citizens. adult its of all include to dividuals to reject the relations in which they are treated like com­ they are treated like dividuals to reject the relations in which as “objects” and not as subjects. modities, “extended arms”, slaves, i.e., life, etc.) are also possible. But he is not right when he believes that that believes he when right not is he But possible. also are etc.) life, project) can have the frst form of life (life as an individual precedes individual rights. communities where a substantial good like something that he/she can, according to his/her will, plan and then something that like Other life. of forms possible many of one just is realize, to a attempt inherit to (possibility self-determination individual i.e., life, of forms ly, as this is a purely formal and not a substantial framework. In other in this context only formal that individual liberties are equally limited other In framework. substantial a not and formal purely a is this as ly, project, individual an as life that claims he when right is Walzer words, vidual becomes a bearer of liberty as individual autonomy, which guar autonomy, vidual becomes a bearer of liberty as individual is between diferent alternati antees him/her the freedom of choice this for reason The self-determination. individual to comes it when common good, that is, freedom limited by the common good as the the as good common the by limited freedom is, that good, common cannot be transgressed. substantial frame that tial good is set on its own foundation, freedom as individual autonomy substan fact that in societies where a common This follows from the autonomy individual as freedom foundation, own its on set is good the tial in participate to freedom the is possibility only The possible. not is cannot enjoy full political freedoms, the freedom of the choice of reli freedoms, the freedom of the choice cannot enjoy full political Islam. to choose cultural values not typical of gion, or the freedom nied legitimacy as long as the majority of their citizens support them, them, support citizens their of majority the as long as legitimacy nied individual of degree the that note must one However, implicitly. even individuals as democracies, liberal in than lower is them in liberties Within the context of the primacyWithin the rights, substantial pub of individual on its own basis. not be established lic good would ------el - ed, ed, - side. eject any any eject As one could see, multicultural contextualists responded in in responded contextualists multicultural see, could one As To conclude: one could say that descriptive methodology If one accepts the point of view that human beings could un If one accepts the point and they went through diferent phases of their intellectual dev opment, trying their initial thesis about the cultural mo to “save” communities. particular of nism plurality of cultural traditions. diferent ways to the difculties and serious objections they fac de-ontological norms that any reasonable member of any cultural cultural any of member reasonable any that norms de-ontological tradition could not reject, as these norms are culturally and tradi the of following the enable they as say, to is that neutral, tionally from the experience, from particular values and social practices practices social and values particular from experience, the from is impossible. A dif about which, in principle, a universal consensus establishing on focused one necessary, is methodology ferent all, if the primacy of individual rights is not guaranteed? start to has always it as morality, minimal to way the open not does radical pluralism as an ontological fact. For example, could the right of of right the could example, For fact. ontological an as pluralism radical if guaranteed be it from away go to community some of members at the guaranteed be it Can tradition? cultural its by guaranteed not is it universal standards, or with any normative ideals. Each attempt to to attempt Each ideals. normative any with or standards, universal have that standards minimal introducing by relativism absolute avoid initial the from departure a entails communities special all satisfy to pre-normative source of all norms and objective values – objective as as objective – values objective and norms all of source pre-normative Radical history. on based tradition specifc the into inserted are they minimal of sort any with incompatible is contextualism postmodern ed, then the moral, legal, and cultural relativism is unavoidable, so so unavoidable, is relativism cultural and legal, moral, the then ed, objec of the criteria. It follows that each there is also a relativism only the as legitimacy full granted be must tradition tive-historical derstand each other exclusively on the basis of concepts and stan on the basis of concepts exclusively derstand each other includ shared traditions in which they have been dards derived from integral part of all cultural traditions, it is obvious that this normative normative this that obvious is it traditions, cultural all of part integral a specifc cultural tradition from the out ideal is brought into given status of being an object”, as proposed by Walzer, is not recog is Walzer, as proposed by of being an object”, given status be must it then communities, particular non-tyrannical all in an nized not is right this As ideal. normative a as but given, a as not treated countries). Thus, one could say that segments of their population still still population their of segments that say could one Thus, as countries). words, other In it. put would Walzer as “object”, of status the have to r the right of the subject right to nullifcation, “subject’s

Divjak 288 289 edited volumes -

------telos ing ing lism as as lism any uni any grown culture, which has to precede an indi grown culture, which ­ The central error of radical communitarianism, as well as radical radical as well as communitarianism, radical of error central The Multicultural and communitarian pluralists are forced to sup pluralists are forced and communitarian Multicultural and the Nazi regime (as a matter of fact, contemporary proponents of of proponents contemporary fact, of matter a (as regime Nazi the and If the multiculturalists or communi Nazism refer to that diference). would that exist, to right the Nazism deny to wanted tarians some of them as unacceptable. By rejecting a universal standard, i.e., i.e., standard, universal a rejecting By unacceptable. as them of some by treating diference as the primary event, every diference is neces democratic the between one the including legitimacy, granted sarily universal standard, one could not claim that it is primary. In that case, case, that In primary. is it that claim not could one standard, universal the universal standard that would “flter” pre diferences would have excluded then have would which – diference as diference ceded on the assumption that diference is the primary event. The primacy primacy The event. primary the is diference that assumption the on any is not limited by of diference implies the idea that diference by limited were it If formal. or substantial whether criteria, versal community and of the substantial common life. community and of the substantial common i.e., diference, of primacy the on insistence its in is multiculturalism, fered the disaster because it rejected the ethics of virtue. This prede fered the disaster because it rejected the termined the essence of this project, depriving humanity of the senseless the concept ofof good life, and devastating and rendering their fallen, sinful nature. According to the multiculturalists, the En their fallen, sinful nature. According to of foundation the as sense, Kantian a in understood lightenment suf as of the liberal order, as well de-ontological morality and law, ethics based on such principles, the de-substantialized ethics of prin ethics based on such principles, the de-substantialized end; high sublime, any to life social and human direct cannot ciples, on rely fearlessly to people upon call to is for strive can it most the of the self, eventually disintegrating into a morally and socially disori disintegrating into a morally and eventually of the self, formal purely the of criticism the for reason the is That being. ented The substance. communal their of devoid principles legal and moral such a community could secure the unity of individual and collective collective and individual of unity the secure could community a such no individual can fnd a grounding in someth life, without which continuity and integrity moral her/his lose to him/her leading “frm”, struct of a specifc self Only normatively. and ontologically both rights, his/her and vidual while at the same time keeping to some degree their initial purely purely initial their degree some to keeping time same the at while hidden, post the real, sometimes Actually, point of view. contextual as the con is an organic particular community modern pluralists’ ideal plement their initial theses with diferent versions of universa diferent versions initial theses with plement their relativists, absolute are they that criticism the avoid to wish they ------hin which which hin called objective val ­ contextual normative rule. contextual ­ take. As a European friend once put it: “identity politics – politics “identity it: put once friend European a As take. ­ and ­ The consequence of the uncritical glorifcation of diference, diference, of glorifcation uncritical the of consequence The existence as opposed to principles that presuppose argumentative argumentative presuppose that principles to opposed as existence give 1933–45”. from Germany in had they what that’s might con Of course, after all that was said here, someone Identity is not an argument. It represents an appeal to “life” or brute brute or “life” to appeal an represents It argument. an not is Identity the ones that deny their members equal rights or do not respect their their respect not do or rights equal members their deny that ones the identity politics, I agree withindividual rights at all. When it comes to 13): 2004, (Wolin Wolin Richard tive ones, does not solve the problem. For even such a limited plural tive ones, does not solve the problem. values. This equatesism remains relative in regard to the “objective” and organized democratically those both communities, particular all gards as valid must be considered as such. An attempt to avoid this this avoid to attempt An such. as considered be must valid as gards the so conclusion by making a distinction between traditions, and subjec ues, which are the result of particular cultural quence of this approach is absolute value relativism, for denying that that denying for relativism, value absolute is approach this of quence oth value, with its corresponding way of life, could be superior to any ers means relativizing all values: everythingre community that any legedly, cannot be reduced to any substantial common denominator denominator common substantial any to reduced be cannot legedly, purely formal can they be subsumed under any on the one hand, nor basic ontological fact. is the The fnal conse principle on the other, ples. The main base of this essentialism is the point of view about in of this essentialism is the point of view ples. The main base of existence the that view the say, to is that values, commensurable al they, worldviews, diferent inasmuch as fundamentally diferent theosis of a new essentialism, of the particularistic kind, wit theosis of a new essentialism, are elevated to the pedestal of primaryissues of group identity princi them, making this standard the trans this standard the them, making is the apo from freedom but from pluralism, which does not originate necessarily lead them to the standard valid for all particular communi valid for all lead them to the standard necessarily Asties/states. respec based on be valid for all communities it would of any from independent be also would it traditions, particular tive rection. And that would be correct. I am one of the scholars who who scholars the of one am I correct. be would that And rection. believe that if social reality in some basically liberal-democratic coun moderate of aspects some of introduction the demands tries clude that not only there is no radical, but also no moderate multicul clude that not only there is no radical, but turalism, whose goal is not the rejection of liberalism but only its cor

Divjak 290 291 edited volumes - - , should should ultimate ultimate edited by Mar

, m of Communitarianism?”. Communitarianism?”. of m Notre Dame: University of of University Dame: Notre Quality of Life . Cambridge: Cambridge Univer Tanner Lectures on Human Values . Princeton: Princeton University Press. Rationality?

Edition. Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Notre Dame: Edition. Which nd ? 2

. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California California of University Angeles: Los and Berkeley . , . Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press. , June 2, 2014. 2014. 2, June , Justice

After Virtue Whose Thick and Thin Liberalism and the LimitsLiberalism of Justice The Seduction of Unreason The Seduction Contexts of Justice Press. Ideologies, Multiculturalism Ideologies, Press. Notre Dame Press. sity Press. May 1 and 8. Brasense College, Oxford University, tha Nussbaum and Amartya Sen. Oxford: Clarendon Press. tha Nussbaum and Amartya Sen. Oxford: Clarendon MacIntyre, Alasdair. 1984. MacIntyre, Alasdair. Bibliography 2002. Forst, Reiner. logical consequences. The same is also true for communitarianism if if communitarianism for true also is same The consequences. logical main the with compatible be can elements conceptual its of some order. principles of liberal-democratic also not ignore the fact that radical multiculturalism as a philosophy of of But one be acknowledged. that reality should multiculturalism, philosophy a as multiculturalism radical that fact the ignore not also to its multiculturalism, brought in efect moderate identity is Sandel, Michael. 1982. Robson, Richard. 2014. “In What Sense is Multiculturalism a For Robson, Richard. 2014. “In What Sense is Multiculturalism MacIntyre, Alasdair. 1988. MacIntyre, Alasdair. Walzer, Michael. 1993. “Objectivity and Social Meaning”. In Walzer, Michael. 1989. “Nation and Universe”. In the Walzer, Michael. 1994. Wollin, Richard. 2004. Vladimir Milisavljević

Milisavljević 292 293 edited volumes ------”1 istory H more modest arguments con more modest arguments ationalism and ationalism N nd of E culture, diference, nationalism, universalism, xeno fter the “ fter niversalism: niversalism: A or pragmatism, but also by some unquestioned presupposi or pragmatism, but also by some unquestioned by an tions of political liberalism. This point is substantiated about the “end of history” thesis analysis of Fukuyama’s and as to of Rawls’ concept of international justice, in particular their treatment of the immigration problem. Keywords: phobia rule”), but rather by seemingly but rather by rule”), or justice, right to diference, autochthony cerning equality, of today’seven liberal democracy. This new defensive stance the right-wing nationalism has allowed for a normalization of it has political parties in institutional political life. However, merely helped it to gain a more but not stopped xenophobia, the political respectable face and spread more widely across nationalism can be spectrum. I argue that the rise of Western social explained by the decline of universalism in philosophy, I also sug political sensibility in general. sciences and citizens’ are supported not only and nationalism gest that xenophobia by explicitly diferentialist concepts, such as postmodernism The last few decades have brought about a signifcant change The last few decades have in and, more widely, in Europe in the character of nationalism politics is nationalist world. Quite paradoxically, the Western by appealing to biological or cul nowadays no more justifed own nation or by the belief in its uni tural superiority of one’s (e.g., “civilizing through colonial versal historical mission U This text has been written as part of the project “Structural, Social and Integra Historical Changes in Serbian Society in the Context of European (No. 179038) of the Ministry Sci tions and Globalization” of Education, Development of the Republic of Serbia. ence and Technological

1 enophobia enophobia arewell to to arewell A b s t r a c t X F ------“a - -

oliti one part of history to its could be brought universal – Napoleon’s empire or Western liberal democracies – liberal democracies empire or Western – Napoleon’s But let us put aside for a moment this objection and point to Such view of the transitional phase preceding the realization Such view of the transitional phase preceding The end of history by an ambi thesis has been characterized Francis Fukuyama initially entitled his famous 1989 article with his famous initially entitled Fukuyama Francis another important view shared by Kojève and Fukuyama, which is and Fukuyama, another important view shared by Kojève of more immediate consequence for our subject. tain parallel but separate existences, with relatively little tain parallel but separate existences, 1992, 277), does not seem (Fukuyama interaction between them” to be realistic. of “history”, contaminated by its all-too-human passions. For exam as issue, Fukuyama’s ple, given the importance of the immigration worlds will main sumption that “the historical and post-historical world not to be afected by conficts in its tardy, “historical” part,in its tardy, world not to be afected by conficts the relations along the and there are all reasons to believe that still belong to the realm fault lines between the two worlds would sion of Alexandre Kojève) is utterly optimistic and at the same time is utterly optimistic and at the same sion of Alexandre Kojève) philosophical and p questionable, in the frst place for general the part of the post-historical cal reasons. One could hardly expect sion (Fukuyama 1992, 276, cf. Kojève 1969, 192). Kojève 1992, 276, cf. sion (Fukuyama (according to the expres of the “universal and homogenous State” future, the world will be divided between a post-historical part” – in part” a post-historical future, the world will be divided between become superfuous – and which all struggle for recognition has part that is still stuck in history”, aggres i.e., in wars, violence and the world the same course. Howev and that the rest would eventually follow in his subsequent book, for the “foreseeable put it as Fukuyama er, jève, and perhaps in their common source of inspiration, Hegel. their common source of inspiration, jève, and perhaps in that These authors posited state of universal recognition, in end, consisting of the marked the end of historymarked known it. as we had guity since its very but also in Ko beginnings, not only in Fukuyama, path leading to the establishment of the universal world system of establishment of the universal world path leading to the earlier views, which, according to Fukuyama’s liberal democracies, er. But in the meantime, the afrmative answer that was provided answer that was the afrmative But in the meantime, er. to it, contrary and more wrong: to be proven more seems to the expectations, contemporarynot appear to follow the world does a question: “Have we reached the end of history?” The question is The question is the end of history?” “Have we reached a question: provocative pow has lost some of its even though it still debated,

Milisavljević 294 295 edited volumes ------has has - on rst nation nationalism historical world would still be di historical world would ­ I shall argue that these two shortcomings are responsible for However, recent actuality does not confrm this view. On On not confrm this view. recent actuality does However, The end of history was supposed to result in an equilibrium equilibrium an in result to supposed was history of end The fashioned nationalism” (Fukuyama 2018, xv), the revival or ­ difculties – theoretical as well as political – in dealing with its in diferent signifcantly is days our of Nationalism alism. and specifcity. But it also minimizes the signifcance of national But it also minimizes and specifcity. ism by confning its scope to one extreme of the political spectrum (the extreme right, or fascism). (145), or of the “demons” (153) of the past (so the commonplace frame of reference masks im Kaplan, 1993). This metaphors go: cf. portant features of today’s nationalism and obliterates its novelty eral democracies represents nothing more than the “upsurge of more than the “upsurge of eral democracies represents nothing old “awakening” (159) of the “ghosts of the older national identities” was fated to completely fade away from the world (Fukuyama 1992, 271–272). Also, in his latest book, Fukuyama accepts the nationalist politics in lib conventional wisdom according to which spective when treating the phenomenon of the rise of nationalism in Western countries. Seen through the lens of the end of history thesis, nationalism was a minor and residual phenomenon, which book, Fukuyama, in a way, acknowledged the existence of this problem. Nevertheless, he believed that nationalism essentially belonged to the past, and this view commanded his overall per witness an extraordinary rheto and xenophobic rise of nationalist or former communist countries, ric – not only in the Third World as well. In his f but in the most developed liberal democracies identifcation” (Fukuyama 1992, 276–277, cf. Kojève 1969, 276). Kojève 1992, 276–277, cf. (Fukuyama identifcation” the contrary, for a couple of decades now, we have been able to made peace with liberalism and would express themselves increas and would express themselves made peace with liberalism whereas “[i]n the historical of private life alone”, ingly in the sphere political of locus chief the be to continue will nation-state the world, Fukuyama’s conclusion: “The post have would nationalisms separate its but nation-states, into vided become insignifcant and obsolete. This seems to imply that nati This seems to and obsolete. become insignifcant world in which histo those parts of the be absent from alism should indeed, was, Such democracies). liberal (the end its to come has ry state in which all substantial demands for recognition of rights aredemands for recognition all substantial state in which which been the state in Thus, it should have satisfed. ------2 soll heißen: das Ideensystem, die Doktrin, das Weltbild, Weltbild, soll heißen: das Ideensystem, die Doktrin, das To begin with, we may adopt the defnition of nationalism begin with, we may adopt the defnition of To One part of my thesis is that the rise of ethnocentric nation One part of my thesis (called nation), and above all at legitimizing of modern political (called nation), the nation-state, with the nation This is the reason why power. to be the central issue which is as homogenous as possible, comes of nationalism. a system of ideas, a doctrine, a picture of the world which aims at a system of ideas, a doctrine, a picture of solidarity association creating, mobilizing and consolidating a larger Nationalismus das der Schaffung, Mobilisierung und Integration eines größeren Soli darverbandes (Nation genannt), vor allem aber der Legitimation neu politischer Herrschaft dient.zeitlicher Daher wird der Nationalstaat mit einer möglichst homogenen Nation zum Kardinalproblem des Nationa 2001, 13). lismus.” (Wehler “

2 by the German historian Hans-Ulrich Wehler, according to which na by the German historian Hans-Ulrich Wehler, tionalism is “Soft” nationalism? to believe. new Western nationalism is its relative independence from ideolo new Western feelings and atti This accounts for the fact that xenophobic gy. tudes are much more widespread than we are commonly inclined Fukuyama afrms. It does not afect only postmodernist, multicul turalist or pragmatist approaches, but political liberalism as well. Finally, I shall suggest that one of the main characteristics of the ism in politics, philosophy and social science. Thus far I have ac and social science. Thus ism in politics, philosophy cepted some of Fukuyama’s own conclusions. However, I believe that the decline of universalism is more comprehensive than what alism and xenophobia can be explained by the decline of universal can be explained by the decline alism and xenophobia thing new. However, its justifcation in the name of a diferentialist diferentialist a of name the in justifcation its However, new. thing are some well as its normalization, human rights, as ideology or unprecedented. thing character from the earlier one. One of its main features is acute xe One of its main from the earlier one. character unknown previously forms in emerges nowadays which nophobia, to us. Assentiment, a political not some is certainly xenophobia

Milisavljević 296 297 edited volumes ------to to ation” ation” estern W This process of normalization 3 right has been at work since the beginning of right has been at work since the beginning ­ Its consequences have become obvious during the last Its consequences have become obvious 4 Xenophobia may give rise to violence, and, traditionally, one may give rise to violence, and, traditionally, Xenophobia Obviously, these features of nationalism (homogeneity of the the of (homogeneity nationalism of features these Obviously, To this minimal defnition of nationalism, we should perhaps we should perhaps of nationalism, this minimal defnition To The important question of secret connections between far-right political The important question of secret connections between far-right parties and illegal informal groups engaged in violence against foreigners may here be left aside. The transformation of the old right has been rightly stressed in anti-na tionalist political agendas. Nonetheless, even in its new form, xenophobic

3 4 the 1990s. of the extreme or far to the political system of parliamentary democracy, in which they have achieved substantial successes. rich societies. More specifcally, in Western Europe, extremist polit Europe, in Western rich societies. More specifcally, against foreigners, have ei ical parties, openly inviting to violence or adapted themselves ther disappeared from the political scene world is concerned, this distinction seems to have lost some of its world is concerned, this distinction seems problem of immigration, pertinence, particularly in regard to the of contemporarywhich is one of the most important challenges of the main topics of the theory has been the dis of nationalism nationalism and its extreme tinction between moderate or liberal and violent counterpart. At frst sight, and as far as the briefy, “new nationalism”, in which xenophobia has come to play suchplay to come has xenophobia which in nationalism”, “new briefy, nationalism xenophobic? a prominent role. But frst of all, is new mention of ethnicity or race, much less of xenophobia or even vio of xenophobia mention of ethnicity or race, much less of nationalism fts lence. So, we may wonder how this defnition more or, nationalism of forms” “new as to referred usually is what nation, promotion of its interest, attachment to one’s homeland or or homeland one’s to attachment interest, its of promotion nation, How attitudes or feelings. related to xenophobic soil) are potentially nothe case, and Wehler’s this is not necessarily makes defnition ever, tion-state. But this term sometimes refers to something else: a na term sometimes refers to something tion-state. But this even neighborhood. tive region, town or to be mentioned is the importance of the idea of “homeland” in na the importance of the idea of “homeland” to be mentioned is the territory Homeland is, usually, tionalist discourse. na of the said, in a somewhat exaggerated statement, exaggerated said, in a somewhat “nationalism by defni its specifc n to those of all other interests tion subordinates point which deserves 1990, 549–550). Another (quoted in Walzer add, however obvious it may be, that nationalism is devoted to the is devoted to the be, that nationalism obvious it may add, however As one particular nation. of the interest of promotion Hobsbawm ------im rror - r rac e Pen’s e Pen’s L de facto growing difculty of growing difculty of ­ These changes in the political practice of far-right parties of far-right These changes in the political practice extension of conservatism the extreme end of the political spec towards trum; instead, it is the product of a restructuring of that spectrum and a regrouping of political actors and alliances. It is distinguished from the old right by its softening of anti-democratic rhetoric and willingness to play according to the rules of the game, as well as by its advocacy of rather than classic biological racism.” nationalism is still labeled as “radicalism” or “extremism” (Minkenberg (Minkenberg or “extremism” nationalism is still labeled as “radicalism” 2013, 19): “This of new radical right – identified above as the ‘third wave’ democracies – is not simply the Western radicalism in post-war right-wing ism (Balibar 2005, 13). But new nationalism does not necessarily ism (Balibar 2005, 13). But new nationalism stressing, e.g., the biological superiority of the white race. Its basis stressing, e.g., the biological superiority suggests that it is more ap is cultural rather than biological, which biological nationalism o propriate to speak of cultural than of and hence more acceptable to a wider range of voters. Faced with range of voters. Faced and hence more acceptable to a wider has adopted a new the problem of immigration, new nationalism the old arguments from as it refrains, at least ofcially, strategy, were accompanied, or preceded, by a shift at the level of the ideo were accompanied, or preceded, by a “softer” nationalism made which nationalism, of foundations logical ism”, should be enforced by the state. Merely conceded to or should ism”, nowadays shared by moder enthusiastically advocated, this view is ate and radical nationalists alike. only because of the assumption that the policies which only because of the assumption that as the extensively con ply resorting to extreme violence, such borders” or “war on te ceived tasks of the “control of national plored by the moderate right (Taguief 2014, 12, 175–177). Howev 2014, 12, right (Taguief plored by the moderate to it: if acts of violence by political there is a good explanation er, it is are not overtly supported or encouraged, parties or individuals ate versions. Consequently, the suspicion of extremism or racism the suspicion of extremism or ate versions. Consequently, or over liberal or moderate nationalism, foats nowadays even de has often been politics in general. This “confusion” right-wing result of this normalization has been the ever result of this normalization moder between extreme nationalism and its tracing a borderline ternative for Germany party in Germany, Geerts Wilders in the Wilders in the Geerts party in Germany, for Germany ternative elec League in Italy), Brexit, or the Northern Netherlands Trump’s toral victory Salvini’s entrance into government. and Matteo The decade, with several emblematic events, such as Marine events, such several emblematic decade, with presidency in 2011, the rise Front’s the former National taking over Al countries (the in other European nationalist parties of populist

Milisavljević 298 299 edited volumes ------a p - - nsist immigrant parties, like the like immigrant parties, ­ Unlike its historical predecessors, new nationalism presents its historical Unlike At frst sight, new nationalism is more modest than the tra nity. Instead of adopting the discourse of liberation, new national nity. ism has developed a sentimental rhetoric of belonging in which in cherished region or village, timate individual memories of one’s itself in the defensive stance of closure and retreat,itself in the defensive stance of closure not of expan sion or conquest. It seems to aim solely at preserving home, one’s native commu place of birth and antique traditions of one’s one’s price, rather than as an intrinsic spiritual value that deservesprice, rather than as an intrinsic spiritual to be protected and promoted in its own right. there are reasons to believe that Christian religion is understood by there are reasons to believe that Christian particular “cultural identity”his party primarily as constitutive of a peoples, which should be preservedof European as such at any grand narrations on the universal history of mankind. Victor Or Hungarian nation as a defender of Christianity vision of the bán’s to this rule; however, appears to be one of the few exceptions emancipatory the case with British, Ger calling, as was previously New nationalism may be seen as a spir nationalism). man or French to reference from any itual heir of postmodernism, as it abstains ditional one, as it does not assign to one’s own nation any out own nation any ditional one, as it does not assign to one’s (a civilizing, cultural or standing, universal world-historic mission called constructivist conception of the nation (as in the case of a called constructivist conception of the in Italy) or the purely imaginary “Padania” homeland, the so called multiculturalist rhetoric. themselves” – the same right it readily acknowledged to other n right it readily acknowledged to themselves” – the same in some cases, xenophobic 193). Surprisingly, tions too (Betz 2003, to the so- itself capable of accommodating nationalism has proven Vlaams Blok, which rejected all accusations of racism brought u rejected all accusations of racism brought Vlaams Blok, which co that the political objective of the party against it afrming to be than defending “the right of Flemings ed of nothing more protect its traditions and way of life. This change has become visi and way of life. This change has become protect its traditions discourse of anti ble in the ideological as well as on the need to preserveas well as As national identity. the a rule, of justice, stating to the principle consists of appealing second step the equal right of every and particular nation to choose its destiny afrm the cultural superiority of one’s own nation either. The argu own nation either. of one’s cultural superiority afrm the the so-called “irre insists on favored by its proponents ment most cultures, and their respective between nations ducible diference” ------of as in the les clochers et les terroirs, et les clochers les By its form, origin and meaning, the word “xenophobia” re “xenophobia” By its form, origin and meaning, the word However, all this lyricism is nothing but the likable side of the likable side is nothing but all this lyricism However, sive or prove them wrong. To this type of criticism, one may sive or prove them wrong. To af a certain amount of xenophobia, respond with a question: isn’t ter all, something human and understandable, or even constitutive particularly of those coming from leftist politics. It is commonly as particularly of those coming from leftist character of cer sumed that it is enough to state the xenophobic them repul tain political attitudes and practices in order to make with using this concept as a denigrating label. While questioning with using this concept as a denigrating discourses, practices and attitudes, we should be xenophobic of fghting xenophobia, aware of the weaknesses of some forms political signifcance. Nonetheless, the “pathological” overtone political signifcance. Nonetheless, the is so suitable for disqualifyingthe term accounts for the fact that it not to content ourselves of political adversaries. But it is important this concept is not the one of psychology, but of sociology and po this concept is not the one of psychology, that we are dealing with is not a purely litical science: xenophobia phenomenon with major subjective feeling, but an omnipresent noting pathological conditions which consist of a morbid and irra noting pathological conditions which person which a healthy tional fear of something or somebody feld of application of the typical perceives as innocuous. However, minds of terms such as “claustrophobia” or “arachnophobia”, de or “arachnophobia”, minds of terms such as “claustrophobia” Legitimizing xenophobia on xenophobic feelings of the domestic population, which are con of the domestic population, which feelings on xenophobic gain encouraged. The efort to help xenophobia stantly incited and image is also a matter of sustained concern. a more acceptable grants and refugees, hostile attitude to any form of blending of hostile attitude to any grants and refugees, discrimi one of the native populations, and their culture with the still rely these practices changes in ideology, nation. In spite of all quences of new nationalism remain substantially identical to those remain substantially identical quences of new nationalism borders for immi politics: closing the of the same old right-wing the more disputable practice of erecting interstate walls, barbed walls, barbed of erecting interstate disputable practice the more nowadays. As which we witness or even mine felds, wire fences to conse the most important practical the question of immigration, with its church towers and soils ( towers and soils with its church honor. hold a place of Front), National case of France’s

Milisavljević 300 301 edited volumes ------l - ca arn - Strauss later ­ Strauss, as re ­ Strauss himself ­ Straus 1985, 23–24). ­ Straus 1985, xiii–xiv): ­ Strauss’ standpoint was understood and condemned as Strauss’ standpoint was understood and ­ Lévi Let us take a step back and recall the signifcant (and un a step back and recall the Let us take It has been justly noted that, nowadays, “[x]enophobia is justly noted that,It has been nowadays, “[x]enophobia ers or to feel little drawn to other people or groups whose ways of life, life, of ways whose groups or people other to drawn little feel to or which ers to system the from remote quite are themselves, in certainly respectable incommunicability relative Such attached. traditionally is has one one values the destroy or oppress to anyone authorize not does It is not at all invidious to place one way of life or thought above all oth It is not at all invidious to place one way of life held by individuals or groups that their loyalty to certain values held by individuals or groups that their or totally insensitive to other values”. As […] partially he fur makes ther explained (Lévi said that his intention had been to circumscribe the meaning of the said that his intention had been to circumscribe in order to oppose its abuses. Nevertheless, he pro term “racism” racism and “the attitude posed an ambiguous distinction between a deviation from the anti-racist consensus, prevalent after the a deviation from the anti-racist consensus, II. This judgment was harsh and unjust. Lévi War World once again that all true creation implies a certain deafness to the once again that all true creation implies far as to reject them if not appeal of other values, even going so them altogether”denying (Lévi considered as vital for the of any culture: “if not resigned culture: “if not resigned any considered as vital for the creativity of the values of the past […] to becoming the sterile consumer of humanity “must le pable only of giving birth to bastard works”, edge and the development of communication among human be edge and the development of communication accepting and respect ings will someday let them live in harmony, ing their diversity” – the diversity which Lévi the opening of the International Year for Action to Combat Racism. for Action International Year the opening of the lecture put the Contrary intentions of the organizer, to the original of know accepted view that “the spread into question the widely lucky) historical episode from the biography of Lévi from the biography lucky) historical episode in 1971 at It concerns his lecture given in UNESCO lated by himself. the same time, I will sketch the broader theoretical context which the broader sketch the same time, I will possible. of xenophobia has made the rehabilitation made productive, a necessity for survival. Its ugliness is made over, for survival. a necessity made productive, is made over, Its ugliness I will try In what follows, (Amin 2011). even beautifed” to address societies. At in Western legitimizing xenophobia some strategies of of the life in human society, which always consists of a more or less of a more or less always consists which in human society, of the life of people? limited group ------es - n - - - Strauss was ­ estern xenophobia estern xenophobia W Strauss that such exclusivity is a Strauss that such exclusivity ­ , “to vomit”) represents a powerful tool for Strauss’ goal was rather to contribute Strauss’ goal was rather to contribute estern way of dealing with alterity by exclu ­ W But we are nowadays witnessing a curi 5 emein Strauss did not even mention the word “xenophobia” in mention the word “xenophobia” Strauss did not even ­ Strauss’ famous distinction between primitive and modern societi Strauss’ famous distinction between primitive ­ Strauss 1955, 463–4; cf. Taguieff 2001, 20–21), much worse than the Taguieff Strauss 1955, 463–4; cf. ­ Lévi at all repugnant. It may even be the price to be paid so that the systems systems the it is not but within these limitations, their representatives, rejected, or that so paid be to price the be even may It repugnant. and all at preserved are community each or family spiritual each of values of necessarythemselves the resources fnd within renewal. for their (from the Greek word challenging the typically sion or segregation: as a matter of fact, the new could be considered as the supreme degree of anthropoemia (Lé vi cannibalism of the “savages”. Lévi and anthropoemia in terms of the difference between anthropophagy

5 estern xenophobia has nothing in common with the so called estern xenophobia far-reaching statements. far-reaching Geertz 1986). However, Lévi Geertz 1986). However, to the preservation native communities of the of the endangered in general and world, even if his conclusions were expressed appeal to the authority of the great anthropologist: according to appeal to the authority of the great anthropologist: “we may agree with Lévi Rorty, necessary (Rorty 1991, 210, cf. and proper condition of selfhood” trying racism and a diference between xenophobia to establish to justi some of the attempts More importantly, (Balibar 2005, 21). as a normal and legitimate attitude fy or exclusivism xenophobia tifcation of cultural xenophobia, as distinct from (biological) “racism”. “racism”. (biological) from distinct as xenophobia, cultural of tifcation was so infuent that one of the outspoken The misunderstanding maintains that Lévi xenophobia adversaries of Western this context. However, his utterances were understood as meant to utterances were understood as meant his this context. However, and a jus foundation for ethnocentrism provide an anthropological “primitive” fear before the strange or unfamiliar. Quite the con fear before the strange or unfamiliar. “primitive” trary, given the colonial past of the West, we could see the new habitants of the Amazonian rainforests, whose fragile culture is al habitants of the Amazonian from overseas. But new legedly endangered by the newcomers W ology of the “autochthonous” or “indigenous” population of ology of the “autochthonous” or “indigenous” countries. The westerners are pretending to developed Western or autochthonous i fnd themselves in the position of Aborigines ous twist: the arguments which were originally put forwardous twist: the arguments which were to pro by the new nativist ide tect native peoples, are being appropriated

Milisavljević 302 303 edited volumes ------

- of - ), which implies insists on the es la diférance la On the contrary, it is easy to 6 The Other Heading ) (Taguief 2014, 19). ) (Taguief colonisation à rebours colonisation This particularistic argumentation, which has been termed argumentation, which has been termed This particularistic Whether it takes a national form or not, a refned, hospitable or or hospitable refned, a not, or form national a takes it Whether The value of universality […] capitalizes all the antinomies, for it must must it for antinomies, the all capitalizes […] universality of value The the in universal the inscribes that exemplarity of value the to linked be whether this sin of an idiom or a culture, proper body of a singularity, not. or confederal, federal, state, national, social, individual, be gularity Jacques Derrida honestly tried to fght nationalism and xe Jacques Derrida honestly tried to fght Similarly, Terry Eagleton reveals a significant affinity between the spirit Eagleton reveals Terry Similarly, repudiation of universalism (Eagleton of populism and the postmodernist 1996, 28, 63–68, 112–128).

6 “a politics of diferentiation”, could, for example, serve“a politics of diferentiation”, as a basis of the Apartheid regime in for the struggle against the injustices 132–133). 1993, South Africa (Frank ons of diference against racism and xenophobia. As Manfred Frank Asons of diference against racism and xenophobia. Manfred Frank perspicaciously observed, to conceive, in terms of it is difcult ( “diferance” sheer logic, how Derrida’s which deserves be stressed – by the postmodernist absolutizing to in spite denial of universalism, of diference and correspondent champi engagement of the philosophical the frequent and sincere winian descent, of “pri its thesis on the genetic foundations with mary” (cf. with xenophobia racism, sometimes directly identifed was also encouraged – the point 2001, 45–55). But it Taguief “fundamentalism of diference” or “cultural diferentialism”, was or “cultural diferentialism”, diference” “fundamentalism of Dar developments in sociobiology of doubtful favored by certain turn, being cynicallyturn, being “in re of practicing a colonization accused ( verse” avatar of xenophobia as a symptom of the repressed feeling of symptom of the repressed as a xenophobia avatar of in face of the dis metropoleis populations of former guilt of the in which are now, familiar peoples, of all too tressed descendants lowing passage from his book and universalism (Derrida sential afliation between nationalism 1992, 72–73): nophobia, but was mistaken in his account of their reasons. Derrida nophobia, but was mistaken in the metaphysical fnds the roots of nationalism and xenophobia The fol with its concept of universal identity. heritage of Europe, fnd in the “thought of the diference” the point of support for seg fnd in the “thought of the diference” more than once. regationist policies, and this has happened ------– - ours afrmation of an identi afrmation ­ What is the situation like when it comes to politics? A com when it comes to politics? What is the situation like Similar consequences could be drawn from a wider range of Similar consequences could be drawn Derrida’s verdict has not stood the test of time, which has of time, which has not stood the test verdict has Derrida’s aggressively xenophobic form or not, xenophobic aggressively the self of the uni to the call or assignation to be responding ty always claims law. this to exceptions no are There versal. to Rorty, leads to relativism, which his own ethnocentrism avoids; leads to relativism, which his own ethnocentrism avoids; to Rorty, no less than Peirce’s or Habermas’ philosophy, postmodernism is liable to criticism as being “insufciently ethnocentric” (Rorty grand, ethnocentric narratives, those that help to establish the nation, of a “particular collec identity and cohesion of a particular tion of human beings” (Rorty 1991, 24). Postmodernism, according parison with a postmodernist may here be useful. In his discussion with Lyotard, Rorty accepts Lyotard’s thesis of the end of grand the (presumably) non- narratives, but reproaches him for rejecting prevails over the scientifc ideal of objectivity. This puts an end to prevails over the scientifc ideal of objectivity. quest for universal principles. any said about either truth or rationality apart from descriptions of the said about either truth or rationality apart a given society – familiar procedures of justifcation which uses in one or another area of inquiry” (Rorty 1991, 23). Solidarity The two aspects of ethnocentrism are interrelated. In terms of The two aspects of ethnocentrism are Rorty adopts the viewpoint, which he explicitly la epistemology, “there is nothing to be bels as “ethnocentric”, according to which lieves “that moral values are just embedded in contingent local tra lieves “that moral values are just embedded (Eagleton 1996, 114) ditions and have no more force than that” as well as in politics. and advocates ethnocentrism in epistemology philosophical positions which explicitly put into question universal philosophical positions which explicitly who be of Rorty, ism. Probably the most telling is the example The right thing to do The right thing to diference, which, however, entitles us to keep the newcomer as entitles us to keep however, diference, which, the domestic population of Europe. far as possible from nationalism. Their proponents tend to refrain from any universalist tend to refrain from any nationalism. Their proponents argument, cultures and name of the pure diversity of human in the confronted us with overtly and deliberately particularist forms of overtly and deliberately particularist confronted us with

Milisavljević 304 305 edited volumes ------he - - spe icular However, unlike 7 estern countries should adopt in their relations to , based on ontological premises. W Rorty’s standpoint bears clear resemblances to some as It may be objected that we should not blame Rorty for justi It may be objected Rorty has disowned this interpretation of his views. He has admitted that his own ambiguities in expounding the concept of ethnocentrism may have contributed to the misunderstanding that it consists of “attempting a transcendental deduction of democratic politics from antirepresenta

7 of human being, which makes us think of Heidegger’s Geworfenheit of ethnocentrism, to which we are “condemned” (Rorty 1991, 31– of ethnocentrism, to which we are “condemned” 32), on the importance of contingency, on the tradition to which one belongs, appears to be supported by a conception of fnitude [...] refers to two sides of the same process” (Taguief 2001, 59). (Taguief [...] refers to two sides of the same process” pects of Heidegger’s philosophy: his insisting on the inevitability difcult to tell this ethnocentrism apart from xenophobia in terms from xenophobia difcult to tell this ethnocentrism apart self” one’s of the diference between “relation to and “relation to others”. As has been noted, “the pair ethnocentrism/xenophobia mands for universal or global justice are doomed to “weaken, or doomed to “weaken, mands for universal or global justice are way give and tough”, really get things when altogether, vanish even Rorty 1991, 200). It is 42, cf. to more limited loyalties (Rorty 2007, group of people, the one in which a person happens to be born and group of people, the one in which a person raised. In Rorty’s but opinion, identifcation is subject to gradation universal human being: de never actually reaches the level of the with its apology of provincialism and even parochialism (Rorty with its apology of provincialism and 26, 33), is strongly part 1989, 73, 190, and Rorty 1991, 21–22, ist. Rorty’s “solidarity” requires an identifcation with a particular larger and more variegated ethnos”. Furthermore, it is an ethno ethnos”. Furthermore, larger and more variegated distrust people “who have been brought up to centrism of liberal Nevertheless, Rorty’s (Rorty 1989, 198). viewpoint,ethnocentrism” fying later specifc model of ethnocentrism. In a by his xenophobia warns his readers that the ethnocentrism book, Rorty expressly an even to creating to enlarging itself, is advocating “is dedicated the rest of the world. or Foucault,of faith in liberal democracy for their loss 1991, (Rorty by contrast,220) and, as the ap endorses ethnocentrism openly proach that 1991, 23). Rorty believes that we are justifed in attaching “a we are justifed Rorty believes that 1991, 23). cial privilege to our own community” or ethnos (Rorty 1991, 29). On these grounds, he admonishes French authors, such as Lyotard ------lica estern estern W ” – the one of “the ), i.e., the contin ), i.e., the ethnos Bindungen where he condemned our The dilemma runs as follows. 8 Weltanschauungen, Rorty gives no clear-cut answer to this question, but his On this point, I owe much to an author who has explained Trump’s elec On this point, I owe much to an author who has explained Trump’s toral victory ethnocentrism (Looper 2016). in terms of Rorty’s “gentle” tional premises”, i.e., from the concept of “human finitude”, while it is tional premises”, i.e., from the concept of “human finitude”, nothing more than “a reference to a particular rich North Atlantic democracies” (Rorty 1991, 14–15).

8 estern democracies) does not allow for achieving both objec estern democracies) estern way of life for the old arguments tending to establish W crisy of American companies which justify transfer of capital their their superior rationality. Rorty does not even address the prob their superior rationality. to the de of the Third World lem of immigration of the population in demasking the hypo­ veloped countries: his objective lies solely world and other cultures, he merely substitutes his new method ofmethod new his substitutes merely he cultures, other and world “persuasion” of the advantages of Western liberal values and W overall standpoint – “liberal ethnocentrism” – strongly suggests that he inclines to the frst Andanswer. when it comes to the issue between the of the right way of achieving an understanding a worldwide leveling of incomes at the expense of the population of rich countries (Rorty 2007, 43–44)? braries, liberal education and all other “blessings of political liberty”, which require substantial fnancing at the cost of the rest of the world, or trying to solve the problem of global inequality by ( for: preservingtives, which is the one we should opt the demo world – free press, free public li cratic institutions of the Western Since the scarcity of the resources of the rich part of the world which may not be central to Rorty’s argument, but is nevertheless our context.highly signifcant in ical outlook and still have doubts concerning its political imp have doubts concerning its political ical outlook and still example of this point,tions. Let me give an another, based on text,that Rorty formulated in a subsequent practical dilemma butes, which are not liable to further questioning (Adorno 1973, I, may even agree with Rorty’s125–130). But one philosoph general readiness to understand our “bonds” ( to understand our readiness life – our nationali that determine our circumstances gent factual attri – as our essential and irreducible religion or education ty, Heidegger’s, Rorty’s ethnocentrism is deliberately subjectivist. context of his gen an attitude in the disputed such Adorno rightly of eral criticism

Milisavljević 306 307 edited volumes ------ch - im - estern values and ideas W thirds? Or sacrifce the blessings of political liberty for thirds? ­ Another problem is raised by the veryAnother problem is form in which Rorty’s when this happens, as is precisely the case in our days, it becomes feel hard to stop liberal people from nationalist and xenophobic obviously allows ings and policies. Rorty’s “gentle ethnocentrism” exposed to destructive infuences and militaryexposed to destructive infuences and interventions of ma if so, everythingbecomes a matter of jor world powers. However, force, which can go as far as terrorism, and not of discussion. And more natural solution to their problems than tryingmore natural solution to their problems to imitate the and implement, Rorty suggests, as West because they are constantly in their own countries, all the more so ply eager for a better life – is to try do everything to they possibly the world which presently can to force their way into the parts of This looks as a mu belong to the privileged portion of mankind. view, but then we should also admit that, same, according to the view, for the populations to do” “ethnocentric” premise, “the right thing – either distressed or s of the remaining two thirds of mankind this question is. It is clearly not the “right thing” in any universal universal thing” in any this question is. It is clearly not the “right “for us”, liberally- and demo sense of the word, but the right thing may accept this point of cratically-minded westerners. Now we maining two may (Rorty 2007, 43). We economic justice?” of egalitarian the sake the phrase “the right thing” in wonder what the precise meaning of dilemma is presented: “Whatfor the rich de […] is the right thing free Keep and each other? Be loyal to themselves mocracies to do? at the expense of the re societies going for a third of mankind option in critical cases where fruitful conversation proves impossi where fruitful conversation proves option in critical cases ble (Rorty 2007, 54). persuasion, as opposed to violence or force, as the right means for that re But it must be noted that he concedes achieving this goal. sorting to “the threat, or even the use, of force” stays for him an World to follow the example of liberal democracies, to be “more like us”, while staying home. Rorty likes to emphasize his choice of low American citizens; in this respect as well, his standpoint re as well, his standpoint in this respect citizens; low American mains strictly ethnocentric. However, Rorty’s general conclusion is that American liberals should incite the population of the Third from rich countries to the Third World by appealing to the princi by appealing World countries to the Third from rich ple of justice extended to humanity as a whole, which should have loyalty to their fel principle of national over the moral precedence ------

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nd re uku­ complete Fukuyama believes that this believes Fukuyama 9 Of course, Fukuyama opposes nationalism, xenophobia and opposes nationalism, xenophobia Of course, Fukuyama This should be all the more stressed, as Fukuyama, himself a as Fukuyama, This should be all the more stressed, Criticism of postmodernist and pragmatist approaches Criticism of postmodernist ples and states” (Fukuyama 1992, 212), which allowed struggles for par 1992, ples and states” (Fukuyama ticular interests to frustrate demands for universal recognition. F the yama does not say whether one should seek to realize universal correspondence between peoples and states in order to make it is obvious that this would amount to a democracy possible. However, worldwide realization of nationalist programs. Latent nationalism is also at work in Fukuyama’s historical account of the Latent nationalism is also at work in Fukuyama’s failure of the attempts to establish democracy universally: the main between peo reason of this failure is “the incomplete correspondence

9 top” of them (Fukuyama 1992, 213). of them (Fukuyama top” plicit in his thesis that nation-states always presuppose peoples as plicit in his thesis that nation-states always of good and evil” – val communities that share “the same language choices, and are built “on ues, that cannot be reduced to rational is the aforementioned assumption of the fundamental diference is the aforementioned assumption of between the two parts of contemporary world – the “historical” A preference for nationalism is also im and the “post-historical”. right-wing identitary if politics. But one can be a nationalist even right-wing race or religion. of nation is not based on ethnicity, concept one’s frst book, one of the main obstacles to universalism In Fukuyama’s eral concept is capable of fulflling the promise of universal a eral concept is capable of fulflling the ciprocal recognition. liberal, was right in putting into question the postmodern disavow liberal, was right in putting into question whether his own lib one may wonder al of universalism. However, could simply be prevented by espousing liberal philosophy of uni by espousing liberal philosophy could simply be prevented Taguief as some would have us believe (cf. versal human rights, 2001, 298). should not induce us to think that nationalism or ethnocentrism should not induce Pride and prejudice matism” – of the vast project of dissolving all overarching, universal all overarching, universal of dissolving – of the vast project matism” moral principles. for the view that xenophobia too, under certain circumstances, circumstances, too, under certain that xenophobia for the view or act on. Justifying the right thing to feel would be at xenophobic of prag the last of the “consequences be considered titudes could

Milisavljević 308 309 edited volumes

- - - - any - - informed ­ esteem), as diferent as diferent esteem), ­ . theirs historical countries would face resides ­ purely instrumental, as it ultimately serves the is their restrictive immigration policy, that is, in fnding “ Fukuyama has been aware of the challenge posed to liberal thymotic pride in their political system and a way of life. That is, they they is, That life. of way a and system political their in pride thymotic than better necessarily is it because not democracy love to come must it is the alternatives, but because close to Rorty’sThis solution to the problem seems quite For democracy to work […] citizens of democratic states must forget forget must states democratic of citizens […] work to democracy For irrational certain a develop and values their of roots instrumental the justifying and irreducible to human reason (Fukuyama 1992, 215): reason (Fukuyama and irreducible to human tion to his end-of-history thesis – the incapacity of the liberal state of the liberal thesis – the incapacity end-of-history tion to his to fully satisfy “thymotic” ambitious, spirited, impulses of the the (human “heart” or self part of human being statement also applies to liberal democracies, which embody the which embody the democracies, also applies to liberal statement pro he That is why recognition. and universal ideals of rationality the central objec to what he sees as following answer poses the ambiguous way in which he presented its stakes is highly instructive: instructive: highly is stakes its presented he which in way ambiguous the main “difculty” that post in their equals in dignity? their equals in dignity? democracies by massive immigration since the beginning. But the in the liberal state? Finally, would the citizens of such a state, hav would the citizens Finally, in the liberal state? of their values, still be capable ing forgotten the instrumental roots share these values, as of seeing foreigners, who do not necessarily “historical” world, such as the issues of immigration, terrorism or “historical” world, such as the issues of military intervention? if these choices are simply to be dis And missed as irrelevant, what are the consequences for “democracy” reason, afect the seriousness of democratic and well reason, afect the seriousness of democratic in their political life – in make choices that people are supposed to with the outer, the ones which concern their relations particular, while the universalistic goal of their state would remain invisible to while the universalistic goal of their state of its own realization. But if so, fur their eyes, and this for the sake or cunning of (liberal) ther questions arise: would not this myth, goal of liberal democracy, the universal recognition: in the same goal of liberal democracy, the universal Republic, of the post-his the citizens of Plato’s way as the citizens in an ethnocentric myth, torical nation-states would have to believe ethnocentrism. Certainly, one could maintain that the value of the ethnocentrism. Certainly, national pride ------ival le in - state, ­ world, prescrip ism. racist or na historical” ­ historical half must make make must half historical ­ does not seem does not seem The realistic aspect of Fukuyama’s liberalism has lately come liberalism has lately come The realistic aspect of Fukuyama’s doctrine”: “[t]he historical half of the world persists in operating operating in persists world the of half historical “[t]he doctrine”: ties is only instrumental, as he did before: the “end of history”, the is no more establishment of the “universal and homogenous state”, a serious issue for him. says that the latter should be “broader” around liberal and “built 165– 2018, 128, cf. and democratic political values” (Fukuyama he does not assume that the role of national identi 166). However, of “white nationalism” and the rise of the political right – should, of “white nationalism” give way to the more important goal of according to Fukuyama, It is true that Fukuyama building comprehensive national identities. terms of challenges which modernization poses to individual hu terms of challenges which modernization marginal identi of particular, man beings, demands for recognition the back door to the rev ties – the same ones that have opened rather than to the fulfllment of “universal liberal values”. rather than to the fulfllment of “universal but the advantages of societal diversity, acknowledges Fukuyama understandab seeks to limit its scope. Although psychologically critique of diferentialist identity politics and multicultural critique of diferentialist identity politics obstacles which the main object of this critique are the However, of the nation particularism poses to the efective functioning al interest, not of universal recognition. latest book conveys a sustained even more to the fore. Fukuyama’s (Fukuyama 1992, 279). But this is to say that the “post 1992, (Fukuyama “stuck remains assumption, initial the to contrary world, the of part in history” too. These are clearly some elements of politics of nation tive principles, and the post according to realist history” in still part the with dealing when methods realist of use for example, in “insulating” the regions of confict, such as that of of that as such confict, of regions the “insulating” in example, for security” European of questions “larger from Yugoslavia, former relevance of realism “as a 1992, 274). Hence the (Fukuyama out the world, would consist of protecting themselves from external external from themselves protecting of consist would world, the out the come from the “historical” part of threats and risks which 278, italicized by V.M.). Fukuyama’s depiction of the nearest future future nearest the of depiction Fukuyama’s V.M.). by italicized 278, of the foreign policythat the principal task suggests of liberal de “promoting the cause of democracy”mocracies, apart from through just principle of excluding foreigners that foreigners of excluding just principle to right of principles universal those violating thereby tionalist, 1992, (Fukuyama committed” are democracies liberal as they which

Milisavljević 310 311 edited volumes ------a g order order state state - histori ­ ­ defned identity (we are remind ­ Contrary to his earlier predictions, Fukuyama now suggests suggests now Fukuyama predictions, earlier his to Contrary organizations charged with this task should enjoy better fundin and political support, the member states most in particular “from 2018, 175). migrants out” (Fukuyama concerned with keeping ties (Fukuyama 2018, 138–139). The right way for Europe to deal deal to Europe for way right The 138–139). 2018, (Fukuyama ties technological purely in of conceived is issue immigration the with that stresses Fukuyama migrants. of fow the “regulating” as terms, developed countries “to shelter refugees and welcome immi developed countries “to shelter refugees socially”, and economically both costly “potentially being grants”: own interests and priori such obligations should not imperil their to the issue of immigration, he insists on the indisputable right of of right indisputable the on insists he immigration, of issue the to 2018, (Fukuyama borders own their protect to democracies liberal for obligation the of character “moral” purely the on as well as 175), 174, 177–178). He also mistrusts dual citizenship, which is prone to to prone is which citizenship, dual mistrusts also He 177–178). 174, between war a of case the in especially loyalties, of confict provoke As 168–169). 2018, (Fukuyama due is allegiance which to states the ian means and violence), and given the failure of the multiculturalist multiculturalist the of failure the given and violence), and means ian feels entitled to advo approach to secure integration, Fukuyama 2018, (Fukuyama “assimilation” old good on focus” “policy a cate Fukuyama’s conclusions are restrictive in both cases. As efective efective As cases. both in restrictive are conclusions Fukuyama’s states presuppose shared and well nations, by authoritar ed that it was forged, in the case of European tegration of foreign people from other cultures; externally, to put cultures; externally, tegration of foreign people from other to bar unwanted immigr ting in place the most efective policies the two levels are interconnected, and tion. Needless to say, interest shifts, internally, to the question of who “the people” of a of people” “the who of question the to internally, shifts, interest citizens distinguishing to amounts which are, nation-state given best model of in and to the one of adopting the from non-citizens, represents the sole viable and ultimate framework of political viable and ultimate framework of political represents the sole internationally”,“both at home and of politi which probably means, his why reason the is This 139). 2018, (Fukuyama general in life cal identity is state breakdown and civil war” (Fukuyama 2018, 128). On On 128). 2018, (Fukuyama war” civil and breakdown state is identity to think that the nation appears the positive side, Fukuyama cal part of the world. Some of his arguments sound outright outright sound arguments his of Some world. the of part cal with “national identity”Hobbesian, place of “sovereign taking the national absent happen can what of example extreme “The ty”: that the nation-state is fated to remain “the chief locus of political political of locus chief “the remain to fated is nation-state the that also in the post the historical, but not only in identifcation”, ------on The Law of Peo The Law Political liberalism Political When it comes to immi 11 of members of society when choosing of members of society ­ ” (Rawls 1999, 8); besides, there is a legitimate The theory takes by Rawls, of justice, as developed 10 Rawls insists as strongly as Fukuyama on the right of partic Rawls insists as strongly as Fukuyama Political liberalism is not necessarily universalistic in the cos universalistic liberalism is not necessarily Political Rorty 2007, 47) corresponds to this trend in Rawls’ development.Rorty 2007, 47) corresponds to this trend in Rawls prescribes a duty for well-ordered societies to provide assistance for the right of emigration, but not for “the right to be accepted some the right to emigrate where as an immigrant”. He admits that this makes rights are without point he simply states that “many pointless. However, 1999, 74). (Rawls in this sense” Some authors have emphasized the progressive elimination of “univer Some authors have emphasized salist presuppositions” from Rawls’ theory from standpoint (see Rawls’ (Bell 2001). Rorty’s own attempt to “historicize” in perpetuity

the book which deals with international justice, Rawls almost with international justice, Rawls almost the book which deals 11 10 between the views of Rorty and Rawls. boundaries, however arbitrary they may be from the historical point of view. As to the practical strategies of solving the world migration problem, there is ultimately no signifcant diference them need “to protect a people’s political culture and its constitutional principles” (Rawls 1999, 39). Hence Rawls’ apology of interstate ular states to limit immigration. His main argument for this is the need to secure, for a given people, the possibility of a responsible treatment of their territory with “its potential capacity to support ject of encouraging potential immigrants to solve their problems in ject of encouraging potential immigrants them therein (Rawls 1999, 8). their countries of origin and assisting problems of contemporary world: unjust war, immigration and the immigration and problems of contemporary world: unjust war, Utopia”, “realistic his in particular, In weapons. nuclear of treatment to be “eliminated” by the pro­ is taken the problem of immigration to such communities (cf. Barry In 1975, 128–133). (cf. to such communities ples, urgent what is often seen as the three most entirely leaves aside position of the least well position of the least restricted distribution of power or wealth – is the just principles of for granted the existence of constituted and mutually exclusive po exclusive constituted and mutually the existence of for granted of his argument of The scope (or nation-states). litical communities enjoins us to put ourselves in the – which the “veil of ignorance” the one of “deracinated men and women” (Rawls 1999, 39) – an gration, Rawls goes so far as to endorse Michael Walzer’s warning that the world with an unrestricted right to immigrate would be mopolitan sense of the word. This is true of Rawls’ version of liber This is true of Rawls’ sense of the word. mopolitan alism as well.

Milisavljević 312 313 edited volumes ------w - - - - val rtain nce is not ethno estern democracies – cannot prevent nation W per se The Law of Peoples The Law determination” (Milanović 2016, 139, 139, 2016, (Milanović determination” ­ limitation of the principle of equal op ad hoc The idea of liberal democracy Rawlsian approach is not overtly xenophobic, even if the very is not overtly xenophobic, even if the Rawlsian approach are outside gives rise to nationalism, regardless of the difere between arguments that are being put forward. tween diferent parts of the world, while advocating the free fo tween diferent parts of the world, while societies, Western in of capital, merchandise and ideas. However, the very distinction between those who are inside and those who lies precisely in that it is “at once xenophobic and liberal” (Amin lies precisely in that it is “at once xenophobic 2011). As has often been stressed, contemporaryliberalism is in consequent, as it puts harsh limits on the circulation of people be alism or xenophobia. Asalism or xenophobia. Ash nowadays Amin said, the problem of – to which we may add: of all rich Europe broadly. When dealing with it, we should also take into account the the account into take also should we it, with dealing When broadly. countries in the world – of co increased responsibility of the richest today. of superpowers of as well as past, the of powers lonial the universal validity of the principle of equal opportunity have have opportunity equal of principle the of validity universal the been inspired by his own theory 1989 and 1994). (Pogge of justice more still conceived be should justice global of question the But ment represents an Rawls’ liberalism could ce portunity (Milanović 2016, 125–139). ly be corrected at this point, and some of the attempts to establish tional one, “is not a signifcant issue” for Rawls, since “it conficts conficts “it since Rawls, for issue” signifcant a not “is one, tional with the right of national self rightly noted that this argu Rawls 1999, 113–120). It has been cf. of the issue of distributive justice between peoples, as well as in his his in as well as peoples, between justice distributive of issue the of domes of equal opportunity to a “liberal restriction of the principle the na as opposed to tic society”. equality of opportunity, Global name of “decent” (non-liberal) peoples may sound slightly deroga peoples may sound slightly name of “decent” (non-liberal) disregard Rawls’ in implicit is preference” “national certain But tory. “things get really tough”, making the loyalty to one’s own people matter more than justice. However, in spite of his claim that in spite However, centric (Rawls 1999, 121), the point of view expounded in this book could easily slip into ethnocentrism when, as Rorty said, argument that hardly fts into the set of liberal principles and the set of liberal that hardly fts into argument ues. Presumably, Rawls has here in mind the merits of American system of locally rooted democracy, which cannot be denied. ------f all g , in - being. ­ famed French author, Michel author, famed French ­ ofers one of them: it conveys a dystopian ofers one of them: it conveys a dystopian refexively, as they can do without discours refexively, ­ estern country perfectly whose native elites have W Soumission, Nationalism and xenophobia do not necessarily involve con do not necessarily and xenophobia Nationalism Are alternative, non-xenophobic scenarios at least imagin Are alternative, non-xenophobic For a different view, see, for example, Kymlicka 2015. For a different view, In our “post-historical” world, xenophobia and nationalism world, xenophobia In our “post-historical”

12 12 one’s being born in the right country being one’s (Milanović 2016, 132–136, cultural iden of losing one’s 231). It is much less caused by the fear tity. mocracies to make decisions which imperil their own well decisions which mocracies to make is all about is , which Above all, new nationalism due to rent”, the premium “citizenship right to the defending one’s say, the question of new nationalism is only superfcially the one of nationalism is only superfcially the the question of new say, a deeper level, it is and values. At diferent cultural backgrounds de refusal of the populations of rich liberal the question of the enjoy the benefts of the national security system and disturbin enjoy the benefts to as I would venture Hopkins 2015). In particular, our daily life (cf. make in critical cases, such as the decision to let the refugees as the decision to critical cases, such in make at their boats or even fre missiles the Mediterranean, drown in right to from compromising our exclusive order to prevent them fessing oneself to be a nationalist, or the explicit belief that one’s to be a nationalist,fessing oneself belief that one’s or the explicit in the choices we They are manifest to others. nation is superior republic of France, their self-interest, even better than before self-interest, their republic of France, (Houellebecq 2015). depiction of a Muslims, in spite o adapted to their new condition of converted to satisfy,cultural diferences, as they manage in the new Islamic able? The futuristic novel of the ill The futuristic novel of the able? Houellebecq, modate all sorts of political regimes and constitutions (Wehler constitutions (Wehler modate all sorts of political regimes and and even this we might add: all sorts of ideologies, 2001, 50). To ideology. the absence of any function, so to say, pre function, so to say, has stated that one of the most sa es or ideologies. Ulrich Wehler lient features of nationalism is its extraordinary capacity to accom

Milisavljević 314 315 edited volumes

------Phenom University Translated by Translated April 17, 2015. 3:17. Springer . Oxford: Claren Sun, New York: St. Mar New York: 38 (2): 11–28. , last accessed Janu Santa Monica: Rand Cor , last accessed January . New York: The Free The Free . New York: 4 ­ https://www.opendemoc I–II. Frankfurt am Main: I–II. Frankfurt 0017 Oxford: Blackwell. Actuel Marx Actuel ­ The Tanner Lectures on Human Values Lectures The Tanner 015 ­ , last accessed January 2019. 15, 39: 193–210. Comparative Migration Studies . Leipzig: Reclam. . Leipzig: Paris: Flammarion. Paris: A Journey Through History.

Ghosts.

Soumission. Philosophische Terminologie Terminologie Philosophische Socialist Register Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press. Have we reached the end of history? the end of history? Have we reached The End of History and the Last Man The End of History and the Last Identity Politics for and the Struggle Identity: Contemporary Introduction to the Reading of Hegel. Lectures on the of Hegel. Lectures to the Reading Introduction . Balkan The other heading: refections on today’s Europe. The other heading: refections Conditio moderna Conditio The Illusions of Postmodernism. . London: Profle Books. The Liberal Theory of Justice. A Critical Examination A Critical Theory of Justice. The Liberal https://doi.org/10.1186/s40878 Suhrkamp. Press. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/communitarianism/ ary 15, 2019. Europe”. Western Indiana University Anne Brault and Michael B. Naas. Bloomington: Pascale racy.net/ash-amin/xenophobic-europe don Press. Press. Recognition Cambridge VII, edited by Sterling McMurrin, 253–275. Cambridge: Press. poration. tin’s Press. tin’s enology of Spirit alism and welfare chauvinism”. alism and welfare chauvinism”. Open, 15, 2019. Amin, Ash. 2011. “Xenophobic Europe”. Open democracy, Amin, Ash. “Xenophobic 2011. Europe”. Bibliography 1973. W. Adorno, Theodor Eagleton, Terry. 1996. Eagleton, Terry. Manfred. 1993. Frank, 1989. Francis. Fukuyama, Derrida, Jacques. 1992. Betz, Hans-Georg. 2003. “Xenophobia, Identity Politics and Exclusionary “Xenophobia,Betz, Hans-Georg. 2003. in Identity Politics Populism Bell, Daniel. 2001. “Communitarianism”. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Bell, Daniel. 2001. “Communitarianism”. Balibar, Étienne. 2005. “La construction du racisme”. Étienne. 2005. “La construction du racisme”. Balibar, Barry, Brian. 1975. Houellebecq, Michel. 2015. 1993. Kaplan, Robert D. Hopkins, Katie. 2015. “Rescue boats? I’d use gunships to stop migrants”. Hopkins, Katie. 2015. “Rescue boats? Fukuyama, Francis. 2018. Francis. Fukuyama, Geertz, Cliford. 1986. “The Uses of Diversity”. In Fukuyama, Francis. 1992. Francis. Fukuyama, Kojève, Alexandre. 1969. Kojève, Kymlicka, Will. 2015. “Solidarity in diverse societies: beyond neoliberal multicultur ------. Trans - München: Beck. Philosophy and Public Afairs Philosophy Right-wing Extremism in Eu Right-wing Cambridge: Cambridge Univer Cambridge: Cambridge Univer Cambridge: Cambridge University https://www.abc.net.au/religion/ , The Tanner Lectures on Human Values on Human Values Lectures The Tanner Translated by Joachim Neugroschel by Translated . Paris: Plon. . Paris: & Ethics Ithaca and London: Cornell University Press. Ithaca and London: Cornell Cambridge, Mass. and London: Harvard Univer Religion Du diable en politique. Réfexions sur l’antilepénisme ordi sur l’antilepénisme en politique. Réfexions Du diable The Force of Prejudice. On Racism and Its On Racism Doubles of Prejudice. The Force ABC Tristes tropiques Tristes Afar. The View from Nationalismus: Geschichte, Formen, Folgen. Formen, Nationalismus: Geschichte, Realizing Rawls. Rawls. Realizing Global Inequality: A New Approach for the Age of Globaliza for A New Approach Inequality: Global , last accessed January 2019. 15, Contingency, Irony, and Solidarity. and Solidarity. Irony, Contingency, Objectivity, Relativism, and Truth. Relativism, Objectivity, Philosophy as Cultural Politics. as Cultural Philosophy The Law of Peoples. The Law André. 2001. André. 2014. ­ ­ Paris: CNRS Éditions. Paris: edited by Ralf Melzer and Sebastian Serafn, 9–33. Berlin: Fried and Sebastian edited by Ralf Melzer . Cambridge, Mass. and London: Belknap Press. . Cambridge, Mass. and rope, rich-Ebert Stiftung. 23 (3): 195–224. can-gentle-ethnocentrism-remain-gentle-richard-rorty-and-our- pol/10096316 tion Challenges”. In and Patterns and East: Trends, and Phoebe Hoss. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Hoss. Chicago: The University and Phoebe Crisis”. Our Political sity Press. sity Press. XI, edited by Grethe B. Peterson, 507–556. Salt Lake City: University of Utah 507–556. Salt Lake XI, edited by Grethe B. Peterson, Press. Press. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota lated and edited by Hassan Melehy. Press. naire. sity Press. Strauss, Claude. 1955. Claude. 1955. Strauss, 1985. Strauss, Claude. ­ ­ Rawls, John. 1999. Pogge, Thomas W. 1989. Thomas W. Pogge, Law of Peoples”. Egalitarian 1994. “An Thomas W. Pogge, Minkenberg, Michael. 2013. “The European Radical Right and Xenophobia in West Michael. 2013. “The in West Right and Xenophobia Radical Minkenberg, European Milanović, Branko. 2016. Milanović, Branko. Lévi Richard Rorty and Remain gentle? Ethnocentrism' ‘Gentle 2016. “Can Joel. Looper, Lévi Rorty, Richard. 1989. Richard. 1989. Rorty, Rorty, Richard. 1991. Richard. 1991. Rorty, Wehler, Hans-Ulrich. 2001. Wehler, Taguief, Pierre Taguief, In 1990. “Nation and Universe”. Michael. Walzer, Taguief, Pierre Taguief, Rorty, Richard. 2007. Richard. 2007. Rorty,

Milisavljević 316 317 edited volumes ------public , Vol. 4, (Mis)read Doctor ho Doctor . Tempo devorado , Habjan and Whyte (eds.), Pal , Habjan and Whyte rofessor of sociology, University of P [email protected] rofessor at the Faculty of Media and Com rofessor at the Faculty P is retired is Director of the Institute of Social Sciences. He is isiting V http://revistes.uab.cat/tdevorado/article/view/ at the Paysiy Hilendarski University, Plovdiv. Recent Rastko Močnik Rastko Goran Bašić

Contributors No 1, 2017, ings of Marx in Continental Philosophy ings of Marx in Continental grave Macmillan UK, 2014; “Beyond fascism? Historical Parallels Structural Specificities of Post-Socialism”, and munications, Singidunum University, Belgrade, as well as munications, Singidunum University, noris causa publications: “Ricardo – Marx // Foucault – Althusser”, in: Ljubljana, and international and national projects in the domain of multicultural international and national projects in his scholarly work with ism. He has been successful in linking policies. E-mail address: and as deputy ombudsman for the rights of national minorities,people with disabilities and the elderly. Goran Bašić is theof founderthe Ethnicity Research Centre, where he managed a number of political theory and human rights and a graduate course on multi culturalism. He held positions in the government as a ministerialadviser in the domains of justice and human and minority rights, worked as a research associate at the Serbian Academy of Sciencesand Arts and at the Institute for Philosophy and Social Theory undergraduate courses on the University of Belgrade. He taught of a political scientist, theory, with research interests in political hu policies, national minori man rights and multiculturalism (inclusive ties, Roma, people with disabilities, the elderly). Goran Bašić ------con ­ - - lewis. josip. Nova wmc edited an ­ The Philosophy of (London, UK: Philosophical Re Philosophical . E-mail address: (Farrar, Straus and Giroux in Geopolitics and Geopolitics and Jovan Čekić, Miško Šuvaković (eds.), On Philosophy, Decolonization, and ( is Arthur G. Hansen Distinguished Pro https://www.facebook.com/LewisGordon Institute of Social Sciences, Belgrade, was . is Professor of Philosophy at University of . (translated into Serbian), and (translated into Serbian), . ; “U umetnosti, savremenost počinje 1917”, in: počinje 1917”, in: savremenost ; “U umetnosti, and he is on Twitter @lewgord. E-mail address: and he is on Twitter Storrs; Honorary President of the Global Center for Fear of Black Consciousness ­ mocnik From Yugoslav Praxis to Global Pathos: Anti-Hegemonic Post- Praxis to Global From Yugoslav ­ , Natalija Mićunović, William Leon McBride William Leon Lewis R. Gordon ), trans. Li Beilei (Wuhan, China: Wuhan University Press). His

n1 ­ tent/uploads/2018/04/novapovezivanja.pdf. E-mail address: E-mail tent/uploads/2018/04/novapovezivanja.pdf. [email protected] v4 do mreže, scene Od povezivanja. FMK,http://www.studijesavremenosti.org/ Beograd, 2018, wp publishing, and led the Gender Equality Directorate from 2007 un til 2014. This turned her interest towards connections between the scientific community and social development in the context of educated in Belgrade, Sarajevo and at Purdue University inUSA. the She has taught at several American universities, worked in flections on the Changes in Eastern Europe on the Changes in Eastern flections [email protected] sophical Societies (FISP). His publications include sophical Societies (FISP). Marx Essays post-Marxist fessor of Philosophy at Purdue University (Department of Philoso fessor of Philosophy President of the International Federation of Philo and Past phy) Philosopher/ [email protected] says Race page is: public Facebook Rowman & Littlefield International, 2018), and his forthcomingmonograph Book in the UK), as well as his collection of es the USA and Penguin sophical Association. books are his co His most recent Bragato, Frizzo thology with Fernanda South the Global from Perspectives Decolonization: Advanced Studies; the 2018–2019 Boaventura de Sousa Santos University of Coimbra, Portu of Economics of the Chair in Faculty Philo Collaborations for the Caribbean gal; and Chair of Global Connecticut

Contributors 318 319 edited volumes ------. He is que. . The Antigua natalijam57@ Paget_Henry@brown. . and also of mail address: mail address: ­ [email protected] rofessor of philosophy at the Univer rofessor of philosophy P . E-mail address: ull F is Professor at the Institute of Philosophy is CLR James Journal rofessor of sociology and Africana Studies at P is (born in Pécs, Hungary, 1954) holds a Master de (born in Pécs, Peripheral Capitalism and Underdevelopment in An and Underdevelopment Capitalism Peripheral [email protected] . Journeys in Caribbean Thought: The Paget Henry Reader Henry Paget The Thought: Caribbean in Journeys Caliban’s Reason: Introducing Afro-Caribbean Philosophy, The , Ugo Vlaisavljević Paget Henry Ana Dimishkovska János Boros

. , and , structuralism, semiotics, and political philosophy (particularly on is (particularly philosophy structuralism, semiotics, and political peace and gender equality, sues such as ethnicity and nationalism, E-mail address: reconciliation). sity of Sarajevo, teaching Philosophy of Language in the PhilosophyDepartment and Epistemology of Social Sciences in the Psychology post Department. He has written extensively on phenomenology, gmail.com gender, ethnic, economic and cultural relations. She has published three philo and also translated on these subjects several articles them. E in relation to sophical books edu da also the editor of the of Booksand Barbuda Review works, including tigua and Barbu from Antigua Photography Painterly Art of Mali Olatunji: Brown University. His primaryBrown University. politi areas of interest are Caribbean cal economy and Caribbean philosophy. He is the author of several of the Faculty of Philosophy, at Ss. Cyril and Methodius Universityin Skopje, Republic of North Macedonia, where she obtained her ethics. Presently he is writing a book about Kant’s first Criti ethics. Presently he is writing a book E-mail address: Doctoral School in Philosophy. He has been guest professor at sev He has been guest Doctoral School in Philosophy. eral universities in Europe and in the USA, while he also bookswrote on13 topics such as American pragmatism, epistemology and Ph.D. in Philosophy (Fribourg, Switzerland, 1987). He is also (D.Sc.).of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences He teaches philoso Doctor phy at the University of Pécs since 1990 and is the Director of the gree in Chemical Engineering (Veszprem, Hungary, 1978), and a - - - - Re - - s nu . Gradac dean.komel@ [email protected]. [email protected] . mail address: ­ is a distinguished journalist and fiction writ is a distinguished journalist and fiction . is Associate Professor of law at the Faculty of . His professional bibliography includes seven is Professor of philosophy at the University of Lju is Professor of philosophy . Nova revija Nova [email protected] Muharem Bazdulj Dean Komel Igor Milinković

and review dedicated to Isaiah Berlin, which emphasized this author’s this author’s review dedicated to Isaiah Berlin, which emphasized works about nationalism. E (“XX vek”). His interests revolve around the links between his journalism, fiction and politics and he explores them through culture and academic work. In 2017 he edited the special issue of dealing with the impact of from the 1990s on En dealing with the impact of Yugoslav glish and American belles-lettres, was published as a monographone of bythe leading Serbian publishers specialized in social sciences er holding a M.A. degree at the . His thesis, critical stance concerning social questions, he regularly E-mail address: in discussions within different media. takes part guest.arnes.si manities hundred units. He was a founder of several humanistic institutionswithin international and Slovenian scientific community. With his bljana and the head of research activities at the Institute for Hu bljana and the head of research activities reasoning. Her main publications include three books, as well a include three Her main publications reasoning. merous articles in domestic and foreign periodicals. [email protected] address: M.A. and Ph.D. degrees. She currently teaches courses in Logic,History Epistemology, of Philosophy of Language and Philosophy theory of interest are argumentation Her main areas and legal Law. of health law and has attended numerous international conferences related to these issues. E-mail addresses: org Legal Ethics, Jurisprudence, Local Government Law, ComparativeLaw and Democracy and Human Rights. He is a member of severalprofessional associations in the fields of legal ethics, bioethics and Law,University of Banja Luka, where he serves as the Department Department and Vice Dean for Scientific Chair of the State Law search. He teaches several undergraduate and graduate courses:

Contributors 320 321 edited volumes ------s. s. nd - - - ori Open Le Monde Di . His books in . His books slobodan.div ellow at the Cen Sprawa Spinozy michalkozlowski@ F aleksandar.prnjat@ (coauthor,Warsaw 2013), esearch R Bez Dogmatu mail address: (Paris 2011), (Paris ­ . mail address: E-mail address: ­ Joy Forever: The Political Economy of one of the most quoted Serbian philo is Principal is Professor of ethics and sociology at the is a philosopher, sociologist and journalist, and journalist, sociologist is a philosopher, is Director of The International Philosophical . (Institute of Social Sciences, Belgrade) is founder (co-editor, London 2014). He has published in London 2014). He has published (co-editor, [email protected] The Art Factory. The division of labor and distribution (Warsaw 2016), (Warsaw About Identity, About Identity, and of quarterly magazine and of quarterly . . Le contrepouvoirs de Foucault Rector for Science and Research. His main interests are in the Rector for International Affairs. He has also served as also servedRector for International Affairs. He has as Vladimir Milisavljević Michał Kozłowski Slobodan Divjak Dušan Janjić Aleksandar Prnjat ­ ­

ter for Philosophy of the Institute of Social Sciences, Belgrade. He uw.edu.pl Social Creativity Poli Possibles, Les Contretemps, Les Il Manifesto Globale, Democracy, tics Books and Culture, and Ideas. of capitals in the Polish field of visual art. of in the Polish field of capitals Znaki równości plomatique plomatique clude: (Cracow 2011), teaching at the Faculty of Philosophy and Sociology at the Universi and Sociology of Philosophy at the Faculty teaching of edition of the Polish He is co-editor ty of Warsaw. the author of II. E War sophical books after World [email protected] School Felix Romuliana based in Serbia and one of the candidatesfor membership in Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts. He is also peace building. He is author of more than 100 books and article peace building. He is author of more E-mail address: tions, Belgrade, Serbia. He specialized in sociology of nationalism; human and min ethnicity; ethnic conflicts and their resolution; peace making a ties rights; political movements and ideologies; Rela Board of Forum for Ethnic and President of the Executive field of value theory ethics, aes (social and political philosophy, of religion). E thetics, philosophy gmail.com Faculty of Foreign Languages, Alfa BK University (Belgrade) andVice Vice vladimir.milisavljevic@yahoo. . as well as several dozens of articles, some of them in international some of them in international of articles, several dozens as well as reviews. E-mail address: volumes or com holds a Ph.D. degree in Philosophy (2005) from the UniversityBelgrade. of He authored two books on Hegel and Classical Germanphilosophy and one on autochthony in ancient Greece (in Serbian),

Contributors 322

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