The Cambridge History of Greek and Roman Warfare

Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-78273-9 - The Cambridge History of Greek and Roman Warfare, Volume 1: Greece, the Hellenistic World and the Rise of Rome Edited by Philip Sabin, Hans van Wees and Michael Whitby Frontmatter More information

THE CAMBRIDGE HISTORY OF GREEK AND ROMAN WARFARE

Warfare was the single biggest preoccupation of historians in antiquity. In recent decades fresh textual interpretations, numerous new archaeological discoveries and a much broader analytical focus emphasizing social, economic, political and cultural approaches have transformed our understanding of ancient warfare. Volume i of this two-volume History reﬂects these developments and provides a systematic account, written by a distinguished cast of contributors, of the various themes underlying the warfare of the Greek world from the archaic to the Hellenistic period and of early and middle Republican Rome. For each broad period developments in troop-types, equipment, strategy and tactics are discussed. These are placed in the broader context of developments in international relations and the relationship of warfare to both the state and wider society. Numerous illustrations, a glossary and chronology, and information about the ancient authors mentioned supplement the text. This will become the primary reference work for specialists and non-specialists alike.

philip sabin is Professor of Strategic Studies in the Department of War Studies at King’s College London. His main academic interest concerns the analytical modelling of conflict, and he is the author of Lost Battles: Reconstructing the Great Clashes of the Ancient World (2007) and coeditor (with Tim Cornell and Boris Rankov) of The Second Punic War: A Reappraisal (1996). He teaches and writes about the strategy and tactics of warfare from ancient times to the twenty-first century. hans van wees is Professor of Ancient History at University College London. He is the author of Status Warriors: War, Violence and Society in Homer and History (1992) and Greek Warfare: Myths and Realities (2004) and editor of War and Violence in Ancient Greece (2000). He has coedited (with Nick Fisher) Archaic Greece: New Approaches and New Evidence (1998), (with Egbert Bakker and Irene de Jong) Brill’s Companion to Herodotus (2002) and (with Kurt Raaflaub) A Companion to Archaic Greece (forthcoming). michael whitby is Professor of Classics and Ancient History at the University of Warwick. He is the coeditor of Volume XIV of The Cambridge Ancient History (2001) and author of Rome at War, ad 293–696 (2002) as well as several articles on late Roman warfare, and has made several television appearances talking about ancient warfare from the Graeco-Persian Warsto the collapse of the Roman Empire.

© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-78273-9 - The Cambridge History of Greek and Roman Warfare, Volume 1: Greece, the Hellenistic World and the Rise of Rome Edited by Philip Sabin, Hans van Wees and Michael Whitby Frontmatter More information

THE CAMBRIDGE HISTORY OF GREEK AND ROMAN WARFARE

VOLUME I Greece, the Hellenistic world and the rise of Rome

Edited by

PHILIP SABIN Department of War Studies, King’s College London

HANS VAN WEES Department of History, University College London

MICHAEL WHITBY Department of Classics and Ancient History, University of Warwick

cambridge university press Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town, Singapore, Sao˜ Paulo Cambridge University Press The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge cb2 8ru,UK Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York

www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9780521782739 C Cambridge University Press 2007

This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press.

First published 2007

Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge

A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library

isbn 978-0-521-782739 hardback

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CONTENTS

List of ﬁgures page viii List of maps xiv Editors’ preface xv Acknowledgements xvii

INTRODUCTION: THE HISTORIOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT WARFARE 1 The modern historiography of ancient warfare 3 victor davis hanson (Senior Research Fellow at the Hoover Institution, Stanford)

2 Warfare in ancient literature: the paradox of war 22 simon hornblower (Grote Professor of Ancient History, University College London)

3 Reconstructing ancient warfare 54 michael whitby (Professor of Ancient History, University of Warwick)

PART I: ARCHAIC AND CLASSICAL GREECE 4 International relations 85 jonathan m. hall (Phyllis Fay Horton Professor in the Humanities, Professor of Classics and Professor of History, University of Chicago)

5 Military forces 108 peter hunt (Professor of Classics, University of Colorado)

vi contents 6 War 147 peter krentz (W. R. Grey Professor of Classics and History, Davidson College, North Carolina)

7 Battle 186 A. Land battles 186 everett l. wheeler (Duke University) B. Naval battles and sieges 223 barry strauss (Professor of Classics and History, Cornell University)

8 Warfare and the state 248 vincent gabrielsen (Professor of Ancient History, University of Copenhagen)

9 War and society 273 hans van wees (Professor of Ancient History, University College London)

PART II: THE HELLENISTIC WORLD AND THE ROMAN REPUBLIC 10 International relations 303 richard billows (Professor of History, Columbia University)

11 Military forces 325 A. Land forces 325 nicholas sekunda (Professor of Ancient History, University of Gdansk) B. Naval forces 357 philip de souza (College Lecturer in Classics, University College Dublin)

12 War 368 jonathan p. roth (Professor of History, San Jos´e State University)

13 Battle 399 A. Land battles 399 philip sabin (Professor of Strategic Studies, King’s College London)

contents vii B. Naval battles and sieges 434 philip de souza (College Lecturer in Classics, University College Dublin)

14 Warfare and the state 461 john serrati (Professor of History and Classics, McGill University, Quebec)

15 War and society 498 j. e. lendon (Professor of History, University of Virginia)

Chronological table 517 Glossary 533 List of ancient authors 545 Bibliography 555 Abbreviations 555 Main bibliography 558 Index of ancient passages cited 603 General index 628

FIGURES

1. Page from a tenth-century Byzantine copy of Asclepiodotus’ Art of Tactics, with drawings of ‘chequerboard’ and other formations. Florence, Bibliotheca Mediceo-Laurenziana (Plut. 55.4 c.141e). page 4 2. Illustrations from the pamphlet Mars his Field, first printed by Roger Daniell in 1595, showing drill positions for pikemen equipped with shield and spear, a type of infantry recently introduced under the influence of ancient military treatises. 6 3. Scythian archers engaged in long-range missile combat while their hoplite companions crouch behind their shields, on a late sixth-century Athenian amphora. Berlin, Antikensammlung (F 1865). C Copyright Staatliche Museen zu Berlin Preußischer Kulturbesitz. 41 4. Commemoration of female casualties of war. (a) Monument set up in the centre of Messene, c. 200–150 bc, to honour those who had fallen in one of several recent attempts to capture the city. 45 (b) Part of the inscription on the capping stones which recorded six male and four female names, of which the latter are shown here. C Photos courtesy of Professor Petros Themelis. 4545 (5) Death of Decebalus from Trajan’s column in Rome. C Copyright DAI Rom (neg. 89.14). 56 (6) Mosaic depicting Alexander and Darius at the battle of Issus. Naples, Museo Nazionale. Photo: Scala/Art Resource, NY. 63 (7) Column of Arcadius: the Goths expelled from Constantinople with divine assistance. Drawing in the Freshfield folder, Library of Trinity College, Cambridge. 72 (8) The southern watergate at Dara (early sixth century ad). Gertrude Bell Photographic Archive, University of Newcastle upon Tyne (R 106) 73

viii

list of figures ix (9) The replica trireme Olympias. Photo courtesy of the Trireme Trust. 75 (10) Cohort strength report on a writing tablet from Vindolanda (c. ad 100, north Britain). Tabulae Vindolandenses ii.154, front. C Copyright Oxford, Centre for the Study of Ancient Documents and the British Museum, 2004. 79 (11) Terracotta symbola from Athens. Courtesy of the American School of Classical Studies – Agora Excavations. 91 (12) Alabaster vase given as a token of recognition by the Persian king Xerxes, whose name is inscribed on it in four languages: Old Persian, Elamite, Akkadian and Egyptian. London, British Museum. C Copyright The Trustees of the British Museum. 92 (13) Grave monument for Pythagoras of Selymbria, a proxenos buried with public honours in the Cerameicus cemetery at Athens, c. 460–450 bc. C Copyright DAI Athen (neg. Kerameikos 5999). 93 (14) Earliest-known hoplite panoply, from Argos. Late eighth century. Photo courtesy of the Syndics of the Cambridge University Library. 112 5.2 (a)–(c) Hoplite armour and the sideways-on stance adopted by hoplites in combat represented by a statuette from Dodona, c. 500 bc. Berlin, Antikensammlung. C Copyright Staatliche Museen zu Berlin Preußischer Kulturbesitz (Misc. 7470). Photos: (a)–(b) Jutta Tietz-Glagow, (c) Ingrid Geske. 114 (15) Two slave attendants assisting four hoplites as they arm themselves, on an Attic cup of c. 480 bc. Vatican City, Museo Etrusco Gregoriano (inv. 16583). Photo courtesy of the Syndics of the Cambridge University Library. 115 (16) A light form of hoplite equipment common in the classical period as represented on the grave monument of Lisas of Tegea, buried in Attica in the late ﬁfth century bc. 116 (17) Charging cavalrymen with light round single-grip shields and javelins on an archaic terracotta plaque from Thasos. Reproduced from L. J. Worley, Hippeis: The Cavalry of Ancient Greece (Boulder 1994), ﬁg. 3.3. 118 (18) Peltast with characteristic crescent-shaped shield, carrying a spear underarm as if for thrusting rather than throwing, and wearing Thracian-style boots and a fox-fur cap, with a fur wrap around the waist. (Attic vase of c. 480 bc found in a grave in Boeotia and now in Thebes.) 121

x list of figures (19) Hoplite performing a pyrrhic dance to the music of a double pipe, on an Attic cup of c. 480 bc. Paris, Musee´ du Louvre (G 136). C Photo RMN/C Herve´ Lewandowski. 134 (20) Cavalrymen competing in target practice, on a fourth-century bc Attic crater. Paris, Musee´ du Louvre (G 528). C Photo RMN/C Herve´ Lewandowski. 136 (21) A hoplite on the point of departure for war consults the omens by inspecting the liver of a sacrificial animal (hepatoscopy) brought to him by a slave attendant, on an Attic amphora of c. 490–480 bc. Martin von Wagner-Museum der Universitat¨ Wurzburg,¨ Antikenabteilung (Kat. L507, neg. PF 13/14). 157 (22) Chalcidian black-figure amphora of c. 540 bc depicting a night raid on an enemy camp in which Odysseus massacres a group of sleeping Thracians. Malibu, J. Paul Getty Museum (96.AE.1). 166 (23) One of the earliest representations of a tropaion, on an Attic red-figure vase of c. 450 bc. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston (20.187), Francis Bartlett Donation of 1912. Photograph C Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. 174 (24) Torture or execution by drowning of men who may be either victims of pirates or prisoners of war after a naval battle, on an Attic vase of c. 490–480 bc. 181 (25) The sack of a city: soldiers killing women and children in scenes from the sack of Troy, on a large storage jar from Mykonos, c. 670 bc. Photo courtesy of the Syndics of the Cambridge University Library. 182 (26) Prisoners of war, with hands tied behind their backs and kept on leads, led away by two hoplites, with a pair of spears each, and an archer, on a late sixth-century bc Attic vase. Compiegne,` Musee´ Antoine Vivenel (V 1031). 184 (27) Mixed troops in combat over a fallen soldier, on a Geometric vase from Paros, c. 700 bc. 194 7.2 (a)–(c) Early hoplites in action, on the Chigi vase from Corinth, c. 640 bc. Rome, Villa Giulia (22679). Photos courtesy of Museo di Villa Giulia. 198 7.3 (a)–(d) Mixed troops in combat, on an early sixth-century bc Attic cup. Paris, Musee´ du Louvre (F 72). Photo RMN/C Herve´ Lewandowski. 200 (28) Rowers, tightly packed in three tiers, inside the replica trireme Olympias. Reproduced from H. van Wees, Greek Warfare: Myths and Realities (London 2004), pl. xxiv (original by John Coates). 225

list of figures xi (29) Bronze head of a battering ram, decorated with a ram’s head motif, dedicated at Olympia, c. 450 bc. C Copyright DAI Athen (neg. Olympia 2800). Photo: Herrmann. 238 (30) Hoplites in full gear climbing a scaling ladder, while squatting archers aim covering fire at the defenders on the city wall. Nereid Monument, from Xanthus, c. 400 bc. London, British Museum. C Copyright The Trustees of the British Museum. 242 (31) Fighting around a beached warship, on a late eighth-century Attic vase. New York, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Fletcher Fund, 1934 (34.11.2). Photograph, all rights reserved, The Metropolitan Museum of Art. 251 (32) Early fifth-century Laconian statuette which reflects the ideal of the leisure-class soldier. Wadsworth Atheneum Museum of Art, Hartford, Conn. (1917.815). Gift of J. Pierpont Morgan. 275 (33) An early Greek symposium, on a Corinthian vase of c. 600 bc. Paris, Musee´ du Louvre (E 629). C Photo RMN/C Herve´ Lewandowski. 281 (34) Ornate armour from Afrati in Crete, c. 650–600 bc. Hamburg, Museum fur¨ Kunst und Gewerbe (inv. 1970.26a). 294 (35) Damaged right hand of bronze, from southern France, second century bc, inscribed ‘symbolon with the Velaunians’, and evidently designed to commemorate a formal treaty between a Greek and a native community. Paris, Bibliotheque` nationale de France (2503687). 308 (36) Red-figure oinochoe depicting a Greek hoplite fighting an Achaemenid takabara infantryman. Late fifth century bc. Paris, Musee´ du Louvre (G 571). C Photo RMN/C Herve´ Lewandowski. 327 (37) Stone base depicting an Athenian cavalryman riding down a Greek infantryman. Athens, National Archaeological Museum (inv. 3708). 328 11.3 (a)–(d) Diagrams of the rhomboid and wedge cavalry formations copied from ancient tactical manuscripts. After H. Kochly¨ and W. Rustow,¨ Griechische Kriegsschriftsteller (Leipzig 1855), vol. 2.1, figs. 3–6. 332 (38) Bronze strip found at Pergamum depicting infantry equipped with the larger type of Macedonian shield. Drawing from Altertumer von Pergamon (Berlin 1912). Image courtesy of DAI Istanbul. 337

xii list of figures (39) Representation of a Macedonian heavy infantryman from the Monument of Aemilius Paullus at Delphi. C Ecole´ Franc¸aise d’Athenes` (R.1071.03). Photo: Philippe Collet. 338 (40) Pompeian copy of a Hellenistic painting showing the fall of Troy, possibly by Theoros of Samos. House of the Menander, Pompeii I 10, 4, exedra 23. Photo: Scala. 340 (41) Terracotta group depicting two ephebes from a Greek city of Asia Minor, competing in the thureomachia. Berlin, Antikensammlung (TC 7696). C Copyright Staatliche Museen zu Berlin Preußischer Kulturbesitz, Antikensammlung. 342 (42) Tombstone of Eubolos from Tanagra, c. 275–250 bc. C Copyright DAI Athen (neg. Tanagra 10). 342 (43) Roman copy, made in the Severan period, of a late Hellenistic statue of a non-oriental, possibly Greek, horse-archer. Reproduced courtesy of the Museo Egizio di Torino. 346 (44) Coin depicting the original type of light leather cavalry shield used by Romans. Courtesy of the Syndics of the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge. 352 (45) Roman denarius, struck by C. Servilius, to commemorate the military exploits of his ancestors. Courtesy of the Syndics of the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge. 352 (46) Grave-stele of Salamas son of Moles from Adada from the ‘Soldiers Tomb’ in Sidon. Istanbul, Archaeological Museum. Photo: Turhan Birgili. 355 (47) A section of the Via Appia, leading from Rome to Campania and Brundisium. Photo courtesy of the Syndics of the Cambridge University Library. 384 (48) Frieze showing Carthaginian armour and shield from a triumphal monument in Tunisia. Trier, Rheinisches Landesmuseum. Photo courtesy of the Syndics of the Cambridge University Library. 412 (49) Gravestone from Padua showing a Celtic chariot with a double-hoop side, c. 300 bc. Drawing in Peter Connolly, Greece and Rome at War (London 1981), 124. C Copyright Peter Connolly through akg-images. 418 (50) Decadrachm minted in Babylon showing Alexander attacking Porus on an elephant. London, British Museum. C Copyright The Trustees of the British Museum. 419

list of figures xiii (51) Painting of a legion versus a phalanx at Pydna. From Peter Connolly, The Roman Army (London 1975), 8–9. C Copyright Peter Connolly through akg-images. 427 (52) Bronze triple-ﬁnned triple bolt head inscribed for Philip of Macedon. London, British Museum. C Copyright The Trustees of the British Museum. 452 (53) The walls of Heraclea under Latmos in Asia Minor. Reproduced from Ducrey, Warfare in Ancient Greece (Schocken 1986), 155. Photo courtesy of the Syndics of the Cambridge University Library. 455 (54) Tower at Perge with three large artillery ports. Reproduced from Winter, Greek Fortiﬁcations (Toronto 1971), pl. 67. Photo courtesy of the Syndics of the Cambridge University Library. 456 (55) Hellenistic inscription from Locri which includes at the bottom a simple sketch plan of a defensive tower constructed with the money listed in the text above. Museo Nazionale Archeologico di Reggio Calabria. Reproduced courtesy of the Soprintendenza per i Beni Archeologici della Calabria. 465 14.2 (a)–(e) Macedonian coinage: (a) a bronze coin of Cassander; (b) and (c) silver tetradrachms of Demetrius Poliorcetes; (d) and (e) silver tetradrachms of Antigonus Gonatas Courtesy of the Syndics of the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge. 467 14.3 (a)–(f) Early Roman coinage: aes signatum (‘signed bronze’) of the third century bc. London, British Museum. C Copyright The Trustees of the British Museum. 490 (56) Third-century terracotta statuette carrying a sword and other kit, representing a caricature mercenary of a type also common in contemporary comedy. Berlin, Antikensammlung (TC 7820). C Copyright Staatliche Museen zu Berlin Preußischer Kulturbesitz, Antikensammlung. 499 (57) Sarcophagus of Lucius Cornelius Scipio Barbatus, consul of 298 bc, with an inscription dating to c. 200 bc which illustrates the competitiveness of the Roman elite.´ Musei Vaticani. Photo reproduced courtesy of the Syndics of the Cambridge University Library. 511

MAPS

1. The western Mediterranean xviii 2. The eastern Mediterranean xxi 3. The Near East xxii 4. Greece xxiv 5. Central Greece and the Peloponnese xxv 6. Western Asia Minor and the Hellespont xxvi 7. Crete xxvii 8. Italy and Sicily xxviii 9. Central Italy xxix 10. Sicily xxx

xiv

EDITORS’ PREFACE

Warfare was the single biggest preoccupation of historians in antiquity, but modern academic interest in the subject has revived only in the last few decades. The narrowly focused studies of war written before the First World War by Delbruck,¨ Kromayer, Veith and others have now been super- seded by a much wider spectrum of work, ranging from the individual soldier’s experience of battle to the place of ancient warfare within wider social, economic, political and cultural structures. Partly as a result of this broader focus, and partly through richer textual analysis and a flood of new archaeological discoveries, our understanding of ancient warfare has been transformed. With the exception of popular survey works, however, there is no compre- hensive overview of this burgeoning field of study. The Cambridge History of Greek and Roman Warfare aims to fill this gap: its two volumes survey the advances made since the 1970s in all aspects of research on ancient warfare, and provide an opportunity for a distinguished group of experts in the field to take the subject further still by presenting an array of new ideas and suggesting many new directions. Our aim in this work is not to provide a narrative account of the countless wars which took place across a period spanning fifteen centuries – such accounts are readily available from any number of other sources, not least the Cambridge Ancient History – but to offer a thematic analysis of the main aspects of warfare in the ancient world. Three important introductory chapters set the scene: the first puts the present volumes in their historiographical context and explains further the rationale for their publication; the other two address the nature of evidence and the problems of its interpretation, two issues which are fundamental to a new and better understanding of ancient warfare. The bulk of the volumes is divided into four chronologically ordered parts, each covering a span of three or four centuries. These chronological divisions serve to draw attention to the broad changes which occurred in warfare and the societies in which this warfare was practised and pursued. Detailed chronological tables at the end of each volume also help readers to place the discussion in its proper historical frame. The first part of volume i covers the earliest

xvi editors’ preface centuries of Greek society, which generated our most famous accounts of ancient warfare, Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey, as well as the first ‘proper’ historical accounts of conflicts, with Thucydides’ record of the Pelopon- nesian War often regarded as the acme of ancient historiography. In the second part, early Rome and the Hellenistic world are dealt with in parallel, a rather unusual combination designed to stimulate a fresh analytical perspective and to overcome the common tendency to keep the Greek and Roman worlds in entirely separate compartments. The first part of volume ii bridges one of the great political transitions of the ancient world, that from the Roman Republic to the Principate of Augustus and his suc- cessors, with the intention of highlighting continuing issues and recurrent themes. The final part deals with the later Empire, a period long seen through the prism of ‘Decline and Fall’ but one in which most scholars now identify a robust and protracted defence of imperial interests in a world which was experiencing profound changes, internally through the adoption of Christianity and externally through the arrival of the Huns. Within each chronological part, the sub-divisions are thematic and reflect the key aspects of ancient warfare identified in modern historiography: (1) the role of war and peace in international relations; (2) the nature, com- position and status of different kinds of armed forces; (3) the practicalities and ethics of the conduct of wars and campaigns; (4) the nature and experience of combat in pitched battles and sieges; (5) the political and economic dimensions of war; and (6) the social and cultural dimensions of war. The same sub-divisions are applied in each of the four parts, so as to enable readers to make comparisons and to pursue particular themes throughout antiquity. (All dates in volume i are bc unless indicated.) ‘War is terrible’, said Polybius, ‘but not so terrible that we should put up with anything to avoid it’ (4.31.3). These volumes examine both the forms taken by the terror of war in the ancient world and the forces which all too often made it seem necessary to resort to violence at the cost of giving up ‘the thing which we all pray that the gods may give us . . . the only incontestable blessing among the so-called good things in life – I mean peace’ (4.74.3). Phil Sabin Hans van Wees Michael Whitby 2007

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The inspiration for these volumes came from Pauline Hire, former classics editor at Cambridge University Press, and we are very grateful for her help and advice in the early stages of this work. Thanks are also due to Ashley Clements for his careful subeditorial work and to Nancy-Jane Rucker, Alison Powell, Michael Sharp and Sinead Moloney for their many and varied contributions in bringing this project to completion. We also wish to thank Barbara Hird for her work in producing the indexes.

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editors’ preface xix

A 10°W B 5°W C 0° D 5°E E

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I G LI URI L A L b Y R I Adrianople U A M B Issa E R T Telamon I R A U R I A Rome Epidamnus LATIUM 40°N Antium Apollonia PIA SA LU ES Tarentum/ Naples C M A Taras N IA Thurii

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CAPPADOCIA CARIA Taurus Melitene P AM CILI Mountains Amida Tigranocerta b LYCIA PH CI Y A L I Issus ASSYRIA A M Gaugamela E Antioch Callinicum D I M A E Arbela Apamea S O P Cyrene SYRIA O T PHOENICIA Dura- A Euesperides Europus M Sidon E I u A p Damascus h Tyre ra CYRENAICA tes Ctesiphon B ° Cunaxa A Opis 30 N B Alexandria Gaza Y T Babylon ig L r O i Naucratis N s IA

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L P E y n E EDONES P c R Mt Dysoron b e b I Maronea s M Drabescus R t i A U s Edessa Amphipolis Apollonia C Thasos S Pella E D Stagirus Thasos O Beroea CHALCIDICE N Acanthus

I Olynthus A Pydna Spartolus Potidaea Lecythus ° Mt Olympus 40°N 40 N Torone Tempe Pass Mende Lemnos Philia Scione Atrax M A Corcyra Larissa A G THESSALY N E E Leukimme S Pherae I A Sciathos Sybota Pharsalus G Ambrakos Ambracia Lesbos c Gulf of E c Actium A Olpae MALIS C. Artemisium C A Hestiaea A R Thermopylae Pass S (Oreus) Leucas N DORIS I LO A C CR O N N IS Euboea H I P A AETOLIA Orchomenus Chalcis LOCRIAN Chios OZOLIAN S Eretria Delphi BOEOTIA Astacus Cor int Thebes S Pale hian H A E Gulf Cephallenia C A Megara Carystus ° 38°N A E 38 N Sicyon Athens Corinth Salamis ATTICA Andros ELIS Gaurion A Olympia PELOPONNESE T Argos Aegina R

I A P I Ceos D Epidaurus H C A Y Tegea AR L Delos I Megalopolis A L A Hermione Naxos C MESSENIA E D Paros A d E d M Siphnos Sparta O N Cimolos I A Land over 1,000 metres Melos 0 50 100 150 km C. Taenarum 0 25 50 75 100 miles Cythera 36°N 36°N A °E B 22°E20 C 24°E D 26°E

Map 0.4 Greece

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a a Pherae THESSALY Cynoscephalae PHTHIOTIS Pagasae Thebes Sciathus Pharsalus

Cape Artemisium 39°N 39°N Lamia Hestiaea MALIS (Opeus) Malian Gu Heraclea in Trachis lf Thermopylae Alope A Anthela LOCR E C DORIS S IS ur I ip A Cytinium u R Stratus C Kalapodi sC N Mt. Parnassus O h an A H Chaeronea n Euboea N Thermon Aegitium Tegyra el P Orchomenus b I Chalcis b A Trichonium OZOLIAN Delphi BOEOTIA Mycalessus AETOLIA LOCRISChaleion CirrhaCoronea Eretria Naupactus Onchestus Oeanthea Anticyra Stiris Haliartus Delium Oropus n Thespiae Thebes eo Tanagra Aegium Med LeuctraPlataea Hysiae Oenophyta Corinthian Mt Panactum Mt Cithaeron Parnes Gulf Oenoe Marathon Decelea ACHAEA Perachora Eleusis Megara ATTICA 38°N Sicyon 38°N ISTHMUS Athens Thyamia Nisaea Piraeus Sphettos Stymphalus Corinth Cyllene Solygea Phalerum Elis S Phlius Salamis Psophis LA I Nemea Cleonae Saronic Gulf U R L Orchomenus I Orneae ARGOLID U Pisa M E Mycenae Aegina Pheia Olympia ARCADIA Heraea Argos Tiryns Epidaurus C. Sunium Mantinea Sepeia Nauplia Samicum Epeon Methana Calaureia c TRIPHYLIA Megapolis Asine c Hysiae Troezen Lepreum Bassae Tegea Methone C

Y Laodocium N Hermione Cromnus O Thyrea U A Sellasia R I I A N Sparta Caryae Ithome E LACONIA M S Prasiae ° t ° 37 N S T 37 N Pylos a

E y Sphacteria g e

M t u Methone s Gytheum

Cortyta

d d C. Malea C. Taenarum

Land over 1,000 metres Cythera

36°N 0 25 5075 100 125 km 36°N 0 2550 75 miles e e A °E B 23°E22 C 24°E D

Map 0.5 Central Greece and the Peloponnese

A 26°E B 28°E C 30°E D

Selymbria BITH Byzantium YNIA Chalcedon Maronea us Perinthus or Bosp a a Astacus Cardia

Aegospotami Parium Lampsacus Sestus Cyzicus Abydus Cynossema 40°N Hellespont 40°N Sigeum Ilium/Troy

Antandrus

Methymna Antissa Mytilene LESBOS Atarneus b b

Cyme Phocaea Candamyle A Magnesia I D P Thymbrara Delphinium Y a L c Smyrna Sardis to Chios lus Clazomenae Corupedion R. Erythrae Phanae Leuconium Teos IONIA Colophon 38°N Lebedus 38°N Ephesus Pygela der aean SAMOS R. M Samos Magnesia A Mt Mycale I Panhormus Priene Myus Lade Is Miletus R Iasus Panormus Mylasa A C Myndos Halicarnassus c Naxos c Calymnus Cos Cedreae Amorgos Cos Cnidus Cape Triopium Ialysus Camirus Land over 1,000 metres RHODES 0 50 100 150 km Lindus 36°N 36°N 0 25 50 75 100 miles d d A 26°E B 28°E C

Map 0.6 Western Asia Minor and the Hellespont

A °E B 25°E24 C 26°E D

0 25 50 75 100 km a a 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 miles

Land over 1,000 metres

36°N 36°N

b b

Eleutherna Tylissus Cnossus Drerus Lyctus Lato Gortyn Praesus Arcades Stalae 35°N Commus 35°N

Caudus

c c

A °E B 25°E24 C 26°E D

Map 0.7 Crete

A 8°E10B °E12C °E14D °E16E °E18F °E G a a 48°N 48°N

b b

46°N 46°N

T Aquileia i c

i n u CISAL s PIN E GA Ticinum UL c (Pavia) Padus/Po c ia Clastidium b b re T

I L L 44°N Y 44°N R I Metaurus A

Sentinum d d

L. s Issa i Trasimene r e b i T Telámon CORSICA 42°N Allia 42°N Rome L A V o T l Arpi IU tu r Cannae M n Capua u e s e C A Asculum MP Neapolis AN (Naples) IA MESSAPIA Taras/ Tarentum Posidonia LUCANIA SARDINIA 40°N Heraclea 40°N Thurii/Sybaris

f Croton f Hipponium

Locri 38°N Aegates 38°N Lilybaeum

Agrigentum g Utica Syracuse g Carthage Nepheris Great Plains Land over 1,000 metres 36°N 36°N Zama Hadrumetum Thala 0 100 200 300 400 km h h 0 100 200 miles 8°E10B °E12C °E14D °E16E °E8F 1 °E

Map 0.8 Italy and Sicily

A 12°E B 13°E C 14°E D 44°N 44°N

a a

Clusium ° 43°N 43 N

Volsinii E T R b U b R I Vulci A Falerii Tarquinii

Pyrgi Veii Nomentum ° 42°N Caere 42 N Fidenae Tibur A E r Q e Rome Pedum Tib U Praeneste I SAMNITES Ostia Aricia Lanuvium Velitrae L A Ardea T CI I U LS c M V O c Antium Privernum

Fundi Formiae Be Tarracina- Suessa ne Anxur ve nt um Capua Ca udine Fo Suessula rk ° s 41 N C Acerrae A M PA Cumae N I Naples A Neapolis

d d Land over 1,000 metres

0 25 50 75 100 km

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 miles

A 12°E B 13°E C 14°E D

Map 0.9 Central Italy

© Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org More information Frontmatter Edited byPhilipSabin,HansvanWeesandMichaelWhitby Greece, theHellenisticWorldandRiseofRome 978-0-521-78273-9 -TheCambridgeHistoryofGreekandRomanWarfare,Volume1: Cambridge UniversityPress © Cambridge University Press

10°E A 11°E B 12°E C 13°E D 14°E E 15°E F

Lipari Is. a in s Land over 1,000 metres s a e a M 0 25 50 75 100 km Mylae Hyccara f Messana o 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 miles Panormus s t i a ° r ° 38 N Drepana Eryx t 38 N S Aegates Segesta/ Himera Egesta as Motya misus? r Cri e m Lilybaeum i S Naxos H y m

a e t h u Selinus s b R b

. Catana

s Herbessus a r e m Leontini Acragas/ i H Megara Agrigentum Utica Mt Ecnomus (Hyblaea) Syracuse 37°N Gela Epipolae 37°N

Tunis Carthage Camarina

Nepheris

c c

36°N www.cambridge.org d Hadrumetum d 10°E A 11°E B 12°E C 13°E D 14°E E 15°E F

Map 0.10 Sicily