An Overview of Video Description: History, Benefits, and Guidelines Jaclyn Packer, Katie Vizenor, and Joshua A
An Overview of Video Description: History, Benefits, and Guidelines Jaclyn Packer, Katie Vizenor, and Joshua A. Miele
Abstract: This article provides an overview of the historical context in which video description services have evolved in the United States, a summary of research demonstrating benefits to people with vision loss, an overview of current video description guidelines, and information about current software programs that are available to produce video description.
Although surprising to some, it has been the arts—any medium that includes visual shown that people who are visually im information that is not obvious to those who paired (that is, those who are blind or are only listening or have trouble seeing. have low vision) are as likely to own Description that is delivered live, such as televisions and other entertainment tech that provided to theater goers, is often re nology as those who are sighted and to ferred to as “audio description.” This article watch television for almost as many hours will focus on the description of video con per week as those who do not have vision tent rather than live description. loss (Packer & Kirchner, 1997). Although A recent piece of legislation in the much of the information provided by tele United States marked a pivotal moment in vision and other video sources is ex the history of video description in the pressed through audio, a lot of visual in United States. The Twenty-First Century formation is missed by people who have Communications and Video Accessibility vision loss. Video description, a tech Act of 2010 was passed, requiring certain nique to add additional audio information television entities to include video de that elaborates on visual content, was de scription in a portion of their prime time veloped in order to make video content and children’s programming. This re more accessible. Typically, the extra au quirement began in 2012, and is sched dio is inserted into the video so that it uled to expand more broadly throughout does not interfere with essential dialogue the next decade. (A full listing of current and sounds. television programming that includes Video description can be used for tele video description is available from the vision, film, Internet videos, theater, and American Foundation for the Blind [2015]; the full text of the legislation and This article was produced under a grant from the subsequent regulations are available from U.S. Department of Education (H327J110005). the Federal Communications Commis However, this article does not necessarily rep resent the policy of the U.S. Department of sion [2010].) Education and endorsement by the federal As this monumental change is proceed government should not be assumed. ing, it is appropriate to document the state
©2015 AFB, All Rights Reserved Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, March-April 2015 83 of the field of video description, describe The following historical milestones for its history to the present day, detail its ben video description were culled from con efits to people with vision loss, relate its versations with individuals involved in generally accepted guidelines and practices the video description field as well as from in the field, and report on available software other sources (Audio Description Coali to facilitate the process of creating video tion, 2013a; Audio Description Project, description. In an effort to be as compre 2010; Described and Captioned Media hensive as possible, the authors examined Program, 2013a; Packer & Gutierrez, the literature and consulted with experts 1997; Snyder, 2007; Video Programming from the Description Leadership Network, Accessibility Advisory Committee, 2012; a group of professionals and organizations Washington Ear, nd). that specialize in video description, which was assembled in 2011 by the Video De CONCEIVING THE IDEA scription Research and Development Cen The idea of making television or video ter at Smith-Kettlewell. accessible to people who are visually im History of video description paired by adding additional audio was conceived by several people, reportedly One can easily imagine that long before independently of each other. The earliest television and films were around, people idea for formal video description came who were sighted would provide critical about in the mid-1960s, when Chet Av information and describe visual surround ery, an employee at the U.S. Department ings to people who were visually im of Education, made a suggestion that in paired. Similarly, it is reasonable to as sume that since the advent of film and addition to captioning for people who are television, people who are visually im hard of hearing there ought to be descrip paired have attended movies and listened tion for people who are visually impaired, to television along with friends and fam and later encouraged blindness advocacy ily members, and that these companions organizations to seek funding to add de described some of the crucial visual in scription to film. formation so the person with vision loss The first concrete work on video de could understand and enjoy this recreational scription happened in the mid-1970s. and often educational activity. As early as Gregory Frazier, who was earning a grad 1951, the Hollywood movie Bright Victory uate degree in broadcasting, indepen portrayed a war veteran who is blind in a dently thought of the concept of video scene at a movie theater where his girlfriend description and wrote his master’s thesis explains to him what is going on visually in in 1975 on the topic, presenting a descrip the film, much to the annoyance of other tion narrative for the film The Autobiog patrons sitting nearby. With the modern de raphy of Miss Jane Pittman. At that time, velopment of video description, people with Frazier’s idea was to simulcast the de vision loss who watch described program scribed audio over the radio while the ming are no longer dependent on the assis program was broadcast on television. Fra tance of people who are sighted to under zier attempted to obtain funding for his stand the content. idea, but was unsuccessful at that time.
84 Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, March-April 2015 ©2015 AFB, All Rights Reserved In 1981, Margaret Rockwell (later Pf obtain grants from various sources to pro anstiehl), the founder of Metropolitan vide further video description. Washington Ear, a radio reading service That same year, Jim Stovall formed in the Washington, DC, area, also inde Narrative Video Network, a venture to pendently came up with the idea of de describe older television programs and scription, and started a project providing videos. Later, the name of the company audio description for live theater. She was changed to Narrative Television Net invited an acquaintance, Cody Pfanstiehl, work (NTN). NTN partnered with Nos to work with her on the project. In 1982, talgia Cable and The Family Channel to Margaret Pfanstiehl had the idea of pro provide description for classic films. viding description for television pro Also in 1988, Gregory Frazier, in part grams, and contacted Public Broadcasting nership with August Coppola, brother of Service (PBS). PBS agreed to allow her to film director Francis Ford Coppola, simulcast a description track through her formed the Audio Description Institute in radio reading service. San Francisco under a grant from the San Barry Cronin of WGBH, the local PBS Francisco Foundation. Their describers station in Boston, had a background in were trained by the Pfanstiehls. Three closed captioning for individuals who are years later, Frazier and his partner, Ida C. deaf or hard of hearing, and was working Johnson, founded a nonprofit organiza on ideas to use a new television technol tion, AudioVision, which offered video ogy, the Second Audio Program (SAP), description, and they conducted the first which was part of the stereo television research on the effectiveness of video de standard known as Multichannel Televi scription in educational videos. sion Sound (MTS). He developed the idea The television broadcast industry rec of video description in 1984, indepen ognized the achievement of the early dently of Frazier and Margaret Pfanstiehl. work of these video description pioneers by awarding the Emmy—an award rec CREATION OF THE FIRST VIDEO ognizing excellence in the television in DESCRIPTION SERVICES dustry bestowed by the U.S. Academy Three different video description entities of Television Arts & Sciences—for were formed in 1988. As Barry Cronin Outstanding Achievement in Technical/ began to work on the idea of video de Engineering Development to Margaret scription, he heard about the Pfanstiehls’ Pfanstiehl, PBS, NTN, and Gregory work and asked them to work with Frazier in 1990 (Washington Ear, nd). WGBH on creating a national video de scription service by training describers. LEGISLATION AND FUNDING Descriptive Video Service (DVS) was es Advocacy for federal funding of video de tablished at WGBH in 1988. With the scription began in the late 1980s. WGBH help of the Pfanstiehls, DVS conducted a worked with the American Foundation for one-year national test of video description the Blind (AFB) and, in particular, AFB’s on American Playhouse, which was the then-director of governmental relations, first television show to be televised with Scott Marshall, to pursue federal legisla video description. DVS was then able to tion to provide funding. In 1989, the
©2015 AFB, All Rights Reserved Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, March-April 2015 85 Department of Education appropriated description report obtaining numerous funds for video description, which were benefits from it. distributed in 1991. The Department of The Described and Captioned Media Education awarded funds to WGBH to Program (DCMP) of the National Asso expand the amount of described program ciation of the Deaf received funding from ming on PBS and to develop a venture to the Department of Education in 2008 to record and sell described films on video. develop guidelines for describing and cap Paramount and Disney were the first film tioning educational media. DCMP collected studios to agree to have a selection of information from an expert panel that their films described. As the service ex consisted of members from various orga panded, Blockbuster Video agreed to nizations that were involved with video carry described videos in their stores, as description, as well as teachers and par did many public libraries throughout the ents of children who are visually im United States. In 1992, NTN also re paired, and created a detailed guide for ceived funding from the Department of producers of video description for educa Education to provide video description on tional media called the “Description Key” television. In the years since, the Depart (Described and Captioned Media Pro gram, 2013b). ment of Education has awarded grants to In 2000, the Federal Communications additional entities to develop description for Commission (FCC) adopted rules for television programming, including Bridge video description that required the four Multimedia, National Captioning Institute, major commercial broadcasters and the CaptionMax, and Dicapta. top five cable or satellite providers (those The Department of Education solicited with more than 50,000 subscribers) to of grant applications in 1993 under the cat fer video description for a minimum num egory of “Research on Video Descrip ber of hours per quarter. In 2002, how tion” (CFDA #84.026G), and subsequently ever, the U.S. Court of Appeals for awarded a grant in 1994 to AFB, with a Washington, DC, vacated the FCC ruling, subcontract to WGBH, to study the po because they said that the Telecommuni tential audience for video description cations Act of 1996 did not give the FCC and methods of distributing description. the authority to enact rules on video de AFB’s study of video description resulted scription, and that the FCC therefore ex in the 1997 publication of the book Who’s ceeded its jurisdiction. Several years Watching? A Profile of the Blind and Vi later, The Twenty-First Century Commu sually Impaired Audience for Television nications and Video Accessibility Act of and Video (Packer & Kirchner, 1997), 2010 was passed, and this order reinstated which established that: individuals who the video description mandate that had are visually impaired watch television been adopted by the FCC in 2000. The with approximately the same frequency law became effective in July 2012, and as the general population; many with vi the number of required hours of descrip sion loss are interested in gaining access tion is set to increase throughout the next to television programming through video decade. The mandate covers only televi description; and those familiar with video sion and does not provide the FCC with
86 Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, March-April 2015 ©2015 AFB, All Rights Reserved the authority to require description for 1994, which consisted of 17 national dis online media. ability organizations in the United States The Department of Education provided including AFB and the American Council funds to establish a Video Description Re of the Blind (ACB). They worked with search and Development Center (VDRDC) Congress to encourage a federal mandate in 2011 at the Smith-Kettlewell Eye Re for video-described programming. search Institute, under the leadership of The first international conference on Joshua Miele. The VDRDC, in conjunction description was held in 1995, hosted by with a coalition of individuals and organi the Kennedy Center for the Performing zations involved in video description (the Arts in Washington, DC. One of the out Description Leadership Network), worked comes of the conference was the forma on developing new technologies and tech tion of an international organization that niques for improving the accessibility of could act as a clearinghouse for video video materials for students who are blind description information and focus on ad or visually impaired. Organizations in vocacy and networking. A steering com cluded in the Description Leadership Net mittee was formed, and Joel Snyder be work are listed online at http://www.vdrdc. came chair of the conference planning org/dln. committee. The organization was eventu ally named Audio Description Interna CONFERENCES AND COALITIONS tional (ADI) and was officially estab Since the late 1980s, individuals with an lished in 1998. interest in video description have devel The Association of Theater and Disabil oped various coalitions with other inter ity held a conference on video description ested parties, and several formal confer in 1996 in Atlanta, Georgia. Participants ences related to video description have reported on theater description activities in taken place. When the Department of Ed their local areas and states. Although much ucation began appropriating funds for of the focus was on theater description, ac video description in 1989, AFB saw an cess issues were relevant to description in opportunity to initiate a dialogue among all media and settings. all the major players. In 1990, AFB co In 2002, the Kennedy Center held a ordinated a meeting that resulted in the second international meeting in Washing publication of the AFB Press book A Pic ton, DC. Officers and board members ture Is Worth a Thousand Words for Blind were elected to lead ADI, and Barry and Visually Impaired Persons Too!—An Levine was elected its president. Introduction to Audiodescription (Ellis, A group called the the Audio Descrip 1991), which was the first published book tion Coalition (ADC) was formed in 2006 to address video description. The book to document best practices and standards included information on the history of for description, which resulted in the video description and a list of organiza 2007 document “Standards for Audio tions that were involved with description Description and Code of Professional at that time. Conduct for Describers”; the document Margaret Pfanstiehl formed the National was subsequently updated in 2009 (Audio Television Access Coalition (NTAC) in Description Coalition, 2013b). ADC’s
©2015 AFB, All Rights Reserved Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, March-April 2015 87 founding members include Betty Siegel information during inserted pauses in the of the John F. Kennedy Center for the video) than with clips that did not include Performing Arts in Washington, DC, as enhanced description. well as others involved with live de In other studies, video description has scription of performances and museum been shown to contribute to gains in exhibits. ADC focuses on training, knowledge and understanding (Frazier mentoring, and professional develop & Coutinho-Johnson, 1995; Katz & Tur ment for describers. cotte, 1993; Packer & Kirchner, 1997; Pet In 2009, ACB launched its Audio De titt, Sharpe, & Cooper, 1996; Schmeidler scription Project (ADP), replacing ADI, & Kirchner, 2001; Simpson, 1999); greater with Joel Snyder as director. A confer information retention (Schmeidler & Kir ence was held that year in Orlando, Flor chner, 2001); increased interest and en ida, and in 2010 a second conference was joyment (Fryer & Freeman, 2012; Packer held in Phoenix, Arizona. & Kirchner, 1997; Pettitt et al., 1996; In 2012 and 2013, the VDRDC held Schmeidler & Kirchner, 2001); better so annual conferences of the Description cial connection (Packer, 1996; Packer & Leadership Network in San Francisco, Kirchner, 1997; Schmeidler & Kirchner, California. The coalition of experts on 2001); and increased knowledge about video description shared information and the visual world (Packer, 1996). discussed ideas about applying the use of new technology to video description. Guidelines for video description Benefits of video description Numerous guidelines for writing video description are available online from a There have been a number of articles and large number of sources in the United research studies that have addressed how States and in other countries where video video description benefits audience mem description is available. See Box 1 for bers who are blind or visually impaired; Internet links to some of the more widely however, very few of these investiga tions meet stringent scientific criteria. In used guidelines. a literature search and meta-analysis of One of the most comprehensive set of literature on video description for chil guidelines is the DCMP Description Key. dren (Ferrell, Finnerty, & Monson, 2007), The DCMP, working with AFB, con of the 165 English-language references ducted a thorough literature search and found addressing video description, only meta-analysis of guidelines and practices one study had child participants and met (Ferrell et al., 2007). This search was stringent scientific standards (that is, an followed by an evaluation of strategies intervention with a comparison group that for describing educational materials by an was published in a peer-reviewed jour expert panel. The result was the DCMP nal). The one study that met the criteria Description Key, a compilation of the most (Ely et al., 2006) found that children dem critical considerations for describing ed onstrated better knowledge of content af ucational materials. See Box 2 for a list ter listening to video clips with enhanced of some of the most important guide description (the addition of extra described lines in the Description Key. Although
88 Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, March-April 2015 ©2015 AFB, All Rights Reserved Internet links to widely used video description guidelines United States American Council of the Blind’s Audio Description Project www.acb.org/adp/ad.html Audio Description Coalition www.audiodescriptioncoalition.org/standards.html Carl and Ruth Shapiro Family National Center for Accessible Media at WGBH (NCAM) http://ncam.wgbh.org/experience_learn/educational_media/stemdx/guidelines Described and Captioned Media Program www.dcmp.org/descriptionkey
Other countries Australia http://mediaaccess.org.au/practical-web-accessibility/media/audio-description guidelines Canada www.itu.int/ITU-D/sis/PwDs/Documents/DVBPGDE%20Version%201.pdf France http://audiodescription-france.org/ Spain www.aenor.es/aenor/normas/normas/fichanorma.asp?codigo=N0032787&tipo= N&PDF=Si United Kingdom www.ofcom.org.uk/static/archive/itc/itc_publications/codes_guidance/audio_description/ index.asp.html
Box 1 the Description Key focuses on educa 2002). Although they found a few minor tional materials, the complete set of differences between the six sets of guide guidelines encompasses most of the lines, they all included very similar rules specific practices mentioned in other for description. Only two major differ guidelines that address a wider set of ences arose: materials. The Royal National Institute for the • The U.K. guidelines recommend that Blind (RNIB) conducted a study (Rai, characters be named immediately, un Greening, & Petre´, 2010) that compared less it is crucial to the plot that they be the prevalent video description guide unnamed. The German, French, and lines of six countries—France, Germany, Greek guidelines and those of the Au Greece, Spain, the United Kingdom, and dio Description Project in the United the United States. For the United States, States recommend that, when reason RNIB chose the Audio Description Proj able, names be withheld until they are ect guidelines (Audio Description Project, mentioned within the video.
©2015 AFB, All Rights Reserved Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, March-April 2015 89 A selection of guidelines from the DCMP Description Key Become familiar with the video before attempting to describe it. Consider voice talent with voice quality that matches the style and pace of the video. Focus on what is most important for a person who has vision loss to know and on those things that are least obvious from the soundtrack. Start with a general description, and then focus on important details. Identify shapes, sizes, and colors when relevant to comprehension of the content. Use the present tense and a third-person narrative style. Avoid placing description over essential audio. Describe as close to the action as possible. Choose vocabulary and language structure that match the age of the intended audience. Be objective, and avoid personal interpretation.
Source: Based on Described and Captioned Media Program (2013b).
Box 2
• The U.K. guidelines encourage describ on the images or scenes; such technol ers to use terms such as pretty or hand ogy is known as Automated Algorith some when relevant to the story, whereas mic Description (Smith-Kettlewell Eye the German and ADP guidelines recom Research Institute, 2012), although it is mend using only impartial terms and let still in the theoretical stage and has not ting the viewer create a vision of the yet been used in practice. character. Conclusion VIDEO DESCRIPTION SOFTWARE The passing of the Twenty-First Century In recent years, description-generating Communications and Video Accessibility software has been developed to make the Act of 2010 marked a critical juncture in production of video description simpler the availability of video description for and more cost-effective. Box 3 lists six people who have vision loss. This in current software programs that produce crease in the amount of video description video description. The first four are avail on television, and the publicity surround able for free, and the remaining two are ing these changes, has likely led to a available for purchase. Each of these pro greater awareness among the public about grams is designed to allow individuals the existence of, and need for, the in to perform most or all of the following creased accessibility afforded by descrip tasks: detect spaces in the original audio tion. Although video description began to where there is no dialogue, time those be implemented more than three decades spaces, record descriptions, edit de ago, progress has been slow. In recent scriptions, and encode them into the years, however, the rate of that progress video in the proper place. None of these has begun to accelerate. software programs automatically cre Many guideline documents exist and ates parts of the description script based most agree on the salient points. These
90 Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, March-April 2015 ©2015 AFB, All Rights Reserved Video description software Free CapScribe (Inclusive Media and Design, 2012) Mac-based tool used to create both descriptions and captions developed by Inclusive Media and Design, a Canadian company. It is available for free to students, public sector organi zations, nonprofit organizations, and to some individuals. In order to download it, you must e-mail a statement regarding how the software will be used to: [email protected]. Live Describe (Branje, 2006; Branje & Fels, 2012) Developed by graduate student Carmen Branje for the purpose of allowing amateur describers to create video description. www.livedescribe.com MAGPie (National Center for Accessible Media, 2009) Developed by the Carl and Ruth Shapiro Family National Center for Accessible Media at WGBH to produce captions, subtitles, and video description on Windows PCs, although it is used mostly for captioning. It allows for multiple description tracks if desired. http://ncam.wgbh.org/invent_build/web_multimedia/tools-guidelines/magpie YouDescribe (Video Description Research and Development Center, 2013) Created by the VDRDC at Smith-Kettlewell, it allows users to describe YouTube videos using an online interface http://youdescribe.org
Available for purchase Swift ADePT (Softel Group, 2010) Developed by the Softel Group, a British company, to create video description. The company offers additional software for captioning. www.softelgroup.com/Downloads/Swift-ADePT-page/Swift-ADePT-Datasheet.pdf AutoDescription (CPC, 2012) Developed by Computer Prompting and Captioning Company to create video descrip tion. The company offers additional software for captioning. www.prweb.com/releases/audio/description/prweb9399586.htm
Box 3 guidelines will continue to improve as ple who are blind versus those with low additional research is conducted to estab- vision). lish what methods work best with which The availability of software tools, many particular audiences (for instance, peo- free of cost, is making it easier for individuals
©2015 AFB, All Rights Reserved Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, March-April 2015 91 to produce description, providing new op Described and Captioned Media Program. portunities for people to create video de (2013a). Description timeline highlights. scription on a small or no budget. Soft Retrieved from http://dcmp.org/ai/193 Described and Captioned Media Program. ware has the potential to easily allow (2013b). Description key. Retrieved from volunteers to provide description for ad http://www.dcmp.org/descriptionkey ditional video material that is not yet de Ellis, F. (1991). A picture is worth a thousand scribed; however, it is essential that vol words for blind and visually impaired unteer describers receive training in order persons too!—An introduction to audiode to increase the likelihood that high- scription. New York: American Founda quality description will be created. tion for the Blind. The increase in availability of de Ely, R., Emerson, R. W., Maggiore, T., Roth berg, M., O’Connell, T., & Hudson, L. scribed material will have a positive im (2006). Increased content knowledge of pact on the lives of people who are visu students with visual impairments as a result ally impaired. It will ensure that people of extended descriptions. Journal of Spe with vision loss have greater access to the cial Education Technology, 21(3), 31– 43. entertainment, cultural, and educational Federal Communications Commission. (2010). materials to which those with sight have Twenty-First Century Communications and unimpeded access. Video Accessibility Act. Retrieved from http://www.fcc.gov/encyclopedia/twenty References first-century-communications-and-video accessibility-act-0 American Foundation for the Blind. (2015). Ferrell, K., Finnerty, M., & Monson, M. (2007). Described TV listings. Retrieved from Meta-analysis of the descriptive video liter http://www.afb.org/tv.aspx ature. Retrieved from http://www.dcmp.org/ Audio Description Coalition. (2013a). A brief descriptionkey/description_key_meta_ history of audio description in the U.S. analysis.pdf Retrieved from http://www.audio Frazier, G., & Coutinho-Johnson, I. (1995). descriptioncoalition.org/history.html Audio Description Coalition. (2013b). Stan The effectiveness of audio description in dards for audio description and code of providing access to educational AV media professional conduct for describers. Re for blind and visually impaired students in trieved from http://www.audiodescription high school. San Francisco: AudioVision. coalition.org/standards.html Fryer, L., & Freeman, J. (2012). Presence in Audio Description Project. (2002). Guide those with and without sight: Audio de lines for audio description. Retrieved from scription and its potential for virtual reality http://www.acb.org/adp/guidelines.html applications. Journal of CyberTherapy & Audio Description Project. (2010). Audio de Rehabilitation, 5(1), 15–23. scription guidelines and best practices. Re Inclusive Media and Design. (2012). Tools trieved from http://acb.org/adp/ad.html for captioning and description. Retrieved Branje, C. J. (2006). Live describe—Can am from http://www.inclusivemedia.ca/ ateurs create quality video description? services/capscribe.shtml Unpublished thesis, Ryerson University. Katz, A., & Turcotte, J. (1993). Measurement Branje, C. J., & Fels, D. I. (2012). LiveDe of comprehension changes in television scribe: Can amateur describers create high- viewing of visually impaired persons using quality audio description? Journal of Visual descriptive video. Boston: New England Impairment & Blindness, 106(3), 154–165. College of Optometry. CPC. (2012). AutoDescription. Retrieved from National Center for Accessible Media. (2009). http://www.cpcweb.com/autodescription/ MAGPie home. Retrieved from http://ncam.
92 Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, March-April 2015 ©2015 AFB, All Rights Reserved wgbh.org/invent_build/web_multimedia/ (AAD). Retrieved from http://www.vdrdc. tools-guidelines/magpie org/research/aad Packer, J. (1996). Video description in North Snyder, J. (2007). Audio description: The vi America. In D. Burger (Ed.), New technol sual made verbal. The International Jour ogies in the education of the visually hand nal of the Arts in Society, 2(2), 99 –104. icapped. Paris: Les Editions INSERM. Softel Group. (2010). Swift ADePT: Audio Packer, J., & Gutierrez, B. (1997). Origins, description creation, rehearsal, repurpos organizations, and issues in video descrip ing and recording. Retrieved from http:// tion. In J. Packer & C. Kirchner (Eds.), www.softelgroup.com/Downloads/Swift Final report: Project to conduct research ADePT-page/Swift-ADePT-Datasheet.pdf on described video’s audience and meth Video Description Research and Develop ods of distribution. U.S. Department of Ed ment Center. (2013). YouDescribe. Re ucation Grant #H026G40001. trieved from http://youdescribe.ski.org Packer, J., & Kirchner, C. (1997). Who’s Video Programming Accessibility Advisory watching? A profile of the blind and visu Committee. (2012). Second report of the ally impaired audience for television and VPAAC on the Twenty-first Century video. New York: American Foundation Communications and Video Accessibility for the Blind. Act of 2010: Video description. Washing Pettitt, B., Sharpe, K., & Cooper, S. (1996). ton, DC: Federal Communications Com AUDETEL: Enhancing television for visu mission. ally impaired people. The British Journal Washington Ear. (n.d.). A very brief chronol of Visual Impairment, 14(2), 48 –52. ogy of description services for low vision Rai, S., Greening, J., & Petre´, L. (2010). A and blind people. Retrieved from http:// comparative study of audio description www.washear.org/chronology.htm guidelines prevalent in different countries. London: RNIB. Schmeidler, E., & Kirchner, C. (2001). Add Jaclyn Packer, Ph.D., research consultant, Amer ing audio description: Does it make a dif ican Foundation for the Blind, 2 Penn Plaza, Suite 1102, New York, NY 10121; e-mail:
©2015 AFB, All Rights Reserved Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, March-April 2015 93