VOLUME 6 ISSUE 1 Effective Faculty Meetings The Issue The beginning of a new school year is an ideal time to consider the design of faculty meetings. Staff developer Joan Richardson writes, “Almost any teacher or principal would agree that faculty meetings are one of the most dreaded and ineffective parts of the work week.” While empirical data about good and bad meetings are scarce, there is an abundance of qualitative data. This issue will focus on effective meetings in general, while a subsequent issue will ad- dress staff development norms and protocols that can enhance faculty meetings. The Research Common complaints about faculty meetings include: • Have a clearly defined purpose for the meeting; • Information could have been shared some other way; • Develop an agenda that leads to action; • Timing was bad (before school, after school, teachers • Designate specific time limits for agenda items; tired, coaches absent); and • Agree on norms or protocols for meeting behavior; • Issues are addressed in a context (committee of whole) • Delineate responsibilities for key roles, such as that has the least chance of solving a problem. recorder and timekeeper; Best practices for leading effective meetings have been • Use a flipchart or projector to create a visual record identified: during the meeting; and • Start and end on time; • Establish a process for evaluating meetings. Practical Implications Just as best practices have been identified, so too have common problems and possible solutions.

PROBLEM POSSIBLE SOLUTION Meetings don’t end on time. Start on time; plan the timing of agenda items in advance, and have a timekeeper hold the group to the schedule. The group can’t make a decision. Create expectations for action on agenda items; prioritize possible actions and look for data that support actions. Some people dominate, while others are silent. Structure the conversation with specific questions; break a large group into smaller groups to encourage involvement. Decisions often are revisited during the meeting. Keep records of decisions and display a visual record of current meeting; involve all members in discussion. Minor issues take too much time, slighting Break large issues into manageable parts; plan meeting time for major ones. significant issues and limit time for minor ones. Follow-through after meetings is lacking. Conclude meetings with a written action plan; designate a leader to check on progress between meetings.

Questions to Consider • How can we best share routine information without • What specific steps can we take to help ensure follow- detracting from valuable meeting time? through between meetings? • What are the most important things to focus on in this • Am I personally a dominator or a silent participant? year’s faculty meetings? How can I improve my own participation? References Bassett, Patrick. “Faculty Meeting Blues.” Richardson, Joan. “Harness the Potential of Staff Meetings.” http://www.isacs.org/resources/monographs/library.asp?id=241 http://www.nsdc.org/library/publications/tools/tools &category=11&action=show 10-99rich.cfm “How to Lead Effective Meetings” http://www.ohrd.wisc.edu/academicleadershipsupport/ Copyright © 2006 by EdResults, Inc.

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Topics & t r e n de s VOLUME 6 ISSUE 2

Faculty Meetings • The data from analysis, with action based on those data, can make a difference. Trend data from individual as Staff Development schools in which faculty analyzed the relationship be- tween teacher assignments and grade-level standards The Issue showed a dramatic increase in the percentage of grade- The previous issue of Topics & Trends talked in broad level assignments from one year to the next, as well as terms about managing meetings. This issue addresses improvement on high-stakes external assessments. faculty meetings focused on staff development, including norms and protocols for such meetings. The emphasis is Practical Implications on improving student achievement through collaborative The approach for collaboration at any given school will faculty meetings during which staff members look at vary according to the staff’s readiness. Staff developers student work. suggest the following approaches. The Research • Little collaboration in place: Begin with such non- threatening activities as sharing ideas and materials. The difference between norms and protocols is one of • Moderate collaboration: Invite teachers to anony- nuances: mously submit a problem that can be discussed in a • Norms are more general than protocols. Norms faculty meeting. A teacher whose problem is discussed address participants’ behaviors regardless of the con- can leave a meeting with multiple ideas on how to tent of the meeting. They focus on mutual respect address the issues. and interaction, and they are created to fit the needs • Strong collaboration: Introduce faculty members to of the participants. Norms may be developed from the concept of analyzing assignments – both the tasks scratch or adapted from an existing list. given to students and the quality of responses that stu- • Protocols provide a structure that creates a safe envi- dents bring to those tasks. ronment for discussion. This includes both processes and the time allotted to specific processes. The follow- Questions to Consider ing protocols relate to Looking at Student Work • What is the school faculty’s level of readiness for (LASW). collaborative activities? LASW is an effective staff development strategy that • What kind of help does the faculty need to begin the provides multiple benefits: process of Looking at Student Work? • LASW helps teachers analyze the quality of the assignments they give to students, including the rigor References of the assignments and whether they are in alignment with the grade-level curriculum. Hollingsworth, J. “DataWorks Professional Development Conference for Principals.” Los Angeles Unified School • It provides teachers with additional information for District, September 2002. helping individual students improve. • It improves the effectiveness of classroom instruction. “Looking at Student Work.” http://www.lasw.org/protocols.html and Data from large-scale analyses of student work provide http://www.lasw.org/research_hord.html the following information: Richardson, J. “Harness the Potential of Staff Meetings.” • DataWorks, in a study of more than 30,000 student as- http://www.nsdc.org/library/publications/tools/ signments, found that the alignment between assigned tools10-99rich.cfm student work and ’s English/Language Arts standards was 100% at kindergarten but decreased “Teachers Learn from Looking Together at Student Work.” each year to less than 30% at grades 11 and 12. http://www.education-world.com/a_curr/curr246.html • A review of 1,400 work samples from Chicago Public The Education Trust. “Effects of Student Achievement by School students revealed that 70% of those samples Teachers in SIP Teams.” presented either no challenge or minimal challenge. http://www2.edtrust.org/EdTrust/SIP+Professional+ However, when students were presented with a greater Development/Standards+in+practice+2.htm challenge, the quality of their work was much higher. Copyright © 2006 by EdResults, Inc.

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Effect of • Inclusion of families and the community as partners in After-School Programs the program. • Ongoing assessment of all aspects of the program. The Issue Practical Implications After-school programs are not new, but they are in- A survey of successful after-school programs conducted creasingly more prevalent and popular. Parents of more by the American Association of School Administrators than 15 million children say their child would partici- found certain commonalities across those programs. A pate in an after-school program if it were available in school or district planning to initiate a new program or their community. Almost 90% of Americans support retool an existing one can benefit from these conclusions. funding for good after-school programs in low-income • Leaders – the superintendent, central office staff, neighborhoods. Both the U.S. Senate and the House of building principals, and after-school staff – are clear Representatives recently formed Afterschool Caucuses. about their roles and responsibilities and are commit- What does current research tell us about the efficacy of ted to the task. Personnel in the after-school programs such programs? are well-qualified and adequately paid. • Programs are organized to operate within budget The Research constraints; and administrators plan for the program’s High-quality research data are scarce. Researchers at sustainability from its inception. Mid-Continent Research for Education and Learning • Programs contain both academic and non-academic (MCREL), in a meta-analysis of available studies, found content, with the academic portions synchronized the following: with what is occurring during the school day. • There were small but statistically significant effects on • Discipline policies in the after-school program are achievement in mathematics and reading. consistent with those under which students operate • The time when programs were scheduled – before or during the school day. after school or during the noon hour – did not have a Questions to Consider significant influence. • The programs were more effective at some grade • What are the goals for the after-school program – levels than at others. The largest effect in reading was whether an existing program or a new one – and how at grades K-2, while the largest effect in mathematics will educators measure whether they are meeting was at the high school level. those goals? • The greatest gains resulted from one-on-one tutoring. • What procedures will promote a seamless flow between school-day academics and the academics • The effect on student achievement was greater for addressed in the after-school program? programs that served students for at least 45 hours; however, the effects dropped off considerably when References the programs exceeded 100 hours in math or 200 American Association of School Administrators. “After-School hours in reading. Programs: Bureaucratic Barriers and Strategies for Success.” Researchers for the RAND Corporation, in a review of School Governance and Leadership (Fall 2005). the effectiveness of out-of-school programs, reported http://aasa.files.cms-plus.com/PDFs/Publications/ conclusions similar to those of the MCREL team. Their SchGovLdrshp/SGLAfterschool.pdf report also identified program components that were Lauer, P., et al. The Effectiveness of Out-of-School-Time Strategies associated with desired outcomes. These included the in Assisting Low-Achieving Students in Reading and Mathematics. following: Aurora, Colo.: Mid-Continent Research for Education and • A clearly stated mission that established high Learning, 2003. http://www.mcrel.org/PDF/ expectations. SchoolImprovementReform/5032RR_RSOSTeffectiveness.pdf • An environment that was safe and healthy, both physi- Bodilly, S., and Beckett, M. Making Out-of-School Time Matter: cally and emotionally. Evidence for an Action Agenda. Santa Monica, Calif.: RAND • A stable staff adequately trained to deliver the program Corporation, 2005. and meet the needs of students. http://www.rand.org/pubs/monographs/MG242/ Copyright © 2006 by EdResults, Inc. Phi Delta Kappa International, 408 N. Union Street, P.O. Box 789, Bloomington, IN 47402-0789 800.766.1156 • [email protected] • www.pdkintl.org

NOVEMBER 2006 VOLUME 6 • ISSUE 4

Impact of Block Scheduling • Schools report fewer discipline problems and fewer failures. The Issue • The time teachers spend on classroom administration is reduced. Block schedules in American schools are not new but • There is more continuity in lessons, with time to have become much more popular during recent years. engage students in active learning. With the increased call for accountability brought about • Most schools have the ability to offer a wider variety by the No Child Left Behind Act, some high schools are of courses. switching to block schedules as a way to improve student achievement while others are reverting to traditional • With a 4 x 4 schedule, students can earn more credits; schedules. Data in current literature indicate that at least students who have failed a course have more opportuni- 50% of high schools in the United States are scheduled ty to make up the credit and graduate with their class. around some type of block program. What does current Practical Implications research tell us about the impact of block schedules? There are several practical implications of block The Research scheduling: A variety of structures for block schedule exist — 4 x 4 • Academic achievement, as measured by external assess- blocks, alternating A/B day blocks, and variations that are ments, does not appear to be dependent on the type of called “hybrid models.” Though some research is now schedule — block or traditional. available that compares the different models, research • The block schedule does appear to contribute to a cited here compares the impact of block schedules of any more positive school climate. type with that of traditional schedules. • The 4 x 4 block provides students with the opportunity A summary by the Center for Applied Research and to earn more credits. Educational Improvement of 20 doctoral dissertations in • According to Bottge and Gugerty, “Ultimately . . . 12 different states provides the following information: student achievement may depend less on how the Of the 20 studies, 18 compared traditional and block school day is partitioned than on what teachers and schedules, while two compared different types of block students accomplish in the classroom.” schedules. In the 18 studies that compared traditional and block, nine studies found no differences in academic Questions to Consider achievement between students in the two different types • If our school is considering a change in structure of of schedules. Results for the other nine studies were the school day, what are the specific goals we expect to fairly evenly distributed across mixed results, results accomplish by the change? favoring block schedules, and results favoring traditional schedules. • No matter how our school day is arranged, what are the strategies we have in place to provide the class- Research efforts led by Brian Bottge and John Gugerty room environment and activities that will promote compared results from traditional and 4 x 4 block higher student achievement? schedules and found: • There were no differences in academic achievement. References • Teachers on both schedules used the same kinds of Bottge, Brian, and John Gugerty. “Block Scheduling: Some instructional strategies, with the time allocated to Benefits But No Magic Fix.” activities being relatively equal. http://www.wcer.wisc.edu/news/coverstories/ block_scheduling.php • Teachers from both groups were satisfied with their schedules. Center for Applied Research and Educational Improvement. • Both groups of teachers reported similar interaction “Research & Resources — Student Achievement.” with special education teachers, though teachers in the http://www.education.umn.edu/CAREI/Blockscheduling/ Resources/StudentAcheivement.html block schedule valued it more. A research brief from The Principals’ Partnership The Principals’ Partnership. “Research Brief: More on Block addressed issues other than academic achievement. Schedules.” Benefits of block scheduling cited include the following: http://www.principalspartnership.com/blockschedules2.pdf Copyright © 2006 by EdResults, Inc.

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DECEMBER 2006 VOLUME 6 • ISSUE 5

The Status of Social Studies process of developing assessments or have state statutes that permit their development. The Issue • Just under half the states—24 of the 50—include social studies in the state accountability system. “An unintended consequence of No Child Left Behind” is a phrase heard or seen with increasing frequency in re- In a survey commissioned by the Council for Basic Edu- lation to a variety of educational concerns, one of which cation, Claus von Zastrow asked almost 1,000 elemen- is the teaching of social studies. This issue of Topics & tary and secondary principals in four states about student Trends is the first of two that will address social studies. access to a liberal arts program. He found: Here, we focus on test and survey results, while the one to • Time allocated for the teaching of fine arts, foreign follow will address effective instruction in the area of so- language, and social studies is decreasing, with impact cial studies. greater in high-minority schools. The Research • Teaching time for social studies, civics, and geography is decreasing in K–5 schools, while time for reading, Tests in social studies—civics, U.S. history, and geogra- writing, math, and science is increasing. phy—are included in the National Assessment of Educa- • Teaching time and staff development for social studies tion Progress (NAEP). Tests are administered at Grades is increasing at the secondary level. 4, 8, and 12. There has been a single test administration Anecdotal evidence from some states or from specific in civics (1998), and two administrations in U.S. history districts indicates that social studies subjects receive and geography (1994 and 2001). The National Assess- almost no required allocations for instructional time at ment Governing Board (NAGB) has established three the elementary level. levels of achievement: Basic, Proficient, and Advanced. Proficient has been identified by the NAGB as the mini- Practical Implications mum level at which all students should perform. Perfor- There are several practical implications of the research mance results from the 1998 civics test and the 2001 on social studies assessment: tests in history and geography include the following: • Inclusion of social studies in state assessment and • The rates of proficient or above on the 1998 civics accountability systems, as recommended by von Zas- tests were as follows: Grade 4, 25%; Grade 8, 24%; trow’s report, can come only through action at the Grade 12, 30%. state level. • In geography, the 2001 rates for proficient or above • The time allocated to the instruction of social studies were 21% at Grade 4, 30% at Grade 8, and 25% at at the K–5 level is a district decision that must be care- Grade 12. fully considered. Reduced time devoted to social stud- • The proportion of students scoring at proficient or ies may impact the next NAEP results. above on the history test was 18% at Grade 4, 17% at grade 8, and 11% at Grade 12. Questions to Consider • Scores in both geography and U.S. history were high- Has time for instruction in social studies been included er at Grades 4 and 8 in 2001 than they were in 1994; in time allocations at the K–5 level in our district? If not, there was no significant change at Grade 12. where can time be found to address content in geogra- • Achievement gaps were evident by ethnicity and eco- phy, history, and civics? nomic status in all test administrations; the gap had References narrowed in some instances between 1994 and 2001. Claus von Zastrow. Academic Atrophy: The Condition of the In addition to “unintended consequences,” another oft- Liberal Arts in America’s Public Schools. http://music-for-all.org/CBESurvey.html heard phrase is “what gets tested gets taught.” A summa- Education Commission of the States. “Citizenship Education ry compiled by the Education Commission of the States Inclusion in Assessment and Accountability Systems.” and retrieved from the Internet on 18 November 2006 http://mb2.ecs.org/reports/Report.aspx?id=107 reveals the following: National Center for Education Statistics. “National Assess- • Eighteen of the 50 states do not have assessments in ment of Educational Progress: The Nation’s Report Card.” social studies. Of the remaining 32, 20% are in the http://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard

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Topics & r e n de s JANUARY 2007 t VOLUME 6 • ISSUE 6

Effective Instruction in students’ spatial-relations skills are also enhanced. • Vocabulary development in social studies is especially Social Studies important in the middle grades. Studies have indicated that poor readers in upper elementary and middle The Issue school have the greatest difficulty with abstract and content-specific words. The prior issue of Topics and Trends focused on data related • Drill on specific facts can lead to the mastery needed to to the status of social studies in U.S. schools, with the understand new content; teachers using drill must be promise that this issue would address effective instruction in aware of the research related to drill and practice. (See the area of social studies. In the words of James Shaver, “A p. 55 in the Osborne article.) substantial base of research on the teaching of social studies — many studies with rigorous designs — is not available.” Practical Implications Because of this, he notes, “research cannot provide man- There are several practical implications of social studies dates for social studies instruction.” With that caveat in practices: mind, this issue focuses on promising practices in social • Provide direct vocabulary instruction to develop knowl- studies that are based on some of the best research available. edge of content-specific terms. Strategies include intro- The Research ducing new words in pre-reading activities as well as encouraging students to construct “foldables” that allow Most of the practices below are found in the summaries students to use their own words to paraphrase the defi- of sound instructional practices provided by Shaver and nition and to draw pictures that illustrate the new word. Osborne. Many of the practices found in these two sum- • If time for social studies instruction has been reduced, maries were similar, and many apply to instruction in especially in the pre-high school grades, find ways to areas outside of social studies. Most of the research cited integrate the learning of social studies with reading and by both authors is dated in the last two decades of the 20th mathematics. (See ASCD Update and Arizona century. Geographic Alliance for further ideas.) • National social studies standards stress outcomes re- quiring analysis and interpretation. In classrooms that Questions to Consider are promoting these thinking skills, teachers engage • Are we using drill and practice of facts as a means to move students in questions or problems that go further than students on to interpretation and analysis of social stud- knowledge and comprehension of basic facts. ies concepts, rather than using the learning of facts as an • Teachers focus on in-depth study of fewer topics rather end in itself? than broad coverage of many topics. • Are vocabulary-development activities a regular part of • Primary sources are used often, rather than relying our instruction? solely on a textbook. • How are we integrating the teaching of social studies with • Classroom strategies used by teachers to develop a other content areas? positive climate include clear expectations for student behavior; a variety of strategies, including ones that References actively involve students in lessons; and cooperative- Arizona Geographic Alliance. “Strengthening Geography learning activities. Education in Arizona.” Tempe: Arizona State University. • Critical-thinking skills are taught explicitly, in part by http://alliance.la.asu.edu. teachers’ modeling of metacognition. Osborne, Cliff. “BETTER Social Studies: Building • Concepts are developed through clear definitions Effective Teaching through Educational Research.” accompanied by both exemplars and non-exemplars of Baltimore: State Department of Education. the concept. http://eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/data/ericdocs2/content • Questions posed to students are clear and at the _storage_01/0000000b/80/25/7f/cf.pdf. appropriate level. Questions based on knowledge and Shaver, James P. “Chapter 10: Social Studies.” In Hand- comprehension can be structured to lead to questions book of Research on Improving Student Achievement, 2nd that call for interpretation and analysis. ed., ed. Gordon Cawelti. Arlington, Va.: Educational • A systematic, sequential program for teaching map skills Research Service, 1999. in the early grades provides students with information “Social Studies Jockeys for Position in a Narrowing and tools they need in further study of social studies; Curriculum.” ASCD’s Education Update, May 2006.

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FEBRUARY 2007 VOLUME 6 • ISSUE 7

The Impact of School Size: 20% to 70%, with the norm being 30% to 50%. Large Schools vs. Small Ones • The impact of school size is evident across all grade levels, but school size tends to be more important in the upper grades (especially high school). The Issue Practical Implications Research has clearly established the positive impact of smaller schools on student achievement. These findings Many different organizational structures exist in smaller have been a major factor in recent years in the move schools, especially at the high school level, but the most toward restructuring schools into smaller learning envi- prevalent in recent restructuring efforts is Small Learn- ronments. An underlying danger of this movement is ing Communities (SLCs). Several factors have been that leaders involved in the restructuring process will not identified that make SLCs especially effective: consider all the ingredients essential for success. This • Both faculty and students have chosen to be in a issue of Topics and Trends summarizes research prior to the particular SLC because of a common interest in the small schools movement as well as more recent research focus of that SLC. that has identified the components that lead to successful • The adult stakeholders in the SLC — faculty, par- small-school restructuring efforts. ents, and community members — have established a mission and vision that directs all planning and The Research subsequent action. • The focus is on student learning, with high expecta- Consider these findings: tions for all students. • A 1996 comprehensive study reviewed 31 studies com- • Learning communities are sufficiently small to paring academic achievement of students in large and enable staff members to know the students within small schools; half the studies found no difference in the community. Insufficient reduction in size is often achievement, while the other half found that student one of the barriers to successful implementation. academic performance was stronger in smaller schools. • Teaching is supported by professional development • Researchers note that these statistics are correlational, that is site specific and teacher designed, with built- emphasizing that the features of a small school not in time for planning and collaboration. inherent in larger schools are what produce the actual differences in student achievement. Questions to Consider • Graduation rates are higher in small schools. Students graduating from small schools attend college at a higher • Do we, as a faculty, have a clear vision for the Small rate and are more successful in college than those grad- Learning Community in which we are working or that uating from larger schools. we plan to initiate? • Small schools report higher rates of attendance and • Do we use the structure of the SLC to promote higher fewer instances of truancy, violence, drug and alcohol achievement for all students? abuse, vandalism, and classroom disruptions. Differ- • What barriers (see Cotton, 2001) are keeping us from ences are especially notable in schools with high con- maximum effectiveness? centrations of ethnic minorities and students of low References socio-economic status. • Students in small schools participate in extracurricular Chicago Public Schools. 2003. “Small Schools Get Results.” activities at a higher rate than their counterparts in http://smallschools.cps.k12.il.us/research.html. larger schools. Cotton, Kathleen. 2001. “New Small Learning Communities: • Large schools do not appear to have the negative effect Findings from Recent Literature.” Northwest Regional on the achievement of white students that is evident in Educational Laboratory. larger schools serving predominantly poor and minority http://www3.scasd.org/small_schools/nlsc.pdf. students. Raywid, Mary Anne. “Synthesis of Research/Small Schools: A • One multistate study indicates that small schools Reform That Works.” Educational Leadership, December 1997/January 1998. reduce the negative impacts of poverty anywhere from Copyright © 2007 by EdResults, Inc.

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Inclusion Certain barriers to inclusion have been identified: • Organizational — Class sizes may be too large or in- The Issue clude too many special-needs students; there is insuffi- cient time for collaboration and planning between The term “inclusion” is not found in any legislation. co-teachers. The most widely accepted idea of inclusion is that stu- • Attitudes — Teachers are not prepared to surrender or dents with disabilities attend regular education classes share classroom control. with non-disabled students, with direct support from • Knowledge — General education teachers may not be special education personnel. Inclusion programs vary prepared to work with special-needs students; special widely from one district to another. As with many other education teachers are often lacking in content knowl- programs, there is a big question as to whether or not edge. inclusion is working. The Research Practical Implications Some of the identified characteristics that lead to suc- What is the history of inclusion in the United States? In cessful implementation of inclusion include: 1970, U.S. schools served only 20% of students with • a clear vision of what inclusion looks like in the setting special needs. The Education for All Handicapped Chil- in which it is to be implemented, with buy-in from dren Act, enacted in 1975, mandated an end to exclusion all stakeholders and leaders needed to implement the of special-needs children from general education. In vision; 1990, the law changed to the Individuals with Disabili- • time for collaboration among teachers and other pro- ties Education Act (IDEA), which stresses placement of fessionals to plan for shared teaching responsibilities a child in the “least restrictive environment.” The con- as well as strategies to support the needs of all students cept of inclusion grew from this. By 1993, almost every in the classroom; and state was implementing inclusion to some degree. • use of identified best-teaching practices — activity- based, cooperative groups, instructional technology, The research on inclusion is inconclusive. Educators and differentiated for needs identified through supporting inclusion and those resisting it can both find curriculum-based assessments. research to support their points of view. Those support- ing inclusion cite research findings that suggest inclusion Questions to Consider is beneficial to both students with special needs and those without disabilities. Those findings include, but • What model for inclusionary education best fits the are not limited to, the following: needs of students in our building? • Achievement levels for special-needs students are as • What kind of staff development have we provided for high or higher than self-contained classrooms both special education and general education teachers • Special-needs students exhibit more appropriate social dealing with both content and appropriate teaching behavior because of higher classroom expectations strategies? • Special-needs students receive social support from students without disabilities and exhibit increased adaptability as they learn from teachers with a variety References of teaching styles Hines, Rebecca A. 2001. “Inclusion in Middle Schools.” • Special-needs students enjoy higher levels of success ERIC Digest. http://www.ericdigests.org/2002-3/ (such as employment) after leaving high school inclusion.htm. • General education students have the advantage of an National Down Syndrome Society. 2007. “Inclusion.” extra teacher in the classroom http://www.ndss.org/index.php?option=com_ • General education students exhibit a greater accept- content&task=view&id=1951&Itemid=208. ance of students with disabilities Walker, Karen. 2005. “Research Brief: Inclusion/ • The academic performance of general education stu- Least Restrictive Environment.” dents in inclusive classrooms is as good or better than http://www.principalspartnership.com/inclusionlre.pdf. those in classrooms without special education students

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Phi Delta Kappa International, 408 N. Union Street, P.O. Box 789, Bloomington, IN 47402-0789 800.766.1156 • [email protected] • www.pdkintl.org Topics & r e n de s APRIL 2007 t VOLUME 6 • ISSUE 9

The Status of Writing • Higher writing scores are associated with greater usage of computers for writing. The Issue Information from other sources provides additional sup- “In most cases, writing ability could be your ticket in . . . port for the need for a focus on writing: or it could be your ticket out.” This statement, from a corporate executive responding to a survey conducted by • A recent study showed that half of all freshmen entering the National Commission on Writing, emphasizes the im- the various state university campuses in California need- portance of writing in the business world as well as the ac- ed remedial help in English. Another survey indicated ademic world. This issue of Topics & Trends is the first of a that almost all two-year public institutions and three- two-part series. This issue addresses the status of writing fourths of four-year public institutions offered remedial in American schools, while the next issue will focus on at- writing. tributes of good writing programs. • A survey of 120 major corporations indicates that writ- ing is a “threshold skill” for both hiring and promotion The Research of salaried workers. The National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) provides the best national description of the writ- Practical Implications ing skills of American public school students. The descrip- • Writing is a major component of state academic stan- tor of proficient performance says that students should be dards. able to write a response that is organized, contains details • Assessments mandated by No Child Left Behind legisla- to support the central idea, uses a variety of words and tion include reading but not writing. sentence structures, and has few mechanical errors. • Increased time has been allocated to reading and mathe- matics in many districts, but attention to writing does Data from the last two administrations of the NAEP writ- not always follow. ing assessment include the following results: Questions to Consider • If we analyzed the amount of time spent on writing in • The percentage of students scoring proficient or above our language arts classes, what would it be? in 2002 was 28% at Grade 4, 31% at Grade 8, and 24% • How extensively have we integrated the use of technol- at Grade 12. ogy into our writing program? • In 2002, scores for students in the fourth and eighth grades were up slightly from 1998, while those for References twelfth graders were basically the same. Achievement Applebee, Arthur N., and Judith A. Langer. 2006. “The gaps between ethnic and socioeconomic groups re- State of Writing Instruction in America’s Schools: What mained unchanged. Existing Data Tell Us.” Center on English Learning & Achievement, University at Albany, State University of Survey data linked to student scores on the NAEP in both . http://www.albany.edu/aire/news/ writing (2002) and reading (2005) provides additional in- State%20of%20Writing%20Instruction.pdf. formation: National Center for Education Statistics. 2004. “The • Almost 60% of teachers involved reported that they NAEP Writing Achievement Levels.” spent less than 40% of their English language arts time http://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/writing/ on writing, while 11% spent 10% or less; time declined achieve.asp. between 2002 and 2005. National Commission on Writing. 2004. “Writing: A • Across different subgroups, higher achievement in writ- Ticket to Work . . . Or a Ticket Out.” The College ing is evident when teachers spend about half their in- Board. http://www.writingcommission.org/ structional time helping students learn how to write. prod_downloads/writingcom/writing-ticket-to-work.pdf. • Frequent experiences in writing that require analysis National Writing Project. 1999. “Profiles of the National and interpretation are associated with higher writing Writing Project: Improving Writing and Learning in scores for grade 12 students; however, just a third of the Nation’s Schools.” seniors reported that this happened frequently. http://www.writingproject.org/downloads/profiles.pdf.

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Phi Delta Kappa International, 408 N. Union Street, P.O. Box 789, Bloomington, IN 47402-0789 800.766.1156 • [email protected] • www.pdkintl.org

MAY 2007 VOLUME 6 • ISSUE 10

Effective Writing Instruction instruction across grade levels and curricular areas; and • differentiated instruction and support in the writing process for struggling students, with specific attention The Issue to identified shortcomings as listed above. “The quality of instruction students receive is a major determinant of their writing achievement, and the Practical Implications quality of instruction varies dramatically.” Thoughtful Writers and teachers of writing have identified three educators find no room for argument in this statement different kinds of writing. The first is described as from “An Introduction to Writing,” cited below. On transactional writing, which may persuade, inform, or the other hand, no teacher starts his or her workday instruct; it is a means to an end. The second is expres- with the intention of providing students with poor in- sive writing, which allows a writer to share thoughts and struction in any content area, including writing. The feelings. The third is poetic writing, in which language question, then, is “What constitutes a high-quality is used as an art form and the product is an end unto writing program?” itself. Several research findings relate directly to the different types of writing: The Research • Different forms of writing require different instruc- Researchers have identified specific shortcomings of poor tion and different processes writers that include the following: • Development of writing skills is tied to reading; • Inadequate knowledge of text structure and extended reading experiences result in stronger and organization more diverse writing • Limited background knowledge about assigned writing • There must be a balance in the different types of topics reading and writing to which students are exposed • Limited language skills such as vocabulary and sentence structure Questions to Consider • Insensitivity to intended audience • Do we provide adequate instruction in the writing • Lack of planning and/or revising process as well as time to apply that process? • Little faith in one’s own competence as a writer • Are the types of writing tasks we present to students • Little perseverance in the writing process balanced so that students have the opportunity to expe- A number of well-known models for writing exist. Key rience and practice writing for a variety of purposes? attributes of these models include: References • an established routine for writing that is sustained, allowing students to become “at home” with the National Council of Teachers of English. 2007. What writing process; Research Says about Writing. www.ncte.org/prog/writing/research. • assignment of meaningful writing tasks, including ones that build on personal experiences or call for research Squire, James R. 2004. Language Arts. In Handbook of Research on Improving Student Achievement, 3d ed., ed. Gordon Cawelti, and reflection, with timely feedback to students on 125–40. Arlington, Va.: Educational Research Service. completed tasks; Special Connections. 2005. An Introduction to Writing. • a shared and mutually understood language for setting Lawrence: University of . expectations and giving feedback, including rubrics for www.specialconnections.ku.edu/cgi-bin/cgiwrap/specconn/ both teacher and self-evaluation; main.php?cat=instruction§ion=main&subsection= • specific instruction in three elements of writing: writing/main. process strategies, such as prewriting, drafting, and Troia, Gary A. 2005. Teaching Writing to Diverse Student editing; “craft” elements, such as character develop- Populations. , D.C.: Access Center, U.S. Depart- ment; and mechanics of writing, including spelling, ment of Education. punctuation, and grammar; www.k8accesscenter.org/writing/documents/TroiaWriting • consistency in expectations for writing and the type of Document.pdf. Copyright © 2007 by EdResults, Inc.

Phi Delta Kappa International, 408 N. Union Street, P.O. Box 789, Bloomington, IN 47402-0789 800.766.1156 • [email protected] • www.pdkintl.org