DOCSLIB.ORG

Radio Havana Cuba Dxers Unlimited's Weekend Edition For

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Radio Havana Cuba Dxers Unlimited's Weekend Edition For Radio Havana Cuba Dxers Unlimited's weekend edition for Sunday January 24 and Monday January 25 UTC days By Arnie Coro radio amateur CO2KK Hola amigos radioaficionados all around the world now listening via shortwave orstreaming audio or maybe reading the script of the program... it is nice to have you le arning more about our wonderful hobby... I am your host Arnaldo, Arnie, Coro here at Radio Havana Cuba, join me for about 10 minutes full of all radio hobby related information... Here is now item one: There are a number of frequencies that are of great importance when working with ionospheric radio propagation. Those frequencies include the Critical Frequency; the Lowest Usable Frequency or l u f, LUF; Maximum usable frequency, m u f MUF; and the Optimum Working Frequency, o w f, also known as the frequency of optimum traffic or f o t--- as I just said they are all of great importance when determining which frequencies will provide the best performance for a short wave radio circuit or as some professional like to call it a , HF radio communications link. These frequencies are often mentioned in radio communications propagation predictions software programs instruction manual. As such an overview of these terms is of importance to anyone using HF radio communications just like you and I. Let me start with a detailed description of the : Critical Frequency of the Ionosphere The critical frequency is an important figure that gives an indication of the state of the ionosphere and the resulting HF propagation possibilities . It is obtained by sending a radio signal pulse directly upwards. This is reflected back and can be received by a receiver on the same site as the transmitter. The pulse may be reflected back to earth, and the time measured to give an indication of the height of the layer. As the frequency is increased a point is reached where the signal will pass right through the layer, and on to the next one, or into outer space. The frequency at which this occurs is called the critical frequency. The equipment used to measure the critical frequency is called an *Ionosonde*. In many respects it resembles and is nothing else than a special small radar set, that is set to operate for the HF bands. Using these sets a plot of the reflections against frequency can be generated. This will give an indication of the state of the 1 ionosphere for that area of the world where it is located Now, here is the explanation related to the very important ionosphere parameter the : Maximum Usable Frequency, or M U F When a signal is transmitted using HF propagation, over a given path there is a maximum frequency that can be used. This results from the fact that as the signal frequency increases it will pass through more layers and eventually travelling into outer space. As it passes through one layer it may be that communication is lost because the signal then propagates over a greater distance than is required. Also when the signal passes through all the layers communication will be lost. The frequency at which radio communications just starts to fail is known as the Maximum Usable Frequency (MUF). As a rule of thumb it is generally three (for the F region) to five (for the E region) times the critical and it is true for low angles of incidence, although nowadays more exact methods are available for determining this figure. It is possible to calculate the relationship more exactly: *MUF = F / ( sec ? )* Where: MUF = Maximum Usable Frequency F = frequency ? = the angle the incident ray makes with a vertical line through the point of incidence. The factor secant of the angle PHI [the greek symbol] is called the MUF factor and it is a function of the path length if the height layer is known. By using typical figures for the heights of the different ionospheric regions the factors may be determined. Region or layer Distance 1000 km 2000 km 3000 km 4000 km Sporadic E 4.0 5.2 E 3.2 4.8 F1 2.0 3.2 3.9 F2 Winter 1.8 3.2 3.7 4.0 F2 Summer 1.5 2.4 3.0 3.3 *MUF factors for various distances* *assuming representative heights for the principle ionospheric regions* 2 An "operational" format for the maximum usable frequency may also be seen on occasions. This is the maximum usable frequency, that would permit acceptable operation of a radio service between given terminals under specific working conditions. This form of M U F has the emphasis on the operational acceptability of the circuit. It means that factors such as the antenna, power levels and such like are considered and gives an indication regarding the possibility of real communication between two a given stations for which all the technical parameters are known . Now, let us continue by defining another very important parameter knows as the : Lowest Usable Frequency, LUF As the frequency of a transmission is reduced further down reflections from the ionosphere may be needed, and the losses from the D layer increase. These two effects mean that there is a frequency below which radio communications between two stations will be lost. In fact the Lowest Usable Frequency (LUF) is defined as the frequency at below which the signal falls below the minimum strength required for satisfactory reception. From this it can be seen that the LUF is dependent upon the stations at either end of the path. Their antennas, receivers, transmitter powers, the level of noise in the vicinity, and so forth all affect the LUF. The type of modulation used also has an effect, because some types of modulation modes can be copied at lower strengths than others. In other words the LUF is the practical limit below which communication cannot be maintained between two particular radio communications stations. If it is necessary to use a frequency below the LUF then as a rough guide a gain of 10dB must be made to decrease the LUF by 2 MHz. This can be achieved by methods including increasing the transmitter powers, improving the antennas, etc.. It is found that the LUF actually increases in periods of high solar activity. This is arises because of the increased levels of solar radiation that give rise to higher levels of ionisation in the D layer. This in turn increases the level of attenuation introduced by this layer. This means that at the peak of the sunspot cycle there is degradation in the performance of the low frequency bands for long distance communications. And now amigos let us learn about the most popular ionospheric parameter of them all , the : 3 Optimum working frequency To be able to send signals to a given location there are likely to be several different paths that can be used. Sometimes it may be possible to use the either the E or the F layers, and sometimes a signal may be reflected first off one and then the other. In fact the picture is rarely as well defined as it may appear from the textbooks. However it is still possible to choose a frequency from a variety of options to help making contact with a given area. In general the higher the frequency, the better. This is because the attenuation caused by the D layer is less. Although signals may be able to travel through the D layer they may still suffer significant levels of attenuation. As the attenuation reduces by a factor of four for doubling the frequency in use this shows how significant this can be. Also by increasing the frequency it is likely that a higher layer in the ionosphere will be used. This may result in fewer reflections being required. As losses are incurred at each reflection and each time the signal passes through the D layer, using a higher frequency obviously helps. When using the higher frequencies it is necessary to ensure that communications are still reliable. In view of the ever-changing state of the ionosphere a general rule of thumb is to use a frequency that is about 20% below the MUF. This should ensure that the signal remains below the MUF despite the short-term changes. However it should be remembered that the MUF will change significantly according to the time of day, and therefore it will be necessary alter the frequency periodically to take account of this. Yes amigos our good friend the electrically charged upper layers of the ionosphere are the ones that make possible short wave broadcasting, amateur radio operations and the day to day use of very important communications services, that is why , today, here at Dxers Unlimited I decided to provide you with this tutorial... You can obtain the written text by sending an e'mail to inforhc at enet dot cu, again inforhc at enet dot cu... Listen to our middle of the week program next Tuesday and Wednedsay UTC days... I am Arnie Coro, in Havana, Cuba 4.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • A Simplified Mathematical Model to Calculate the Maximum Usable Frequencies Over Iraqi Territory Khalid A
    A Simplified Mathematical Model to Calculate the Maximum Usable Frequencies Over Iraqi Territory Khalid A. Hadi*, Loay E. Goerge** A Simplified Mathematical Model to Calculate the Maximum Usable Frequencies Over Iraqi Territory Khalid A. Hadi*, Loay E. Goerge** * Department of Astronomy & Space, College of Science, University of Baghdad ** Department of Computer Science, College of Science, University of Baghdad Receiving Date: 25-02-2011 - Accept Date: 13-06-2011 Abstract In this project, the spatial and temporal variation of maximum usable frequency (MUF) parameter is investigated and modeled. The values of MUF for Baghdad station links, with other stations distributed over Iraq territory, where determined using the international reference model (RECF533) for HF propagation. The determined MUF dataset reflected that the spatial distribution of this parameter for Baghdad station shows circular symmetry, which stimulated the possibility of using a two dimensional second order polynomial in order to describe MUF variation. The main feature of this adopted mathematical model is its low complexity. The results of conducted analysis indicated that the spatial variation of MUF is simple while its temporal variation is more complicated and needs more sophisticated mathematical description than the polynomial description. The test results showed that the accuracy of proposed simple model lies within the tolerance of REC533 reference model. Key words: Ionosphere, HF communication prediction, MUF Vol 7 No: 4, October 2011 1 20 ISSN: 2222-8373 A Simplified Mathematical Model to Calculate the Maximum Usable Frequencies Over Iraqi Territory 1. INTRODUCTION The Maximum Usable Frequency, denoted by MUF, is an important ionospheric parameter. It is defined as the highest frequency that allows reliable long-range high frequency (HF) radio communication between two points due to ion-ospheric refraction.
    [Show full text]
  • Using High Frequency Propagation to Calculate Basic Maximum Usable Frequency
    Using High Frequency Propagation to Calculate Basic Maximum Usable Frequency Israa Abdualqassim Mohammed Ali* * University of Baghdad, College of Science, Baghdad, Iraq Received: XX 20XX / Accepted: XX 20XX / Published online: ABSTRACT A comparison between observed (obs.) digital ionospheric sounding data and predicted (pre.) using International Reference Ionosphere (IRI) model for critical frequency (foF2) and Basic Maximum Usable Frequency (BMUF) of ionospheric F2-Layer has been made. A mid-latitude region selected for this research work by using data from station Wakkanai (45.38o N, 141.66o E). This study included 12 monthly median data from year (2001, R12=111) selected for high Sunspot number (SSN) and years for low SSN (2004, R12=44) and (2005, R12=29). Frequency parameters foF2 reveals that there is a good correlation between observed and predicted except for January of years 2001 and 2004, and BMUF revealed that there is a good correlation between observed and predicted for years of low SSN and all months except in month 1, 9 and 12 of year 2004, for year 2001 of high SSN there is a bad correlation. A correction factor as a function of time used from fitting technique to correct the predicted value with observed value of BMUF for year 2001. Keywords: Ionosphere; foF2; M3000F2; BMUF Author Correspondence, e-mail: [email protected] 1. INTRODUCTION The maximum usable frequency (MUF) is important ionospheric parameter for radio users because of its role in radio frequency management and for providing a good communication 1 link between two locations (Athieno et al., 2015; Suparta et al., 2018).
    [Show full text]
  • Radio Transmission and the Ionosphere
    Ih S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS WASHINGTON / » ruT O v / Letter Circular LC-614 RADIO TRANSMISSION AND THE IONOSPHERE October 23, 19^0 6 . s TKD :ANK U. 3. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE Letter 1-6 NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS Circular Washington LC-6l4 ( Supersedes LC-E75) October 23 , 19^0 RADIO TRANSMISSION' AND THE IONOSPHERE Radio transmission over great distances is made possible by . reflection of the radio waves from ionized (electrically conduct- ing) layers in the ionosphere, the upper region of the earth* atmosphere. How far the radio waves go, and what frequencies may be used, are determined by the heights and the degree of ionization of the ionized layers, which are located between about BO kilometers (30 miles) and 400 kilometers (250 miles) above the earth's surface. Because of variations in the ionized layers, the conditions of radio wave transmission vary with time of day, with season, and from year to year. For the efficient maintenance of radio services it is important to have a constant supply of information on these changes. To this end an ionosphere observing, reporting, and predicting service is provided by the National Bureau of Standards. It is analogous to the weather reporting service, though quite independent of it-; the factors producing or affecting weather exist at much lower levels of the atmosphere than the ionosphere. The results of the Bureau * work on the ionosphere arid -radio transmission are made available to the public by a Science Service Urslgram and radio broadcast each week, and regular publication each month and each quarter, as well as through special papers (see References at end hereof) published from time to time on particular phases of the subject.
    [Show full text]
  • Radio Communications
    RADIO COMMUNICATIONS An Amateur Radio Technician and General Class License Study Guide Prepared by John Nordlund – AD5FU and Edited by Lynette Dowdy - KD5QMD Based on the Element 2 Technician Exam Question Pool Valid from 7/1/06 until 7/1/2010 and the Element 3 General Exam Question Pool Valid 7/1/2007 until 7/1/2011 Page 1 of 78 Acknowledgment: My greatest thanks to Lynette – KD5QMD, for her understanding and assistance, without which this book would be filled with countless typographical and grammatical errors and an overload of confusing jargon and bewildering techno-babble. | | This publication is the intellectual property of the author, and may not be reproduced for commercial gain for any purpose without the express permission of the author. | | However, Share the Fun. | | This publication may be freely distributed for the educational benefit of any who would care to obtain or upgrade their amateur radio license. | | | If you love the hobby you have a duty of honor to pass it along to the next generation. | | | 73 de AD5FU Page 2 of 78 How to use this study guide. Contained within the next 73 pages is a text derived from the official exam question pools for Element 2 Technician and Element 3 General class exams. It is the expressed opinion of the author and editor of this study guide that studying the full question pool text is counterproductive in attempting to obtain your Amateur Radio License. We therefore do not recommend downloading the actual exam question pool texts. This study guide is divided into sections of related information.
    [Show full text]
  • HF Radio Propagation
    Introduction to HF Radio Propagation 1. The Ionosphere 1.1 The Regions of the Ionosphere In a region extending from a height of about 50 km to over 500 km, most of the molecules of the atmosphere are ionised by radiation from the Sun. This region is called the ionosphere (see Figure 1.1). Ionisation is the process in which electrons, which are negatively charged, are removed from neutral atoms or molecules to leave positively charged ions and free electrons. It is the ions that give their name to the ionosphere, but it is the much lighter and more freely moving electrons which are important in terms of HF (high frequency) radio propagation. The free electrons in the ionosphere cause HF radio waves to be refracted (bent) and eventually reflected back to earth. The greater the density of electrons, the higher the frequencies that can be reflected. During the day there may be four regions present called the D, E, F1 and F2 regions. Their approximate height ranges are: • D region 50 to 90 km; • E region 90 to 140 km; • F1 region 140 to 210 km; • F2 region over 210 km. At certain times during the solar cycle the F1 region may not be distinct from the F2 region with the two merging to form an F region. At night the D, E and F1 regions become very much depleted of free electrons, leaving only the F2 region available for communications. Only the E, F1 and F2 regions refract HF waves. The D region is very important though, because while it does not refract HF radio waves, it does absorb or attenuate them (see Section 1.5).
    [Show full text]
  • Comparison of Maximum Usable Frequency (MUF) Variability Over Peninsular Malaysia with IRI Model During the Rise of Solar Cycle 24
    Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics 138-139 (2016) 87–92 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jastp Research paper Comparison of maximum usable frequency (MUF) variability over Peninsular Malaysia with IRI model during the rise of solar cycle 24 R.A. Malik a,b,n, M. Abdullah a,c, S. Abdullah c, M.J. Homam d a Department of Electrical, Electronic and Systems Engineering, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Malaysia b Science & Technology Research Institute for Defence (STRIDE), Malaysia c Space Science Centre (ANGKASA), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Malaysia d Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia, Malaysia article info abstract Article history: The aim of this paper is to study maximum usable frequency (MUF) variability over Peninsular Malaysia Received 27 July 2015 (112.5°E, 2.5°N) which is located in the equatorial region during the rise of Solar Cycle 24 (2009–2011). Received in revised form The MUF Test data was obtained from high frequency (HF) transmission tests that were conducted from 16 December 2015 April 2009 to September 2011. Relative variability VR was used to compute the relative variability of MUF. Accepted 26 December 2015 Variability of diurnal, seasonal and sunspot effect on MUF of test was compared to International Re- Available online 29 December 2015 ference Ionosphere (IRI) version of 2012. The results show that: (a) MUF from the IRI model is higher Keywords: than the MUF Test but the magnitude for the
    [Show full text]
  • The Ohm Town News
    THE OHM TOWN NEWS Voice of the Bridgerland Amateur Radio Club >>>>>>>> http://www.barconline.org <<<<<<<< MarchMarch 20201010 Some Contents… Presidents Message ................................ 2 Ham Profile: Kevin Reeve (N7RXE) .......... 3 2010 Club Budget Voting Form .............. 4 Upcoming Activities ................................ 5 D-Star update information .................... 6 ARRL newsletter information ................. 8-11 Test Questions for Extra Class License ... 12 PRESIDENT’S MESSAGE For the past several years, we have been at the bottom of one of the lowest solar activity cy- cles in history. But it looks like solar cycle 24 is starting its upward trend. The past 10 weeks have seen only three days with no sunspots. The prediction is that solar cycle 24 will peak in mid 2013. In other words, at the peak of the cycle you can basically make contact with other amateur radio operators all over the world. On the other hand, when the sunspot activity is in the low part of the cycle (like it is now) radio signals don't normally travel very far -- but some- times they do and that uncertainty is one of the many things that make the hobby fun. Any form of radio communications that uses the High Frequency (HF) bands and iono- spheric radio propagation is very dependent upon the state of the ionosphere. The higher the levels of radiation received from the Sun, the greater the levels of ionization in the ionosphere and in general this brings better propagation conditions for HF radio communications. The importance of the ionosphere lies in its ability to reflect some radio waves back to earth under certain conditions.
    [Show full text]
  • The Exam Corner #4
    THE EXAM CORNER #4 By Steve Weeks, AA8SW This is the second in the series of three lessons on propagation. The General Class license is so desirable because it gives us access to worldwide communications on HF bands, but over-the-horizon signals have to be “bounced” (technically refracted) back down to Earth one or more times by the atmosphere (most often, by the ionosphere). Again, I will briefly discuss what you need to know about an aspect of that subject, then show you the only exam questions that could appear on that aspect, and follow with hints as to how you can remember the right answer. The correct answer is in bold. ● This unit focuses on two simple concepts – the Lowest Usable Frequency (LUF) and Maximum Usable Frequency (MUF), which are just what they sound like – between the LUF and the MUF are the frequencies that are usable for communications between two given points at a given time. Note, this is not a 24-hour average, it is as of the specific time that the communication is desired to be made. Below the LUF, radio waves are absorbed by the ionosphere and not “bounced” back. G3B07 What does LUF stand for? A. The Lowest Usable Frequency for communications between two points B. The Longest Universal Function for communications between two points C. The Lowest Usable Frequency during a 24 hour period D. The Longest Universal Function during a 24 hour period G3B08 What does MUF stand for? A. The Minimum Usable Frequency for communications between two points B. The Maximum Usable Frequency for communications between two points C.
    [Show full text]
  • A History of Vertical-Incidence Ionsphere Sounding at the National
    TECH, aoaot Mii22 PB 151387 ^0.28 ^5oulder laboratories A HISTORY OF VERTICAL - INCIDENCE IONOSPHERE SOUNDING AT THE NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS BY SANFORD C. GLADDEN U. S. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS IE NATIONAL BUREAU OF STANDARDS Functions and Activities The Functions of the National Bureau of Standards are set forth in the Act of Congress, March 3, 1901, as amended by Congress in Public Law 619, 1950. These include the development and maintenance of the national standards of measurement and the provision of means and methods for making measurements consistent with these standards: the determination of physical constants and properties of materials: the development of methods and instruments for testing materials, devices, and structures; advisory services to government agencies on scientific and technical problems; in- vention and development of devices to serve special needs of the Government; and the development of standard practices, codes, and specifications. The work includes basic and applied research, development, engineering, instrumentation, testing, evaluation, calibration services, and various consultation and information services. Research projects are also performed for other government agencies when the work relates to and supplements the basic program of the Bureau or when the Bureau's unique competence is required. The scope of activities is suggested by the listing of divisions and sections on the inside of the back cover. Publications The results of the Bureau's work take the form of either actual equipment and devices or pub- lished papers. These papers appear either in the Bureau's own series of publications or in the journals of professional and scientific societies.
    [Show full text]
  • An Introduction to HF Communications What Is “HF”
    6/19/2019 What is “HF” • HF – “High Frequency” An Introduction to HF • Details later, but for now, if you aren’t familiar with the term, call it “shortwave Communications radio” Gordon Good, KM6I 12 It Was A Dark And Stormy Night About Me • My introduction to HF • Licensed since 1975 (age 13) • Arlington, Texas, 1968 or so • Previously WN8YVI, WB8YVI, KC8ES • (yes, it really was dark and stormy) • Active on HF 1975-1981, some contesting at University of Michigan ARC W8UM • Inactive on HF for many years • Became active in MTV CERT/ARES around 2001 • Got back into HF + contesting in 2008 34 1 6/19/2019 Unit 1: The Electromagnetic Outline Spectrum 1. The Electromagnetic Spectrum • What is the electromagnetic spectrum? 2. The HF Amateur Radio Bands • Who uses it? 3. Modes • History 4. HF Propagation Basics 5. HF Antennas 6. Operating Practices 7. Having Fun on HF 56 TV broadcasting Submarine Satellite Communications Public Safety Communications Shortwave Radar broadcasting ELF VLF LF MF HF VHF UHF SHF EHF MW WiFi AM Radio FM Radio From https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_spectrum 78 2 6/19/2019 Early Radio Experiments • First observations of radio phenomena in late 18th century • Mid-1800s – scientific foundation laid (Orsted, Henry, Faraday, Maxwell) • Late 1800s – Marconi, Tesla conduct experiments • 1901 – first claimed transatlantic wireless transmission From https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electromagnetic_spectrum 910 Commercial Use Modern Telecommunications • First use of wireless was ship-to-shore • Using new modulation techniques (ways of communications using morse code encoding signals over radio) • First experimental audio broadcasts in • Digital communications 1906, first commercial station 1919 • Very high bandwidths (e.g.
    [Show full text]
  • ANTENNA and WAVE PROPAGATION Critical Frequency
    ANTENNA AND WAVE PROPAGATION Critical Frequency The critical frequency is the highest frequency that will returned to earth from an overhead vertical path It is directly dependent on the level of ionisation above the observer – may be measured by ionospheric sounders Sometimes called: Critical Frequency of Vertical Incidence Typical figures are: ◦ Summer: High 9MHz, Low 4MHz ◦ Winter: High 14MHz, Low 3MHz Note: Near Vertical Incidence Skywave (NVIS) exploits this for local communications coverage Maximum Usable Frequency (MUF) The Maximum Usable Frequency (MUF) is the highest frequency that will be refracted over a particular path. The MUF varies with 24hr day/night cycle, season etc The MUF will always be higher than the critical frequency Longer paths (with lower angles) will have a higher MUF The MUF may be up to five times the critical frequency, depending on the angle It is usually advantageous to use highest available frequency The MUF varies with solar ionisation:- ◦ Overnight the ionisation steadily falls resulting in much lower MUF, to as low as around 2MHz during a sunspot minimum. ◦ At mid-day during the maximum of the sunspot cycle, it may reach 40MHz for a long hop. Lowest Usable Frequency (LUF) Lower frequencies are more liable to absorption in the D layer Some propagation charts give a lowest usable frequency to allow for this effect If the LUF is greater then the MUF, No propagation by the ionosphere is possible Skip Distance Between the skip distance and ground wave range is a region that can not be covered This is known as the Skip or Dead Zone It is quite easy to observe..
    [Show full text]
  • Maximum Usable Frequency and Skip Distance Maps Over Italy
    Available online at www.sciencedirect.com ScienceDirect Advances in Space Research 66 (2020) 243–258 www.elsevier.com/locate/asr Maximum usable frequency and skip distance maps over Italy M. Pietrella ⇑, M. Pezzopane Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia, Via di Vigna Murata 605, 00143 Roma, Italy Received 9 December 2019; received in revised form 19 February 2020; accepted 28 March 2020 Available online 9 April 2020 Abstract Since 1988 the Upper Atmosphere Physics unit of the Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia (INGV) has provided maps of Maximum Usable Frequency (MUF) and skip distance over a European area extending in latitude from 34°Nto60°N and in longitude from 5°Wto40°E. Anyhow, these maps suffer the following restrictions: (1) they are provided with two months in advance and so they are not suitable for space weather purposes; (2) they are represented with few isolines; (3) they are centred only on Rome (41.8°N, 12.5°E) and generated in black and white; (4) MUF are calculated with a really simple algorithm. In order to overcome these restrictions, a new software tool was developed to get climatological maps (up to three months in advance) and quasi real-time maps, (nowcasting) limited to the sector extending in latitude from 34°Nto48°N and in longitude from 5°Eto20°E, which includes the whole Italian territory. In order to achieve a greater accuracy, MUF and skip distance maps are generated combining the Simplified Ionospheric Regional Model (SIRM) and its UPdated version (SIRMUP) with the Lockwood algorithm. Climatological maps are generated every hour on the basis of the predicted 12-months smoothed sunspots number.
    [Show full text]