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Special Issue

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Knowledge Organization

in the Visual Arts KNOWLEDGE ORGANIZATION VoI.20(1993)No.1 UDC 025.4+168+001.4(05)

KNOWLEDGE ORGANIZATION Contents Devoted to Concept Theory, Classification, Indexing, and Knowledge Representation

The joumalilithe organ of the INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY FOR KNOWLEDGE ORGANIZATION (General Secreta­ Editorial riat: WoogSlt. 36a,D-6ooo Frankfurt 50) Why "Knowledge Organization"? Editors The reasons for IC's change of name ...... 1 Dr.Ingetraut DAHLBERG (Editor-in-Chief), Woogstr.36a, D-6OOO Frankfurt 50

Guest Editor's Editorial Dr.Robert FUGMANN, Alte Poststr.13, 0-6270 Idstein

Veltman, K.: Computers and the Visual Arts ...... 2 ProfJean M.PERREAULT. The Library, Univ. of Alabama at Huntsville,P.D.Box 2600,Huntsville, AL 35807, USA

Articles Prof.Daniel Benediktsson (Book ReviewEditor), Univenity of Iceland, Libr.& Infonn.Science Studies, Oddi 101, Reyk­ Bower, J. M.: Vocabulary control and the virtual database ...... 4 javik, Iceland Trant, J.: "On speaking terms": Towards virtual integration of art information ...... 8 Consulting Editors Prof.Kenneth G.B.BAKEWElL, Livetpool Business School, Brandhorst, J.P.J.: Quantifiability in iconography ...... 12 Livetpool John Moores University, 98 Mount Pleasant, Li­ Grund, A.: ICONCLASS. On subject analysis of iconographic verpool L3 5UZ, U.K.

representations of works of art ...... 20 Prof.Pauline A.COCHRANE,GSUS. University ofIllinois, Molholt, P., Petersen, T.: The role of the ' Art and Architecture 410 DavidKinley Hall, 1407 West Gregory Drive,Urbana,IL 61801-3680, USA Thesaurus' in communicating about visual art ...... 30 Nauta, G.J.: HYPERICONICS: Hypertext and the social Mme.Nathalie DUSOULIER, INIST, 2, Allee du Pare de Brabois, F-54514 Vandoeuvre-les-Nancy, France construction of information about the history of artistic notions ...... 35 Veltman, K.: Electronic media and visual knowledge ...... 47 Mr.Oouglas FOSKETT, I, Dale Side, GernudsCross, Bucks. SL9 7JF, U.K.

MrJens B.FRIIS-HANSEN, Hoesterkoebvej 7, DK-2970 Hoersholm, Denmark Reports and Communications ...... 54 Mr.Alan GILCHRIST, 38 Ship Street, Brighton BNI lAB, Jongh, F.de, Couprie, L.D.: The CODART-System. U.K. A computerized system for registration, documentation and Prof.Wilfried G6DERT, FHBD,Claudiusstr.l, 0-5 000KBln information of East-Christian art ...... 54 Negrini, G.: Symposium on 'Research and Technical Scientific Dr.MA.GOPINATII, DRTC, Indian Statistical Inst., 8th Mile, Mysore Road, R.V.College P.O., Bangalore-S60059, Terminology', Rome, Sept.27, 1992, organized by ASS.I.TERM India under CNR's patronage ...... 55 Prof.Eric de GROUER, ISSC, I, rue Miollis, F-7S0l5 Paris, Dewey Turns 120 and Goes High Tech ...... 56 France Progress on Next Edition of the DDC ...... 56 Prof.Krishan KUMAR, Dept.of Libr.& Inform.Sci., Univ.of British Classification Society ...... 56 Delhi, Delhi-ll0 007,India Deprecation of Terms ...... 62 Prof.Yukfo NAKAMURA, 14-8, Nisikata-l, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113, Japan

...... Mr.PeterPAULSON, Forest PressOCLC, gS WatervlietAve., ISKO News 12 ...... 57 Albany, NY, 12206.USA Russian Regional ISKO Conference 1993 ...... 57 Prof.Dr.Roy RADA, Dept. of Computer Science, Univemity System-oriented, Cognitive and Model-Related Aspects of of liverpool, Liverpool L69 3BX, U.K. Knowledge Organization ...... : ...... 57 Drs.Gerhard J.A.RIESTIlUIS, Universitetsbibliotheck:, Sin­ Spanish Conference on Knowledge Organization ...... 57 gel 425, NL-1012 WP Amsterdam, Netherlands CRG 289 to Discuss Arts and Fine Arts ...... 58 Mr. Loll ROLUNG, CEC, Dir.XIII, Jean-Monnet Cenue, Kirchberg, LU-Luxembourg Book Reviews ...... 59 Dr.winfried SCHMTIZ-ESSER, Oderfelderstr.13, D-2000 Kumar, Girja: S.R.Ranganathan: an intellectual biography Hamburg 13

(M.P.Satija) ...... 59 Prof.Dr.Eugeniusz SCIBOR, IINTE, Broniewskigo 83-157. Dietze, J.: Introduction to Information Linguistics (In German) PL-01-876 Warszawa, Poland

(E.Mater) (In English) ...... 59 Dr.Otto SECHSER, In der Ey 37, CH-8047ZUrich Sowa, J.F.(Ed.): Principlesof semantic networks - Explorations Prof.Dr.Dagobert SOERGEL, College of Libr.& in the representation of knowledge (O.Sechser) ...... 60 Inform.Serv.,University of Maryland, College Park:, MD, Tufte, E.R.: Envisioning information (M.Giesecke) ...... 61 20742, USA

Dr.Edouard SUKIASYAN, Russian State Library, Pr.Kalinina 3, Moskva 10100,Russia

Prof.Nancy WIlLIAMSON,Fac.ofLibr.& Inform.Sci.,140 5t.George 5tI.,Toronto MSS IAI, Canada UDC 025.4+ 168+001.4(05) KNOWLEDGE ORGANIZATION

Devoted to Concept Theory, Systematic Terminology, and Organization of Knowledge

Editors: Dr.I.Dahlberg, Frankfurt; Dr.R,Fugmann, Idstein, Prof,J.M.Perreault, Huntsville, AL, USA. Edilorial Office: clo Or.I.Oahlberg, Woogstr. 36a, 0-6000 Franklurt 50. Te1.069-52 36 90, FAX: 069-52 05 66 Issue frequency:4x/ann. Annual subscription rates:lnstitutions per volume OM 97.-, Individuals per volume 20% less, If directly ordered from INDEKS Verlag. Single issues: OM 28.- Back issues available, ask for special offer. Subscription included in membership fee for members of the International Society for Knowledge Organization (ISKO). MwSt (domestic only) and postage are not included; for Air Mail delivery an additional OM 4.- per issue is required. Advertising rates: Advertising rate card NO.3. Advertising fact sheetwilh details of mechanical requirements and closing date available upon request. Publisher: INOEKS Verlag, Woogstr.36a, 0-6000 Frankfurt 50, Te1.069-52 36 90; FAX 069-52 05 66. Bank AccountNos: INOEKS Verlag, Postgiro-Konto Frankfurt No.151208-608 (Bl2 500100 60). Franklurter Sparkasse No. 852082 (Bl2 500 502 01) All Rights reserved. Printed in the Federal Republic of Germany 1993 by Druckerei H.Guntrum II KG. PF 180, D-6407 Schlitz/Hessen.

Contents page VoI.20(1993)No.1

Bower, I.M.: Vocabulary control and the virtual database. Molholt, P., Petersen, T.: The role of the Art and Architecture Knowl.Org. 20(1 993)No. I , pA-7, 21 refs. Thesaurus in communicating about visual art. Efforts tobuild "virtual museums" have focussed predominant- Knowl.Org. 20(1993)No.l, p.30-34, 4 refs. 1y on solving problems of rapidity changing interface technolo­ The paper addresses the ways in which computerization and a gy. Insufficient effort has been spent on planning for the "virtual thesaurus like the Art and Architecture Thesaurus (AAT) in:" databases" on which these multimedia environments depend, fluence the organization, description, and understanding of the particularly from the viewpoint of scholarly research. The Getty visual arts. It discusses these issues from the point of view of the Art History Infonnation Program has developed vocabularies AAT and considers how its structure and content serve as a that encourage consistency among scholarly documentation bridging mechanism between the many different manifesta� projects - regardless of their technical implementations - lions of the visual arts and the different types of organizations through tenninology standards. Two vocabularies intended for serving the viewers of art, whether as students, scholars, collec­ control ofterrninologyat the point of data capture are described, tions managers, or the enjoying public. This paper shows how and scenarios are proposed for their further utility in navigating a knowledge base like the AAT helps this variety of users the complex databases that tmderlie the virtual museum. develop approaches to the visual arts and suggests that the (Author) special nature of dealing with image rather than text influences how the thesaurus is structured and applied. (Authors) Brandhorst, J.P.J.: Quantillability in iconography, Knowl.Org. 20(1993)No.l, p.12-19, 11 refs. Nauta, G.J.: HYPERICONICS: Hypertext and the social Ithas rarely been seen as a task for art history to give systematic, construction of Information about the history of artistic consistent and detailed access to the subject matter of large notions. numbers of historical images. This lack of systematicdocumen­ Knowl.Org. 20(l993)No.l, p.35-46, 24 refs. tation severely handicaps all historical research that involves Some 25 years ago the Leiden art historian Van de Waal, the interpretation of iconographic detail. It leaves us unable to inventor of ICONCLASS, developed an 'icon knowledge sy­ count the frequency with which subjects have been represented, stem' called Beeldleer. After a brief review of this system the or with which iconographic particularities occur. This article author does borrow some central ideas of Beeldleer to discuss asks whether the use of the iconographic classification system a method of studying historically the elementary means of ICONCLASS will help to create countable iconographic infor­ artistic expression with the use of hypertext concepts. The mation. Its first part deals with the considerations that have potential of a social c.onstruction of information in this field is guided the shape of the computer edition that has recently been being emphasized. Finally the design of a pilot study in an made available. These may be relevant for the electronic educational context will be discussed. (Author) publication of classification systems in general. In the second part a few statements about gestures are analyzed against the background of an existing corpus of systematically described Veltman, K.H.: Electronic Media and Visual Knowledge. images. This analysis draws attention to the paradox that Knowl.Org. 20(1993)No.l, p.47-54, 7 refs. iconographic detail often plays a key role in art historical The real challenge of today lies in exploring how computers will discourse, but must do so on the basis of incidental infonnation. enable us to do what was not possible previously. The paper (Author) attempts to provoke thought about new frontiers of visual knowledge organization. Computers introduce the possibility Grund, A.: ICONCLASS. On subject analysis of iconogra. of interchangeable media. They offer multiple nodes of access phic representations of works of art. to a given tenn or object. Theyenable us toapproachkno wledge Knowl.Org. 20(1993)No. l, p.20-29, 32 refs. on different levels. A scheme of 10 levels is proposed and some The special classification system lCONCLASS, created by consequences for visual knowledge at each of these levels is Henry van de Waal for the description of occidental art, is considered briefly. The final section of the paper considers four considered against the background of art-historical iconogra­ navigational tools: questions, maps, meters, and tracking. phy. By means of a nwnber of examples the structure and use of (Author) ICONCLASS and its importance for art-historical d{)cumenta� tion are i11ustrated. (Author) This contents page may be reproduced without charge. KNOWLEDGE ORGANIZATION

Scope Aims

The more scientific data lte generated in the impetuous present times, the more Thus, KNOWLEDGE ORGANIZATION is meant to bea programme for the im· ordering energy needs \0 beexpended to conto! these dau in a retrievable fashion. provement of classification methods and processes, a forum for discussion for all With the abundance of knowledge now available the questions of new solutions to those interested in the organization of knowledge on a universal or a subject-field the ordering problem and thus of improved classification systems, methods and scale, using concept analytical and/or concept.synthetical approaches as well as procedures have acquired unforeseen significance.For many years now thcy have numerical procedures and comprising also the intellectual and automatic compila­ beenin the focus of interestof information scientists the worldover. tion and use of classification systems and thesauri in all fields of knowledge, with Until recently, the special literature relevant to classification was published in pie­ special attention being given to the problems of terminology. cemeal fashion,scattered over the numerous technicaljournals serving the experts of the various fields, such IS KNOWLEDGE ORGANl7ATION publishes original articles, reports on confe· rences and similar communications, the Newsletters of the InternationalSociety for philosophy and science of science Knowledge Organization (ISKO News) and the Committeeon Classification Re· science policy and science organization search of the International Fooeration for Information and Docwnentation (FIDI mathematics, statistics, and computer science CR News) as well as bookreviews, letters to the editor,and an extensive annotated library and infonnation science bibliography of recent classification and index.ing literature, covering now some archivistics and musoology 500 items in each issue. journalism and communication science KNOWLEDGE ORGANIlATION should therefore beavailable at every univer­ industrial products and commodity science sity and resea�h library of every counlry, at every infoffilation center, at colleges terminology,lexicography and linguistics and schools of library and information science, in the hands of everybody intere· Beginning 1974, KNOWLEDGE ORGANIZATION (fonnerly INTERNATIO­ sted in the fields mentionoo aboveand thus also at every office for updating infor­ NAL CLASSIFlCATION) has been serving as a common platfonn for the discus· mation on any topic relatoo to the problems of order in our infonnation-floodoo sion of both theoretical background questions and practical application problems times. in many areas of concern. In each issue experts from many counlries comment on KNOWLEDGBORGANIZA TION was founded in 1973 by an internationalgroup questions of an adequate structuring and construction of ordering systems and on of scholars with a consulting board of ooilOrs representing the world's regions,the the problems of their use in opening the infonnation contents of new literature, of specisl classification fields, and the subject areas involved. From 1974·1980 IC data collections and sUNey, oftabular works and of other objecu:of scientific in- was published by K.G.Sam Verlag, MUnchen. Back issues of 1978·1990 are terest. available from INDEKS Verlag, too. (The 10 volumes of 1978·1987 are offered Their contributionshave been concerned with now at the highly reduced price of OM 350.-). (l) clarifying the theoretical foundations (generalordering theory, science As of 1989, KNOWLEDGE ORGANIZATIONhas become the officialorgan of theoreticalbases of classification, data analysis and reduction) the INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY FOR KNOWLEDGE ORGANIZATION (2) describing practical operations connected with numerical taxonomy! (ISKO) and is included for every ISKO'member, personal or institutional in the classification, as well as applications of classification systems and thesau· membership fee (DM 60.-/DMI20.-). ri, manual and machine indexing (3) tracing the history of classification knowledge and methodology RalloS:From 1990 on for 4 issues/ann. (including indexes) DM 97.- + postage (OM (4) discussing questions of education and training in classification 6.·). For air mail delivery add DM 4.- per issue. Membership rates see above. - (5) concerningthemselves with the problems of terminologyin general and INDEKS Verlag, Woogstr.36a,0·6000 Frankfurt 50. with respect to special fields.

Instructions for Authors according to the ISO Standard 4. volume number, year of Manuscripts may be submitted in either English, German or publication in brackets, issue munber and first and last page French to the editor-in-chief in two sets (the original and one numbers. Monograph References should give the name(s) of the copy) typed in double space, comprising between 1500 to 3000 author(s), full title, edition. place of publication, publisher, year words. They should be accompanied by an English indicative and the number of pages. abstract of 100·200 words. The contributions are refereed. Examples: Brandhorst, J.P.J.: Quantifiability in iconography. Criteria fo r acceptance will be appropriateness to the field of KnowI.Org. 20(1993)No.1, p.12-19, 11 refs. the journal(see Scope and Aims) taking into account the merit HlUlter, EJ.: Classification made simple. Aldershot, GB: Gower of the content and its presentation. Papers are accepted with the 1988. liSp. understanding that they have not been published, submitted or Illustrations should be restricted to the necessary minimum. accepted for publication elsewhere and that, if the work recei­ Graphs and diagrams should be supplied as black and white ved official sponsorship, it has been duly released for publica­ drawings suitable to reproduction.Half-tone illustrations should tion. Authors will usually be notified within 6 to 10 weeks. be sharp, well-contrasted glossy prints. Illustrations should be Unless specificallyrequested, manuscripts or illustrationswill numbered lightly with a soft pencil on the back. Numbered not be returned. legends should be attached on a separate sheet. The textof the contributionsshould bestructun:d by subheadings; Tables should be typed doublevspaced on a separate sheet, it should contain (a) an introduction, stating the purpose, (b) a contain a number and a title at the top and be cited in the text. description of materials and methods in sufficient detail. (c) in­ Each column should have a heading. fonnation on results or systems developed, and (d) a conclusion Authors shall receive 25 reprinls of their papers free of charge. on and/or summarization. Additional reprints may be ordered. References should be listed at the end of the paper with the Corrections in gaily proof exceeding 10% of the typesetting numbers in brackets referring to such numbers in brackets costs will be charged to the author. within the text part. Additionalnotes should be indicated in the text by lifted single Contributions on microflexible discs are welcome if delivered numbersbehind a word and equally collected with their texts at in DOS compatible standard software such as Word (DOS or the end of the paper under the heading Notes. Windows), WordStar. WordPerfect, Euroscript, Multimate, Journal References should contain the names and initials of all In*a *vision. DCA/RFT -files or plain ASCIIcode - our standard authors, full titles of the publication, abbreviation of the journal is Word/DOS (Word/Windows) and PageMaker 3.1/4.0. Editorial

Why "Knowledge Organization"? The reasons for Ie's change of name

Never change a winning team, nor the name of a journal! Why have we done so nevertheless? Because the 1992 ISKO membership conference at Madras recom­ become more complete, but also that we can provide more mended a change of name, and because ISKO's Executi­ and better up-to-date information services than we have ve Board thought this a very timely idea, particularly in so far. So it is of course my devout wish that in each view of the excellent opportunity to let this change country one colleague might assume the responsibility for coincide with the start of volume 20 at the beginning of doing this preparatory work and providing me with this 1993. Regarding the wording of the new title we asked most helpful information for each upcoming issue. A free ISKO's Scientific Advisory Council to give its advice on subscription toour journal is the least he or she can expect four suggested versions, and the majority decided for the in return for this service! form you now find on the journal's title page. Unfortuna­ tely this also necessitated a change in our ISSN number, Now as to this first issue of KNOWLEDGE ORGANI­ so we must ask also our bibliographers for their kind ZATION, we are very happy to announce that Prof.Kim forbearance. VELTMAN of the University of Toronto was able to serve as our Guest Editor for this issue and present seven The new title, denoting a superordinate concept to contributions here on the subject Knowledge Organiza­ 'Classification', clearly indicates that we do not wish to tion in the Visual Arts. Of course, much, much more could confine ourselves to the problems falling under the 'Clas­ be said on it if one wishes to demonstrate, as it were, the sification' concept, but rather are interested - as in fact we state of the art in this field. But, first of all, there is not always have been, although many a one did not notice it enough room in ajournal to do so, and, second, we wished - in all questions of knowledge organization such as they above all to point out 'what is going on' and what a are now alluded to in the subtitle of our journal: hence in revolution has been - and may still be - brought about by Conceptology, Classification (including Thesaurus Pro­ the use of computers in the cataloguing, description, blems), Indexing, and Knowledge Representation (inclu­ storage and retrieval of works of art and in the communi­ ding the relevant Linguistic Problems and Terminology). cation on and other dealings with such works and their The entire scope of Knowledge Organization becomes contents. Kim VELTMAN, who for many years conduc­ obvious, if you look at the outline of our bibliographic ted scientific research on Leonardo da Vinci and perspec­ service CLASSIFICATION LITERATURE, which ap­ tive in Germany, presented his 'Thoughts on the Reorga­ peared in almost every one of the earlier issues and which nization of Knowledge' as far back as ten years ago in a will change its name now also into KNOWLEDGE paper read at the 1983 convention of the German Society ORGANIZATION LITERATURE. for Classification at Ktlnigswinter, Germany, outlining By the way: in the preceding issue, IC 1992-4, I had to ideas in this paper which, while considered by us wholly announce to my regret that I no longer had access to the utopian at the time, are fully realizable today. May his library supplying me up to then with the major part of the farsightedness prove correct also in his new contributions bibliographic references for 'Classification Literature': here, assuming that a further development of present-day the excellent library of the Information Center for Infor­ humanity is still possible despite the difficulties of every mation Sciences in Darmstadt,which Center fell victim to nature that have arisen and continue to arise in a wide the German Government's economy measures, causing variety of countries. Here I can only wish and hope that its library to be moved to the Polytechnic at Potsdam near those who have fallen into distress will realize where, and Berlin, thus becoming well-nigh inaccessible to me for where only, help is still to be found: not from their reasons of sheer distance. Since then I have received a governments, not from society, nor from one's own string of letters imploring me for heaven's sake not to strength, but only from Heaven, from God! Let us, there­ abandon this literature service, while I also received fore, pull down Heaven onto earth! offers from some colleagues in Finland and China propo­ Art, insofar as it is pure and genuine, is from Heaven, sing to send me references to the relevant production in and therefore I am happy to know that in this first issue we their respective countries, as has obligingly been done for are being given a fair share of indications and suggestions several years already by Dr.M.P. SATIJA (India), towhom as to how our access to heavenly works can be facilitated our sincere and public thanks on this account are long by a suitable organization of knowledge! overdue! Such a solution would of course bein the interest Ingetraut Dahlberg of all our colleagues, for it would mean not only that we

Knowl.Org. 20(!993)No.! Editorial Guest Editor's Editorial

Computers and the Visual Arts The role of computers is changing radically. In the 1960's computers were mainly associated with calcula­ tion (number crunching). Gradually they became associa­ ted with texts until today there is an international organi­ per painting. AXS uses c.30-50 megabytes per image. zation, the Text Encoding Initiative (TEl), concerned Experiments at the frontiers such as IBM's Brandywine specifically with entering texts digitally. Meanwhile Project use 50 megabytes per picture. At this rate an hour individual projects are constantly gaining in scale. At the lecture with 100 slides would occupy as much as 5 Vatican Library all the Reginensis manuscripts have been gigabytes while a collection of a million images would entered digitally and a project is underway to digiti7'" over require 50,000 gigabytes. Hence the CHIN collection 9 ,000 incunables. In Paris, President Mitterand has been with five million records would require 250,000 gigaby­ speaking of producing some 400,000 texts in electronic tes, while the U.S Parks service with around 26 million form for the new Tres Grande Bibliotheque (TGB). In records would require images such as the Marburg Archi­ Washington, the Coalition for Networked Information ve would require 1,300,000 gigabytes. All this is so far (CNI) has recently begun lobbying to digitize 10,000,000 beyond the scope of the average PC that it may well sound volumes. The EEC has begun a plan that calls for the entirely futuristic. It is sobering to remind ourselves that eventual digitization of all the major European libraries: a project is already underway, namely the catalogue of an estimated 2.3 (European) billion books. European patents being organized by CAT Benelux in With respect to scanning existing images there were conjunction with BSO/Origin, which uses 2.3 terabytes. several problems. Low resolution scanners produced Until recently analysis of visual material also posed unacceptable quality. High resolution scanners took up seemingly insuperable problems. In the early 1970's too much space. Michael Ester of the Getty's Art History those at the frontiers of the field (e.g. Evans and Suther­ Information Program (AHIP) made an important contri­ hmd) developed algorithms for basic line drawings in bution by working with art historians to determine quan­ perspective. During the 1970's and 1980's these were titative parameters for acceptability. It was found that developed into coloured surfaces that could be animated. most experts do not perceive tangible changes above 2000 The production of Star Wars II (1977) and TRON (1982), dots per inch. Another problem lay in matching colours the first full length film using computer animation, were between original and scanned images, a problem rende­ two of the landmarks in these developments. Significant­ red all the more difficult because photographs and even ly these relied almost entirely on semi-regular geometri­ paintings tend to change colour with time. Kodak and cal surfaces rather than attempting to render the comple­ more recently IBM have been devoting special projects to xities of organic forms. Since the early 1980's, Pixar has these problems. been at the frontiers of creating ever more complex Scanning techniques for coloured photographs were natural forms. also developed. The 1990's are making these technolo­ With respect to paintings and other works of art, early gies available in the realm of the personal computer. A efforts were limited to creating digital versions of the number of companies have produced software for conver­ written records describing these. The Canadian Heritage sian of images from one format to another (e.g. TBase, Information Network (1972-), founded by Peter Homu­ Photostyler, Image Prep). GTE has produced a software los, was the first organization to introduce a national program for viewing a series of images. Much more standard in this domain. In Germany, the Marburg Archi­ expensive systems (c.$15,000) by AXS permit more ve thanks to the leadership of Professor Lutz Heusinger, systematic searches of images from large databanks. The was and remains one of the pioneers in this field. At Pisa, emerging Kodak Photo CD technology offers discs with Professors Paola Barocchi and Laura Corti organized a one hundred images each. These were to have been first world conference on the use of computers for art available at $16 per disc but are at present considerably history. Their second world conference, organized in more. conjunction with Marilyn Schmitt of the Getty AHIP In terms of image size, BMP files in software programs division, included a catalogue of all major electronic such as Toolbook, requiring only 1 or 2 megabytes, projects. These and other bodies drew attention to the provide an acceptable quality for everyday usage. Ko­ need for standardized author and place names. These dak's system uses 18MB per image. ICOM's standard for developments led a branch of the Comito Internationale scanning paintings in European galleries is 30 megabytes Pour I'Histoire de L'Art (CIHA) to conceive Thesaurus Artis Universalis (TAU) which soon proved to be a long

2 Know1.0rg. 20(1993)No. l Guest Editor's Editorial term vision rather than a readily achievable goal. The and Architectural Thesaurus (AA 1)of 50,000terms which Getty's projects such as the Union List of Author Names is now also available in both book and electronic form. (ULAN) and Thesaurus of Places (TAP) are practical This system has a more obvious type of hierarchical intermediary steps towards that vision. James Bower, scheme. The fifth article in this special issue has been who is working on these projects at the Getty's AHIP written by Pat Molholt and Toni Petersen, the individuals division, has written the first article in this special issue. chiefly responsible for the design and development of the In the United States, the Library of Congress develo­ AAT. ped a standardized (MARC) format for recording titles of While he was developing ICONCLASS at Leiden, the books. In the past three years there have been significant late Professor van der Waal also conceived of another steps to expand the scope of this format to include method for approaching visual materials which he termed archival and, increasingly, visual materials: photographs, Image-Teaching (Beeldleer). This system included eight paintings, video etc. In North America there is now a categories: 1) general method, 2) vision, 3) form, 4) Visual Resources Association concerned with the practi­ space,S) semantics, 6) functions of the icon, 7) evaluation calitiesof theseproblems. There isalso a MuseumComputer and 8) styles. Implicit in this approach were dynamic, Network that focusses more specifically on museum multiple cross-referencing techniqueslinking various parts, objects. They have founded a special Committee on quite different from the structure of traditional books. For Computerized Interchange of MuseumInformation (CIM!) this reason the system was never published. However, which is considering two formats ISO 2709 (which is used with the recent advent of hypertext, the system has been in MARC by the library world) and ISO 8879 or SGML revitalized and there is discussion of creating acorrespon­ (Standard Generalized Markup Language). An Art Infor­ ding hyper-iconics (hypericoniek). The sixth essay. by mation Task Force (AITF) sponsored by both the Getty's GerhardJan Naura, who is working in the Department of AHIP and the (American) College Art Association is Art History at Leiden, describes this project and raises another indication of a trend towards convergence. The philosophical questions concerning the implications of editor of the task force's report, Jennifer Trant, of the these developments on discussions of the art of memory Canadian Centre of Architecture, is the second author in (ars memoriae) as explored by the late Dame Frances this special issue. She raises basic questions concerning Yates. the need to define what precisely art information means The incredible developments in recent technology are and introduces a concept of the virtual database. constantly changing our horizons of the possible. At a At Leiden, the late Professor Van De Waal created, demonstrationin early December(1992), given by a sales ICONCLASS, a remarkable classification system speci­ representative from Microsoft, we were told of plans for fically aimed at describing the iconological contents of a high end workstation with 2 gigabytes of Ram and paintings and other works of art. This was adopted by the terabytes of space. Hence there is every reason to assume Marburg Archiveand aspects thereof were then translated that within a generation even the hurdle of storage size into electronic form as part of their HIDA programme. which still seemed insuperable a decade ago will have When other major photographic archives such as the De been solved. In the past the challenge was in dealing with Witt Collection in London also adopted the ICONCLASS problems of form. In the near future the challenge will system, it became a de facto standard. As a result CIHA shift from form to content. decided that a multilingual version should be made. As of For those who wonder why I chose this sequence of 1992 an electronic 1CONCLASS browser allows one to papers let me explain: The first two papers are by practi­ search for terms electronically. This new version has been tioners in the field with theoretical interests (Bower, developed at the University of Utrecht by a research team Trant). The next three papers concern the two main that began in 1990. One of their members, Dr. Hans systems for retrieval of artistic materials, van der Waal's Brandhorsr, is the author of the third contribution in this ICONCLASS(Brandhorst, Grund) and the Getty Trust's issue. He describes some ofthe new search strategiesthat Thesaurus (MolholtlPetersen). The sixth paper explores ICONCLASS makes possible and outlines their potential the structruesand potentials of Van der WaaI's unpublished use in quantitative approaches to art history. Bee/dleer (Nauta) and the final one offers some thoughts Initially there were threeobvious problems with ICONC­ on how computers will integrate in new ways our mathe­ LASS. First, it assumed more than a basic knowledge of matical, verbal, and visual information, changing our ap­ art history. Second, while particularly suited to certain proaches to and even the very shape of knowledge. kinds of iconographical problems, it did not enter into an Kim H. Veltman equivalent detail in other subjects such as the details of architectural forms. Third, while arranged in a series of Prof. K.H.Vellman, Perspective Unit, McLuhan Program. Uni­ levels, some persons felt that it was not hierarchical in an versity of Toronto. obvious way. These and other problems led a young German scholar, Angelica Grund, to write a dissertation on the pro's and con's of ICONCLASS. An English resume ofthis work is the fourth contributionin this issue. Related incentives led the Getty Trust to sponsor an Art

Knowl.Org. 20(1993)No.l 3 Guest Editor's Editorial James M.llower Getty Art History Information Program, Santa Monica, California

Vocabulary Control and the Virtual Database

Bower, 1.M.: Vocabulary control and the virtual databases. The theme of the virtual museum has been well repre­ Knowl.Org. 20(1993)No.1, p.4-7. 21 refs. sented in the recent literature (7), (12),(14), 18). Most Efforts tobuild "virtual museums" have focussed predominant­ authors deal primarily with the technical issues involved ly on solving problems of rapidity changing interface technolo­ in integrating the various media used to simulate the gy. Insufficient effort has been spent on planning for the "virtual objects, and with solving the problem of how to present databases" on which these multimedia environments depend, these multimedia packages to the general public without t particularly from the viewpoin of scholarly research, The Getty completely overwhelming them. By contrast, few writers Art History Infonnation Program has developed vocabularies have tackled the issues of content and structure of the that encourage consistency among scholarly documentation virtual databases on which these systems depend, and projects - regardless of their technical implementations - through tenninology standards. Two vocabulariesintended for fewer still have addressed these issues from the perspec­ control oftenninology at the point of datacapturearedescribed, tive of the scholarly researcher (16). The present article and scenarios are proposed for their further utility in navigating attempts to partially redress this imbalance. the complex databases that underlie the virtual museum. For the purposes of this paper, the concept of the virtual (Author) database extends beyond any single multimedia·project with a small domain of objects to encompass the full repertoire of polyglot digitized descriptions and images l.Introduction of objects being compiled in museums, libraries, and In the 1989 film Field o/Dreams, a Midwestern farmer archives scattered temporally and geographically throug­ facing foreclosure is driven by a disembodied voice to hout the world, capable of being interchanged freely build a baseball diamond in the middle of an Iowa among institutions and individuals, using computer net­ cornfield. The voice urgers, "If you build it, they will works. Such a virtual database would be the art-historical come". The farmer's persistence in realizing this apparent equivalent of the virtual libraries created by the Research folly is rewarded when a ghost team of champion baseball Libraries Information Network (RUN) and the On-Line players materializes to play on the new field. In the film's Computer Library Center (OCLC)'. closing shot, as dusk settles, the camera pans back to A comparable database of objects cumulated from the reveal an endless streamof cars, full of eager baseball fans holdings of many separate museums would be of intense willing to pay the price of admission to see this fantasy interest to scholars (5, p.52), and in fact, such databases team play, wending its way to the cornfield. are already being compiled through national inventory Similarly many single-minded museum administrators programs in Canada, France, and Italy, among others. have invested scarce resources to build dazzling interac­ More recent initiatives such as the European Museums tive multimedia systems called "virtual museums", ima­ Network are bringing us even closer to the virtual databa­ ginary environments in which simulated objects (analo· se in this expanded sense (19). The prospect of adding gous to the farmer's ghosts), displaced from the con­ objects from the thousands of museums worldwide that straints of real time and space, can be selected, observed, are now automating their collections is exhilarating, but and manipulated by the museum "visitor". Like the far­ when envisioned on such an international scale, the pro­ mer in the movie, the administrators hope that, once built, blems of the virtual database are magnified equally with these systems will attract a large and eager public to their the opportunities'. institutions to be stimulated, educated, and entertained. A virtual museum relies for its effects on an underlying 2. Weaknesses of the Virtual Database "virtual database" in which is stored the information In 1987 Gary Schwartz recognized four types of wea­ necessary to simulate the museum's objects, and often kness common in databases of art objects (16, p.58). their display environment. The "visitor" accesses the "Conceptual weakness" results from inconsistency bet­ database through computer programs in order to select ween the purposes for which a database is created and the and manipulate the objects, which are simulated through major elements that comprise the database (e.g., adataba­ a digitally encoded mix of text, recorded sound, and se of photographs of artworks which omits any descrip­ images (still photographs, computer animation, film, vi­ tion of the photographs themselves). "Contentual wea- deo)'.

4 Knowl.Org.20(1993)No.1 I.M.Bower: Virtual Database kness" occurs when the quality of information in the terms have not been rendered referentially unique, or data database is compromised, as when commercial interests from the same discipline that use different but equivalent determine the data recorded inauction databases. Schwartz terms to express names and concepts (17, p.2). describes "resolutional weakness" as shifting focus in the An effective method of dealing with ambiguity in the degree to which data are analyzed. Finally, "political virtual database is vocabulary control, which structures weakness" is seen as the result of conflicting agendas terminology so that the language of the object's cataloger made manifest in the merging of data developed separa­ is brought into coincidence with that of its researcher (13, tely by collaborating institutions. p.8), (15). Svenonius distinguishes between different It is easy to imagine that the problems afflicting art kinds of vocabulary control (defined according to the data databases individually increase by a level of magnitude elements being controlled- e.g., personal names, icono­ when databases are conceptually linked and physically graphic themes), and different degrees of vocabulary merged into something approaching the virtual database. control (defined according to the range of terminological Political weakness, ironically, may be the most easily relationships built into the structure of a given vocabula­ overcome; only the institutions and scholars most willing ry) and cites synonym control, hierarchical-term control, to open their data for examination in the public sphere will and related-term control as three mechanisms suited to art contribute initially to the virtual database. Over time, as information (17, p.6-7). museums become more comfortable with distinctions Conceptually, vocabulary control is valid only within between data suitable for collections management and a database in which all material is consistently subject to data for scholarly research (in effect, private versus public the same set of controls. By systematizing terms at the consumption), they may be motivated to contributeto the point of data capture, the controlled vocabulary serves as virtual database in a quid pro quo for accessing its a linguistic filter through which the cataloging and subse­ growing resources. quent retrieval functions are reconciled. The virtual data­ Conceptual weakness may be exacerbated in the vir­ base, however, is composed of many datasets defined and tual database by the juxtaposition of datasets created for controlled according to varying local criteria, recontex­ similar purposes, but with different methods. A resear­ tualized into a heterogeneous mix. In this situation, where cher may have difficulty using data merged from the the constituent datasets predate the virtual whole, it catalogs of two photo archives if one treats photogoraphs makes little sense to speak of vocabulary control. The task strictly as surrogates for the artworks depicted, while the becomes one of integrating, after the fact, the multiple other catalogs them as primary documents in the historio­ vocabularies used to control the data subsets - what the graphy of art documentation. Similar difficulty emerges author calls vocabulary coordination. from resolutional weakness across the contents of the To the optimist, the future is always longer than the virtual database; a researcher may be frustrated when a past. While the number of art databases completed or query for information on Italian cassoni reveals a scho­ already under construction is substantial, it still repre­ lar's richly detailed catalog of cassoni in Tuscan mu­ sents a relatively small percentage of the art objects extant seums, but only the most summary data on cassoni from in the world. As technological and financial barriers to the other collections. automation of museum collections are overcome, scho­ Contentual weakness is to the scholar the most dange­ lars and museums have an opportunity to coordinate their rous and, in the contenxt of the virtual database, th�. most documentation projects through the application of shared insidious weakness'. Judgments of quality and veracity vocabularies. While satisfying local needs, coordinated must be made up front by the database sponsors, before use of controlled vocabularies offers the added benefit datasets are subsumed into the virtual collection. Criteria that data merged from different sources will be inherently for evaluating potential additions to the databank should consistent at the terminological level. be established and disseminated, to promote realistic It is to this goal that the Getty Art History Information expectations of what the database will be. One such Program (AHIP) has applied itself increasingly in recent criterion might be the extent to which a candidate dataset years. Because inconsistent use of terminology has been embodies standards - whether for data structure, data seen to hamper both the retrieval and sharing of electronic values, or syntax - that have gained consensus among information, AHIP has actively promoted consistency the sponsors and their intended audiences. and compatibility in the creation ,of art-historical databa­ ses. AHIP has given priority to vocabulary projects - 3. Ambiguity, Vocabulary Control, and Vocabulary creation of standards, development of common resources, Coordination and technical assistance in vocabulary use - because Another weakness in the virtual database is the ambi­ these have shown the greatest potential to benefit the guity that occurs naturally by the accretion of vast amounts field. of object information from different sources. Data that are unambiguous within the context of their initial capture 4. AHIP Vocabulary Projects (e.g., a scholar's personal research database) may become Svenonius argues that vocabulary controlin artdataba­ ambiguous when juxtaposed with data in different lan­ ses will be most effective when applied to the data guages, data from other disciplines where overlapping

KnowI.Org.20(l993)No.l 5 I.M.Bower: Virtual Database elements most frequently used by art scholars in their access points toit, either through keyword retrieval online research (17, p.7). A recent AHIP inquiry into the infor­ or as "see references" in the printed alphabet. mation-seeking behavior ofhumanities scholars has shown Although the database only links synonyms, the dense a strongpreference for personal names, geographic names, web of name variants makes this an extremely effective chronological terms, and common subject terms as access tool for control of artist names. ULAN names can be points into automated databases (6, p.14-15). AHIP has flagged to indicate specific standards by which names addressed three of these areas in its vocabulary projects. have been formulated (e.g., the RILA Verification Ma­ Subject terms for art and architecture (as distinct from nual, or Anglo-American Cataloging Rules, 2nd Edition). iconographic terms) have been developed by the Art and Ambiguity among names is rare, skeletal biographic Architecture Thesaurus, a project of Getty AHIP located strings (typically including nationality, role, and lifeda­ in Williamstown, Massachusetts, that has been reported tes) are included to help discern among artists'. The widely in the literature (and elsewhere in this journal)'. So ULAN will be distributed in print and electronic forms pressing was the need for in-depth controlled vocabulary early in 1994. in this area that the Art and Architecture Thesaurus (AAT) was published in 1990 in partial form (2), with a 4.2 Thesaurus of Geographic Names supplement and electronic edition appearing in 1992 (3). While the ULAN was developed solely from Getty­ The complete thesaurus containing nearly 70,000 term s contributed data, VCG based its Thesaurus of Geographic will be released in print and electronic forms in 1994. Names (TGN) on machine-readable geographic data Names of artists and architects, and of geographic available commercially from cartographic publishers. places, have been developed by the Vocabulary Coordi­ The TGN contains hierarchies of geographic names and nation Group (VCG), an AHIP project established in 1987 related data representing ca. 300,000 places, produced by to identify and coordinate controlled vocabulary resour­ merging records for United States and internationalpopu­ ces for use in automated documentation systems within lated places, features, and political units from Rand the l.Paul Getty Trust, and elsewhere in the art-historical McNally Corporation's RANDATA database with re­ and museum communities. cords from the geographic authority files of three Getty projects'. Although 9,000 historic place names from 4.1 The Getty Union List of Artists Names Times Books Ltd's Atlas of World History have been in­ To foster consistent usage of artist names among Getty corporated into the file, the primary emphasis of the Trust databases, the VCG developed the Getty Union List database is on contemporary geography. of Artist Names (ULAN), a database of artists' and A geographic place in the TGN database can be a architects' names, biographical data, and bibliography physical or political entity, either current or historic. produced from the merged authority files of nine Getty Places include topographical feature (e.g., lakes and projects'. These projects span a broad spectrum of art mountains), and entities described by political boundaries documentation types, including abstracting and indexing (e.g., cities, counties, regions). Records for each place services, research photograph archives, scholarly databa­ include the current name for the place, any historic names ses that document primary source materials, and object from our contributors' datasets, and at least one "place collections from archives and museums. As a result, the type" (a word or phrase used to characterize the place ULAN contains over 200.000 names representing almost according to its current physical aspect or political auto­ 100,000 individuals. Nearly 60% of these artists are nomy). Records may also contain physical coordinates, represented by one name and one project only; the remai­ dates, notes describing the place and its changing bounda­ ning 40% overlap in two or more project databases, some ries and characteristics over time, and bibliographic cita­ with over 100 different forms of name'. Overlapping tions. records for the same artist are linked to form "clusters", Data are organized differently in TGN than in ULAN. but the original structure of each contributed record is Place records are constructed by collapsing together all retained, showing the projects' choices of preferred and contributed data for a place. An authoritative form of the variant name forms. This pluralistic approach reveals current name in the vernacular is identified, with additio­ patterns of usage among the names and biographic data nal forms (including historical equivalents) designated as that are helpful to projects in. building their individual variants. Place names and place types are additionally authority files. flagged according to their language (vernaCUlar, English, To encourage use of the forms most appropriate for or other). scholarly documentation, names in a cluster are algorith­ In addition to controlling synonyms, TGN provides mically "ranked" by contributor, according to criteria hierarchical-term control, including multi-parent rela­ such as preference for names in the vernacular, and the tionships. Ambiguity among place names is common, but depth of bibliographic sources used in the verification is mitigated through inclusion of place types and geogra­ process. The name that emerges will serve as the focus of phic coordinates in "thesaural" displays, and through the cluster in online displays, and will determine the display of hierarchies. The Thesaurus of Geographic alphabetic entry point for the cluster in the published Names will be released on compact disk in 1994. ULAN. All other names linked to the cluster serve as

6 KnowI.Org. 20(1993)No.l I.M.Bower: Virtual Database 5. Vocabulary Control and Vocabulary Coordination, 6. Conclusion again The useof structuredterminology for vocabulary control

AHIP's three vocabulary resources - theArt andArchi­ and coordination in art-historical databases at a local tecture Thesaurus, Union List oj Artist Names, and The­ level will, over time, enable the successful integration of saurus oJ Geographic Names - have been developed in those datasets into a virtual database greater than the sum part to help institutions and individuals on the threshold of of its parts. Weaknesses to which art databases are now automating their collections, or preparing to build scho­ subject will bemitigated, as vocabulary structures ensure larly databases of art information, to control the data they that commonality can be exploited through uniformity, capture. This mode of use will be supported by the release while necessary differences(e.g., in language, or levels of of each resource in electronic form with the Authority specificity) are accommodated thro/lgh appropriate con­ Reference Tool (ART), an AmP-designed software pro­ trol mechanisms. Vocabulary control and coordination, gram that allows rapid navigation through complex voca­ when linked with increasingly sophisticated computer bulary data, allowing the user to "cut and paste" terms or capabilities, will allow the researcher to navigate more names from the resource file into the user's local applica­ and more effectively in the database of the virtual mu­ tion. AHIP anticipatess that widespread use of its vocabu­ seum. lary tools in this form will result in deJacto terminological consistency within and among the many scholarly databa­ Notes ses now being planned and built. 1 Buckland (9) aptly points out that, although the term "multi­ At the sametime, Amp recognizes that its vocabula­ media" is used as an umbrella tenn for the various types of original documents from which the virtual object is composed, ries have tremendous potential as retrieval tools in the the data thus rendered are actually stored in a monomedium. virtual database, where constituent datasets often use 2 Strictly speaking, the RUN and OeLe databases are not different - sometimes conflicting - vocabulary stan­ "virtual libraries" because they do not simulate the materials dards. Optimally, if the linking structures inherent in the represented by the bibliographic records. The analogy extends AHIP vocabulary have also been captured into the dataset only to the text-based descriptions of objects and books main­ being queried(e.g., the ULAN Cluster ID, which unique­ tained in the respective systems. ly identifies an artist), the AHIP terms can be used tran­ 3 Glushko (11) offers a useful analysis of the technical reasons sparently (to the searcher) to retrieve synonyms and why such projects fall under the burden of "scaling up". related terms, or to navigate across hierarchies to retrieve 4 Arnold (12, p.200) contends that the more "satisfying" data at higher or lower levels of specificity. Even if the multimedia applications seem to viewers, the more discouraged linking structures have not been captured in the query file, those viewers will be from cross-checking the data they receive. 5 A full bibliography of AHIP publications and articles is AHIP vocabularies acting as search "filters" could recog­ available; contact the author at the address listed. nize potentially ambiguous data and prompt the scholar to 6 The nine participating projects are the Avery Index 0/ Archi­ refine his search accordingly. tectural Periodicals; the Bibliography of the History 0/ Art

The retrieval potential of AHIP'S vocabularies ex­ (BHA) " the Census of Antique Art andArchitecture Known to the pands as one examines the technological scenarios being Renaissance,' the Foundation/or Docwnents 0/ Architecture; forecast beyond the year 2000. Weissman, for example, the Photo Study Collection o/ the Gelty Cenler fo r the History foresees fundamental changes in the way data are structu­ of Art and the Humanities; the i.Paul Gelty Museum; the red and stored in computers, and a radical shift away from Provenance Index; the Vocabulary Coordination Group; and the Wilt CompUler Index. tightly bound software and at applications toward generic 7 The ULAN captures equally the significant variations in name software tools that can be mobilized in any combination (e.g:, "Giovanni Antonio Bazzi" and "II Sodoma"), and minute around multimedia documents in an operating system variations based on verbatim transcriptions of artist names from database environment (20). In the virtual database, this art-historical documents such as collection inventories and would break down structural barriers among constituent auction records. datasets and increase the likelihood of successful retrieval 8 Data from the ULAN were used to test a set of computerized using linked vocabularies. Search and retrieval para­ name-matching algorithms developed by AHIP as an outgrowth digms once appropriate only to specific types of informa­ of its Museum PrototypePro ject, itself an early attempt to create tion will blend as applications become highly integrated a virtual database: cf. Borgman/Siegfried (8). (10),(21). One can imagine using AHIP tools to search in 9 The projects are the Bibliography of the History of Art (BHA); the virtual database and retrieve fixed-field data from a the Foundation/or Documems of Architecture; and the Photo · Study Collection of the Getty Cenler fo r the History of Art and 50-year old national heritage file, relational data from a the Humanities. 19th-century inventory automated in the 1980's, and biographic information from an artist authority file crea­ References ted in 1996 using SGML (Standard Generalized Markup (1) Arnold,l S,E.: The large data construct: a new frontier in Language) tags. Retrieval will not be limited to text­ database design. Microcomputers for Infonn.Management based searches, either; iconic criteria will also be used (4, 7(1990)No.3, p.l85-204 p.37). (2) Anand AnohitectureThesaurus. New York: Oxford Univ.Press 1990. (Supplement I.New York: Oxford Univ.Press 1992) Continuation on page 34

Knowl.Org. 20(1993)No.1 7 I.M.Bower: Virtual Database Database applications

Jennifer Trant These primarily text files incorporate large quantities Canadian Centre for Architecture, Montreal of data stored in a structured fashion. Each may use a different structure, which is a result of its primary focus, be that the recording information about a museum collec­ "On Speaking Terms": tion, as in the Canadian Centre for Architecture Collec­ tion DocumentationSysteml, recording information about To wards Virtual Integration a special project, such as the Buildings of England Data­ basel, or sharing information through remote consultation of Art Information of a centralized database, such as the National Humani­ ties Database of the Canadian Heritage Information Net­ work3• Trant,I.: "On Speaking Terms": towards virtual integration of art Information. Knowl.Org.20(!993)No.! .p.8-!!. !2refs. Imagebases Changing technological paradigms require a new approach to the definition of standards in the area of art infonnation. Tech­ These newer applications incorporate reproductions of nological boundaries between systems are lessening, making works of art and artefacts, often linked to textual records new realms of integrated infonnation a possibility. Previously about the objects represented. As yet, there are not widely separate databases, image bases, computer aided design sy­ accepted standards regarding image file formats, com­ stems, and geographical infonnation systems are now being pression algorithms, or storage mechanisms, and applica­ linked into multi-media, interdisciplinary infonnation systems. tions of this type are most often structured to optimise The potential exists to unite other physically separate infonna­ performance in a particular hardware/software environ­ tion resources into a "virtual database", through a common ment4• interface which exploits emerging communications networks. Such integration will only be possible if all systems are built on Computer Aided Design and Drafting a shared intellectual fr amework; unless the infonnation which In this type of application, drawings of buildings or is gatheredtoday shares a common conceptual structure.inte­ records of archaeological sites are made and stored in gration in the future will not be possible. This underlying philosophical approach must be based on a common understan­ electronic form. These recreations of two- and three­ ding of what infonnation is required about a museum object, dimensional spaces make it possible for the viewer to and must appreciate the importance of contextual as well as manipulate a representation in order to view those sec­ descriptive infonnation. By focussing our attention on the tions of most relevance to an inquiry'. content of systems, rather than the systems themselves we can To these areas, may be added two other types of appli­ move beyond present technological imperatives and plan for a cation, geographical information systems, and multidis­ future which focusses on the infonnation itself rather than the ciplinary systems. delivery system. and is user - rather than technology - centred. (Author) Geographical Information Systems Designed to relate data to specific places or geographic As Angela Giral hints, in the end of her introductionto coordinates, these systems are in use for such applications Cataloguing Architectural Drawings (I), the technologi­ as an inventory of Danish archaeological sites'. cal paradigms which have shaped our approaches to the Interdisciplinary Systems management of information about art objects are chan­ Most interestingly, especially for its implication for ging. We are moving away from the large centralized standards development, is the trend to combine these databases(the OCLCs and RLINs of the 1970s and 1980s) types of applications. What is considered traditional in­ towards an era of distributed computing and networked formation about art is integrated with other types of data. information. This shift, which has only just begun to be Projects such as that now being developed by the Mont­ reflected in the work surrounding Museum Information real Research Group ofthe Canadian Centre for Architec­ Standards, will have a dramatic impact on how we deve­ ture can recreate historical environments by bringing lop standards, and indeed, on what standards are necessa­ together information from a diverse range ofsources, and in order to share information. When combined with the ry integrating it into a "big picture." A recreation of eigh­ advances in the types of applications being developed in teenth century Montrealhas been made possible, through the museum and art gallery community, this points to the a program written by the Center for Landscape Research need for a new approach to the definition of standards. at the School of Architecture, University of Toronto. It In his introduction to this issue of Knowledge Organi­ develops three dimensional models from information zation, Dr. Kim Veltman briefly surveys the history of stored in a database, built by examining records such as computers as they relate to art. In doing so, he introduces registrations ofland transfer and building contracts. These a number of different areas where art historians have been models enable the researcher to examine the built fabric able to exploit the computational and information mana­ of the city in a way that was not previously possible, as the gement potential ofinformation technology. These can be information integrated here was scattered in disparate broken down into the following areas: sources. The juxtaposition of the model with historical

8 Knowl.Org.20(!993)No.! J.Trant: Virtual Integration of Art Infonnation views of the same locations, provides an additional "rea­ The information gathering exercises which interest art lity-check", both from the point of view of the model, and historians are taking place in a fragmented environment. with regard to the use of topographical views as historical Whether on a national network, a regional network, a evidence. single computer with remote access, or a personal compu­ Also along these lines is the work being carried out by ter, information regarding works of art is being collected Marilyn Lavin in the Piero Project at Princeton Universi­ according to differing cataloguing standards and being ty'. This project is recreating an historical interior, Piero stored in different data structures, each designed to meet della Francesca' s Legend of the True Cross , at Arezzo. the needs of the cataloguing institution or the research Lavin describes the problem as follows: goals of a particular project. The researcher wishes to cut across these boundaries, for the works that are studied as Like most large-scale fresco cycles of the Middle Ages, Renais­ an integral group may be scattered in public and private sance, and Baroque periods,Piero' 5 cycle is painted high on the collections around the world. Unfortunately, the very walls and ceiling of the church, and a visitor standing at floor structure of the information itself may hinder this type of level ftnds the paintings quite difficult to see because of the sharp upward angle of vision .... An electronic version ... will cross-collection searching, precluding the information provide a virtual space' through which the spectator can move sharing that this age of connectivity promises. at will. [She continues] All phases of the commentary will be Initial efforts at museum data standards have concen­ augmented by verbal information called to the screen from a trated on developing common Data Dictionaries, as basic database on Italian fresco cycles I previously created (5, p.2-3). as lists of minimum fields, such as the CIDOC Minimum In both these projects, existing infonnation was mani­ Data Standard,or as complex as full sets of specifications, pulated with computer technology to create something such as the CHIN National Humanities Data Dictionary. more than a sum of the parts. By being able to see old data We now have an eclectic range of "standards" to chose in new ways, knowledge is created. from . The community has clustered into "denominatio­ nal" groups, with the differences between those that use It is in the development of this broader vision, in the MARC and a non-MARC record structures as broad as creation of meaning from large amounts of information, those between the Eastern Orthodox and Methodist chur­ that we have been greatly aided by computer technology. ches. Arguing the relative merits of one set of beliefs over However, when we attempt to retool data for a different the other is pointless. For an ecumenical movement to be application, we are confronted with the fact that we have successful in the museum world, we need to return to first created a wealth of information resources, which are principles and consider what the information is that we incompatible, both in terms of technology and in terms of collect and which parts of it we wish to share. Only then the structure of the infonnation that they store. will we be able to establish standards which will help us Technological incompatibilities are being overcome. I to reach this goal. work now in an environment that was merely a glimmer Standards have been characterised as fa lling into three of hope several years ago, and regularly move files broad areas, those of "technical standards," which must between single user and network Macintosh, DOS/Win­ be rigorously adhered to, "rules" which must be followed dows, and Unix systems. Inter-operability is now the goal but can be interpreted differently, and "guidelines" which of all large scale developers, as they strive to develop set an overall approachll. Examples of each ofthese in the "open systems" (think for example, of the many versions bibliographic world would be ISO 2709, as a "technical of WordPerfect available)'. Microsoft Access promises standard", USMARC as a set of "rules" which imple­ that "By simply pointing and clicking the mouse [you ments that standard, and AACR2 as the cataloguing can] manipulate data and analyse it from different per­ "guidelines". As a framework within which to have spectives'''. And advances in the area oftelecommunica­ developed these standards, however, the bibliographic tions can now bridge what were previously seen as sepa­ community adhered to a "Statement of Principles" appro­ rate network environments. WorldLinx, a Bell Canada ved by fifty-three countriesat the InternationalConferen­ Company, has released a product, Vis Vis, which can 11 ce on Cataloguing Principles held in Paris in October unite ISDN, x'25, synchronous or asynchronous and 1961 (7). These principles addressed, on the broadest LAN linked sessions in a single shared screen space!O, and possible level, the kinds of information that would be the potential of the Internet forsharing museum informa­ recorded when a bibliographic item was catalogued, and tion remains to be explored. All this to say that the provide the common core for what we accept as a biblio­ museum community need not concern itself with the graphic entry today. The museum community is without development of base-level technological standards; the its own statement of principles, and our work in the area industry has adopted "standards" as a goal and is doing of documentation standards suffers because of it. this for us. CIMI (the Computer Exchange of Museum Information project, sponsored by the Museum Computer Our greatest Challenge, in the next age of information Networkin the United States) has validated this approach, standards making, will be to build the bridges between the and is examining existing technical standards to assess separate databases which document our cultural heritage. their suitability for use in museums. With technology, our In order to do this, we will have develop concordances goal should be education, not innovation. between existing information systems. A pragmatic ap­ proach might be to map all the databases to an existing The challenge on the information side is much greater.

KnowI.Org. 20(!993)No.! 9 I.Trant: Virtual Integration of Art Information reference point. Practically, however, agreement on what Interestingly, there are projects underway now, that that point will be is unlikely. Methodologically, because begin to address this need. of the compromises that are inherent in any particular The DaUl Model Working Groupl4, of CIDOC, the Do­ implemcnUltion of a system, this approach would mean cumenUltion Committee of the International Council of accepting as a given the weaknesses of the initial terms of Museums has as its goal a shared model of museum reference. information, It is building a conceptual relational model, We need to move away from the assumption that in which will do much to further our undersUlnding of the order to share information it must be recorded in exactly museum information. This shared model could provide the same way and stored in a centralized daUlbase,accep­ the bridge between the sUlndards now implemented or in ting, instead, the changing paradigm of system design. development. The information we require need not be found in a single Two projects of the Art History Information Project of place, but can be brought together from a wide variety of the Getty Trust are also addressing the identification of sources. Disparate daUlbases, once networked, can come informational needs, both from a scholarly perspective. together in an intellectual whole, a "virtual" daUlbase12• The Foundation for Documents of Architecture will publish We also need to move away from the insistence on a Guide to the Description of Architectural Drawings common lists of fields, and completely sUlndardizcd shortly. The Art Information Task Force, jointly sponso­ implemenUltions, which has limited the development of red by the College Art Association and AHIP, and suppor­ sUlndards tojurisdict ional areas. Just as commercial soft­ ted by a grant from the National Endowment for the ware can be run on many different hardware platforms, Humanities, an independent agency of the United SUltes we must develop sUlndards which are flexible enough to Government, is identifying scholarly requirements for the be implemented in a broad range of ways, reflecting the description of art objects. As well as serving as a touchsto­ reality of the museum situation today. While a flat-file, ne for systems designers and implementers, these projects personal computer solution may be all that is available in have the added benefit of incorporating, from their incep­ one place, another may be able to implement a complex tion, the perspective of the ultimate users of infonnation relational structure, and a third may be working on syslems. innovative object-oriented programming. Each imple­ All three of these initiatives reflect a changing concep­ menUltion willbe shaped by the requirements and budgets tion of the information required about an object. We are of the institution or project which develops the daUlbase. moving towards an appreciation of both the intrinsic and What is critical is not that all implcmenUltions are the extrinsic meaning carried by a work afart or artefact. It is same, but that they all record the same kinds of informa­ equally imporUlnt to record not only what an object is, but tion in a similar manner. The critical factor affecting the where it came from and what it represents (both when it long-term success of information management in mu� was created or collected and now as it is studied). In seums is not the technology which presently manages that architecture, it is accepted that information about the information, but the quality of the information itself". subject of a drawing, the building or project depicted, is And itis the information gathering phase which is unlike­ as important as information about the creation of the ly to be repeated. We will undoubtedly see many genera­ drawing. In art, contextual information regarding the tions oftechnology in the nexttwenty-five years, but what artistic milieu within which a work was created may be as is the likelihood that we will duplicate the cataloguing of imporUlnt as the actual name of the artist him or herself. collections within that time-frame? For historical artefacts, history of use is often more Each application must be built with a clear undersUln­ imporUlnt than creation. ding of the information needs of the community as a This inclusive approach to information may also be whole, what we wish to record, and how we need to exactly what is required to support the trend towards manipulate and retrieve it. We can then be aware of the intcrdisciplinary researchls. The projects mentioned as compromises made in a particular implemenUltion, and most interesting, in tlle typology proposed above, are just cancompare the "actual" to the udesirable"; or the"feasible" those which cut across these traditional boundaries in to the "goal". In this way, each generation of hardware support of a more synthetic methodology. Our concept of and software will move closer to a shared ideal. art information must be a catholic one, for "In art every­ If applications are built on a common conceptual un­ thing counts"16. dersUlnding of museum information, it will become pos­ Thecurrent. fragmented world of museum information sible to unite physically separate daUlbases through a management is composed of systems which approach the common interface. By mapping information resources to information about objects in diverse ways. Reconciling a common intellectual model, it will be possible to the differences between these systems will requirerethin­ develop concordances between systems. These concor­ king what is significant about the information we manage, dances could then be used to route queries from a shared and clearly examining the need I? for access to that infor­ search engine to each implemenUltion. Such "virtual mation. Shared conceptual sUlndards will ensure that we integration" would provide our cultural resources as an are all building upon a common fo undation, without intellectual whole, while ensuring that each implementa­ sacrificing our individual needs. To quote Costis Dallas tion mainUlins the flexibility and control it requires. of the Benaki Museum, Athens, Greece, "Conformity

10 Knowl.Org. 20(!993)No.! J.Trant: Virtual Integration of Art Infonnation however, does not imply uniformity .... the information Documentation Fellowship Project Report, December 12992. system of a museum, manual or computerised, is both a liTo provide access to only the physical attributes of musewn reflection of and a constitutive factor for its intellectual objects is therefore reductionist; the fundamental cultural rea­ foundations, distinctive character and aspirations. After a lity of the object is ignored in favour of the secondary physical period when information control was the keyword in reality" (p.5). This trend can also be seen in the Natural Science Conununity, where the research into biodiversity has led to an museum documentation, now at last the importance of increased appreciation of the contextual infonnation surroun­ knowledge sharing is widely recognised" (12). ding the collection of a specimen, in as complete a detail as the International standards organizations provide the mi­ phase of the moon, or the ph of the surrounding soil. lieu within which to leave behind the pressing institutio­ 16This statement is attributed to Bill Ruben of The Musewn of nal needs that govern the development of particular Modem Art, and is quoted by Russell Kirsch in the "Discussion: systems, and to concentrate on long term issues regarding Potentials and Pitfalls", which took place "during the all-day the management of information about our cultural herita­ Electronic Imaging Conference of the Musewn computer Net­ ge. If we set as our goal a common conceptual understan­ work Annual Conference, Chicago, IL, Oct.13, 1989, reprinted in Visual Resources 7(1991)No.4, pA18. ding of museum information, we can ensure that when 17 In considering the impact of new educational technologies, technology makes it possible to integrate disparate and Richar A Lanhan considers their proper positioning within the diverse systems, they will, indeed, "on speaking terms." be University structure in (11): "Realising that the design of Notes information resources is as critical as their content", he specu­ lates "Where will the architects of future university information 1 Described in my article in (2). structures come from? ... What deparlmenJ will they be in? ... 2 Described by Michael Good in issue 12 of The CHArt All the regular academic departments seem disqualified by their Newsletter. characterstic professional bias. Perhaps we need a new entity 3 This National Database is described in (3), p.259. altogether". (pA3) 4 A very useful inventory of this type of project can be found in the Image Technology in European Museums and Art Galleries References Databases [ITEM], maintained at the European Visual Art Centre at Ipswich (EVAC) on behalf of the European Arts (1) Ross, J.1. (Ed.): Cataloging architectural drawings. A guide Visual Infonnation Network (EYlAN) and edited by Isabel to the fields of the RUN Visual Materials (VIM) Format as applied to the cataloging practices of the Avery Architectural Pring. Contact: ITEM, EVIAN, c/o EVAC at Ipswich, The and Fine Arts Library, Columbia University, developed for Library, Suffolk College, Rope Walk, Ipswich IP4 ILT, Great Project AVIADOR. (Introduction by Angela Oiral). Art Libra­ Britain. 5 See for example. the projects discussed in tlteNewsletler of the ries Society of North America. Topical Papers No.l, I992. Cenlerfor the Study of Architecture; contact Harrison Eiteljorg (2) Trant, J.: In: Computers and the History of Art. 3(1992)Pt. 1, pA5-64 II, P.O.Box 60, Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania, USA, 19010. 6 Described in a paper presented by Carsten U. Larsen in (4). (3) Humanities Data Dictionary of the Canadian Heritage 7 Described in her article, see (5). Infonnation Network. Documentation Research Publication 8 However, these transfers are not completely transparent yet. No. 1, Rev.2, 1988, p.259 (4) Larsen, C.U.: Heritage Information Systems in Denmark. I am among the ranks of those who have seen fonnatting "disappear" when a file was moved from one version of a An introduction. In: Museums and Information. Proceedings. Canadian Heritage Infonnation Network. Communications software program' to the next, let alone from one platfonn to Canada, and the Manitoba Museum of Man and Nature, 1990,. another, but these problems are reducing in number. pA3·49 9 Advertisement in The Globe andMail, Toronto, 21 January (5) Lavin, M.: Researching visual images with computer Gra­ 1993, p.A9. 10 Demonstated at the Toronto Computer Show, 24-26 Novem­ phics. Computers and the History of Art, 2(1991)Pt.2, p.I-5. ber 1992. (6) Roberts, A.: International ,and national developments in museum infonnation standards. Computers and the History of 11 I first heard this framework expressed by John Perkins at the Art, 3(1992)Pt. !, pA. CIDOC Rec?llCiliation of Standards Working Group meeting in Copenhagen in September 1991. It has also been published by (7) Statement of principles, adopted at the International Confe­ Andrew Roberts in (6), pA. rence on Cataloguing Principles, Paris, Oct.1961. International Federation of Library Associations 1971. 12 The basic infrastructure for such a network is not far off. See the discussion of these factors in (8), which mentins the move (8) Issues arising from the emerging Nat. Research and Educa­ tion Network Environment. Spectra 19(1992)No.2, p.7-9. to establish the National Research and Education Network (NREN) and the recently founded Coalition for Networked (9) Stam, D.: Taming the beast. Guidance for administrators on Information. managing museum computerization. Museum Management and Curatorship (1992)No.11, p.50 13 This fact is confinned by Deirdre Starn in (9),p.50, and more (10) Keen, P.O.W.: Shaping the future. Business design through graphically in Peter O.W.Keen (10). His "IT Balance Sheet" � (p.44) shows 54% of these assets in "Data Resources", 21 % in information technology Harvard Business School Press 1991. software, 16% in: hardware, and 9% in facilities. Given that (11) Lanhan, R.A.: Electronic texts and university structures. In: Scholars and Research Libraries in the 21st Century. Ame­ musewn projects are often under capitalised', these figures are likely to skew more in favour of data in our context. rican Council of Learned 'Societies. New York, NY, April 27. 1990. ACLS Occasional Paper No.114, p.31'43. 14 Formerly called the Reconciliation of Standards Working Group. (12) Infonnation systems and cultural knowledge: the Benaki & 15 Steven Shubert mak�s this point, in his examination of Musewn case. Computers the History of Art 3(1992)No. 1, "Classification in the CHIN Humanities Databases", a CHIN p.14.

KnowI.Org. 20(1993)No.1 11 I.Trant: Virtual Integration of Art Information J.P.J.Brandhorst ICONCLASS Research and Development Group. Utrecht University

Quantifiability in Iconography

Brandhorst. J.P.J.:Quanlifiability In iconography. information. At the centre of my attention will be an Knowl.Org. 20(1993)No. I, p.12-19, II refs. expedient designed to help us with that: the iconographic Ithas rarely been seen as a task for art history togive systematic, classification system ICONCLASS. I shall focus in parti­ consistent and detailed access to the subject matter of large cular on the considerations that have shaped the computer nwnbers of historical images. This lackofsystematicdocumen� edition of this system, published by the ICONCLASS tation severely handicaps all historical research that involves Research & Development Group in 1991. the interpretation of iconographic detail. It leaves us unable to count the frequency with which subjects have been represented, I agree with Le Goff that a source consisting of syste­ or with which iconographic particularities occur. This article matically indexed images would still await historical ex­ asks whether the use of the iconographic classification system planation. The theorelical claims of an 'image library' are ICONCLASS will help to create countable iconographic inforM modest: 10 make images available as an object for study, mation. Its first part deals with the considerations that have not to explain them historically. guided the shape of the computer edition that has recently been made available. These may be relevant for the electronic 2, The SUbject Access to Images publication of classification systems in general. In the second part a few statements about gestures are analyzed against the The problem of ordering books by subject is a topic in background of an existing corpus of systematically described all curricula of library science. In contrast to that, hardly images. This analysis draws attention to the paradox that any art historical curriculum offers a course in dealing iconographic detail often plays a key role in art historical with the problems of ordering collections of images by discourse, but must do so on the basis ofincidental infonnation. subject. Courses in iconography generally concentrate on Author the individual work of art, which may be understood to include coherent series of single images, e.g. the wall­ paintings of a chapel or the illuminations of a manuscript. l.Introduction With art historical teaching and research by and large In his book of collected essays, L' imaginaire medieval ignoring the problems involved in providing systematic (I), Jacques Le Goff says that at presenl individual and iconographic information about large quantities of ima­ collective research efforts are transforming iconography ges, it is hardly surprising that few image collections do into a scientific, intellectual and truly historical endea­ indeed offer that type of information. Small wonder too, vour'. The crealion of "image libraries" and the access to that iconographic classification theory is in its infancy. informatics introduce the benefits of the quantitalive into the field of the image, with which it seems to agree very 2.1 ICONCLASS well. Curiously enough we do possess a sophisticated classi­ In this article I shall not try to assess Le Goff's very fication syslem for iconography. The schedules of this general statement about the transformation of iconogra­ system, that has been baptized 'ICONCLASS' (2) pre­ phy into an historical enterprise, however surprising this sently contain some 24,000 concepts. Its alphabetic index may be to those who thought it�already was. What I shall provides circa 50,000 keyword references to the schedu­ do, is to annotate his assertion that the creation of 'image les. The accompanying bibliography contains some 40,000 corpora' and the use of computers introduce the benefits references to works on iconography and cultural history, of the quantitative to the study of imagery. A detailed description of ICONCLASS is given in Obviously, the mere gathering of images and the another contribution to this issue; to repeat that here, purchase of a computer do not suffice to bring about the would be superfluous, as would be any general comment scientific progress Le Goff observes. So, my annotations on systematic classification. Instead, I shall restrict my­ will deal with steps that have to be taken to ensure the self to discussing some of the peculiarities of ICONC­ countability of the iconographic information we provide LASS' content and to reviewing a few of its idiosyncra­ when giving subject access to an image collection. Since cies that may interest the classificationist in the reader. there is not much point in counting inconsistent and The schedules of ICONCLASS2 were constructed on unsystematic data, they will be concerned primarily with the basis of several decades of iconographic research by the creation of consistent and systematic iconographic Henri van de Waal, his staff and students. The themes and

12 KnowI.Org. 20(1993)No.1 J.P .1.Brandhorst: Quantifiability in Iconography subjects they identified in Western art, were organized in 31E236 violent death by mutilation or maiming nine basic classes: 25FF24 fabulous animals, hoofed animals 56DD33 Confusion. Bewildennent, Panic; 'Perturbatione' (Ripa) 1 Religion and Magic 2 Nature In this first part of the system, however, we shall look 3 Human Being, Man in General in vain for the one concept that allows us to express the 4 Society, Civilization and Culture distinction between the 'historical' accident and the 'generic' 5 Abstract Ideas and Concepts accident, i.e. that it happened to the legendary hero 6 History Hippolytus. For that we have to look among the subjects 7 Bible from classical mythology and ancient history in subdivi­ 8 Literature sion 9. 9 Classical Mythology and Ancient History

9 Classical Mythology and Ancient History Intermediate links were added to complete the hierar­ 95 the Greek heroic legends (II) chical chains, cross references established, and occasio­ 9SA the Greek heroic legends (II): heroes nally subjects which one could well expect to have been 95A( ...) the Greek heroic legends (II): heroes (with NAME) represented, were included too. Therefore the scheme 95A(HIPPOL YTUS) (story of) Hippolytus mixes abstracted descriptions of pictorial subject matter 95A(HIPPOLYTUS)6 suffering. misfortune of Hippolytus 95A(HIPPOLYTUS)68 death of Hippolytus: he is killed when known to exist in reality, with descriptions of subjects the horses that draw his chariot bolt at the sight of a bull-shaped likely to exist, but not found during the original research monster phase. The notation used is alphanumeric; one digit is added for every level in the hierarchy'. The third level is 2.1.2 Flexibility always expressed by a letter, which broadens the notatio­ nal base. Although duality is a fundamental characteristic of ICONCLASS, possibly even more typical ofthe system is

2.1.1 The Duality ofICONCLASS the close range at which its schedules fo llow actual icono­ graphic variation and richness. The ensuing flexibility Van de Waal never ceased to emphasize that the first causes even this fundamental duality to apply not too five classes, containing what he called ' general subjects ', rigidly. As a consequence, for example, non-biblical constitute a system "closed in itself, offering a place to Christian narrative - mainly hagiography - was included 'every picturable subject and activity on earth "'4. At the in subdivision I. To illustrate this I cite the chain of same time he wanted "to provide some simple means of concepts that ends with the equally painful death of maintaining in the system the traditional coherence of Hippolytus's namesake saint Hippolytus. themes" particularly from biblical, classical, and literary sources. These 'simple means' have eventually develo­ 1 -Religion and Magic ped into the last four classes, or subdivisions, of 'specific 11 Christian religion subjects', as van de WaaI called them. Together these llH saints comprise more than 10,000 index terms. IIH(... ) male saints (with NAME) IIH(HIPPOL YTUS) the soldier, martyr and gaoler Hippolytus; To grasp the implications of the system's basic duality, possible attributes: hackle. key, rope one should compare the following subjects, selected from IIH(HIPPOL YTUS)6ma rtyrdom, suffering, misfortune, death divisions 4 and 9: of 51. Hippolytus I IH(HIPPOLYTUS)62SI. Hippolytus is tied to the tail; of wild 46C1491 bolting qraught-animals horses and dragged to death, or tom apart and 95A(HIPPOLYTUS)68 death of Hippolytus: he is killed when .Both this chain and the previous one illustrate one of the horses that draw his chariot bolt at the sight of a bullvshaped . monster the two basic strategiesby which ICONCLASS preserves the thematic coherence of narrative sources. Its index vo­ cabulary 'sim ply' incorporates elaborate, abstracted' des­ The first concept is intended tobe generally applicable criptions as single - highly compound - terms. These to all depictions of bolting draught'animals. Since Hippo­ terms, if several lines of prose may be called a 'term', can lytus was killed because his bolting horses dragged him be subordinated to the protagonist of a story, as illustrated along a rocky shore, this concept could, theoretically, be by ourtwo examples. These protagonists, Christian saints, used as one of the descriptors for representations of that mythical heroes, etc., may be listed alphabetically. Yet as specific subject too. Evidently, it would then have to be a group they are subordinated to a single generic concept combined with other concepts to cover other elements of which assigns them their systematic place. the story, such as the violent nature ofHippolytus's death, the bull-shaped monster, the panic of his horses, and the The second strategy is to arrange those compound, des­ fact that Hippolytus is a hero from Greek mythology. criptive terms truly systematically. In that case the classi­ fication fo llows the thread of a story, without alphabetical Most of these aspects are adequately covered by con­ 'interruption '. One example - a classical case of 'drag­ cepts from the first five subdivisions of ICONCLASS, ging' - should be enough to clarify this: e.g.:

KnowI.Org. 20(1993)No.l 13 I.P.I.Brandhorst: Quantifiability in Iconography 9 Classical Mythology and Ancient History in the main class 94 the Greek heroic legends (I) 3 Human Being, Man in General 94G the tenth year of the Trojan war (part II): Achilles back to war; his last deeds and his death The section 31A contains more than 400 concepts, any 94G2 Achilles sweeps the battle*field; the gods descend from of which may be combined with any of the 100 concepts Olympus to partake in the battle (Iliad XX-XXII) of the secondary key list. Presently the system offers circa 94G23 Hector's last fight and death 40 different lists of key numbers. Some of these are appli­ 94G235 Hector's body, tied to Achilles' chariot, is dragged cable to a few concepts, some are applicable to a few around the city thousand concepts in the main schedules. That enumera­ The inclusion of descriptions as discrete index terms is tion could never cover the potential combinatory explo­ an effective instrument of indexing economy: thus a very sion does not need further explanation. complex subject can be codified with a single notation. - Structural digits 2.1.3 Hybridity The second tool designed to allow the constructionof For a number of reasons we may call 1CONCLASS a new concepts through synthesis is called structural digit. hybrid classification system. The examples I have given Like the sets of key numbers, sets of structural digits are so far suffice to demonstratethat parts of the schedules are add-on secondary hierarchies. They too are made availa­ strongly enumerative. However, the useroflCONCLASS ble at particular points of the main schedules. At the point is invited to string together as many notations as he finds where a structural digit becomes available, the further necessary to index an image'. Thereby an element of development of the chain is in fact a further development synthesis is introduced on the level of the system's appli­ of the structural digit. cation. The essential function of structural digits is to ensure At the same time, ICONCLASS offers a few intrinsicly the uniform subdivision of a particular section of the auxiliaries with which a user may create his own con­ system. This is particularly relevant at places where cepts. We have already seen the most obvious one: the alphabetic listing takes over from systematic classifica­ open set of brackets '( ... )' indicating that at that point in tion, as in section IIH saints. The codification of recur­ a chain verbal extension may be used to further specify a ring ("structural") elements of saints' lives, e.g. miracles given concept. or martyrdom is always done with the sarne("structural") digit. For example: - Key numbers 11 H(. .. )5 miraculous activities and events « male saint The first of two rather more idiosyncratic expedients I1H(. .. )6 martyrdom, suffering, misfortune, death of male saint are the so-called key numbers or keys. This device can be defined as an 'add-on' secondary hierarchy which may be With every martyrdom scene sharing the basic nota­ used to increase the specificity of the concept for which it tion IIH and the structural digit 6, retrieval of the general is declared valid. A key number is added between brak­ theme "martyrdom of male saints" becomes very easy, kets at the end of a regular notation, and identified by a even though the basic organization of martyrdom scenes plus + sign: 31A25161(+9Ill). The verbal explanations is by subordination to particular saints' names. of the separate parts of this notation are: A set of structural digits is also the potential source of a combinatory explosion. At some locations, such as IIH, 31A25161 arm or hand held in front of the chest all three tools for synthesis are simultaneously available and to the user. Against the background of this opportunity to (+91 11) expressing one's gratitude create extremely specific descriptors, it may not besuper­ A list of key numbers is declared valid at a particular fluous to emphasize that the userofICONCLASS decides location in the schedules. Its applicability is inherited by, whether or not to use the tools offered to him. but also limited to the rest of that particular chain. The set from which 1 took the cited example contains about a 100 3, The Computerization of ICONCLASS concepts, in their tum divided into 9 classes: I now tum to a second tool that may help us to create (+ 1) frontview more consistent and systematic subject access to images: (+2) back view the computer. I shall refrain from discussing the use of (+3) sideview, profile computers in (art) history in any general sense'. Instead I (+4) three*quarter view shall limit my analysis to some of the implications of (+5) positions (of the hUman figure) applying a computerized classification system. To a cer­ (+6) direction of movements tain extent this analysis may be called a case study, as it (+7) number of persons is based on experiences gained by the transformation of (+8) sex and age (of human being) the lCONCLASS system from a static 'paper system' to (+9) expressive cOIUlotations a computerized 'browser's,' It is made available for section 31A the (nude) human figure; 'Co!po humano' (Ripa)

14 Knowl.Org.. 20(1993)No. l 1.P.1.Brandhorst: Quantifiability in Iconography 3.1 A network of relations - its keywords are distributed hierarchically The precise meaning of a concept in a systematic clas­ - keywords may be cross-linked sification scheme is established by its location, i.e. by its - concepts may be cross-linked position in a chain and by the concepts that share its array, . its secondary hierarchies are made available only Being a link in a hierarchical chain, it moreover inherits for precisely defined sections of the main schedules the meaning of all the concepts it is subordinated to. - the secondary hierarchies have their own keywords. To find a concept we may of course browse the 3.2 Publishing principles schedules, but it is more likely that we shall tryto find it with the help of the alphabetic index to the scheme. If the As is common to classification systems, a notation in system is of some sophistication, we shall be guided ICONCLASS is a symbolic translation of a concept, through this index by cross references, that link related which itself is defined in natural language, It is also an terms and direct us from non-preferred to preferred terms', indicator ofthe relative location of that concept, implicit­ ly containing information about its relationship to other In ICONCLASS, the keyword(s) that lead us to a concepts, e.g. those in the secondary hierarchies, concept are a reflection of both that particular concept's content and of its hierarchical position within a particular Characteristic for the use we make of a classification chain. The latter means that a keyword assigned to a scheme during indexing, is that we copy from it. We concept on a certain hierarchical level will not be repea­ locate the concepts which we consider appropriate des­ ted at lower levels of the same chain", To illustrate this, criptors, helped by the way they are arranged and by cross I repeat one of the chains I cited earlier; this time, references. We then copy them into the catalogue entry or however, I add - in the third column - the keywords under database record that we are composiI)g about an object. which the concepts appear in the alphabetic index. Typically, we restrict ourselves to copying just the nota­ tions. In the act, we isolat,e them from their context.

9 Classical Mythology and "tIthology ancient history !tis during retrieval thatthis isolation causes problems. JIJlcient History hlStory . ' 1 1 classical antiquity N otatIOns h'dem" lormatton'l 'kea b area de. To reveal thelf religion meaning and their connections we have to place them 1Ilf::�ogy back in their context. Since a notation by its very nature �:� "tIy og assigns a unique location to a concept, in an abstract sense � Greek reroic legends 1 nd 95 this does not present a problem. In practice, however, we (II) G:k legend are faced with a number of difficulties. Most fundamental 95A the Greek reroic legends hero ( II ): heroes of these is that the ultimate user of a catalogue should

95A( " , ) the Greek reroic legends have the same network at his disposal during subject (II): heroes (with N/ME) retrieval as the indexer has during subject indexing, To 95A( HIPPOLYlUS) (story of) Hippolytus Hippolytus name but the most important reasons forthis requirement: 95A( ...)6 suffering, misfortu� suffering, misfortune - A notation is not self-explanatory: therefore we should 95A(HIPPOLYlUS}6 suffering, misfortu� of Hippolytus be able to immediately retrieve the corresponding verbal

95A(" ,)68 death death explanation,

95A(HIPPOLYlUS)68death of Hippolytus : he is accident - The end user needs to be informed about the full killed when the horses that horse, bolting draw his chariot bolt at the chariot hierarchical chain of ,a concept - all broader terms - to sight of a bull-shaped rron- bull understand its semantics, ster rronster - Theend user must have access to the same keywords that directed the indexer to a particular concept. Many of the keywords in the right hand column are , cross referred for related terms, For example: 'suffering' - The end user should have the guidance of the original for 'sorrow'; 'chariot' for a.o. 'apotheosis', 'quadriga', cross references, because these may have guided the and 'triumph'; 'monster' for 'beast', 'devil', and 'dra­ indexe� too. gon'; etc. The concepts may themselves be directly cross-linked Now, how can this requirement be met? !fa classifica­ too, For example, from the notation: tion system merely exists in the form of a book, the answer is rather simple, since it will amount to an advice to the 95A(HlPPOLYTUS) (story of Hippolytus) end user to get himself a copy, In the case of a compute­ cited above, we are cross referred to the related 'term ': rized system, an exhaustive answer tothat question would 95B(PHAEDRAj2l Phaedra's unsuccessful love-affair with have to include a detailed discussion of technical issues, her stepson HippolylllS. Having actually been used as the subject retrieval tool of an art historical database", the computerized ICONC­ Summarizing, we may call ICONCLASS a complex LASS system would be a suitable focus for such a discus­ network on the basis of the following characteristics: sion . . its concepts are arranged systematically

KnowLOrg, 20(1993)No.1 IS l,P.I,Brandhorst: Quantifiability in Iconography For our present purpose, however, we better attempt to local hard- and software conditions could notbe allowed get a somewhat more theoretical perspective on the mat­ to result in divergent functionalities, i.e. in 'de facto' dif­ ter. l propose to do this by confronting different strategies ferent versions of ICONCLASS as an organic, coherent for electronic publication to which a classification system system. Again, !hat would deny !he idea of a standardized such as ICONCLASS may be subjected. information medium. In ICONCLASS - again, as in other classification 2. To publish an ICONCLASS data file consisting of systems - we may distinguish a static and a dynamic both the static and !he dynamic component. The dyna­ component. The concepts, consisting of notations and mics would notbe latent, but brought to life by a computer verbal explanations, together with the keywords, are the program. This program would then have to be equipped static component. The dynamic component is built of all with all necessary 'knowledge' ofiCONCLASS to act as relationships between the members of this triad, e.g. the an interpreter between the system and the outside world. mutual subordination orjuxtaposition of the concepts, the Itshould be able to digest two types of input: keywords links between notations and verbal explanations, between and notations. In the case of keyword input it should keywords and concepts, and between main and secondary retrieve all concepts linked to that keyword. In the case of hierarchies, and to all types of cross references. notation input it should be able to interpret all of the A system that is published as a book of course conveys notation's constituent elements, including those taken information about its own dynamics. It does so in two from secondary hierarchies, and moreover retrieve all ways: by the physical arrangement of its concepts on the verbal explanations linked to that notation. A smooth printed pages, and by explicit instructions to the user. transition from alphabetic index to schedules should be However, eventually the user himself has to supply the provided for, and concepts should be shown in chain and dynamics: to see a hierarchical chain, he has to browse in array, depending on !he user's wish. The program back and for!h through the pages; to follow a cross should also be able to automatically warn the user about reference, he has to go from one page to another; after the availability of all auxiliary features and cross referen­ consulting the alphabetic index he has to tum to the ces; and in the case of cross references immediately schedules to see the context of the concept he is referred transfer the user - if he so wishes - to the designated to. location. A computer file does not show itself in a self-evident On top of that it should be designed as a server order in the way a printed book does. It always needs program, independent of existing database software. It additional software - a 'program' - to function, to be made should also be able to communicate with external databa­ visible even. This holds for straightforward text files, with se management systems, i.e. to function as the engine of no intrinsic order except that of words fo llowing one both a data input and a data retrieval module. ano!her. It holds all !he more strongly for a pre-coordina­ The complexity of ICONCLASS' internal rules and ted system with internal relations as manifold and com­ correlations would allow only a very small number of in­ plex as ICONCLASS. stitutions to create their own computerized ICONCLASS Of course !he contents of a system may simply be pu­ system. It will not come as a surprise then, that it has blished without any information at all about the system's indeed been published in the form of a so-called Server: dynamics. That is, all concepts and keywords can be a datafile and a dedicated computer program, combined offered to users in a 'flat', completely undifferentiated into an organic, autonomous whole. In this way we hope listing. Thus it may be left to the users to fit them into a to distribute the computer edition of ICONCLASS wi­ network according to their own ideas. In the case of a thout disseminating !he considerable problems connected classification system, that would amount to a denial of its to its computerization. own 'raison d'etre', i.e. the conviction !hatastandardized medium for the conveyance of information benefits scho­ 4. Systematic Documentation in Iconography larship. With this concise explanation of ICONCLASS and of So we concluded that this first possibility would be the arguments for the way it is now offered to the scholar­ contrary to the aim ofiCONCLASS and we were left with ly community, I have 'zoomed in' on ICONCLASS in as two options: much detail as I intended to. I shall now step back to 1. To publish the static data in the neutral form of an broaden the horizon. ASCII file, and supply a separate document, exhaustively Ultimately we are interested in determining the impact describing the system's 'latent' dynamics. This descrip­ that using an iconographic classification system may tion should provide users with all information necessary have on the countability of iconographic information. to process the published file in such a way that all latent Analyzing that impact, we must ask whether and how dynamics could be made manifest. This would inevitably such a system - being the medium for the verbalization mean editing and encoding (parsing, flagging) the file to and organization of iconographic observations - contribu­ create all required retrieval possibilities. All of that effort, tes to the consistency of the things we say about images moreover, would be spent on reinventing the wheel. and of how we say !hem. At the same time, this adaptation of !he ASCII file to My treatment of these questions will have to remain

16 Know!.Org.20(1993)No.1 1.P.I,Brandhorst: Quantifiability in Iconography preliminary and tentative. Anything more ambitious would movements of the body - not only were very important in involve a detailed evaluation of a number of large art· social relations, but were indeed perceived as such and historical databases created in the past decade. That could be made the object of political, historical, ethical would be far beyond the scope of this article. and even theological study (8). This assertion is relevant to the present discussion be­ 4.1 Standardizing the Medium cause the evidence it is based upon, is twofold: texts men­ Discussing these issues I shall ignore the minor diffe­ tioning and describing gestures, and images representing rences between the existing computer implementations of gestures or, more accurately, images showing 'frozen' ICONCLASS. Taking those into account would unneces­ movements of the body, suggesting gestures. sarily complicate my analysis. Moreover, the fo llowing In his study Schmitt emphasizes that the images are an considerations lead me to believe that the computerized historical source in their own right. Their interpretation is edition of ICONCLASS as published by the IRDG will in not made subservient to that of texts. They are, naturally, fact be accepted as its standard form. not interpreted as snapshots of medieval reality, but as serving a particular purpose, communicating messages, - Now that ICONCLASS is available electronically, ithas and obeying to certain representational rules. In short: become very easy to incorporate modifications and ex­ they are seen as playing a role in a particular historical pansions suggested by users, into the system. It may still ' context. be a strenuous process, intellectually, to define new concepts and to find them an adequate location, but Schmitt also points to a number of problems of docu­ technically it does not present a problem. Since without mentation that confront an investigation like his: the community's acceptance there will be no standard, - The potentially relevant visual source material is inex­ increasing the ease with which its suggestions can be haustible: "c'est la quasi-totalite de I'art chretien qu'il "12 included, is an important step forward. faudrait prendre en compte ... - At the same time, the number of images that have been - Because updating the system is technically easy it can described systematically in sufficient detail, is extremely be done relatively cheaply. More importantly, corrections small. As a matter of fact, descriptions that are detailed and expansions do not have to be distributed as separate enough are almost exclusively found in monographic appendices. They can be immediately integrated in the studies. existing system. Replacing an earlier edition is done by simply overwriting an old file. Researchers lack systematic iconographic informa­ - The Server form in which the system is made available, tion, because the monographic studies they depend on, makes it unnecessary to load the data into a local database generally weave iconographic observations into the fa­ management system. ICONCLASS acts as a separate, yet bric of their arguments. The idea of systematically pre­ linkable unit and this autonomy guarantees the integrity senting them as discrete nuclei of information is alien to of the data. this type of study. But even books that aim at offering detailed iconographic information, do not but very rarely - Equally, the Server form guarantees uniformity of the attempt to make all of the visual elements they mention system's fu nctionalities. accessible in a systematic way. Paradoxically enough, the scarcity of subject indices 4.2 An Example: The Documentation of Gestures and especially their almost absolute silence on iconogra­ phic details such as gestures, are commonly accepted as a The question whether utilizing a classification system fact of scholarly life. This acceptance is so widespread will help to produce quantifiable information by enhan­ that the contradiction between the importance of icono­ cing the consistency of what we say about images, can be graphic detail for (art)hisiorical reasoning and the absen­ approached from many different angles. I shall try to ce of its systematic documentation is rarely commented illustrate a few aspects with ,the help of examples taken upon: from publications that ,study gestures in medieval image­ ry. 4.3 Counting crossed arms These examples will hopefully shed some light on the Some of the implications of this absence may be de­ importance of iconographic detail for historical and art­ monstratedwith the help ofa small experiment. I confron­ historical discourse, testifying to the need for systematic ted a few assertions about gestures in medieval imagery docul)lentation. At the same time, they will show that with my own database of the circa 500 prefatory miniatu­ researchers are handicapped beCause of their dependence res (and drawings) in English psalters produced between on monographic studies. Only there do they find the 1045 and 1225. The systematic iconographic description detailed iconographic information they need; rarely, of the more than 1,200 scenes these miniatures contain, however, made available in a systematic way. was undertaken with the help of ICONCLASS·3. In a recent study J .-C. Schmitt argues that in the Middle The first assertion says that "the attitude of hands Ages g\'Stures - in the broad sense of ihe postures and crossed on the breast was not known in early inedieval

Knowl.Org. 20(1993)No.l 17 I.P.1.Brandhorst: Quantifiability in Iconography art" and that "it was only in the late thirteenth century that wing a search term transparent. For instance, querying the this gestural motif entered European imagery. Its centre psalter database for the more general notation 71A re­ was originally Italy."(9) veals that scenes fro m "Genesis from the creation to the From my manuscript corpus I could immediately re­ expulsion from paradise and later years of Adam and trieve a dozen instances of this gesture, found in contexts Eve" have been depicted 80 times. ranging from the killing of Abel (Abel) to the creation of So, ICONCLASS, by the 'natural' abstracting process Eve (Eve), and from the supper of Emmaus (a disciple) to of a classification system, standardizes how we call the the sacrifice of Isaac (Isaac). things and events we see in pictures. I do not need to say The confidence with which such a statement is made, that this reduction, this using a common denominator for may surprise us. The ease with which it can be refuted, visual phenomena that are by definition unique, is an should not, because that is wholly consistent with the re­ absolute condition for the ability to count them. searcher's dependence on incidental rather than systema­ Exactly at this point ICONCLASS' influence on the tic information. The mere fact that even a modest primary standardization of the iconographic access of an image source can yield such sobering resulls, is encouraging to collection ends. The historian himself decides to join a the indexer. It suggests that by systematically recording series of visual elements under the same descriptor or to iconographic detail a useful critical tool can be produced. separate them. It is the historian who interprets a particu­ Yet, this result only begins to answer the question lar gesture as one of blessing or speech, or a particular whether using ICONCLASS helps to produce countable posture as expressing obedience. And finally, it is the iconographic data. To allow the reader to assess that more historian's responsibility to be consistent in the descrip­ fully, I should put the count of the gesture of 'crossing the tion of iconographic elements, which is the second condi­ arms in front of the chest' into perspective. I.e. the user tion for a count to have any meaning. should be informed how the count was performed and In applying ICONCLASS, or any other descriptional how it compares to counts for other gestures. system for that matter, we use categories and concepts of It will not surprise readers of this journal that it is the twentieth, not ofthe twelfth or thirteenth century. This precisely the systematic classification's principle of as­ we cannot escape. Our best chance of getting a grip on the signing codes to concepts that allows for easy counting. I concepts contemporary to and expressed by the imagery trust that the following chain of concepts will immediate­ of the past is by consistently describing it first, inevitably ly clarify why it is so easy to count occurrences of employing a modern tool. Ifwe do not create a systematic particular gestures, once they are codified with the help of documentary basis, we shall never be able to investigate notations. (The result of the count for the last four con­ whether the crossed arms of Abel while being killed may cepts in thechain is printed in square brackets.) indeed be the artist's interpretation 14 of Abel's reaction to this event(IO). Equally, we shall not be able to assess 3 Hwnan Being, Man in General whether the interpretation of this gesture as expressing 3l man in a general biological sense that "the gentle Abel is submitting to his brother" with 3lA the (nude) human figure; 'Corpo humano' (Ripa) resignation, can be supported by the observation that 3lA2 anatomy (non-medical) Isaac may also be represented with crossed arms during 31A25 postures and gestures of anns and hands [2422] 31A252 postures and gestures of anns and hands in relation to the sacrifice scene. each other [101] We have to record first that in seven out of 26 cases of 31A2521 anns crossed [37] crossed arms in front of the body, the arms are tied with 31A25212 anns crossed over the breast [12] a rope (ignoring the 10 cases where someone is depicted as being tied to a column with his or her arms cross,ed in With the same ease it could be extracted from this front of it): five times out of these seven it is Christ in an datab,ase that the gesture of blessing with the arm stret­ episode from the Passion and twice it is Isaac during the ched forward occurs 51 times,or that in 33 scenes We see sacrifice scene. In addition to that Christ is depicted twice someone holding his or her hands against each other. as dividing the bread at Emmaus with crossed arms; and One of the characteristics of the ICONCLASS system, once one of his disciples at Emmaus is shown with hands as I have explained above, is the inclusion of fairly large crossed. We have also to record first that in two represen­ texis as discrete index terms. A compound concept such tations of the sacrifice, Isaac is not crossing his arms, but as holding his hands against each other and that this same gesture is made once by Abel in the scene of his killing. 71A82 the killing of Abel: Cains slays him with a stone, a club or a jaw-bone, alternatively with a spade o{ another tool' as Ob'servations like these could lead to the research que­ weapon stion whether these gestures - crossed hands on the chest / hands against each other - may have had similar or even could thus be codified with a single notation. synonymous meanings. To a twelfth century observer, To determine that this theme is represented six times in that is ... these psalters we only need to query the database, for a Though tempted, I am not gqing to try my hand here simple string: 7lA82. The hierarchical organization of a and now at this "travail de I 'historien", as Le Goff calls it. classification makes the process of broadening or narro-

18 Know!.Org.20(1993)No.1 I.P.I.Brandhorst: Quantifiability in Iconography All I am saying is that the iconographic information in a an image. Some users ofICONCLASS have developed syntac­ database such as mine, gathered with some diligence and tic devices for this purpose. On the other hand the cataloguer organized with the help of a useful tool, suggests that we may deliberately abstain from expressing such ajudgement and consider all descriptors as of (potentially) equal importance. In have some work to do before we can try to attempt a any case the computer edition of ICONCLASS does not offer serious historical explanation of what appear to be mea­ syntactic tools. ningful gestures_ 7 For an exploratory study I may refer to (5). 8 Thecomputerization of ICONCLASS was undertaken by a 5. Epilogue small team of researchers and programmers at the Department As long as art historians who claim that "the history of of Computers & Humanities of Utrecht University. This depart­ art ... and other forms of study of visual material are ment is co-foWlder of the ICONCLASS Research & Develop­ largely and legitimately ahistorical"(ll), are seen as re­ ment Group, together with the Department of Art History of Leiden University, the cradle oflCONCLASS. presentative of the discipline, we should not be surprised 9 Of course, in the context of the alphabetic index, 'preferred' ifhistorians th emselves would take up the systematic des­ tenn are merely the terms that lead us to the concepts in the cription of art history'S objectof study - the imagery of the schedules, i.e. the truly preferred terms. past. 10 An algorithm was created that allows for the retrieval of a Indeed, they would seem to have to, if they want to concept with two keywords, linked by the 'AND' operator, even include images into their historical source material. though they do not belong to the same record. So Hippolytus AND accident will indeed retrieve It would be ironic if art history, at a time when images 95A(HIPPOLYTUS)68 etc ... begin to play an increasingly importantrole in all kinds of A combination like accident AND mythology will retrieve 13 historical studies, would abandon the field. It is my different concepts, among which: conviction that if the discipline would develop practical 92C4543 Venus fortuitously grazed by Cupid's arrow and theoretical skills for dealing with large amounts of (possibly combined with the story of Adonis) images as historical source material, it could play an A more detailed treatment of this facility and of the option to important role in cultural history. combine a keyword with a notation in a single query - both of What has been said above should be seen against this which were absent from the printed edition of the system - is given in (6). background. If so, it will be clear that the basic goal of my 11 For the publication of the Dutch Royal Library's collection contribution is to invite other students of imagery to join of Dutch printer's devices from the period 1540-1700. For a in a discussion that, to my view, has barely begun. review of the ICONCLASS Browser and the CD-ROM see (7) 12 See (8) p.24 13 It may be useful to emphasize that this database is still being Notes added to, so I am referring to work in progress. Because I am 1 "Aujourd'hui, plusieurs recherches individuelles au collecti­ using the information extracted frommy database merely to ves transfonnent l'iconographie en entreprise scientifique, illustrate my point about the countability of iconographic data, intellectuelle et pleinement historique. La constitution de cor­ I will not bother the reader with shelf and folio numbers. pus, d'iconotheques et Ie recours Iil'infonnatique introduisent 14Indeed, we have to question whether the concepts " artist" and . en en marquant les limites: rendu plus sur, Ie travail de "the artist's interpretation" have much meaning in the context l'historien, aiguise pendantcette phase, reste a faire ensuile - les of twelfth century psalter production. avantages du quantitatif dans Ie domaine de l'image qui s 'y prete tres bien." (1, p.V). 2 Tragically, van de Waal died before any part of the final References version of the system was published. For information about the (I) Le Goff, J.: L'imaginaire medieval. Paris: Gallimard 1985. completion, I refer to (3). (2) Waal, H. van de: lCONCLASS, an iconographic classifica­ 3 A more elaborate explanation of ICONCLASS's notational tion system. Amsterdam-London, North-Holland Publ. Co. system may be found in A. Grund's article elsewhere in this 1974-1985. 17 vols. issue. The detailed knowledge of ICONCLASS's notational (3) Shennan. c.R.: ICONCLASS: A Historical Perspective. "finesses" which, as she correctly argues, it would take an Visual Resources 4(1987)p.237-246 indexer a considerable time to acquire, to say nothing of an end (4) Waal, H. van de: Some principles of a general iconographi­ user, has all been woven into the retrieval program that is part cal classification. In: Actes du-Cinquieme Congres Internatio­ of the computer edition ofICONCLASS. It goes without saying nal d'Esth6tique - Proc. Fifth Int. Congress of Aesthetics, that this dramatically reduces the amount of time one needs to (Amsterdam 1954). p. 730. learn to use the system. (5) Berg. 1. van den; Brandhorst, J.PJ.; Huisstede, P. van: 4 Cf. for example (3). Image Processing and the (Art) Historical Discipline. In: Thal­ 5 The extent to which these descriptions are abstracted can be ler, M. (Ed.); Images and Manuscripts in Historical Computing. measured by the fact that they may give alternative,mutually Gottingen: Max Planck Institut fiir Geschichte 1992. p.5-40 exclusive versions of a story, all of which may be represented (6) Berg, J. van den, (a.o.): TheICONCLASS Browser User'. in actual iconography (h.l. 'dragged to death, or tom apart' ...). Guide. Utrecht, Vakgroep Computer & Letteren, 1992. p.91-94 6 In general it is left to the user to decide how to arrange the (7) Ponntain, D.: Browsing Art the Windows Way. BYTE notations he has selected as descriptors of an object. The 17(1992)4, p.82IS13-82IS24 arrangement may be used to express the indexer's judgement (8) Schmitt, I.·C.: La raison des gestes dans I'occident medie­ about the relative importance of the iconographical elements of val. Paris: Gallimard 1990. 432p. Continuation on page 29 Knowl.Org. 20(1993)No.1 19 1.P.1.Brandhorst: Quantifiability in Iconography Angelika Grund. Universitiit Mannheim Europaisches Dokumentationszentrum

ICONCLASS. On Subject Analysis of Iconographic Representations of Works of Art .

Grund, A.: ICON CLASS. On subject analysis of iconogra­ of contents of works of art. In this way the study of phic representations of works of, art. symbols, emblems and allegories, the deciphering of Knowl.Org. 20(1993)No. l, p.20-29, 32 refs. decoration programs and finally the publication of icono­ The special classificati9n system ICONCLASS, created by graphic reference books became possible. Henry van de Waal for the description of occidental art, is This development of iconographic research went hand considered against the background of art-historical iconogra­ in hand with the estaQlishment of documentation centres. phy, By means ofa number ofexarnplesihest ructu.rc and use of Technical progress had made for an enormous increase in ICONCLASS and its importance for art-historical documenta­ tion arc illustrated. (Author) the size of stocks of reproc!uctionsof works of art, which called for systematization and ordering. Thus, frqm 1917 onwards, an "Index of Christian Art" .(3), comprising 1. Intl'oduction� some 100,000 photographs of works of art from the period 700 to 1400 A.D., was being compiled at Princeton One of the most important and difficult tasks of an art University. historian" is the analysis of the meaning, the description and the interpretation of pictorial art. Within the realm of The first publication on the creation of a systematic art-historical research, several methods have been devi­ iconographic index for works of art from every period was sed for this purpose. In comparison with such methods as initiated. by the "Rijksbureau voor Kunsthistorische the analysis of style and of structure,the iconographical­ Documentatie" (RKD = Nalional Bureau for Art-Histori­ iconological method (I), which concentrates on the con­ cal Documentation) in The Hague, Holland. The index of tents depicted in pictorial art, is a fairly young branch of its vast collection of postcard-size pictures of Dulch art the science of art. was to be published around 1950. The classification system required for this purpose, the forerunner of ICONC­ In the course of the 19th century, art-scientific icono­ LASS, was developed by the art historian Henry van de graphy developed as an independent field of research. Its Waal (1910-1972), who let himseIfbe guided by research object was the theme of the work of art, something which results of the Warburg Institute (4). In 1958 the first could no longer be understood without special knowled­ version of the "Decimal Index of the Art of the Low ge. Since the 17th century the knowledge of Biblical Countries (DIAL)" became avallable in an abbreviated events and the myths of antiquity as elements of art­ form (5). Ten years later the first complete edition appea­ historical tradition has lost its place in the mind of the red under the title "D.I.A.L.: Abridged Edition of the average spectator. Iconography set itself the task of resto­ ICONCLASS System" (6). In this title the term ICONC­ ring the ruptured connection. LASS, coined by van de Waal's assistantLeendert D.Couprie Starting with Aby Warburg (1866-1929)1 and the circ­ and derived from "ICONographic CLASsification Sy­ le of scholars that gathered around him, a new line of stem", appeared for the first time. research based on iconography was developed, which In the 1970s, finally, publication of the 17-volume aimed at a comprehensive socio-historical interpretation edition of ICONCLASS (7) was started. The publication of the given work of art. This took place within the context period lasted from 1972 to 1983. The seven systematic of reflectionsthat subject and contents of a wqrk of art are and seven bibliographic volumes were followed two not necessarily identical. The art historian Erwin Panofs­ years later by the three-volume overall index, The system ky (1892,1968), in devising his three-step model for the and the bibliography did not appear in chronological iconographical analysis of paintings, became the chief order, since, for one thing, work on the classification and protagonist of this development (2). on the corresponding bibliographical references was going Since then, iConography has become one of the main on at the same time, while, for another thing, certain fields fields within art-historical research. This discipline was of van de Waal's original scheme needed to be expanded to oveicol1je the one-sidedness of the formal contempla­ (8, 9). tion of art and to incorporate new domains, achieving a . With ICONCLASS, the first detailed and systemati­ greater proximity to reality. Comprehensive cultural­ cally worked-out classification of iconographical repre­ scientific research was now the objective. More efforts sentations of works of art in printed form had, in 1985, than in other fields were now devoted to the classification become available.

20 KnQwl.Org.20(1993)No,[ A.Grund: ICONOCLASS At the end of 1990 the universities of Utrecht and interpreter's work they form a single process applied to Leyden (both Holland) founded the ICONCLASS Re­ the given work of art. search & Development Group (IDRG), which was char­ If we transpose Panofsky's model to the indexing ged with developing a computer-readable version of the process, a correct description of the subject matter repre­ classification. Soon, namely in fall 1991, the ICONC­ sented must be given first place. Here it is primarily LASS Browser was published, which may be regarded as important in what form the work of art to be described is the electronic edition of the ICONCLASS system and its available: as an original or a reproduction, oras a file card index volumes (10, 11). Since then, work has been going bearing a title entry with or without supplementary data. on on an electronicversion of the bibliography, which has This step usually does not require any special knowledge meanwhile become available in the beta test stage. The from the indexer. The next step, the iconographical ana­ ICONCLASS Browser and bibliography correspond, with lysis, proceeds from the description prepared and depends respect to their contents, to the printed edition of 1985. on the indexer's knowledge level and the reference works The following study is based on the printed edition of available to him. With the aid of typological history, such ICONCLASS. Because of recent developments, howe­ things as personifications, symbols, allegories and em­ ver, reference is made at some important points to the blems can be recognized and identified with relative electronic version2, certainty. If several, conflicting interpretations are to be found in the literature, a selection problem presents itself: 2. On the Methodology oficonographical-Iconological Should all these or only one of them be indicated? Finally, Picture Analysis the indexing result is added as a descriptor and/or notation The theoretical foundation of ICONCLASS is furnis­ to the data collection, thus being able to serve as a basis hed by ErwinPanof sky's aforementioned three-step method, for a final iconological interpretation. It should be borne a systematical work which was started by him in 1930 (2a, in mind here that even a great descriptive depth does not 2b). rule out losses of information. According to Panofsky, the interpretation of a work of Since the 1970s, a large number of systems have been artis carried out on three levels. On the first level the 'pre­ available for the iconographical description of works of iconographical description' takes place. Here the artistic art (14, 15). These systems were usually limited to a motif, the so-called 'primary or natural subject matter', is special field and/or to specific national needs (16). They studied: pure forms are identified as objects and their work either with a classification system (17) or a thesau­ interrelationships as events, a process for which the rus (18, 19,20). With ICONCLASS an instrument is now spectator's practical experience is sufficient. available which covers a larger art-historical field. While originally used specifically for the description of Dutch On the second level, the 'iconographical analysis' is art, this classification system was in fact developed for the performed, whose object is the 'secondary or conventio­ description ofthe contents of occidental art for internatio­ nal subject matter'. The previously identified motifs and nal requirements . and is meanwhile in use in several compositions are now linked with themes or concepts. countries (21). This presupposes, on the part of the spectator, the know­ ledge of literary sources, ancient myths and Biblical tales. 3. ICONCLASS Third and last is the ' iconographical interpretation in a The hierarchically structured systematic volumes of deeper sense' or the 'iconological interpretation'. Its ICONCLASS contain, in an arrangement according to object is: the true meaning of content, the essence of a main classes/divisions, notations and concept designa, work of art. To be able to interpret the pictures, anecdotes tions of iconographical themes, objects, actions, and and allegories, the work of art is viewed as an object persons of pictorial art. In four of the ten main classes, within its historical environment. This requires from the special indexes (of abstract concepts, Gospel verses, spectator detailed knowledge in the field of social history proper names) are provided at the end of the. volumes and calls upon his 'synthetic intuition'. which facilitate access to the themes and motifs of the Panofsky's investigations gave rise to the first consi­ given classes. Important additions to and corrections of stent system of an integral interpretation of works of art the systematic volumes were published in 1988 by Cou­ based on an analysis of their contents. Originally recei­ prie and Van Straten (22)'. ving but little attention outside the Warburg-Panofsky The. bibliographical volumes conform to the systema­ circle, It was only in the 50s that Panofsky's theory tic ones with respect to their structure. Since the majority developed into a theory that has remained fundamental of reference works used summarizes iconographical ma­ and an object of much discussion to this very day (I). . terials and sludies them on a more general level, the Panofsky's complex method of picture analysis strikes bibliography concentrates on the higher hierarchical le­ the user as a highly abstract one for practical art-historical vels. To this day this bibliography is theonlycollectionof work. Several attempts at modification have therefore systematically assembled and ordered iconographical been undertaken, which can only be briefly referred to writings, even though the literature listed is outdated in here (12, 13). The analytic steps distinguished by Panofs­ some fields and incomplete at some points. ky can only in theory be clearly distinguished. In the art

Knowl.Org. 20(1993)No.! 21 A.Grund:ICONOCLASS The publication was supplemented by the three-volu­ 7 The Bible not only comprises theme and events from the me "General Alphabetic Index" covering the various Old and the New Testament, but also non-Biblical tales classes and their interrelationships. An index entry starts and legends (Apocrypha and typology). out with a concept, sometimes combined with cross­ 8 Literature rounds up scenes and characters from occi­ references to synonyms, related concepts as well as hier­ dental literature, including legends, fairy tales, fables and archically sub- and superordinated concepts. Next, orde­ proverbs. red according to main classes and in a sequence confor­ 9 Classical Mythology and Ancient History describe ming to the overall system, class designations are listed in scene, events and personalities from Greek and Roman which the given concept occurs. Each class designalion is mythology. concluded by a notation,which marks the end oflheentry. In addition to the simple notations, combined ones and a The divisions I through 5 contain 'basic concepts' notation key are included here as well. The overall index which suffice to determine the main aspects of the matter does not indicate all cross-referencing possibilities. Tho­ represented. But this, in many cases, would not carry one se indicated on the system tables are not always to be beyond a pre-iconographical description. Therefore, divi­ found in the index. sions 6 through 9 were added as 'special concepts' which For art-historical iconographical research, this index reflect the traditional context of themes from historical, constitutes a unique reference work for themes and sub­ Biblical or classical sources. They map fields of specific jects, precisely because of the "iconographical clusters", relevance for occidental art. Without groups 6 through 9, i.e. the collection of entries rounded up under a common a depiction of the 'Last Supper', for example, could only concept. They furnish an overview of the chief motifs and be indexed by the notation 41 C5 as 'celebration meal, subjects in occidental art in which the given motif plays feast, banquet'. Division 7, The Bible, on the other hand, a part, e.g. "bathing". Regrettably, there is no direct cross­ offers 73 D2, The Episode of the Last Supper, thus referencing from the index entry to the literature concer­ providing for a specification of the notation first assigned. ned, without having to go to the systematic part. This limitation was fortunately avoided when the electronic 3.1.1 Notation version was introduced. In the search and browse modes, Every concept describing an iconographical entity is which correspond to the alphabetic index and the syste­ assigned by ICONCLASS an alphanumerical notation matic part respectively, the user's attention is now called and a class description. To characterize the hierarchical to bibliographic references. code numbers a special terminology was created. A notation may be composed of the elements described 3.1 Contents and Structure of the Systematic Part below. The totality of the concepts is thematically subdivided, Every notation begins with a basic notation, which like the UDC, into nine main groups or classes, called may either stand by itselfor be supplemented by so-called divisions, each subdivided again into up to 9 subclasses. auxiliaries. The basic notation consists of two parts, of An additional twenty-five sub-subclasses may be formed which the first one consists of a maximum of two digits on the third level by adding one of the letters A to Z. The plus one or two capital letters, but at least of one digit: leller J is not used. Through appending further digits, new 2 nature hierarchical levels may be added. 25 the earth The following divisions are thematically distinguis­ 25G plants hed: 25GG fa bulous vegetation Doubling of a capital letter marks an antonym and 1 Religion and Magic classifies the realm of the superna­ occurs most frequently in divisions 1, 2, 5,6, 8, 9, more tural which besides Christian and non-Christian religions rarely in 3,4, and 7. Now this part of the basic notation is also includes magic, occultism, and astrology. quite frequently expanded by the queue, consisting of a 2 Nature considers the natural phenomena of the human minimum of one and a maximum of 8 digits: environment. 25G5 lower plants 3 Human Being, Man in General looks at man from a 25g54 fungi biological point of view. 25G54 1 mushsrooms 4 Society, Civilization Culture consists oftwo parts, with The basic notation is expanded as required by an auxi­ aspects of man's social, political, and military environ­ liary. These auxiliaries were introducedso as not to blow ment being described in the first part, and factors from up the classification unnecessarily by further basic nota­ economic and cultural fields in the second one. tions and to keep it flexible. They not only offer the 5 Abstract Ideas and Concepts round up abstract notions system further subdivision possibilities, but also facilitate and their visualized reproductions which comprise the the handling of the classes and ensure a number of hierar­ realm of man's moral and intellectual capacities, of his chical levels easy to survey. By means of capital letters emotions, moral views, and

22 Knowl.Org. 20(1993)No.l A.Grund: ICONOCLASS proper names, etc. may be indicated (25G3 (OAK); 11 H person seen in profile would be described by the notation (Anthony Abbott)). 31 All (+3 +81 3+93 21), in which the various compo­ Another auxiliary is the structural digit, comprising at nents stand for: least one and at most four digits. These fixed digits 31 All standing figure indicate specific fields in the lives and deaths of persons, (+3) sideview, profile deities and heroes depicted. Their definitions depend on (+81 3) old whether we are dealing with saints, ancient gods, or (+93 21) speaking Roman or Greek heroes. While the classes 11 H male It is to be noted here that in this manner motifs and saints and 11 HH fe male saints, for example, have been scenes can be described in detail on the pre-iconographi­ assigned the following - and other - structural digits: cal level. Anatomy, behavior, movements and relations­ ( .. .) 1 specific aspects hips can be represented in a very differentiated way. (... ) 2 early life Through the complex order of the keys, the clear structure ( ..') 3 personal devotion, within the divisions remains assured - which is advanta­ the corresponding ones for 95A (Greek heroes) and 95 geous for indexing purposes - but for inexperienced users B (Greek heroines) read: the proper understanding of the notations assigned may ( ...) 1 early life, prime youth become a real puzzle. ( ...) 2 love affa irs An ICONCLASS notation may consist of up to 22 ( ...) 3 most important deeds digits and letters. Only in the rarest of cases does it Structural digits are found only in classes 11 H(H), 12 actually consist of all these elements. A notation compo­ B through 12 U, 61 B(B) and in numerous classes in 9 sed of all elements can occur only in classes 61 B 2 and 61 Classical My thology and Ancient History. They are indi­ BB 2. They provide the only basic notations with queue cated at the end of the given hierarchical level or precede that can be expanded by all other terms (Fig.5: Anselm the given class in the classification system. Feuerbach, "Iphigenie", 1871, Stuttgart, 'Staatsgalerie'­ Museum). Feuerbach's painting would first be assigned The most important supplement to the notation is the the notation 61 BB 2 (BRUNACCI,LUCIA) 11 (+2 +55), key, consisting of at least one and at most six digits. To meaning, when resolved: distinguish it clearly from the basic notation it is preceded 61 BB historical person,female by a plus sign and placed, with it, within parentheses (25 2 known by name G 3 (OAK) (+22) branch of an oak). Keys are appended 11 alone numbers which indicate iconographical details, characte­ (+2) all kinds of 'p ortrait history' : mythological rize partial aspects or specify them. In this manner, facets portait, allegorical portrait, etc. of certain classes may be realized and unusual or previ­ (+55) fu ll length ously unconsidered manners of representation be inclu­ ded. Relationships not mapped by the system may likewi­ This notation would be further expanded by: se be created with the aid of the keys. Their use is 95 B (IPHIGENIE) Sl lphigenie in Tauris as therefore not restricted to particular hierarchical levels. priestess of Drama, longing fo r home While all other elements of the notation can occur only Other than the simple notations mentioned so far, once, several keys may be placed in succession, in which ICONCLASS offers further two types of connections: case a lower number always follows a higher one (25 G 3 additional and combined notations. In the case of an (OAK) (+22 +5) withered branch of an oak). In division additional notation, an arbitrary number of notations is 9 it should be borne in mind that key and structural digit listed one underneath another without a special sign are mutually exclusive as far as their application is connecting or separating them. This means that each concerned. notation has the same relationship to the iconographical subject matter and thus also to every other notation. The Divisions 5 Abstract Ideas and Concepts and 7 The iconographical analysis of a work of art may require the Bible each have a list of keys which is binding for all assignment of several notations (for instance: Carl Spit­ classes. The other divisions have been assigned special zwcg, Der Briefbote im Rosenthal (The Mailman in the keys relating to one or more subclasses. In division 1 Valley of Roses), around 1858, Marburg, Germany, Religion and Magic, keys are available only for 11 University Museum). This depends on how many motifs Christian Religion, whose keys correspond to those of 7 and scenes are to be recognized and possibly described on The Bible. the pre-iconographical level. No definite sequence is The number of keys available depends on the size of prescribed for the vertical arrangement of the notations, material to be classified. The largest number of keys are but it makes sense to adhere to the principle of diminis­ found in divisions 2 Nature, 3 Human Being, Man in hing importance. Such a weighted arrangement may be General, and4 Society, Civilization, Culture. Thesedivi­ helpful in a search for relevant examples. It is to be noted sions are thematically of very broad scope. Several sub­ here, however, that not only in his selection of notations, levels are therefore necessary for adequate definitions, but also in his choice of their order the indexer initiates an since even less complex motifs often can only properly be important interpretative step which may influence the described on a deep-lying level. A speaking, elder, male later iconographical analysis.

KnowI.Org. 20(l993)No.! 23 A.Grund: ICONOCLASS In the combined notation, an arbitrary number of indi­ as in Vasily Kandinsky, "In blue", 1925, Dusseldorf, Art vidual notations is linked up with one another. Concepts Collection North Rhine-WestphaIiia: for which no code numbers are provided by the system o abstract representation can be represented by a combination of classes: 22 C 4 (BLUE) colors, pigments and paints (with NAME) 46 B 35 4: signboard 49 D 33 triangle (in relation to planimetry,geometry) 41 D 22 1 (TOP HAT) head-gear (with 49 D 36 circle (in re�ation to planimetry, geometry) NAME of kind) 49 D 34 2 regular quadrilateral The combination of two concepts into a new one is 49 D 32 2 curved line (in relation to planimetry, geo­ expressed by a colon. This colon stands for "connected metry) with", but says nothing as to what kind of connection exists between the individual components. The first nota­ 3.1.2 Structural properties tion pertainsdirectly to the iconographical subject matter, The classes ofICONCLASS are ordered in a monohie­ while all subsequent ones pertain directly to the first rarchical system which through its manifold cross-refe­ notation and only indirectly, through it, to the iconogra­ rences shows poly hierarchical traits. A monohierarchical phical subject matter. Their main task thus is to explain system by itself would be too rigid to be able to map all and specify the first notation. In the horiwntal arrange­ possible motives and themes. The decisive factor is in ment employed to this end it is recommended to charac­ what relational environment a given concept is placed. As terize the main subject by the first component. Thus, by a an example let us take the dog, which is not to be found ­ combination of notations different representationsof certain as one would expect -under 25 F 2 mammals, but is rather themes may be expressed by suitable combinations. In assigned to the divisions this way even complex motifs and themes and their 3 Human Being, Man in General interrelationships can be represented. 34 man and animal A particular part in notation formation is played by the 34 B domestic animals keptin and outside digit 0, which can perform three different functions: the house 34B11 dog a. If the allegorical nature of a representation cannot be indexed by a simple, an additive or a combined notation, and 4 Society, Civilization, Culture: the notation suggesting itself most readily is expanded by 46 social and economic life, transport the digit O. In this manner it is theoretically possible to assign to any concept a symbolic meaning (31 A 22 21 and communication heart as distinguished from 31 A 22 21 0 heart-symbo­ 46 E posts, telegraph a. telephone; lism). If the assignment of a symbolic component occurs means of communication on the third level, then, in order to avoid confusions 46E31 dog (as messenger) between the two symbols 0 and the abbreviation (All.) 0, In addition a dog may assume various functions (43 C for allegory is introduced: (25 (All.) 'Macchina del mon­ 11 hunting-dog), be linked as an attribute to numerous do'; 'Mondo' (Ripa)). saints, or occur in Biblical (73 F 25 21 4 Simon Magnus b. If a represented subject matter is not assigned any and the dog in discussion) and mythological scenes (94 I notation and if it can neither be represented by an additi­ 52 Ulysseus is recognized by his dog Argus). ve, nor by a combined notation, the key (+0) is appended. Cross-references were necessary to institute reciprocal Here the key expresses the fact that we are dealing here relationships within the system and avoid double entries. with a representational variant of a theme. This possibili­ Supplementary to the alphabetic index, the systematic ty exists only for divisions I, 7, and 9. For example, the volumes point particularly to concepts which have a Biblical event "Rest on the flight to Egypt" (73 B 65) is visual or narrative relationship to one another and have rarely represented with a nursing Mary. If, however, this not been realized as references in the index. scene is integrated into the representation this can be 31 A 22 45 hand characterized by ( +0) as a variant of the usual motif and hand made into a fist 31 A 25 51 3 be described by the assignment of a second notation: manicure 31 A 52 I 73 B 65 (+0) rest on theflight to Egypt (variant); 42 A 31 nursing, suckling The basic structure ofICONCLASS contains both ge­ neric and partitive relationships. A generic relationship is c. Classification of abstract works of art by means of expressed by: ICONCLASS was not originally intended. When the 25 G5 lower plants corrections were published, however, the digit 0 was 25 G51 herbs introduced as indication of an abstract representation. It 25 G52 mosses now occurs also as a basic notation. Information on the contents represented in an abstract work of art, as fo llo­ A partitive relationship exists between: wing e.g. from the title of the object, are subsequently 31 A 22 4 arms listed as an additive notation or notations. It may be 31 A 22 41 upper arm followed by statements on dominating colors and shapes, 31 A 22 42 elbow

24 KnowI.Org. 20(J993)No.1 A.Grund: ICONOCLASS While these examples reflect a true hierarchy, the clas­ through 81 G(G) literary characters. 95 A Greek heroes, sification also maps apparent hierarchies in which the 95 H Greek herOldes). The names of the characters follow relationships between the classes are of an associative in the basic notation in parentheses. Plant and animal nature: species are handled in the same way (25 F32 (NIGHTIN­ 31 A 22 45 hand GALE); 25 G 3 (OAK) . The advantage of such a stuctu­ 31 A 22 45 1 hand-print ring is, for one thing, as already mentioned, that the The various types of hierarchies may lie close to one classification is not needlessly blown up, and for another another. The classes in the example just mentioned are thing, that the classificatory row can be expanded at will. fo llowed by: Cross-references within the classification tables to previ­ 31 A 22 46 fingers ously mentioned system points constitute a further possi­ 31 A 22 46 1 thumb bility to keep matters clear (25 GG fa ntastic plants, fa bulous vegetation, use queue of 25 G). Besides the hierarchical relationships between con­ cepts, the complementary relationship also occurs. While 3.2 Summary of the System the generic and partitive relationships pertain to aspects of the material world, the complementary relationship The requirements generally imposed on a notational pertains to concepts relating to properties (57 A 72 tole­ system (23) such as flexibility, hospitality, transparence rance; 57 AA 72 intolerance). of structure, possibility of formation of classification tables of varying depth, ease of remembering as well as The classificatory chains and rows vary widely, depen­ suitability for computerization are met by ICONCLASS ding on the material to be classified. While divisions 1 in the most important points. through 5 and 7 show a differentiated system of chains and rows, divisions 6, 8 and 9 are generally not broken The addition and removal of system points can gene­ down in such detail. Division structures alone vary widely rally be handled by ICONCLASS. The hierarchical struc­ and irregularly. In division 1 Religion and Magic the row ture of the notation ensures different classification depths. of the 2nd hierarchical level has only 5 subdivisions Subsequent cancellation of classes within a row presents (classes 10 through 14), whereas in class 11, 21 of 25 no problems, whereas within a chain it may lead to possible letters (J 1 A to 11 V)are used for class formation. difficulties, since the subordinated classes then must be The chain for 11 F The Virgin Marylooks as fo llows: assigned differently. So far, such a reduction of classes 11 F the Virgin Mary has never occurred. In future, too, it will be rather impro­ 11 F 4 Madonna: i.e. Mary with the bable; instead, the progressive study of motifs and themes Christ-child, without others makes further differentiation and expansion of classes 11 F 42 Madonna: Mary sitting or en­ likely. throned. the Christ-child From the point of view of hospitality there are two in her lap alternatives to the formation of new classes: the chain 11 F 42 1 Mary sitting or enthroned, the alternative and the row alternative. Subdivision within Christ-child infront of her the rows of concepts will vary with the hierarchical leve!. 11 F 42 12 Christ-child sitting Because of the decimal nature of the classification, the Within the entire classification, up to 10 hierarchical level of the main classes (divisions) cannot be expanded. levels are distinguished (31 A 22 36 21 1 uterus with All other hierarchical levels are fi lled up to different fo etus). degrees. While e.g. Division 4 Society, Civilization, Culture is exhausted on the second level, differentiation on the Within the abstractional rows, the monodimensional same level in division 7 The Bible extends only up to 73. structure was at many points expanded into a polydimen­ The possibilities of concept chain expansion through the sional one: addition of further hierarchical levels is ensured by the 41 A housing polydecimal structure. Independent of a certain hierarchi­ 41 Al civic architecture cal level, "notation jumps" (26 meteorologicalphenome­ 41 A 11 palace na - 29 surrealia) are found at various points, even 41 A 12 castle across hierarchical levels (J 3 C magic signs and objects 41 A 2 interior of the house -I3 C 24 labyrinth, maze). Problems arise if no gap has 41 A 21 vestibule, hall been provided at a point where an insertion is necessary. 41 A 22 communal rooms 41 A 3 parts of house or building In notation formation, the desire for brevity is opposed 41 A31 facade to the requirement of structural transparency of the des­ 41 A 32 door cription result. The ICONCLASS notation reflects hierar­ chical levels and may therefore be quite long. This is a To classify the available wealth of material as clearly setback in comparison with sequential notations. The user as possible it was necessary to develop certain mecha­ experiences it as an advantage, however: if he finds nisms. These include the use of alphabetic sequences for nothing on a certain hierarchical level, it is a simple thing the names of Biblical, historical and mythological figures to go on searching on the next higher leve!. The hierarchi­ (e.g. 11 H(H) Saints, 61 B(B) historical persons, 81 A(A) cal notation facilitates a systematic overview and promo-

Knowl.Org. 20(l993)No.! 25 AGrund: ICONOCLASS tes the possibility of forming classification tables of 31 A the (nude) human figure varying depth. Such tables precede the systematic volu­ 31 A 22 36 21 1 uterus.... vith fo etus mes of ICONCLASS down to the 5th hierarchical level. The same is true of the second interpretational level: Bibliography and index contain tables down to the 3rd 11 F the Virgin Mary level. 71 E 12 54 1 the gathering of Manna ' The system tables themselves are lucidly organized Therefore no rules can be laid down for pre-iconogra­ and structured. On these tables, the box for the class de­ phical description and iconographical analysis with re­ signation sometimes contains formulae advising or in­ spect to the systematic structure. structing the user to add notations or notation elements to The work process of a picture analysis with ICONC­ the code number found: "for differentiation apply sy­ LASS will be illustrated in the following. It starts out with stem" instructshim to illustrate the notation by a further looking carefully at the work of art and determining the one; "if necessary apply queue of' advises him, if neces­ objects depicted: in the foreground we note three women sary, to apply the queue of certain other notations. gathered at a fountain. The first one, sitting, is assisted by The ICONCLASS notation does not meet the require­ the two others while bathing. The scene is being observed ment of ease of remembering". Since its codes consist of by a figure leaning down from a window of the palace mixed notations (letters and digits) one might assume further back. these to be more readily remembered than those of uni­ Now one or more keywords are taken from the descrip­ form structure. The codenumbers of ICONCLASS may tion. This step may be compared with the pre-iconogra­ be quite long, however. Furthermore, in ignorance of the phical description. The example at hand would furnish context, the symbols and digits used cannot be associati­ e.g. "bathing", "servant" or "maidservant" and "palace", vely linked up with the same subject matter. Because of Next, these keywords are looked up in the General Alpha­ the complexity of the system, constant consultation of the betical Index and the pertinent entries are examined. index will therefore remain necessary. For easier readabi­ Under "bathing" one finds, among otherthings, a referen­ lity it was proposed in the introduction to the first syste­ ce to: matic volume published (voI.2/3) to insert a blank space a. 71 P 41 2 Susanna bathing. usually in or near after every second digit and every letter or pair of letters. a fo untain and sometimes accompanied by In his foreword to DIAL (1968) van de Waal mentio­ 2 fe male servants ned the possibility of computerizingICONCLASS; as has b. 71 H71 David,jrom the roof (or balcony) of his now been done for several years in numerous projects (24, palace, sees Bathsheba bathing. 25). Divergences are noticeable with respect to the avai­ The search under "maidservant" produces, besides a lable software (26). Varying with the software employed, mention of 71 P 41 2 (see above), also 71 H 71 2 effects became visible in the format for the representation Bathsheba attended by servants. of the notations: special symbols (:, &.,$j)were introdu­ ced, empty spaces had to be done away with, as they were Under "palace", 71 H 71 (see above) is likewise men­ misinterpreted, occupied too much memory space or tioned. In the course of his search in the index the searcher negatively affected the sorting process. The assignment is offered several motifs, from which the two themes may of hierarchical notations clearly indicating super- and be filtered out. Without the observer of the scene in the subordination was found to be advantageous. Also, the picture the choice would be difficult and could not readily notations of this nature can be formally arranged and be made. With him, however, the painting can be identi­ combined. The inclusion of error control routines should fied as one of "Bathsheba bathing". In this way the user is - in view of the natural-language designation of classes ­ given access to the second layer of meaning of the also comprise a terminological check. Problems might painting, the iconographical description. arise, however, from the gaps within the hierarchical Consultation of the systematic part leads in the case at levels and from the keys. hand to iconogoraphical literature on the theme (circle with enclosed cross). It may also be useful to have 4. Use and Application of ICONCLASS recourse to more general literature: indicated on the next 4.1 ICONCLASS and the iconographical-iconological higher hierarchical level (here: 71 Ii 7 David and Baths­ method heba) in the bibliography. If the researcher is also looking The examples mentioned in chapter 3 have shown that for examples of comparable pictures on the subject, he ICONCLASS enables to define statements both, for pre­ can consult the ICONCLASS indexes available (if any) iconographical description and iconographical analysis. (27, 28) or art collections which use ICONCLASS for In developing the structure of the classification, no use classifying their stocks. was made of the layers of meaning of a work of art as an In this way the researcher can quite rapidly obtain basic ordering criterion. Therefore, neither the elements of the material for his further work and thus find support in his first, nor those of the second interpretational level are iconographical interpretation. The information obtained bound to a specific hierarchical level. This means that an through ICONCLASS furnishes him with the basis for interpretational element of the first level may be found on subsequent iconological evaluation. a high as well as on a low hierarchical level: This example shows that ICONCLASS can be used for

26 Knowl.Org. 20(l993)No.! AGrund: ICONOCLASS understanding a given work of art on the firstlevel: here, available in a first edition, so that all corrections and "bathing" furnished a reference to "Bathsheba". This additions (22) are only to be found only in the index so far, approach can therefore enable even laymen in the field of because they were introduced after the appearance of the art history to understand depicted motifs and themes. relevant system volumes. These corrections and additions include the notations 61 BB 1 and 61 BB 2 for the indexing 4.2 User's Point of View of women's portraits.More than 50% of the additions per­ ICONCLASS offers the user a comprehensive vocabu­ tain to allegorical pictures taken from Cesare Ripa' s book lary for describing iconographical subject matters. Fur­ "Iconologia" (Padua 1603) (44 C 30 'Politica';25 A 1420 thermore, with the aid of the notations, representations 'Oriente'). The next largest category consists of newly may be neutrally described without immediate classifica­ introduced concepts (25 K 16 1 oasis; 41 E 2 trompe tion only later given their place in iconographical sy­ i' oeui/). stems. The additions, which affect all classes, are most volu­ The lack of a handbook, however, makes it unnecessa­ minous in the main class 6 History. The systematic rily difficult for both the indexer and the userto start using volume 6 is limited to classes 61 A and 61 B exclusively. the classification. Indexers are therefore assumed to need The introduction of classes 61 C through 61 K in the 1988 a break-in period of six months (26). The necessary in­ addition meant an expansion of this division by more than structions for his work must be compiled from various 400% . Likewise newly admitted to the classification were parts of the classification. They include the "General In­ proper names of plants and animals, localities, societies troduction" (VoI.2/3), which should be supplemented by and historical events. Rivers were originally to be found the introductory chapters to the various volumes. Further in class 25 H landscapes. The indexing of the Rhine river aids are the partial surveys at the start of each systematic therefore reads formerly 25 H 21 3. In the supplement, volume as well as the overall index. It goes withoutsaying reference is now made instead to 61 D (... ) geographical that in this manner the indexer and the user will only with names of countries, regions, mountains, river; etc. Such a great difficultybecome familiar with the structure of the shift leads to a break in the indexation results to be classification. The importance of a comprehensive hand­ expected, unless the data already collected are subjected book will be illustrated inthe following by means of a few to a correction. For the user this means, in tum, that examples. without knowledge of these changes he can expect only an incomplete retrieval result. In order to avoid major In the doubling of letters for indicating antonyms, the discrepancies, a commission headed by Professor Leen­ pairs of opposites concerned may be differently defined. dert D. Couprie at Leyden University has now taken As there are no fixed rules for their formation, it would be charge of the upkeep of the classification system. It useful if the various existing possibilities were pointed accepts proposals on additions and changes and will then out to the user. For he cannot proceed from the assump­ decide on their incorporation. New admissions are to tion that in the case of persons doubling of letters indica­ remain few in number. since even now major deviations tes the classical pair of opposites (male/female). While in notation assignment can already be observed (26). male student (49 B 44) and female student (49 BB 44) are distinguished by doubling of letters, the complement to The aforedescribed situation imposes unreasonable 48 B 1 artist at work, hence 48 BB 1, does not - as one demands on users in their practical use ofthe system. The would expect - stand for "female artist at work" but for difficulties shown can, however, in part be avoided today "artist at work in the open air". A further variant is shown by using theaforementioned electronic edition ofICONC­ by male singer (48 C 75 51 1) and female singer (48 C 75 LASS. The user's handling of the complex classification 512). In division 4,in the case of indications of status, role system is thus facilitated. Since the publication of the or profession, distinctions between male and female per­ ICONCLASS Browser, a User's Guide has been available sons are only very rarely made. which, besides providing a guide for the use of the computer version, also offers a general introduction to Work with the classification is furthermore complica­ ICONCLASS: In addition the ICONCLASS Research & ted by various inconsistencies that have come about as a Development Group is preparing a book on the classifica­ result of changes and further developments in the course tion in which, besides van de Waal's theoretical reflec­ of the twelve year period of publication. tions, important aspects of the conversion of ICONC­ a. The provisional introduction to the system, the LASS to the computer version and general questions on a General Introduction (Vol. .2/3), to which attention is systematic iconography will be discussed. called in connection with the application of ICONC­ With a view to a necessary updating of ICONCLASS LASS, is partly outdated and here and there quite confu­ it deserves mention that the conversion to the computer sing, e.g. with respect to the keys, whose meanings as version will facilitate such updating both for the system described in Vo1.2/3 of 1974 had changed by the time the and for the bibliography. An expansion of the systematic classification system, vols.1 and 7 appeared in 1981. part by 500 concepts is scheduled for summer 1993. b. The latinized form of saints' names announced in Partly for financial reasons, no expansion of the biblio­ Vo1.2/3 was later changed into an English form in Vol. 1. graphy is foreseen in the immediate future. c. The printed edition of ICONCLASS is still only

Knowl.Org. 20(!993)No.! 27 A.Grund: ICONOCLASS 4.3 Application of ICONCLASS to New Themes and taken into account. Going through a given art collection Forms of Art in search of the theme looked for would therefore take a In the development of iCONCLASS a large numberof great deal of time. works of art were originally excluded, namely, abstract The possibilities opening up with ICONCLASS have works of art, sculptures and other plastic art as well as been hinted at repeatedly: works of non-European art. The fo llowing brief remarks -With ICONCLASS, iconographical access to artcollec­ are the author's reflections on the present form of the tions can be obtained and the available material can be classification of abstract art and her suggestions on the ordered iconographically; at the same time the prepara­ description of works of art not taken into account so far. tion of iconographical catalogues becomes possible. The classification of abstract works of art was already - Iconographical research thus becomes more effective; briefly referred to. The existing procedure strikes me as for the more material has been described, the greater will most unsatisfactory, since in the analysis of abstract art be the retrieval result for research. This might help solve factors play a part which cannot be determined by an iconographical problems and open up a path to new iconographical investigation, but rather necessitate a struc­ discoveries. tural and stylistic analysis. The notations assigned to the - In addition, computers and the electronic edition of the pictures come largely from classes 49 D 3 planimetry, classification make it possible to formulate questions geometry and 22 C 4 colors, pigments, paints. An enume­ which so far, partly because of the quantity of data and the ration and identification of geometric forms does nit say conventional nature of the retrieval method, have been anything yet about their meaning. Important information avoided. can at best be obtained from the title (Paul Klee, Exoti­ scher Klang (Exotic sound), DUsseldorf Art Collection - An important factor is the saving of time: the time spent (22 D sound). For a very large number of abstract works so far in looking for iconographical basic material is now of art, however, neither the theme represented nor the title available for subsequent work steps. Iconographical in­ can be indexed (e.g. Victor de Vasarely, Mindoro II, terpretations might now be improved. 1954-58, Paris, Musee National d'Art Moderne). The - Thanks to the ICONCLASS notations ("iconographic current classification method can therefore at most serve esperanto") (29), language problems can now be elimina­ as a temporary solution until a suitable classification for tcd and no longer obstruct the path to "multilingual abstract art will have been developed. This cannot be an research" (25). The notations are language independent. iconographical one, however. So far, explanations of the code numbers are available Inclusion ofsculptures and other plastic art is generally only in English, but might be translated into any other possible and is in fact already occasionally being realized language without changing the actual vocabulary (the by the Bildarchiv Foto Marburg. Rodin's "Iron Age" notations). could be indexed as follows: - Since ICONCLASS contains no syntax of its own, itcan 91 E 24 1 personiJication of the iron age; be used for each and every scholarly project. 'Eta del fe rro' (Ripa) With ICONCLASS, the art historian has an instrument 31 A 14 (+51) humanJigure of idol proportions, at his or her disposal which offers a chance for describing fo r ex. academic nude the vast international stores of art, and for exchanging and 31 A 25 31 hand bent towards the head supplementing the relevant data. The use of the classifi­ A classification of abstract objects presents similar cation in numerous countries shows steps in such a problems as were discussed in connection with abstract direction (24, 27, 28, 30, 31). Developments of the past paintings. few years show an increase in the use of ICONCLASS: On the basis ofiCONCLASS, which was conceived for Although the system has demonstrated its suitability for themes of occidental art, one or more variants might be handling large amounts of pictorial material, the possibi­ developed for art from other cultural circles. For building lities shown are still too little known in art-historical up a similar classification, divisions 7 through 9 might research, even though individual art historians point out possibly be replaced, but2, 3, and4 retained. A few works that lCONCLASS is one of the "most important achieve­ of art might be indexed already now with ICONCLASS. ments of the ' iconographical stage' in the scientific deve­ The painting 'Fuji in the evening glow' by the Japanese lopment of art history" (32). painter Hokusai might e.g. be classified by 25 H 11 mountains and 24 A 2 sunset. Notes * We regret very much that for reasons of space nnne of the richly suppliedfigures could be added. Anybody interested in 4.4 Perspectives for Iconographical Research lhesefigures (as well as a/so in rhe German original) may ask For iconographical research the present situation is for a loan copy a/ the manuscript. (The Editor) still highly unsatisfactory: when one addresses iconogra­ ** While the Gennan language uses the word 'Art Science' phical questions to an art collection one will generally (Kunstwissenschaft), the English language does not have the receive no answer or a highly incomplete one. In invento­ tenn 'art science' and 'art scientific' but uses 'scholarly study rying, iconographical data are only in the rarest of cases of art' and 'art historical'.

28 Knowl.Org. 20(!993)No.! A.Gnmd: ICONOCLASS 1 Founder of the "Kulturwissenschaftliche Bibliothek" (Cultu­ (20) Gamier, P.: Thesaurus Iconographique. Systemedescriptif ral Sciences Library),originally in Hamburg,knownsince 1921 des representations. Paris 1984. as the Warburg Institute, the firs t art-historical research institu­ (21) Editorial: ICONCLASS proj ects. In: Visual Resources te in Gennany. After the Nazis came to power in Gennany it was 7(1 990)No.I, p.VII-XIII moved to London. (22) Couprie, L.D., Straten, Rv.: Corrections of the ICONC­ 2 For a detailed review, cf. the contributionby Hans Brandhorst. LASS System. In: Visual Resources 5(1988)No.2,p.123-134 3 The journal "Visual Resources", appearing since 1980, pu­ (23) DIN 32 705: Klassifikationssysteme: Erstellung und blishes among other things aU importantquestions and innova­ Weiterentwicklung von Klassifiationssystemen. Ed.by Nonne­ tions in connection with ICONCLASS. nausschuB Klassifikation (NAK) imDIN. Deutsches Institut ftiT 4 The Marburger Bildarchiv (Marburg Picture Archive) avoids Normung e.V .. , Berlin/KOin 1987. this problem by indicating notations together with their corre­ (24) Sunderland,I., Gordon, C.: The Witt Computer Index. In: sponding class designations. Visual Resources 4(1987)No.2, p.141-151 (25) Heusinger, L.: Marburger Infonnations-Dokumentations­ References und Administrations-System (MIDAS). Handbuch. Ed.by BiJ­ (1) Kaemmerling, E. (Ed.): Bildende KWlst als Zeichensystem. darchiv Foto Marburg. Deutsches Dokumentationszentrum fUr Bd.l: lkonographie und Ikonologie. KOin 1979. Kunstgeschichte. Philipps-Universitat Marburg. Miinchen u.a. (2a) Panofsky, E.: Studies in Iconology. Humanistic Themes in 1989. the Art of the Renaissance. New York 1939. p.3-17 (26) Gordon, C.: Report on ICONCLASS Workshop. Nov.2-4, (2b) Panofsky, E.: Meaning in the Visual Arts. Garden City, 1987. In: Visual Resources 5(1988)No.3,p.197-258 N.Y. 1955. p.26-41. (German translation: Ikonographie und (27) Roberts, H.E.: Iconographic Index to Old Testament sub� lkonologie (1955). In: E.Panofsky: Sinn und Deutung in der jeets represented in photographs and slides of paintings in the Bildenden Kunst. KOin 1975. p.36-67 Visual Collections, Fine Arts Library. Harvard University .New (3) Woodruff, H.: The Index of the Christian Art. Preface by York 1987. Ch.R.Morey. Princeton 1942. Ann Arbor, MI 1981. Started by (28) Straten, Rv. (Ed.): ICONCLASS Indexes. Italian Prints. 4 C.R.Morey. Princeton 1970 ff. vols. Doomspijk 1987-1990. (4) Beilmann, M., Waal, H.v.d. In: Altmeistermodemer Kunst­ (29) Marchitelli-Focardi, A.-L.: The iconography of "God the geschichte. Ed.by H.Dilly. Berlin 1990. p.205-219 Father" in the Act of Blessing and the use oflCONCLASS. In: (5) Erffa, H.M.v.: Die systematische OrdnWlg des "Ikonogra­ Visual Resources 8( 1991 )p.143-154 phischen Index der niederlandischen Malerei". In: Kunstchro­ (30) Straten , R.v.:; Indexing Italian prints with ICONCLASS. nik 13(1960)p.243-247 In: Visual Resources 7(1991)No.l, p.I-21 (6) Richter Sherman, C.: ICONCLASS: A historical perspecti­ (31) Brandhorst, H., Huisstede, P.v.: Report on ICONCLASS ve. In: Visual Resources, 4(1987)No.3, p.237-246 Workshop. In: Visual Resources 8(1991)No.l, p.5-66 (7) Waal, H.v.d.:Iconclass: An Iconographic Classification (32) Bialostocki, 1.: Skizze einer Geschichte der beabsichtigten System. 17 vols. Compo and ed. by L.D.Couprie with E.Tholen, und der interpretierenden Ikonographie. In: Bildende KWlst als G.Vellekoop. Amsterdam 1973 ff. Zeichensystem. Ikonographie und Ikonologie. Bd.1. Ed.by (8) Couprie, L.D.: Iconclass. A device for the iconographical E.Kaemmerling. Kiiln 1979. p.15-63 analysis of art objects. In: Museum 30(1978)p.194-198 (9) Couprie, L.D.: Iconclass: an iconographic classification system. In: Art Library I. 8(1 983)No.3, p.32-49 (10) Pountain, D.: Browsing Art the Windows Ways. In:BYTE, April 1992. (11) Brandhorst, H., Huisstede, p.v.: ICONCLASS: Recent developments. In: Visual Resources 8(1992)No.3, p.367-382 (12) Straten, R.v.: Panofsky and ICONCLASS. In: ""tibus et Historiae 7(1986)No.J3, p.165-181 (13) Shatford, S.: Analyzing the subject of a picture - A theoretical approach. In: Catal. & Classif. Quart. 6(1986)No.3, p.39-62 (14) Coman, F.: L'histoire de l'art et }'infonnatique documen­ Continued from page 19 taire. 2 vols. Paris 1988. (9) Barash, M.: Giotto and the Language of Gesture. Cambrid­ (15)Markey. K.: Access to iconographical research collections. ge: Cambridge University Press 1987. p.79 In: Libr.Trends 37(1988)No.2, p.J54-174 (10) Haney, K. E.: The Winchester Psalter, an Iconographic (16) Index of Iewish Art: Iconographical Index of Hebrew Study. Leicester: Leicester University Press 1986. p.78. Illuminated Manuscripts. Ed.by R.Narkiss & G.Sed-Rajna. (11) Gaskell, I.: History of images. In: Burke, P. (Ed.): New Ierusalem 1976. Perspectives on Historical Writing. Cambridge: Polity Press (17) Walle,R.v.d.: Les archives photographiques de l'Institut, 1991. p.169 Wl inventaire du patrimoine artistique beIge. In: Bull.InSl.du Photograph. Artistique 12(1970)p.98-lll (18) Castoguay, D.: Approche sujeten iconographie Canadien­ Address: Hans Brandhorst. ICONCLASS Research & Develop­ ne a I' aide d 'un lexique de tennes controiees. In: Computerized ment Group; Department of Computers and Hwnanities. Utrecht Inventory Standards for Works of Art. Proc., Collection of University. Achterde Dom 22-24,NL-35 12IP Utrecht, Nether­ Papers. Ed.by R.Vezina. Montreal 1981. p.269-280 lands. Phone: (+31)30-536426. Fax: (+31)30-536000. E-mail: (19) Subject Term Guide. National Museum of American Art. [email protected] or Washington 1983. [email protected]

KnowJ.Org. 20(1993)No.l 29 A.Grund: ICONOCLASS Pat Molholt*, Toni Petersen 'Columbia Univ. Health Sciences, New York, NY

The Role of the ' Art and Architecture Thesaurus' in Communicating about Visual Art

Molholt, p " Petersen, T,: The role of the Art and Architecture The study of works of art has traditionally included Thesaurus in communicating about visual art. reproductions, copies, views, and details of the works as Knowl.Org. 20(1993)No.l, p.30-34. 4 refs. well as text about them. Always, though, the focus is on The paper addresses the ways in which computerization and a the work itself, regardless of whether the work or its thesaurus like the Art and Architecture Thesaurus (AAT) in­ surrogate is the basis of discussion. Surrogates may inclu­ fluence the organization, description, and understanding of the de incomplete details, portions of the original, views, visual arts . It discusses these issues from the point of view of the segments, enlargements, etc. and may take many physical AAT and considers how its structure and content serve as a forms, such as photographs, prints, slides, or digitized bridging mechanism between the many different manifesta­ images. Stressing the primacy of the art apart from its tions of the visual arts and the different types of organizations serving the viewers of art, whether as students, scholars , collec­ surrogate form does not diminish the importance of accu­ tions managers, or the enjoying public. This paper shows how racy in describing the surrogate itself. a knowledge base like the AA T helps this variety of users The field of the visual arts contains a wide variety and develop approaches to the visual arts and suggests that the large number of emerging databases of infonnation about special nature of dealing with image rather than text influences collections of works of art or their surrogates. This infor­ how the thesaurus is structured and applied. (Authors) mation occurs along a continuum of descriptive levels, each requiring special kinds of analysis and description. For example: 1. Communicating about Visual Art

When one speaks of the visual arts one is addressing - a slide with its physical characteristics of dimension and film those "communicative artifacts created according to aes­ type; thethic, conceptual or symbolic principles" (I, p.2S). - the slide as a depiction of a painting, with its own set of They areproduced with the purposeof transmittingsymbolic physical characteristics, such as the materials or technique or aesthetic ideas, concepts, and experience through a employed and the style of execution; wide range of visual media. The challenge is that these - the painting as a still life picture of a candle, a skull, butterflies, works communicate visually rather than through textual pomegranates and flowers. a mirror, a lute. some money and jewelry. and a book; language. There is, thereby, a special difficulty in provi­ - the bringing _together of these objects symbolizing a certain ding an intellectual path between the visual arts and the theme or concept. a way in which a culture symbolizes or study of them. Unlike text, and similar to the performing represents death and the vanities of the world; arts, images and other manifestations of the visual arts do - the naming of this painting type as a ·vanitas'. not provide verbal clues. They communicate through what is depicted, how it is depicted, and through attributes On the other hand, the viewers of visual art can have of their physical form. The process of organizing, descri­ many roles that focus on different purposes: bing, and understanding the visual arts all depend in good catalog the work to make it more accessible; part on successfully capturing these aspects in words. - a curator needs to - a registrar needs to record the vital data about the work for Traditionally the visual arts encompass a number of collections management reasons; fields including painting, sculpture, drawings, prints, - a scholar wants to study the work directly or use it in teaching; photographs, and even works of architecture. In the latter - a researcher wants to write a critical essay on it; part of the 20th century the distinctions between these - a librarian needs to catalog a book about it; media have blurred as some artists produce works of per­ - a slide curator needs to catalog a slide of it; formance, create video arts, communicate through altera­ - a viewer seeks to interpret it for his/her own enjoyment. tions to the natural langscape, and others combine several The understanding and enjoyment ofart is a fundamen­ elements or media in their art. Not only do these permu­ tal human activity that is closely tied to communication. tations and new means of expression challenge the vie­ The viewer needs to build a pathway between him/herself wer, they challenge the intellectual and mechanized/ and the art in order to facilitate communication and un­ computerized systems we normally bring to bear in dea­ derstanding. Both of these acts find expression in langua­ ling with the visual arts. ge. The use of language allows the viewer to communica-

30 Knowl.Org. 20(1993)No.l P.Molholtff.Petersen: The AAT in Communication te what he/she sees and feels about an image. Without 3. Structure and Scope of the AA T verbal/textual interpretation, the content of the image is A tool like the AAT provides the building blocks locked within itself - inaccessible to others and individua­ viewers need to constructthe pathways for communica­ lized by each viewer. tion and to better assure that what they are communica­ Communication about the visual arts occurs in many ting is consistent with what other people understand. ways and often has many components. It may consist of Proper use of a thesaurus helps to prevent communication building a database, preparing a lecture, planning an failure and facilitatesvariation in communication through exhibition, writing a book, thinking to oneself about the features like lead-in terms and synonyms, related terms, art. Each of these requires the construction of paths of and homograph disambiguation. With the current empha­ description,analysis, and understanding between the visual sis on internationalcommunication and sharing informa­ arts, the viewer/ scholar/ researcher/ cataloger and their tion in art databases, there is a further need to build mul­ publics. Although visual representations bear a primary tilingual term equivalents within a resource like the AAT. role in any attempt to communicate about art, the human It is by this means that we can begin to transcend language ability to transcribe concepts and ideas into language is barriers and bring the richness of mUltiple language also a critical aspect of communication. the pathways that description to an image. viewers build as part of their roles or for their own The thesaurus functions as a knowledge base. It is a understanding makes communication possible. A pa­ representation of a segment of the universe that was thway between the art and our understanding of it has constructed by assembling a selected set of component direction and coherence largely due to our choice of parts and by organizing those elements/ concepts/ words language in constructing the path. in a particular way. In that light a thesaurus has a special role in the environment of building pathways to organize, 2, Role of the Thesaurus describe, and understand the visual arts. The AA T is a Language is the bridge that allows us to make intellec­ communication tool with a particular view ofthe universe tual connections about art. Language is also needed to expressed through its facets and the organization of those retrieve effectively both electronically and physically facets (see Table 1 below). stored images and information about them. Technology Associated Concepts allows us to store massive numbers of images and related Physical Attributes information independent or apart from the usual assistan­ Styles and Periods ce provided by curators and librarians. The language that Agents is used to communicate information about the images can Activities also be the language used to retrieve and manipulate Materials them. It is critical, however, that we have a common base Objects of language without which communication, for whatever Table 1: The Seven Facets alth eArt andArchitecture Thesaurus purpose, will be hampered. The International Standardization Organization des­ The scope of the AAT covers terminology for art and cribes a thesaurus in two ways. archcitecture from antiquity to the present. Fields within art and architecture are defined as follows: In (enns of function, a thesaurus is a tenninological control device used in translating from the natural language of docu­ - Built Environment: built works and the human elaboration of ments, indexers, or users into a more constrained "system the natural environment; language" (documentation language, infonnation language), - Furnishings and Equipment: artifacts with a primarily utilita­ In tenns of structure, a thesasurus is a controlled and dynamic rian purpose, often embellished; vocabulary of semantically and generically related (enns which - Visual and Verbal Communication: communicative artifacts covers a specific domain of knowledge (2. p.l). created according to aesthetic, conceptual, or symbolic princi­ ples. In addition, a thesaurus is "the controlled vocabulary arranged in a known order and In the case ofa tool like the AAT, the organization (Le., structured so that equivalence, homographic, hierarchical, and that it is not just an alphabetic list Of terms) provides associative relationships among (enns are displayed clearly and pathways. It represents a view of the world, an aggregate identified by standardized relationbship indicators that are view of experts, but a view nonetheless. Through all the employed reciprocally" (3, p.l). stages of its construction, the AAT assembled internatio­ nal panels of scholars and experts to review each section The AAT, founded in 1980 and supported by the Getty of terminology. These panels were given the latitude to Art History Information Program since 1983, has as its structure the set of terminology with which they were goal to function as that subset of language relevant to art, dealing and to comment on how the resulting hierarchies specially structured at the atomic level, that is, at the level should be organized within their facets. While a particular of single concepts, providing a language system that viewer may not be entirely comfortable with the resultant allows the viewer to verbalize and thereby communicate view, in practice we have seen that user satisfaction with what the work is, or is about. the structureof the AAT has been high, an acknowledge-

Knowl.Org. 20(l993)No.1 31 P.Molholtff.Petersen: The AAT in Communication ment of the attention to detail which the scholarly review MA TERIALS FACET panels brought to their work and to the flexibility and *Materials expandability allowed by the AAT structure. OBJECTS FACET *Object Genres Although influenced by Ranganathan's work on the Built Environment classification of knowledge, the AAT's facets were iden­ *Seulements, Systems and Landscapes tified and organized especially to reflect how a work of art "'BuiltComplexes and Districts is described (4). Information on visual works requires the "'SingleBuilt Works and Open Spaces complex joining of many elements concerning their crea­ "'Building Divisions and Site Elements tion such as what they are made of, the period or style they *Built Works Components were made in, their process of fahrication, the role of Furnishings and Equipment creators, and various elements of design, as well as the "'Tools and Equipment content of what they depict. These elements are someti­ Measuring Devices "'Hardwareand Joints mes difficult to pin down, and different elements come to Containers the fore depending on the work itself and the purpose for Furnishings which it is being discussed or viewed. Costume The facets in the AAT are organized to proceed from Weapons and Ammunition the most abstract concepts through the style or period of Sound Devices the work, the role of creators, the processes and techni­ Recreational Artifacts ques used to fabricate works, the materials with which Transportation Artifacts they are made, to the names of objects themselves - the Visual and Verbal Communication Visual Works most concrete elements of description. Each facet con­ Exchange Media tains one or more hierarchies which are arrangements of *Infonnation Fonns terms in broader and narrower relationships. Hierarchies are subcategories of facets in that they in­ Table 2: Facet and Hjerachy List jn the AAT clude classes of terms that are mutually exclusive. For Facets are one of the elements in a thesaurus that aid example, in the Activities Facet there are four hierarchies: the viewer. Terms within the AAT are single concepts re­ Disciplines, Functions, Activities, and Processes and presenting the atomization of large and more complex Techniques. All of these contain action terms but each concepts needed to construct the verbal elements that describes a different form of activity. Over the course of provide information abouta visual work. Single terms are the decade since the faceted structure of the AAT was set, not tied to any particular conjoined set of concepts or it has been interesting to note that although new hierar­ terms. The viewer is free to choose those terms from chies were fashioned as areas were added or subdivided, whatever hierarchies and facets are needed in a specific no new facets were identified and the original structure case. He/she is aided in this task by other features of the has held upwell (see Table 2). This may suggest that there thesaurus such as hierarchical relationships, synonyms is a commonly agreed-upon way, for purposes of descrip­ and other variant spellings, the disambiguation of homo­ tion, to talk/think about visual art, a pathway if you will. graphs, and the marking of related terms which can The AAT vocabulary is organized into seven facets symbolize alternate hierarchical term placement or signal and 33 hierarchies, or subdivisions of the facets. They are a relationship among terms that appears in different listed below. Those preceded by an asterisk were publis­ hierarchies. hed in the 1990 edition; the complete set is scheduled for Using the AAT's faceted structure, the viewer can publication in January 1994. select those terms from different hierarchies needed to ASSOCIATED CONCEPTS FACET build a pathway to the concepts, the aesthetics, and the ...Associated Concepts content of a particular work of art. As we stated above, un­ PHYSICAL ATTRIBUTES FACET derstanding or describing a work is a complex process >I

32 Knowl.Org. 20(1993)No.1 P.Molholt,ff.Petersen: TheAAT in Communication 4. Computers, Communication, and Visual Art Classification, that is, the organizing of the works The proliferation of computerization in the visual arts themselves and information about them, has traditionally in the last decade has brought much attention to how com­ been the domain of subject experts and scholars who puters are used in this field. On a basic level they are a pad provide the world view for the documentation experts ­ and paper to capture and store the pathway - the critical the catalogers, collections managers, indexers who re­ essay, the catalogingrecord, the lecture. On a higher level cord the description of works of art in their purview. Such computers can be used to related multiple pathways organization results in a variety of tools: betweena viewer and an image simultaneously. Compu­ - computerized visitor interactive systems giving infor­ ters can hold in one toolwhat previously had been held in mation aboutamuseum 's collection to the visiting public; a number of separate resources -card catalog,dictiona­ - working catalogs of various kinds of collections ry, thesaurus, reference book - and can, thereby, make archives, libraries, museums, books, visual resources. them easily available for use. In addition to storing or holding the resources needed in the path-building activi­ Description takes place in the special environment of ty, computers can relate orintegrate these resources in the assembling the multitude of elements that make up the service of the viewer, making the tools work together so total comprehension of a work. The elements are chosen that the viewer is assisted in path bUilding. They can give from a controlled vocabulary like the AAT and in automa­ clues or suggestions for navigating through a database ted systems are input and displayed according to embed­ and can provide a framework for desciptions or paths. ded rules that guide the input process. In the case of description, as well as organization, the variation among For the computer to be effective as an information tool systems can be immense and can result in frustration for that can assist the viewer in accomplishing in one place viewers who need to move among them. The viewer's and at one time, what would have taken multiple opera­ needs are best served when, at a minimum, the various tions and separate tools and resources, the computer itself tools (databases, slide systems, reference books, cata­ needs a pathway - first to link the resources, or parts of logs) use the same subset of the language. resources, and second as the mechanism by which the viewer can navigate those resources. Programming com­ Understanding takes place when the communication puters to relate the language of the viewer to the language provided by the retrieval of information from a database of the art through pathways is a critical componentoftheir is validated by the comprehension of a work in a viewer's effective use. mind. The AAT is there to facilitate that comprehension by helping to prevent communication failure. The part­ Computers have a number of characteristics that faci­ nership of the computer and the AAT allows multiple litate this task and thus are of interest to those managing points of view to filter through the undergirding knowled­ visual arts resources: ge base of the thesaurus, interrelating those views with a - interactivity between traditionally separate richness possible through the navigation which the struc­ resources, ture of the AA T permits. Communication is thus opened - ability to build links between files and between fi les rather than restricted. and resources, - ability to perform several tasks simultaneously, A work of art may be approached with the language of - convenience with which one can perform tasks, the historian, the artist or craftsperson, the administrator, - ability to link by telecommunications routes or the dealer. The AATcontains the language both unique with other resources; and common to all of these, and others. It truly opens up - multiple ways to interact with resources and facilitates communication and understanding. This is (user interfaces). especially true with the AAT because of its richnees both in its incorporation of multiple points of view , and its size. All of these attributes are diminshed in their service to The first edition of the AAT contained 17,600 primary the viewer if inadequate attention is paid to the role of and 31,000 lead-in terms. Those numbers will rise to an language and its basic role in communication, between estimated 25,300 and 46,000 in the edition scheduled for humans, between humans and computers, and between publication in 1994. computer files and systems. The purpose of this paper has been to explicate how the 5. Conclusion use of computers and the AAT influence the organization, The act of communication is fundamental to organiza­ description, and understanding of the visual arts. tion, description, and understanding visual art. It involves Overarching these individual concerns are the basic te­ fitting language to a purpose. There are special challenges nets at the juncture of these two tools: the standardization in communicating about visual art because the understan­ of language accomplished by controlling the use of lan­ ding is locked within the form, content, method and style guage to a set of standardized terms; the accuracy in of the work. The viewer, who may play multiple roles of communication and retrieval that is achieved by compu­ scholar, cataloger, etc., must build pathways between ter support that is based on the same standardized langua­ him/herself and the art using language. The three ele­ ge. ments of organization, description, and understanding are distinct in their importance and in their methods or

Knowl.Org.20(!993)No.! 33 P.MolholtIT.Petersen: The AAT in Communication mechanics but lhey all involve communicalion in a criti­ Continued from page 7 cal way. On that basis they all benefit from the strength of (3) Art and Architecture Thesaurus: authqtiy reference tool a tool like the AAT which overlays an element of standar­ edition. New York: Oxford Univ.Press 1992. dization and communication enhancement on the verbal (4) Bailey, C.W.,IT.: Intelligent multimedia computer systems: emerging information resources in the network enviror:unent. description of the visual arts. Library Hi Tech 28(1990)No.l, p.29-41 The AA T is a communication tool. It represents a view (5) Bakewell, E., Beeman, W.O., Reese, C.M., Sclunitt, of the art and architecture universe that is structured and M.(Gen.Ed.): Object image inquiry: the art historian at work. stable although it is constantly added to and expanded to Santa Monica: The Getty Art History Infonnat. Program 1988. accommodate more aspects of that world and more ways (6) Bates, M" Wilde, D., Siegrifd, S.: An analysis of search of viewing that world. One purpose of the AAT is to terminology used by humanities scholars: the Getty Online ameliorate the long-standing fr ustration on the part of Searching Project Report Number 1. Library Quartly viewers trying to make their way among systems and 663(1993)No. l, p.I-39 finding the same object, image. etc., described by diffe­ (7) Bearman, D. (Ed.): Hypennedia and Interactivity in Mu­ seUlns: Proc. Int. Conf., Oct.14-16, 1991, Pittsburgh, PA. rent terms and set within different organizational sche­ Archival and Museum Infonnatics Technical Report 14(1991), mes. Unless there is a mechanism or bridge that can link (8) Borgman, c.L., Siegfried, S.L.: Getty's Synoname and its such variations, the viewer is hampered in understanding cousins. J.Amer.Soc.Inform.Sci. 43(1 992)No.7, p,458-476 the image and gaining access to information about the (9) Buckland, M.K.: Infonnation retrieval of more than text. image. J.Amer.Soc.Inform.Sci. 42(1991)No.8, p.586-588 The AAT provides a carefully selected set of building (lO)Busch, E.: Search and retrieval. Byte 17(1992)No.6,p.271- blocks the organization of which into hierarchies and 276 facets aids the viewer in building pathways. The AAT's (11) Glushko, RJ.: From prototype to production in hypenne­ dia projects. In: Bearman, D.(Ed.): Hypennedia and Interacti­ organization is hospitable to the addition of new hierar­ vity in Museums: Proc.lnt.Conf., Oct.l4-16, 1991, Pittsburgh, chies while the broadest term levels in the existing hier­ PA. Archival and Museum Infonnatics Techn.Report archies provide the hooks for the placement of single new 14(1991)p.289-297 terms or for incorporating groups of terms in a particular (12) Hoptman, G.H.: The virtual museum [typescript]. In: area. Barrett, E.(Ed.): Sociomedia: Multimedia, Hypennedia, and There are many different kinds of organizations in the the Social Construction of Knowledge. Cambridge, MA: MIT world of visual arts (museums, libraries, auction houses, Press 1992. artists, etc.). One rationale for the use of the AA T is to (131) Lancaster. F.W.: Vocabulary control for infonnation retrieval. 2nd ed. Arlington: Infonn.Resources Press 1986. facilitate communication among these organizations or (14) Pring, I. (Ed.): ITEM: Image Technology in European individuals in them. The task looming on the horiron for Museums and Art Galleries Database, Issue 4. Ipswich: Euro­ the AAT is to explicate the work of indexing analysis for pean Visual Arts Centre. 1992. the many AAT users by providing training in the applica­ (15) Roberts, A. (Ed.): Terminology for museums: Proc.lnt. tion ofthe vocabulary across the broad range of indexing conf. held in Cambridge, England, 21-24 Sept. 1988. Cambrid­ and cataloging organizations that need such a controlled ge: Musemn Documentation Association 1990. vocabulary. Adoption of a tool like the AAT requires that (16) Schwartz, G.: Le musee documentaire: Reflections on a it be understood and that rules for its application be database of works mentioned in art treatises and town descrip­ provided. This will occur in the next phase of the AAT' s tions before 1800. AICARC: Bull.Archives & Doc.Centers for development, following on the publication of the comple­ Modem and Contemporary Art 14/15 (l986-87)Nos.25-26, te edition in January 1994. p.56-60 (17) Svenonius, E.: Authority control: Whatand for whom. In: The goal of this project at its inception over a decade Muller, K.(Ed.): Authority Control Symposium. Occasional ago was to create a tool to facilitate communication Papers No.6. Tucson: Art Libraries Soc. of North America among the many viewers of visual and other art and 1987. p.l-8 architecture. What we now realize is that communication (18) Tsichritzis. D., Gibbs, S.: Virtual museums and virtual was the penultimate goal; facilitating understanding was realities. In: Bearman, D.(Ed.): Hypennedia & Interactivity in the ultimate goal. Museums: Proc.Int.Conf.Octl4-16, 1991, Pittsburgh, PA. Archival & Museum Informatics Technical Report 14(1991)p.17-25 References (19) Visser, F.E.H., Herner, J.: The European Museums Net­ work: a multimedia application pilot-project. Computers and (1) Petersen, T. (Comp.): Art and Architecture Thesaurus. New History of Art 3(l992)No.l, p.65-70 York: Oxford University Press 1990. the (20) Weissman, R.F.E.: Archives and the new infonnation (2) InternationalStandardization Organization: Documentation architecture of the late 1990's [typescript]. Unpublished paper - Guidelines for the Establishment and Development of Mono­ delivered at the 56thAnnual Meeting of theSoc.of Arner.Archivists, lingual Thesauri. Geneva, CH, 1974. = ISO 2788 Montreal Canada, Sept.l4, 1992. (3) National Infonnation Standards Organization: Proposed (21) Wright, H.: SGML frees infonnation. Byte 17(1992)No.6, AmericanNational Standard. Construction, Fonnat, and Mana­ p.279-286 gementofMonolingual Thesauri. New York,NY, 1992. = NISO Z39.19-199X James M.Bower, Getty Art History Infonnation Program, 401 (4) Ranganathan, S.R.: Colon Classification. Madras: Madras Wilshire Blvd., Suite 400. Santa Monica, CA 90402, USA Libr.Assoc. 1933.

34 Knowl.Org. 20(l993)No. ! P.Molholtff.Petersen: The AAT in Communication Gerhard Jan Nauta University of Leiden, Netherlands

HYPERICONICS: Hypertext and the Social Construction of Information about the History of Artistic Notions

Nauta, OJ.: HYPERICONICS: Hypertext and the social of the exchange of thoughts amongst art historians (which construction of information about the history ofartistic Oskar Batschmann terms a kunstgeschichtliche Argu­ notions. mentationsgemeinschaft) (4). We shall wish to consider Knowl.Org. 20(1993)No.l, p.35-46, 24 refs. these two issues together in terms of both education and Some 25 years ago the Leiden art historian Van de WaaI, scholarship. By nature the hypertext concept is very inventor of ICONCLASS. developed an 'icon knowledge sy­ suitable for educational purposes and itis in an academic stem' called Beeldleer. After a brief review of this system the educational context that we have initiated our first pilot author does borrow some central ideas of Beeldleer to discuss project. We are also interested in the formation of ideas a method of studying historically the elementary means of concerning the means of artistic expression among art artistic expression with the use of hypertext concepts. The potential of a social construction of infonnation in this field is historians of the scholarly community. We shall suggest being emphasized. Finally the design of a pilot study in an that the boundary between education and scholarship educational context will be discussed. (Author) could fade in the era of hypertext systems. For the sake of argument we shall claim that nowadays the use of computers in the history of art is rather success­ ful where essentially images were (once) used to make Prologue O. words come true. A system like ICONCLASS, for exam­ In the past few years an immoderate enthusiasm for a ple, could in principle be mapped out largely withoUl the new method of approach in the exchange of information observation of works of art. Problems arise, on the other has become detectable in circles of information scientists, hand, where words need to be used to make the expressi­ amethod of approach which is made practicable by means ve/qualities of images come true; that is exactly the of the technology of hypertext or hypermedia systems. opposite. The expressive formal qualities of images are in The appearance of this model of computerization "promi­ a very real way problematic for a culture which has been ses (or threatens) to produce effects on our culture [... J just dominated by words for so many centuries (see for exam­ as radical as those produced by Gutenberg's movable ple (5)). type" (I). Just as the 'Ars Memoriae' were once develo­ Some experiments with processing and analyzing digi­ ped to support the individual memory of orators in anti­ tized images in art history have been performed on a small quity, in order that they might proclaim their speeches on scale (see for example (6-8» '. In general, however, these classical platforms as vividly as possible so a part of (2), experiments have had few preoccupations with textual the present software market consists of various hypertext sources, commentaries,scholarly interpretations and the implementations, which fa cilitate the building of an like: i.e., computer-assisted research on the images of art immediately available 'collective memory'. The model history has had little to do with computer-assisted re­ of knowledge representation that is being adhered to here scarch on textual sources related to the history of art, has been described, amongst others, by Barrett and Bruf­ fee. It is the model of a 'social construction of meaning / In the present article we shall concentrate on matters of information' (3). However we explicitly do not intend to form, on the visual qualities of works of art. A computer express ourselves about the question of whether the application which is meant to provide a serious contribu­ concept of hypertext might be a good metaphor for tion in this field should ultimately be able to deal with general memory processes in the human brain. both ordered commentaries in textual fo rm, as with arran­ gements of visual images that have been accomplished In this article the hypertext concept is used to indicate withoUl the use of (ordered) texts (in any arrangement of the possibilities of a formalized method of describing texts the historical dimension is prominent; in the arran­ concernsrelevant to the work of art as a visual phenome­ gement of images as images the historical dimension is non (that is the 'means of artistic expression', or, in other absent and only at a second glance does it seems to play words, the 'pictorial properties '). Our concerns will thus a philosophical role). Since in the end both approaches be with how artists represent, symbolize or express in need and complement each other, we shall search for a their work rather than with what they represent, symboli­ method that will enable the integration of both points of ze or express. We shall concentrate on two matters: the view. problem of the means of expression in itself and the nature

Know1.0rg. 20(1993)No.l 35 GJ.Nauta: HYPERICONICS To begin with, we will examine a project dating from gesturality in technique, no one has said that it must stop the sixties, in which many of the above designated bipar­ there and that it is not possible to study historically, like tite problems are recognizable. It has never been publis­ so many iconologi(;, line, chiaroscuro, tone, penstrokes, hed and for that re ason is practically unknown: Beeldleer and so forth" (15). An example of such historical discour­ ('Icon Knowledge System ') of the late Henri van de Waal, ses can be found in the article about Chance Images by professor of art history at Leiden University and inventor Horst W. Janson in the Dictionary of the History of Ideas of iCONCLASS. Van de Waal'sBeeldleer functions as a (16). point of departure. Subsequently we shall deal briefly When discussing the history of a means of expression with the issue of hypertext in general, after which the in art, obviously one must consider the illustrations of concept of 'hypericonics' will be discussed. This term works of art, conceptions of artists, art theorists, -histo­ signifies the application of hypertext-concepts within our rians, -philosophers and -critics, comments from users of notion of the pictorial properties of a work of art (that the system, descriptions of the works of art and also, which Max Imdahl in German language has labelled possibly, mechanically established resemblances between lkonik, the ' doctrine of the pictorial' (13» . works of art. One of the undertakings in the past in which The practical elaboration of our subject-matter will means of expression were extensively pursued is Van de consist of two parts. Starting with the assumption that in Waal's Beeldleer'. an educational environment thebigger world of an Argu­ menlalionsgemeinschaft of art historians may be simula­ 1.2 Van de Waal's 'Reeldleer' ted, we will give an account of a tangible 'hypericonic 1.2.1 The constituent parts educational system', in which the presence of textual The classification scheme ofBeeldleer, which was de­ arguments for the relationships between artistic notions is veloped by the Leiden professor Henri van de Waal until typical. The important problem of the criteria for selec­ just before his death in 1972, consists ofmore than a thirty tion - what to record and what not? - can up to this point pages'. It is an ingenious system, in which very divergent be passed-by ("the master disposes"). The review of this aspects of the possible contacts with 'art' have been hypericonic system is as much as possible kept indepen­ arranged with an hierarchical appearance, while referring dent of the supply of hypertext systems on the present-day to one another in an (art historically) significant way. market. Finally our thoughts on hypericonics will further One will come across such notions as Exhibition prac­ be elaborated in what we have labelled a 'hypericonic tice, Chiaroscuro, Symmetry, Psychology of the maker ... research system '. In this article we will not undertake that and the like. This central part of Beeldleer is essentially a mission in practice. We will only roughly discuss what container, an outline of abstract connections between might eventually supplement or replace the textual argu­ ideas. Every idea is supplied with a notation, in which the ments that support relationships in our more primitive hierarchical position of the item within a greater context hypericonic educational system, and in what way a tru­ is laid down. The summary is furthermore provided with sted set of editors might assess the contributions of an index, containing, in the latest version, the 600 terms authors on the history of artistic notions. (hereafter callcd items) which can provide access to the If there will ever be a hypericonic docuverse or a filled classification. in System of Universal Media Searching in the sense of In addition to this abstract frame, Van de Waal's inhe­ Kim Veltman (14), is open to speculation, but certainly ritance also contains rather extensive collections of con­ the time is ripe for hypertext beeldleren for personal or tents. Van de Waal himself, his fellow workers, and local use. Therefore in the Epiloque we shall focus on the presumably his students too, were involved in the con­ issue of the desirability of the developments that have struction of the entire work. This body of material is partly been described. public and partly private. It was neglected for more than twenty years. The material consists of texts on standardi­ Theoretical Argumentation 1. zed notecards or in folders filled with diverse drafts and The art historical interest 1.1 cuttings. Furthermore there are images and a collection of In a concrete work of art the artist has always used, slides which were meant to be used in educational practi­ more or less consciously, whether successful or not, a ce. A Beeldleer notation has been attached to each sepa­ diversity of means of expression. The work of art may be rate part of the Conlents. conceived as a more or less successful 'weighing' of A global analysis of the cards reveals that the vast ma­ means of expression. Just as histories of art may be jority of data consists of references to literature, in parti­ written, one may also write a history of the means of cular to articles. Often local registration numbers have expression accepted in art. Ideally a review of ideas, been included. Comparable to this are the references to together with the use of (certain) means of expression, visual works of art and, to a lesser extent, literary texts will be included in such a history. Twenty years ago, (sometimes literally quoted) or pieces of music. Many of Giulio Carlo Argan contemplated on this as follows: "If it the references are provided with a short explanation. On is possible to do iconological history of perspective, these cards one may also come across abstracts, pronoun­ proportions, anatomy, representational conventions, cements by artists and other full length quotations, etymo­ symbolic references of color, and even rituality and logical and thesaurus-like annotations (related terms for

36 Knowl.Org. 20(!993)No. ! a.lN.ut.: HYPERICONICS Figure 1. A fragment of the original Beeldleer-classification

hierarchical arrangement related terms

4 RUIMTE [ ...] 46 Beweging 46.1 Tijd bij icon geen tijdscategorieen �3 .1 46.2 Tijd - ruimte 46.3 Elementen van beweging 46.31 Handeling continuerende uitbeelding 45 .1 invl . v. momen topname 46.44 46.31.1 Drama tische theorieen ader - literatuur 43 .9 46.31.2 Moment als onderdeel van handeling ort ogenblik, tijd v. waarn . 22 .61 gebaar niet - moment 56.21 .1 46.31.3 Reeks van momenten (strip-vorm) con - literatuur 16.1 icon - film 16.4 reeks van meer dan 2 bijeenbeh . kunstw . 37.31 bewegende be elden 46.7 46.32 Elementen van compositie likrichting 22 .2 richting in compositie 33.5 46.32.1 verticaal 46.32 .2 Diagonaal 46.33 Elementen van ordonnantie 46.33 .1 Diagonale opstelling 46.4 Suggestie van beweging 46.41 Mens in beweging 46.42 Dier in beweging 46.43 Voorwerpen in beweging 46.44 Invl . van foto (momentopname) op uitb . v. beweging con - film 16.4 toto als tijdloupe 22 .61.1 46.5 Thema 's van bewegingsuitbeelding 46.6 Ontwikkeling van ui tbeelding van beweging eprod . v. kunstw. in film 11 .86 icon - film 16.4 reeks v. momenten (strip-vorm) 46 .31 .3 46.7 Bewegende beelden 46 .71 Diverse apparaten (alf .) 46.8 Bewegende kunstwerken 46.81 2-dimensionele kunstwerken 46.82 3-dimensionele kunstwerken

KnowI.Org. 20(1993)No.l 37 G.J.NaUla: HYPERICONICS example), 'double' references (where the card serves as a entire system might be conceived of as the crystallization connection) and references to other notations in Beeld­ of a vision of the connection between (visual) art histori­ leer. A striking amount of care has been bestowed upon cal matters. The system is opaque because the nature of the mention of source materials. connections between aspects is not expressed. The con­ nections are present implicitly, not explicitly. According 1.2.2 How has the Beeldleer been divided? to J.L. Locher. one of Van de Waal's students, the The Beeldleer system has 8 main categories: l.Oeneral Beeldleer system primarily served as a pedagogical devi­ methodology; 2.Vision; 3.Form (matler and structure); ce4• This may explain the lack of argumentation - why 4.Space; 5.Semantics; 6.Functions of the icon; 7.Appre­ exactly this type of systematic division? A connection ciation; and 8.Theory of Style. For those who wish to take between things or affairs was presented to students to up a specific art historical problem this card system may stimulate their reflection. Locher also emphasizes the provide a notion of that problem within the total field of changeability of Van de Waal's connections. Bee/dleer art history. If one decides, for example, to write some­ came about in an educational context and it carries the thing about the action (handeling) in Manet's works of traces of this context. Suggestions which arose from art, one will pass through ... exchanges of views with students were worked into the system. The condition in which the system was encounte­ 4 SPACE; red after Van de Waal's death is not 'finished'. It is 46 Movement; doubtful whether a system such as this one can or should 46.3 Elements of movement; ever be 'finished'; insightschange, connections become clearer or become blurred, new connections need atten­ to finally arrive at... tion etc. Lack of transparancy is really inevitable. 46.31 Aclion. Bee/dleer may therefore bc taken to be the material reflection of a guided tour by a good guide, a tour past The system then shows at a single glance that it may be works of art and conceptions about works of art, a tour worth while also to take notice of... during which the guide points out the striking facets of the

46.3J.J Theories of drama; works and also the similarities and differences between 46.31.2 The momenlarily as a part of action; works of art or the interpretations of these works. When 46.31.3 Momenls in a series. the works are in museums, these museums are visited; insofar as the interpretationshave been recorded in books, These are possibly inferior aspects of an action. The the books are pulled from the endless bookcases of system, however, also makes evident that there are certain libraries with stone walls of acceptable fo rm. Bee/dleer art historical apects which may be directly related to the pilots those interested, in short, past many works and handeling. countless texts, which would otherwise most likely have been hidden from individual thought. Van de Waal's 45.1 cOluinuous narrative; system is really a reflection in miniature - and on paper! 46.44 influence a/ photographic snapshots; 43.9 fr ame .... literature; - of the traditional art historical practice. Van de Waal 22.61 short moments, Ihe duration of perception; should mainly be credited for showing his students that 56.21.1 gestures as a non-momenJarily act; and how such a reflection is possible. Like Batschmann's 16.1 icon .... literature; Bezugssystem der Auslegung this system may not only

16.4 icon � motion pictures; stimulate the "reflection on ordered arrangements", it 37.31 series of more than 2 works of art may also serve as a "mnemotechnic device" (4, p.156). In belonging together; principle the system is very suitable for educational 46.7 moving images. practice as well as for research activities. There are, in other words, narrower terms and related Some limitations of the concept terms.But there are broader terms and adjacent terms too, 1.2.4 which opens up the possibility for a particular researcher, Where Van de Waal's Bee/dleer may be considered as to come across 46.44 The influence of photographic a miniature reflection of the traditional art historical prac­ snapshots, which might eventually influence commenta­ tice, one also encounters in it the limitations thereof. To ries on Manel's paintings and drawings of the Races at become aware of this one only has to concentrate on the Longchamp. See elements and arrangement of the system. To begin with, the employed division is centrally coor­ 1.2-3 The possibilities of the concept dinated. There is talk of a division of items, in which, in The whole of Beeldleer is ingenious and opaque at the principle, only one place is intended for each item. This same time. Ingenious is the way in which multiple con­ docs result in a system with a very subjective character. nections exist between the previously mentioned aspects. Van de Waal's division is exchangeable for many others After some initial browsing through the system one may and it is as good as inconceivable that a similar organiza­ realize how many mature (art historical) aspects Van de tion could be created anywhere else in the world. This Waal has been able to incorporate in its development. The objection makes itself more felt by seeing the different

38 Knowl.Org. 20(1993)No.l OJ.Nauta: HYPERICONICS versions of Van de Waal's classifying frame: in between 1.3 Hypertext the lot of them the variations are limited. Within Van de The architecture of the hypertext systems may be con­ Waal's arrangement, on the other hand, we see a prolife­ trasted with the essentially linear character of traditional ration of organizational principles. All this is, of course, script. A hypertext has an informational structure which is connected to the ambitious intention of the system.Beeld­ spatially modelled in the shape of a web or network, leer attempts to capture the diversity of the art historical connected by nodes and links, by which the computer is work (also in the past): the system appears to be intended used as regulator and keeper ofrecords of the informatio­ as a blueprint for a general iconology (in Dutch literally: nal traffic. Characteristic is the freedom the user of such 'beeldleer') and such a set-up must lead to a lack of information systems possesses to navigate through the balance. Within the same frame one comes across refe­ representative web on his own discretion. If connective rences to the forms of pictures, psychological processes, structures exist between several meerdere nodes these are reproductive techniques, physical laws, terminological essentially optional. One may choose to follow a strictly issues, art trade, museum management etc. One of the guided tour, but just as well one could make the path consequences is that by no means all of the Beeldleer through the informational space dependent on personal terms can be joined to illustrations. And if a connection motives: a research question, the noncommittal interest between item and illustration is possible, then itis instruc­ for some phenomenon; perhaps one would prefer to be led tive in one case (43.11 - 'abrupt interruption'), and just by coincidence. Because present-day computers are very illustrative in another (11.66 - 'teaching art history'). In useful for storing texts, images and the like, the scholar in short, a heterogeneous collection of items is represented his studio will have at his immediate disposal a multiple in Beeldleer according to a quasi-homogeneous principle of the information he would have been able to attain by and although Van de Waal adjusted its systematics count­ means of traditional devices. less times, this way of reflecting reality is essentially One of the most eye-catching effects of working with static. Barrett formulated his objections against such a information in hypertext form is therefore the changing procedure in the following terms: "Any system fo unded role of reader and writer. The reader obtains authority upon a particular conception of mind will be partially over matters which in the technology of the book belon­ constrained by the limitations of that initial conception. ged to the writer: he may not only choose his own story The least effective application of computing technology line, but can also add material himself. The authorship of in the development of information systems is the sort that a true hypertext corpus becomes problematic by conse­ results in the production of static knowledge representa­ quence. Hypertext corpora therefore sometimes are cal­ tion systems, rather than adequate tools for the construc­ led 'group memories' or 'shared information spaces'. tion of meaning and knowledge." (3, p.xII). (Of course There is not just one author'. we should not forget that Van de Waal developed his system in a period when information technology had not When, in future discussions we speak of the hypertext progressed far enough to facilitate realisation of all the concept as a support of a doctrine of visual devices, which potentials of Beeldleer.) might be termed 'iconics', we shall use the term hyperi­ conics6, In the approach which we sketch below we strive for a 'Beeldleer in electronic form' where everything turns on 1.4.1 The global shape of a hypericonic system a more limited set of items in a more extensive set of arrangements. In the original Beeldleer attention is very What then are the topics of a discussion in our hyperi­ explicitly paid to matters concerning the fo rm, the con­ conic approach? To begin with, these.are illustrations and tents as well as the fu nction of the works of art. We place texts. The illustrations are directly or indirectly the sub­ the emphasis upon the visual aspects of the works and in ject of the texts. The texts are, however, never texts about particular on the popularity and nature of the use of visual entire illustrations. The texts are always texts about devices in the course of history. In contrast with Van de certain aspects of the illustrations. We shall restrict our­ Waal's approach we shall not seek for more or less selves, as mentioned above, to the visual aspects. Illustra­ permanent connections between elementary means of tions, aspects of illustrations and texts about aspects of il­ expression. The processing power of computers may be lustrations are here the three principal entities. In hyper­ used for immediate regrouping of items. These items are, text form it is eventually not important how these entities just as points, placed in an imaginary space, after which, are scattered in space. To comprehend this concept better in principle countless alternative connective structures one might imagine three layers: the bottom layer contains (among which Van de Waal's) can be placed upon these all the images and the top layer contains all texts. The points. Each alternative may in principle be administered. middle layer is a container of the interpretation of aspects; Each administered alternative may, in a trice, take care of this might be called the hypericonic vocabulary. The the desired connections. None of the thus originated middle layer works as a sluice, a sieve, and by means of connections needs to be soul-saving. This is the moment this middle layer the user may put others in a position to to roughly discuss the architecture of the hypertext sy­ give him a guided tour. So amongst other possibilities, stems. one is able to administer the hierarchical division of Van de Waal 's Beeldleer as opposed to this midle layer. The middle layer is the place where all systematical connec-

KnowI.Org. 20(l993)No.! 39 OJ.Nauta: HYPERICONICS tions / structures are fitted in. The objects in thedifferent (or hypermedia) sys'cm. Of course there is a close cohe­ layers can be localized in time and space. This applies rence bctween the noJes and links in a hypertext system. especially to objects in the top and bottom layer. Tempo­ If such a system is not to become an unorganized and ral and spatial conditions may remain global. We shall therefore little informative mound of rice-pudding, in work with temporal dimensions in particular. Finally which the consumer will quickly choke, then the compi­ someprimary information aboutthe whereabouts of images lers will have to make certain provisions. They may as well as texts - thus museums, books, magazines etc. - decide, for example, to only include certain types of nodes are of importance in this context. For the time being in the system. elaborate conventional documentation and registration If we keep the tripartite scheme of image_­ has been consciously avoided. _aspect_of _image_-_text in mind, together with the The user of a hypericonic system may clear his way dimensions of time and space, we may for the time being through varied information. Which navigational possibi­ globally circumscribe which types ofnodes a hypericonic lities should therefore be at his disposal? Naturally the system should be composed of in our view. In the lowest user must be able to limit himself to the various items as layer of our scheme we do discern the l/Iustrations toge­ they were typical in a particular historical period or area: ther with Catalogue entries belonging to these illustra­ What is known about chiaroscuro in the second half ofthe tions. There is no need for further comment here. The sixteenth century? And for that time period what might be central node in the middle layer is Item, with asa satellite­ said about repoussoir-technique, the occurrence of opti­ nodeltem in period. In the top layer we should distinguish cal illusions, the direction of looks or ordinance (in the art Citations fro m Annotations'. Independent from these, in of Caravaggio)? Apart from this it should be possible to the upper layer, is the node-type Publication which might trace the popularity of one specific item through time or be called a 'switch' from the new towards the old informa­ in different areas: How did chiaroscuro come into artistic tion technology (of the book). All types of nodes or 'entity practice? In which period did this expressive device types' have specific attributes. Partly on the basis of the become neglected? Could interesting nineteenth century values of these attributes may links be applied to couples examples of the use of chiaroscuro be mentioned? Very or groups of nodes, viz. the type of connections which important, of course, are the obvious cohesions between could also be fairly simply provided in conventional items: Is there support for the supposition that the chiar;)s­ databases. curo may have been used to create the impression of a short moment, that is, like a snapshot of the imaginary 1.4.3 Links: What types of connections? world? Could the concept of chairoscuro be a good A link is the bridge between two nodes. One has to starting-point for discussions on the relationship between distinguish a few levels here. Firstly there is .a sort of the arts of painting and music? (Somewhere Van de Waal infrastructure, which consists roughly of all existent and did compare Rembrandt's chiaroscuro to the counterpoint possible links. On top of this basic structure, some more in Bach's music.) or less well described substructures may be placed (se­ Apart from these obvious trailsthrough data, a hyperi­ cond level). By using these substructures one may organi­ conic system should be programmed to deal with que­ ze so called guided tours (third level), whereas eventually stions such as: What was Rembrandt's view regarding the user himself will decide which specific track he will chiaroscuro? Are Rembrandt's views about other expres­ fo llow. sive devices known? Which authors (artists, art theorists, The user who departs from a certain node will general­ art history writers and so on) have written about chiaros­ ly need an idea of the place in which he or she. will end up curo and what else did they write about? How did seven­ within the information system. In this context Landow teenth century authors write about chiaroscuro? (For all speaks of a rhetoric of departure and a rhetoric of arrival questions the principle of course applies that unentered (18). Just as nodes may have features or attributes so links information does notcome out of the system.) The answer might be typified. The compilers of a hypertext system to these and similar questions ideally consists of a 'hyper­ will have to put a lot of their ingenuity into the invention tex t essay', an illuminatory, hermeneutic series of multi­ of a typology of possible connections (19). This mission ple passages of text and illustrations, put together by the touches the root of every scholarly investigation. Here we reader. It is crucial, especially in a hypertext corpus, that will mainly look at a simple but fundamental type of users must be able to comment on that which they have connection, namely the connection b�t�een two nodes, encountered. examined as if it were an isolated case. In a later publica­ tion, currently in prepanition, a more extensive typology Nodes: What types of text and images? 1.4.2 of links will be treated. A node is a 'chunk of information', a quantity of We have seen that in Van de Waal's Bee/dleey the coherent data, which at the same time serves as a point of nature of connections between aspects - with or without departure and a point ofarrival in a network (web) of other premeditation - is not pronounced. This might stimulate connected points of information (17, p.1 05-6). Pieces of the thought process of the user; but it may also lead to texts, pictures or parts of pictures, but also graphs, sounds, irritative disinterestedness. Yet in the contents arguments musical fragments etc. may serve as nodes in a hypertext

40 Knowl.Org. 20(!993)No.! OJ.Nauta: HYPERICONICS for connections may be found. A nice example of this is mation spaces at universities and certain larger compa­ a card with the following note: nies. [ ...] I would certainly expect to see the growth of shared information spaces in future hypertext systems. "Chiaroscuro is a means to strengthen the idea of a There are several social problems inherent in such shared snapshot; rather than expressing smooth timelessness it spaces, however" (17, p.188). Next Nielsen pictures the emphasizes the sense of a short moment." A. Wlissen­ foreseeable perversion of huge shared information spaces bergh, discussing Rembrandts painting of Saskia [ ...J'. as a consequence of the addition of rubbish by malicious or blockheaded participants. This perversion already makes In this context we shall interpret this passage as an one worry about the quality of individual nodes, not to argument for the linking of the items chiaroscuro (clair mention the quality of the administered trails and structu­ obscure in Dutch) and the sense of a short moment res. (toegespitst moment) in a specific painting. Both terms occur in the original Beeldleer and it is conceivable - Crucial to the realization of our hypericonic system is although it is difficult to make it plausible here - that Van thus the question ofwhat information should or should not de Waal used such arguments for the introduction of be assimilated in the eventual corpus. This is really the broader terms, narrower terms and related terms in his ancient problem of caHonisation. Theory and practice of system. Taking the above mentioned assumption as a the invention of a hypertextBeeldleer emphatically unite point of departure in a hyper-Beeldleer, one might easily here. consider whether other illustrations to which the term The problem of canonisation is essential for every aca­ clair obscure was once ascribed might just as well have demic discipline, but especially for scholarship in art. been used to create the impression of a short moment. With respect to literature Landow discusses the problem In the quotation above one member of an art historical in detail'. Landow states - be it with caution - that the community indicates a connection. It is a text about the arrival of large hypertext-corpora will lead to levelling; relationship between means of expression. The promise the indisputability of traditional literary canons - inasfar of hypericonic systems is that other members of the art as there was talk of this at all - will eventually disappear historicalArgumentationsgemeinschaft are provided with (I, p.149-160). an instrument to criticize, deny, or sanction this connec­ We must now recognize that the canonical is in various tion. The users of a hyper-Beeldleer may come up with ways problematic for a hyperbeeldleer. Besides the clas' their own comments, but they can quote others just as sical problem of the 'canon of masterpieces', there is also well. Just as a modem user may challenge the opinions of the question of a 'canon of texts about visual devices' his colleagues in the past, so the quoted voices from (theoretiCal and practical quotations, observations, state­ bygone ages could take up the deposited findings of a ments; historical or modern) and - most important during modem colleague. "To create a document or a link in the building of a hyperbeeldleer - a 'canon of items' , thus hypertext is to collaborate with all those who have used it of more or less separate visual devices which deserve previously and will use it in the future.[ ... ] by permitting attention. Finally there is the question of which cohesions individual documents to contribute to this electronically of nodes must be administered (= canonized). related overarching structure, hypertext also makes each In theory it is fa irly easy to describe objective procedu' contribution a matter of versioning. In so doing, it provi­ res in these matters. Systems might be developed in des a model of scholarly work in the humanities that better which, by means of delicate text and image-analysis records what actually takes place in such disciplines than techniques, the weight of the most frequently occurring does traditional book technology" (I, p.144). visual aspects and the connections between them might be defined. In theory, the contents of complete libraries 1.4.4 Canonisation and the editorial council might be scanned and tackled by statistical techniques The abandoning of the idea that one has to search for after conversion by means of OCR. The situation in centrally devised structures for the effective manipula­ practice, however, induces a more prosaic approach. The tion of art historical information, structures devised by acquistion of data will for the time being be dependent one person or only a few at best - "Van de Waal devises upon the good will of specialists, preferably as many as and fills in Beeldleer" - is perhaps the most important possible. To counteract the perversion of the collected alteration as opposed to the traditional course of affai rs. material some authors have' proposed the institution'of The coming of hypertext-corpora creates the possibility 'edilorial co'unCiJs'IO, that socially constructed art historical information, will This idea of an editorial council we shan adopt, for as gain permanent presence. This trend is already becoming ' the arrival of hypertext corpora might potentially lead to noticeable outslde art history. According to Nielsen, an accelerated breakdown of canons - something which "Some people like Ted Nelson expect to see the appearan­ fof that inatter also applies to the more conventional da­ ce of the global hypertext (e.g. Xanadu) as what has been tabases! -, the realization, the filling of datafiles, will called the docuverse (universe of documents) ..." Subse- compel to setting priorities. Our wish actually to build a quently Nielsen proclaims that he doesn't " ...really ex- hypericonic system has led us to consider the relationship pectthis to happen completely, but we will very likely see between education and scholarship. the emergence of very large hypertexts and shared infor-

KnowI.Org.20(1993)No.1 41 OJ.Naula: HYPERICONICS 1.4.5 The close relationship between education and tions in principle against an art historian who is tracing scholarship texts on the psychology of perception, when he is profes­ sionally interested in phenomena such as symmetry, the Just as Van de Waal's entire - filled - Bee/dleer may be considered a miniature reflection, on paper, of the con­ effect of contours, horror vacui, completeness, etc. ventional art historical practice, so might hypericonic Thus the nature of computer assisted education will corpora be viewed as dynamic, electronic models of that thoroughly change; the conventional notion - student­ practice. This makes such corpora, like Bee/dleer, pre­ asks-computer-answers-etc. - no longer applies. The eminently useful for educational purposes.Therefore it is computer may become a supportive instrumentin a dyna­ only natural that a lot of documentation on hypertext mic system of knowledge exchange. The central inforrua­ systems is particularly about shared information spaces in tion-base may be used to tread pre-programmed paths, but educational settings" . Collective memory is here referred could also function as a forum where inforruationseekers to as course memory (I, p.132-133, 137-141: 'Example of and those offering information will cross paths, a place Collaborative Learning from Intermedia '). where every user may add or extract information and The legitimate influence of the teacher upon the choice review what others have accomplished. of his material is, for the moment, typical in educational An additional practical advantage compared to more hypertext systems. This eases the responsibility with conventional methods of computer assisted education is regard to any Argumentationgemeinscha/t . The canonis a­ that it is no longer necessary to contrive the student's tion problem may thus be temporarily bypassed ('the entire train of thought beforehand. This will economize master disposes'). Apart from this practical argument preparation time in courseware development. The stu­ there are some autonomous educational reasons to give dent, on the other hand, will gain insight in the construc­ priority to the development of courseware in hypertext tion and evolution of art historical information. If the form too. Images and texts may always be related to one project is carefully treated, course memory may seam­ another andrelevantmaterial may be retrieved with much lessly pass over into the collective memory of a true greater speed than was possible by means of conventional Argumenlationsgemeinscha/t . In other words, hypertext media; not only by the student in a computer lab, but also, corpora will narrow the gap between education and if the necessary network configuration is at hand, by the scholarly research. professor whilst lecturing. The user of the system has at his disposal stimulating choice options, possibilities which 2. Practical Hypericon ies in Education and Scholarly may lead to research in depth or, on the other hand, a Research superficial investigation of global lines. In the meantime 2.1 General requirements the possibility remains of stipulating specific 'paths' A 'reduced electronic Bee/dleer' might eventually de­ through the information space, tagging in this way some velop into a useful object in two different ways: within an required course material. Besides all this, a good hyper­ educational context it could become an interactive hyper­ text authorial system gives the professor an opportunity to media learning environment, concerning the elementary register the routes covered by individual students. The means of expression; in the area of scholarship we foresee material is easily adaptable and expandable. That is only that it will evolve into a hermeneutic instrument, a mne­ natural, and the amassed information which students and motechnic aid in exploring meaning in the visual arts. For academic teachers have collected in previous courses both versions of our hypericonic system some general may always be reused by other students and educators12• facilities are necessary. First of all we should mention the Some benefits with regard to the quality of hypertext usual hypertext provisions such as: various types of no­ data-manipulation should also be mentioned. The user des, various types of links, backtracking and overview may concentrate on the works of art functioning as nodes screens, protection of information at multiple levels, non­ in a hypermedia network individually. In this manner the screen-dependent anchoring of links etc. Apart from all links to diverse texts or other works of art are used for this it is necessary that the users are enabled to choose for object-oriented education or scholarship. This is research navigation through a subset of all present nodes, possibly ofthespecifjc ('centripetalmethodolog y', in the words of via a subset of all present links. Registration of trails must Van de Waal). Similarily the linksbetween all sorts of be possible, with precise registration ofthe elapse of time nodes, and therefore the generic, might be given full during navigation. Furthermore, as was stated earlier, attention ('centrifugal methodology'). In other words, a authorized users should be permitted to introduce new hypertext system facilitates the study of both work and links and/or nodes during the reading session. To avoid context. making the work of an editorial board unnecessarily The hypertext concept with regard to the time dimen­ complicated, registration of last updates at node and link sion has similar potential. Links which connect works of levels is desired. Needless to say, it must be possible to art and theories of art in a particular period will facilitate approach the entire hypertext corpus by means of a transversal studies, whereas the links which are 'parallel computer network. to the timeline' make it possible to do longitudinal re­ search. Finally we should mention the possible support of interdisciplinary studies. We do not discern any objec-

42 Knowl.Org. 20(1993)No.! OJ.NauIa: HYPERICONICS 2.2.1 Discussion or a Hypericonic Educational System In the preparatory stage of the project Van de Waal's Between September and December 1992 gathering of entire Beeldleer-c1assification scheme was digitized, i.e. source-material began for a hypericonic educational sy­ provided with an index of all 600 terms which occur in the stem. On the basis of this material typ ical connections system. For the time being six introductory templates between entity types will be formulated. We decided to were made, agreeing with the types of nodes as described employ Van de Waal' s original B eeldleer as something to in section 1.4.2. The following is a brief discussion of the fix our mind for the time being. A group of about ten used templates. doctoral students at the Department of Art History of - Each Item is characterized as follows: What is the term? Leiden University are currently working on the project, What are the (widely used) translations of the term? How which will be continued in 1993. can the item be (briefly) defined? How can it be described The material collected by the students was entered into more extensively using encyclopedic information? Are a shared information space on a central computer. The the means of expression period-dependent? What are - resultant and growing hypericonic file may be approa­ according to Van de Waal -broader, narrower, related and ched and updated by all who are authorized, by means of associated terms? Which sources have been consulted for PC'sconnected to the network. During this test phase the the description of the item? cryptic and somewhat outdated textdatabase-manage­ - Nodes of the type Paragraph are, in a certain way, ment system askSam is in use as a proto typing program. extensions of the free text field with more extensive A hard-core user of askSam may very pointedly search descriptions in the node Item. The nodes are designed to through large text-datafiles. For the novice, however, the write a paragraph from the 'history of artistic notions'. program is less accessible. AskSam has substantial pro­ Apart from a field with free text there is room for a gramming possibilities and posseses an elementary faci­ reference to the discussed item and a period indication. lity to display pictures. However, a great disadvantage of Extensive general comments about the item can also be the program is that itcan only symbolically - by means of made here. word correspondences - establish hypertext links. The - The node type Illustration contains basic registration same is true for trails through the information web, information about works of art (name of artist, title, meaning that somewhere a card must be stored with the dating, period, and whereabouts), in addition to a small nodes that are available at a certain time. Hierarchical field to record the items which have been connected to it. relations are indicated on the map by means of the For the time being, the provider of material on this map traditional method of indentation. may provide argumentation for the proposed joining of In the near future askSam should therefore be exchan­ illustration and Beeldleer items. In the catalogue infor­ ged for a true hypertext system such as Hyperwriter, mation of a self-portrait of Odilon Redon (1888) in the Guide. To olbook, HyperCard, Microcosm or Intermedia. Municipal Museum of the Hague a quotation of J.L. The criterion which will turn the scale in the final choice Locher has been included as an 'argument': will be that the ultimate program must be able to manage "Not only as a close up, but also in the way in which an open information sp ace; a program, in other -words, Redon' s fa ce is partly cut off on the picture surface, this which continuously offers specialists and non-specialists portrait drawing anticipates much later experiments in alike the opportunity to add material to the corpus (as for portrait photography ..."" example Intermedia does). In our project each student initially chose one topic This argument therefore supports the connection of from the entire collection of Beeldleer items. The advice items hereby was to choose in particular means of expression - close-up and abrupt cut off - and illustration, as well as which are 'demonstrable' �nd therefore able to be illustra­ the mutual connection of the two itemsl ted in the entity type Illustrations", for example contour, - The classification of the Citation and Literature nodes horror vacui. static shape I chiaroscuro, direction, chance speaks more or less for itself. The references to literature images, unfinishedforms etc. The first assignment was to have been standardized, in which the field 'term' can be collect materi�ls concerning the chosen item, in such a filled with multiple Beeldleer terms. The basicelementof way that it would, in principle, be possible to write a the quotation template is a free text field. Here too a field simple ieonological history of the item using this mate­ called 'period' has been incorporated, so that one can rial. In this phase of the experimental project isolated select chronologically comments about art from certain means of expression therefore form the starting-point. In periods. later data aquisition other procedures may be followed: - The last substantial template is Annotation with which describing works of art in terms of the means of expres­ the individual user is able to relate a marginal note to each sion which are used; distilling pithy pronouncements node of the hypertext. from art historical/-theoretical classics; collecting con­ Three of the six introductory templates are in the ceptions of artists about art etc. Students are free to choose present set-up meant to be filled with one's own contribu­ the necessary sources themselves. They do however, tions; these are the nodes of the types Item, Paragraph and receive some guidelines. Annotation. Three other types of nodes seem particularly

Knowl.Org. 20(1993)No.! 43 OJ.Nauta: HYPERICONICS suitable for the classification of ready-made 'found' materi:�. academic discipline a/ art history has worked at reprodu­ There have been consistent attempts, where necessary, to cing the enormous amounts of works of art from all places record for each note - in a separate field called source - the and times and explain them historically. Today, due to its place from which the collected information has been expansion this schola/ ;hip can no longer bring any fun­ borrowed". Finally, a field has been placed by each node damental [new] insights into art. Understanding of art in which the providers of material can make them self appears only to be possible as an extensive knowing and known by means of date, initials, and number, for example: this knowledge, instead of lying in fa r away. unknown 19.11.92 GN-32. In this way itis always possible to isolate objects. is hidden from individual refelction behind the the nodes added by a certain person. When entering data endless walls of books of libraries. An objectifiedexpe­ one chooses one of the prefabricated templates before rience is again becoming unknown"16, beginning to work. Our second quotation is dated a thirty years earlier. The links between the various nodes in this hyperico­ Here too a stifling information overload is characterized: nic educational system are especially argumented links. "There is a growing mountain of research. But there is There are continuous arguments for the jumps from one increased evidence that we are being bogged down today point to another in the hypericonic space. Further study as specialization extends. The investigator is staggered must point out whether a fundamental typology of links, by the findings and conclusions of thousands of other starting with the collected arguments, can be stipulated. workers- conclusions which he cannotfin,dtime to grasp, In most of the presently used node types (Paragraph, much less to remember, as they appear. Yet specialization Citation etc.) an extra field can be imagined in which such becomes increasingly necessary fo r progress, and the an indication of type has been fixed, for example, 'general effort to bridge between disciplines is correspondingly formulation', 'example' , 'philosophical discussion', superficial. Professionally our met!lOds of tra�smitting 'interpretive discussion', or even 'poetic digression' (19). and reviewing the results of research are generations old and by now are totally inadequate fo r theirpurpose. [ ...] In developing a hypericonic educational system the The summation of human experience is being expanded at ideal is to create an environment in which the users will a prodigiou,s rate, and the means we use fo r threading find themself in the virtual presence of others, of voices through the consequent maze to the momentarily impor­ living and deceased. tant item is the same as was used in the days of square­ rigged ships. [ ...] There may be millions affi ne thoughts, 2.2.2 A Hypericonic Research System and the account 0/ the experience on which they are Apart from the practical realization of our hypericonic based. all encased within stone walls of acqeptable archi­ educational system, initiatives will gradually be unfolded tecturalform; but iJthe scholar can get at only one a week which will prepare for the development of a program for by dilligent search, his syntheses are not likely to keep up scholarly research. The efforts on an organizational level with the current scene" (24). will, amongst others, consist of finding a suitable form for This last quotation is cited from an epoch-making text the functioning of the editorial council. Furthermore, by Vannevar Bush, the scientist who, shortly after World additional requirements must be set for the software to be War II, planned to build his so-called memory extender used. Using actual knowledge about the design of hyper­ 'Memex'. This initiative has made Bush ,the spiritual text systems, a typology of 'linking strategies' will be father of all present (and future) hypertext systems. developed. Linking strategies may be based upon on the Werckmeister, as an art historian, established what are the perceptions of the human observer. An alternative might consequences of a 'knowledge overload' within his disci­ well be links that are based upon mechanical distinctions. pline; Bush established what is going on in the human Two separate dissertations on both lines of research are acquisition of knowledge in a more general way and he currently in preparation. tried to fo rmulate a practicable solution to these pro­ blems. The ideal in developing a hypericonic research system is to arrive at an application which enables the individual Memex eventually led to hypertext, and hypertext, as images), user to extract information from a corpus of works of art we have seen, may lead toa 'society oftell!'(and and texts when doing personal research. It must then be to a 'social construction ofinformation'. The general que­ possible to add to this corpusfo llowing personal motives. stion we posed in this article is: could the hypertext concept be used to raise � platform, a platform on which we may perrnanently hear the voices of an Argumenta­ 3. Epilogue: The Ethics or a Heavily Implemented Art or Memory tionsgemeinschaft of art historians? Today such a plat­ form seems indeed to b� possible. But its fQ ul1dation The project whiCh we have unfolded here, was trigge­ definitely has some questionable aspects. It does, in any red by the desire to do something about a general human case, not lead to a less extensive knowledge exten#ves problem. In the literature we found two passages indica­ Wissen, even though knowledge will be available and ting this problem in a surprisingly similar way. One transferable right away. What will eventually happen to quotation dates from 1974, when the German art historian the personal mind, under the influence of these develop­ "For ihe past 160 years the Otto K Werckmeister stated: ments, is uncertain. Particularly in the Humanities this is

44 Knowl.Org. 20(1993)No.! GJ.Nauta: HYPERICONICS a heavy-weighing uncertainty. Nielsen, for example, pointed moment". A.Wassenbergh, in: 120 Verslag v.h.Friesch Gen. out that frequent users of hypertext systems might some­ (1948), p.14, over Rt.Saskia (Annotation of Henri van de Waal how be troubled by a fragmented world view as a resultof on a Beeldleer-card categorized 42.21.3.) their endless frog leaps from node to node (17, p.190). 9 For an elaborate discussion of these issues in the field of art This seems to be a convenient moment to return to the history, see (20). classical objections against the art of memory (Ars Memo­ 10 Cf. (17, p.189): "A likely development to reduce these problems will be the establishment of hypertext 'journals' riae). The classical art of memory aimed at improving consisting of 'official' nodes and links that have been recom­ artificially the memory ofthe orator in order to individual mended by some trusted set of editors. This approach is of manipulate a crowd of auditors. In the social construction course exactly the way paper publishing has always been of information with the aid of hypertext or hypermedia structured". systems, the memory of an entireArgumentationsgemein­ 11 Cf. (17, p.188): "Already we are seeing small shared infor­ schaft is artificially improved. This may proceed in such mation spaces in teaching applications of Intennedia, but they a way that this extended memory becomes immediately are restricted to the students taking a single class. In the future available for each separate individual. In what way this we might expect students at large nwnbers of universities to be may influence the whole human condition is an open connected together". question. But the supposition is strong that the above 12 An extensive discussion can be found in (1). For an intere­ sting example application see e.g. (21). mentioned project will raise discussions about the theo­ 13 These are especially to be found in the categories 3 (Fonn) ries and methodology of art history, as well as the reflec­ and 4 (Space) of the original Beeldleer system. tion on a future in which the large-scale publication of the 14 "Niet aIleen als 'close-up' maar ook door de wijze waarop world, the ubiquity of art and commentaries upon art, and Redons gezicht gedeeltelijk afgesneden in het beeldvlak staat, the unheard-of expansion of the human memory are will loopt dit getekende porlIet vooruit op pas veel later komende become more and more typical. The project of a Hyperi­ experimentele fotoportretten ..." (22). conic System is therefore a full-fledged academic under­ 15 For a concise discussion of copyright problems see the taking. section entitled ' Access to the Text and the Author's Right (Copyright)' in (I, p.196-201). 16 "Seit hundertsechzig Jahren ist in der akademischen Diszi­ Notes plin Kunstgeschichte daran gearbeitet worden, die unermeBli­ che Menge von Kunstwerken aus allen Orten und Zeilen Zll 1 Joan L.Kirsch and Russell A.Kirsch have written several reproduzieren und historisch zu erkHiren. Heule kann diese articles about this possible area of research, for example (10). Wissenschaft infolge ihrer eigenen Expansion dem BewuBtsein Some other examples are (II) and (12). keine grundsatzlichen Erkenntnisse tiber Kunst mem vennit­ 2 Some of the other artists and art theorists who proposed more teIn. Kunstverstandnis scheint nur noch als em extensives or less coherent arrangements of basic means of expression are Wissen moglich, und dieses Wissen ist, statt in femen und Diirer.Malevitch, Klee, Kandinsky and other Bauhaus teachers. unbekannten Objekten, hinter den endlosen Bticherwanden der Furthennore one can encounter systematic descriptions of Bibliotheken dem emzeInen Denken entzogen. Die objektivier­ elementary artistic means in publications by amongst other te Erfahrung wird wieder unbekannt" (23, p.64). Rene Berger, Heinrich Liitzeler, Oskar Batschmann and Irwin Panofsky. Apart from these, all sorts of unpretentious arrange· Rererences inents are locally in use at many art academies. (1) Landow, G.P.: Hypertext: The convergence of contempora­ 3 Kaarlsysleem 'Beldleer' , typed and handwritten manuscript, part of the inheritance of Henri van de Waal (Leiden, 1972). ry crilical lheory and technology. Baltimore and London: John Hopkins University Press 1992. p.19, 27-34 4 l.L.Locher; Interview d.d. Friday 6th November 1997. 5 See (1) for further discussions on the subject. Another book (2) Yates,F.A.: The art of memory. London: Routledge and Kegan 1966. with clarifying discussions on hypertext is (17). 6 The tenn iconics is somewhat doubtfully adapted from Max (3) Barreu,E.: Introduction: Thought and language in a virtual environment. In: Barrett. E.(Ed.); The Society of Text: Hyper­ Imdahl in (13, p.97): "Wiihrend aber Ikonographie und Ikono­ text, hypermedia, and the social construction of infonnation. logie dasjenige aus den Bildem erschliessen, was ihnen als Cambridge, MA: MIT Press 1989. p.XI-XIX. Wissensinhalte vorgegeben ist, was yom Beschauer gewut 0.: werden muB und sich durch Wissensvennittlung mitteilen liiBt, (4) Biitschmann, Einfiihrung in die kunstgeschicht]iche sucht die Ikonik eine Erkenntnis in den Blick zu riicken, die Henneneutik. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft 2. 1986. ausschlieelich dem Mediwn des Bildes zugehort und grundsatz­ lich nur dort zu gewinnen ist... Di.e Ikonik sucht zu zeigen, daB (5) Davies, D., Bathurst, D., Bathurst, R.: The telling image: The changing balance between picture and words in a tecMolo­ das Bild die ihm historisch vorgegebenen und in es eingegange­ gical age. Oxford: Clarendon Press 1990. nen Wissensgiiter exponiert in der Oberzeugungskraft einer uruniuelbar anschaulichen, das heiBt asthetischen Evidenz, die (6) Hamber, A.: Conventional photography vs. analogue and weder durch blosse Wissensvenniulung historischer UmsHinde digital electronic imaging. In: (9, p.23-49). (7) Vaughan. W.: Paintings by nwnber: Art history and the nochdurch irgendwelche (fiktiven) Riickversetzungen in diese In: historischen Umstande einzuholen ist". digital image. (9, p.74·97). (8) Saunders, D.: The investigation of colour change in digital 7 The 'cards'labelled Cilation and Anno/alion here, actually belong toone and the same typeof card, viz. Commenlary. In the imaging. In: (9. p.98-116). final system this should be adequately implemented. (9) Hamber, A., Miles, J .• Vaughan, W.(Eds.): Computers and 8 "Het clair obscure is een middel om de momentopname te the history of art. London and New York ; Mansell 1989. (10) Kirsch, J.L.. Kirsch. R.A.: The structure of paintings: versterken, dug niet het egale tijdloze, maar het toegespitste

Knowl.Org. 20(1 993)No. I 45 G.J.Nauta: HYPERICONICS formal grammar and design, Environment and Planning B: ( 19) Trigg, R. H.: A network -based approach to texthandling for Planning and Design, 13(1986)p.163-176 the online scientific community. PhD Thesis 1983. University (11) Poelman, A.: Geautornatiseerde methode voor het vinden of Maryland. DepLof Computer Science. (University Micro­ van natekeningen van menselijke figuren. (M,A.Thesis), Lei ­ films #8429934).(via (17), p.108). den, NL: Leiden University, DepLof Infonn,Science 1992. (20) Gombrich, E.H.: Art history and the social sciences. (12) Aronberg Lavin, M,: Researching visual images with London 1975. (The Romanes Lecture 1973). computer graphics. Computers and the History of Art 2(1992)Pt.2, (21) Ess, eh.: Philosophy and hypennedia: Example applica­ p.l-5 tions. Computers and Texts. Newsletter CTI Centre for Textual (13) Imdahl,M,: Giotto. Arenafresken. Ikonographie, Ikonolo­ Studies & Office for Humanities CommWlication, OCL1992, gie, Ikonik. In: Theorie und Geschichte der Literatur und der p.9-13. schonen Kilnste, Bd,60, Munchen 1980, (22) Locher, J.L.: Vorrngeving en structuur: Over kWlst en (14) Veltman, K.: SUMS (System for Universal Media Sear­ kunstbeschouwing in de negentiende en twintigste eeuw. ching): A database on perspective and the concept of levels of Amsterdam, NL: Meulenhoff 1973. p.l35 knowledge, Lecture held at the CHArt Conference 1992. Birck­ (23) Werckmeister, O.K.: Kunstgeschichte als Divination. In: beck College, University of London, Thursday, 17th December Ideologie und KWlstbei M�x u.a. Essays. Frankfurt: Suhrkamp 1992. 1974. p.64 (via Dilly, H.: Kunstgeschichte aIs Institution, (IS) Argan, G.C.: Ideology and iconology. Critical Inquiry Frankfurt: Suhrkamp 1979, p.67-68) 2(1975) Winter, p.302-303. (24) Bush, Y.: As wemay think. AtlanticMonthly 176(1945)No.1, (16) Janson, H.W.: Chance images. In: Wiener, P.P. (Ed.): p,641-649. Reprinted in Nyce, J.M., Kahn, P.(Eds.): From Dictionary of the history of ideas. New York: Charles Scrib­ Memex to Hypertext: Vannevar Bush and the mind's machine. ner's Sons 1973 .. p.340-353 Boston, etc.: Academic Press 1991, p.88-89, 99. (17) Nielsen, J.: Hypertext and Hypermedia. Boston,etc.: Aca­ demic Press 1990. Dr. Gerhard Jan Nauta (18) Landow, G.P.: The rhetoric of hypertext: Some rules for Department of Art History, Leiden University authors. J.Computing in Higher Educ.1. 1(1989)Spring, p.39- Postbus 9515, NL-2300 RA Leiden. 64

HOME IN ON YOUR Now available from INDEKS Verlag l !I.", fJ IDEA SYSTEMATICALLY! NISKO'91 , Semantic space changes constantly. But Roget's thesaurus, a 'synonymy,' was structured way back the International Conference on Knowledge when southern Italywas The Parthenopean Repub­ Organization, Te rminology & Information Access �' j. lic. And you can't stretch a skeleton! Management, Bratislava, May 13�16, 1991. Thus most Roget editions still imagine that Food, #301, is a subdivision of Motion. That Organisms, #358, precede simple Organized by the Czechoslovak Chapter of ISKO and Minerals, #359. ThatSexuality, #373, is limited to Humanity #372. Etc. the Micro CDS/ISIS Club, Bratislava. To parallel Darwinian evolution, by contrast, there's only oqe word system. It is Dr. Henry G. �urger's discovery, The Wordtree ®. It The volume contains the foUowtnz 17 papers: I.Dahlberg: "grids" any word as the previous process plus a small addendum: To Price Knowledge Organization in the Nineties: Bases, Problems & Show ;'to VEND. To Buy & Vend - to MERCHANDISE, etc. Then Goals. M Ch.Galinski: Terminology and Documentation:_ Text our system cross-references the 3 parts. Thereby a codifier can skip­ Management and the Universal Availability of Information branch up, down, and sidewise - backward toward causes and fo rward and Knowledge. � C.Ritzler: Comparative Study of PC­ toward effects . � supported Thesaurus Software. M G.DeI Bigio: The CDS/ISIS , "Roget is without doubt the author to whom Burger most fa vorably � SoTtware, Recent Developments and Results. _ P.N.Pemplelon: An INTIB Subsystem on Energy and refers.... But by his systematic and rigorous hierarchy, Burger fa r e, overshoots his master," reported LafllmC§ ModCrnC;$ (Paris). � Environment Information. M G.Budin: Knowledge Organization and Knowledge Retrieval as Key Elements of For each higher analogy, The Wordtree refers you to the correct-level ! Knowledge Management. - O.Sechser: Repack:aging Da�a in term. CHECK, for example, is shown to lead graphically to CHECK- !'.. Database Publishmg. M A.Sakov: Classification Systems and MARK; administratively to BACK-CHECK; financially to CHEQUE; � Problems of their Automatic Updating in Knowledge. Bases. _ etc. "The Wo rdtree contains cross-referenced process words in 25,000 � .E.Weihs: I?nvir�lflmental Thesauri Construction: Ca tegories . categori.es," reports the international magazine of the U. S. Department 9 and Function m Bavanan Land Information _ Systems. of Commerce. cheers that "Every new � R..l.A.Rieslhuis: The Universal Decimal Classification as a International Classification CDS/ISIS Database. - V.Prohorov: Information Retrieval concept is definedin serial order before it is entailed in another definition . .... Languages as a Source for J)�v��opment of Knowledge Bases. By this means, the circularity so often fo und in dictionary definitions has if -C.Ciampi, J.Fall: TIlES-MAKER II applied to a Polish been avoided ... Agreatintellectualdiscoveryand anewpandigm"! And � Version of the BID Thesaurus. - H.Rybinski. the delighted London Times Higher Education Supplement concludes: � M.Muraszkiewic� M.Schemthaner: A Flexible Multilingual "The biggest, punchieu dictionary ofthem all"! - And these are merely ro Thesaurus. - :-i.E.Wright: The MicroMA1ER Tagset: a sample of the 50,000 words of review that have already been showered Proposed Data Categories for the Exchange of Terminological on The Wo rdtree by over 75 periodicals! Data between Te rminologi�al � Database Systems. 1/4 mllIi2.nlistings fill this computer-organized reference book. (00) AAppelova: Terminology and Thesaurus-Knowledge in Texts. -J.Steinerova: ISBN 0-936312-00-9. usn $149. Ifforeign, add $6. Send a numbered �gnitive Struc.t�re� in Information SJl!tems. _ I.Volkova: Te rnllflology, ClaSSification and Knowledge Bases. Purchase Order, or prepay, to: The Wordtree, 10876 Bradshaw W78, Overland Park, KS 66210-1148, USA. All-hour phone (+1) 913-469- The volume (comprising 192p.) is available (for DM 25.- 1010., Or fax to (+1) 913-469-1632, attention: Wordtree W78. Free ca. US$15.-) from INDEKS Verlag, Woogstr. 36a, D- brochure on solving word problems. 6000 Frankfurt 50.

46 Knowl.Org. 20(1993)No.1 G.J.Nauta: HYPERICONICS Kim Veltman University of Toronto

Electronic Media and Visual Knowledge

Ve llman, K.H.: Electronic Media and Visual Knowledge. 2. Interchangeable Media Knowl.Org. 20(1993)No. l, p.47-54, 7 refs. In the past each new medium threatened to replace The real challenge of to4ay lies inexploring how computers will earlier media. The advent of printed books threatened the enable us to do what was not possible previously. The paper continued use of manuscripts and to exclude the use of attempts to provoke thought about new frontiers of visual visual material. This changed gradually as books transla­ knowledge organization. Computers introduce the possibility of interchangeable media. They offer mUltiple nodes of access ted . the coloured originals into woodcuts, engravings, to a given tenn or object. Th eyenableus to approach knowledge lithographs and line drawings, yet it was not until the on different levels. A scheme of 10 levels is proposed and some second half of the twentieth century that full colour consequences for visual knowledge at each of these levels is reproduction became possible, and even now costs re­ considered briefly. The final section of the paper considers fo ur main prohibitive such that most printed images are black navigational tools: questions,maps, meters. and tracking. (Author) and white. Computers are fundamentally different becau­ se they do away with the need for intermediary forms of 1. Introduction images. They permit viewing and printing of high level To date most computer projects in the visual arts have colour images directly. More significantly, they promise been focussed on the nitty-gritty of compatibility, stan­ access to all media. A digital text can be displayed on a dards of image quality, storage capacity, authority files computer screen, as a video or as a television image, be for names, places and basic concepts. Some of the papers printed in book form or read out orally. Instead of repla­ in this issue have offered detailed glimpses into the cing earlier media it can use each of them interchangea­ complexities of these problems which need to be solved bly. Hence in addition to providing a new technology, it before we can achieve anything serious. Even so, it is can reproduce the media of earlier technologies. In the important to remember that. these are interim problems, past a single medium (uni-medium) was used at a time. that they will be solved, and that the real challenge lies in The early twentienth century introduced dual media (bi­ exploring how computers will enable us to do that was not media). These remained either private or public. Multiple possible previously. This paper takes as its point of media also evolved but remained unintegrated. Compu­ departure a project' that is being funded by BSO/Origin' ters perm it the integration of many media (multi-media) and CHIN' and developed in conjunction with Greenfield which can be used botti in private and in public (Fig. 1). Projects. It is partly visionary with the intent of provoking thought about new frontiers of knowledge. Why is the UNI-MEDlUM computerization of knowledge, particularly visual know­ Aural (Unrecorded Verbal) Speech (Public. Private) Conversation (Private) ledge important? How will computers change our me­ Recorded Visual Letter , (Private.Public) thods and horizons of research? Manuscript (Private.Public) Painting etc. (Private.Public) At the outset it should be noted thaUhe term computers Book (Public) • is actually a synecdoche where a part stands for a whole. Periodical (Public) • The revolution, is not just about a desktop PC. It is about Newspaper (Public) a whole gamut of electronic devices ranging form camera Silent Film (Public) recorders and scanning devices to smart cards and display Newsleuer (Public.Private) Photography (Public.Private) screens in which the computer is merely the most familiar BI-MEDIA intermediary device. (Some now refer to this set of Recorded Verbal (Audio) Radio (Public.Private) devices as a transputer). A first point we shall make is that Tape Recorder (Private) Verbal-Visual (Audio-Visual) Film computers in this wider sense introduce the possibility of (Public) Television (Public) interchangeable media. Computers offer multiple nodes Video (Public.Private) of access to a given term or Object. They enable us to MULTI-MEDIA approach knowledge in different levels. A scheme of ten­ Visual-Verbal Combinations Computen (Public.Private) levels is proposed and some consequences for visual knowledge at each of these levels is considered briefly. In Fig. 1. Examples of types of communication. Asterisks indicate the final section of the paper four navigational tools are levels particular�y associated with scholarship from the Renais­ mentioned: questions, maps, meters and tracking. sanee until the mid-twentieth century.

Knowl.Org. 20(1993)No.1 47 K.Veltman: Electronic Media and Visual Knowledge Marshall McLuhan described shifts between hot and under art would not find that book. Once such a list is cold media. Computers offer a new integration of both hot computerized the same book can be reached through both and cold and thus challenge traditional boundaries bet· mathematics and art. If di ffe rent classification systems ween different media, between visual and verbal know· class this book differently, then these further entrypoints ledge. As a result we need to rethink the boundaries of can also be used. Indeed all variant names or terms scholarship which in the past were limited to a small part potentially become further points of entry in the compu­ of this spectrum (cr. asterisks in Fig. I). terized version. The advent of printing brought a specialization in Analogue TV andFilrn Computers Digital kinds of know ledge which were classed according to their Mass Publishing Software Personal medium. Books went to libraries; artefacts went to mu­ Inlernctive Passive seums; paintings to galleries; drawings went to drawing Content Databases Teiecomrn'JJ1ications Carriage cabinets; engravings went to engraving cabinets and so on. Hence persons typically became experts in a medium Fig. 2. Trends in the key industries according to Stursberg. rather than in subjects and as a result thorough histories of subjects across the various media have yet to be written. Stursberg (I) has drawn attention to other aspects of We know, for instance, that important themes in manusc­ this interchangeability. Traditionally distinctions were ript illustration often influenced paintings and in turn made between industries which were analog(ue) or digi· were influenced by paintings. Important paintings fre­ tal,mass orpersonal, passive or interactive, content based quently inspired a visual equivalent of commentaries in or carriage (pipeline) based. These distinctions are also the form of woodcuts, engravings and lithographs as well as other paintings (both as so called copies and as ver­ being eroded. The new synthesis will integrate. these industries into a single electronic nexus. sions). Computerized access to the full corpus will make these strands of our cultural heritage visible in a new way. 3. Multivalent Access 4. Levels of Knowledge In traditional media such as books, reference material was typically arranged in alphabetical lists of names and The specialization of different kinds afknowledge had terms, with 'see also references' in the case of variants. If, other consequences. In the case of books there was a for instance, one was looking for Leonardo da Vinci and further separation in terms of size. At Wolfenbilttel, for one looked under Vinci, Leonardo da, one might find a example, the Duke of Lower Saxony arranged the folio note telling one to look directly under Leonardo da Vinci. books (3Scm.+) on the lowest shelves, thequarto books In the case of major libraries this entailed walking a (c.2S-3Scm.) on highe(shelves. Above these he placed number of feet from the catalogue for the letter V to the the octavo books (c.IS-2Scm.) and at the very top he catalogue for �he letter L. Computers require standardized placed the minimal formats 16' and 32'. This idea of size terms and names and terms. Hence the great upsurge in spread to many of the great European libraries. Gradually authority files. At the same time computers permit one to contents became another criterion for separation. Classi· add aqy number of 'see also references ' each of which can fication systems were arranged in one room. Dictionaries, become points of access to those standard names and encyclopaedias and bibliographies were arranged in refe­ terms. As a result a person who types in 'Vinci' or 'Da rence rooms, while the books themselves were arranged Vinci' in a computerized database can be directed imme­ elsewhere in terms of different classes. diately to Leonardo without needing to lose time walking In all this separation the basic links between these to another catalogue or book. The same principle applies works were easily forg�tten: I) classification systems to paintings. The compuwr can direct a person who types provided authority lists of terms and names. These terms in either Mona Lisa or La Gioconda to the same painting. were then defined in 2) dictionaries, explained in 3) In traditional printed media each time such a painting was encyclopaedias and related to lists of books in 4) catalo­ compared in a new way the picture had to be reprinted in gues and bibliographies. These same terms recumid in the a new book. In a computer the same image can be called S) title pages and indexes of books. Each of these five up any number of times in different contexts. kinds of knowledge can be seen as a separate level andas This principle of multipleentry points to a given name, pointers to the actual objects: books, paintings, instru: term or Object has enormous implications, particularly ments, buildings etc. which can be seen as a sixth level. With comput!"rsit is possible to relate these automatically when extended t(). classification systems. In the past a classification system was used to class a given painting or and move from one level to the next on a screen without other object and this was used to place them in some turning to a new set of books each time. physical location. A book classed as mathematics was In the past a distinction evolved between ihe actual placed in one room. A book classed as art was placed in texts (primary sources) and commentaries on them (se­ another room. This meant that a book on perspective condary sources). These commentaries were variously which dealt with both mathematics and art was inevitably termed analyses, interpretations and the principl� under­ relegated to one or the other. If a librarian placed it in lying these led to the field of hermeneutics.. With the mathematics then someone looking for perspective only advent of computers, a need for greater clarity is leading

48 Knowl.Org. 20(1993)No.! K.Veltman: Electronic Media and Visual Knowledge to further distinctions between four levels of interpreta­ 5. Internal and External Analyses tion: internal analyses, involving only the object itself; For internal and external analyses (level 7), computers external analyses, that is, involving other objects as well; offer remarkable possibilities for the study of visual restorations and reconstructions. If each of these is also knowledge. To see the contents of a picture may seem assigned a level, a scheme of ten levels of knowledge easy, but to describe these contents was often very diffi­ emerges (Fig. 3) consisting of pointers (levels 1-5), ob­ cult. The question of access to these descriptions was even jects (level 6), and interpretations (levels 7-10). The more problematic. In terms of publication two common advent of computers has implications for visual material forms were monographs with detailed descriptions of at each of these levels. work by a given artist (the catalogue raison_e), and specialized articles describing a given painting, someti­ Type Other Names 1. Classification Systems Containers of Containers mes comparing its features to those in related paintings or 2. Definitions Dictionaries drawings. These publications had the disadvantage that 3. Explanations Encyclopaedias they were often in obscure journals. It was commonly 4. Bibliographies Names of Containers assumed that scholars were fluent in Latin, Greek, Ger­ 5. Partial contenls Tables of Contenls•. Indexes 6. FullContenls Art. Books. Instruments man, French, Italian and English. Even so these publica­ 7. Internal Analyses Descriptions of Object tions represented only a small fraction of the available 8. External Analyses Descriptions of Related Obj ecls material concerning identifications and descriptions of 9. Restorations Conservation Reports paintings. Major projects such as the Princeton Index of lO, �onstructions Model., CAD, Virtual Reality Christian Art and the Marburg Archive contained hun­ Fig 3. Ten levels and types of knowledge with alternative dreds of thousands of detailed descriptions but were not names. generally accessible. This was also the case with records In terms of classification systems the automated ver­ in individual museums. All these projects are being sions of Iconclass and the AAT, discussed elsewhere in computerized and within the near future this material will this issue offer one obvious application of computers for be available. readier access to visual knowledge. Such systems can be With respect to portraits and human figures it will be augmented by the use of visual material (e.g. diagrams, possible to study the history of their positions: which ones illustrations, including animations, images of paintings in are depicted frontally, from the rear, in profile (facing video or on CD-ROM), which can further be used to right or facing left) or in three quarter view. The scholarly demonstrate any term at the level of definitions (level 2) value of so doing will come into focus when individual or clarify explanations in what was traditionally an encyc­ images are compared with others in external analyses.For lopaedia (level 3). instance, in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centu­ In the past, access to bibliographies (level 4) was ries there was an enormous debate about the sequence of usually limited to author, title and subject lists. Exceptio­ these views in the evolution of drawing techniques. With nal libraries such as the Herwg August Bibliothek (Wol­ the help of computers the material can be studied syste­ fenbnttel) have created catalogues by place of publica­ matically for the first time. This applies equally to des­ tion. If this information is linked with a map, users can criptions of individual features such as hands or ears click on cities to check what publications they produced. which formed a point of departure for Morelli's compara­ Statistical spread sheets can be used to visualize publica­ tive method in the past century but which again remained tion rates of authors, publishers and their editions in graph unsystematic prior to computers. form. In the past, partial contents (level S) were mainly Such comparative techniques can also fr uitfully be ap­ available from tables of contents and indexes within the plied to representations of a) human actions (such as actual book. The last century has seen the gradual rise of drinking, eating, fighting, loving, playing, reading or abstracts which can be searched in terms of names, and sleeping); b) human motions (such as carrying, kneeling, subjects. They are however still fragmented. One looks lean ing, lifting, lying, pulling, pressing, running, sitting, for dissertation abstracts in one databank, humanities standing, being supported, being suspended and thru­ abstracts in another, chemical and pyschological ab­ sting); and c) human emotions (such as anger, ecstasy, stracts in other databanks. Search strategies by author, fear, joy, sorrow and suffering). Systematic study of subject, period and image can be centralized. Books and these, comparing the extent to which they are reflected in articles (level 6) often contained poor reproductions of the titles of drawings, paintings and other works of art paintings and other works of art. Once these books and could provide valuable materials for the history of society articles have been scanned in,onecan study the history of and psychology. Are there trends in the gradual diversifi­ editions in terms of which images are added or removed. cation of depicted motions and exteriorization of emo­ The digitized versions of these books can also be supple­ tions? To what extent do they vary from culture to mented with high level illustrations by downloading culture? More could be learned by examining the depic­ images from databanks of major art works, thus impro­ ted relations between/among persons in terms of simple ving on the quality and effectiveness of the original descriptive adjectives such as to, from, with, against, at, publications. towards and away from. This approach could also be extended to relations between/among objects such as

KnowLOrg. 20(!993)No.! 49 K.Veltman: Electronic Media and Visual Knowledge inside, outside, below, above, near, far, and beside as well most familiar form. Since the Renail1sance' there has also as basic orientations in terms of North, East, South, and been a tradition of artists' reconstructions of partly ruined West. or no longer extant buildings. The advent of easily acces· The work of authors such as Brilliant (2), Kaftal (3), sible CAD' packages such as Autodesk's AutoCAD and and Aronberg Lavin (4) has focussed attention on the im­ 3-D Studio has led organizations such as the Committee portance of narrative for the development of mimetic art for the Study of Architecture (CSA) to make computeri· in the West. The sources of these narratives are both zed models of ancient buildings. Even so, reconstructions sacred (theBible and lives of the saints such as Voragine's are only gradually being recognized as an independent Golden LegemI)and secular (mythologies such as Ovid's area of analysis and interpretation. For instance, in edi· Metamorphoses). Prior to the advent of computers syste­ tions of mathematical texts it was customary to substitute matic links between all these verbal sources and visual a geometrical diagram for the original in the manuscripts. examples posed insuperable difficulties. In the pastdeca­ Manuscript variants in terms of diagrams were often not des computerized versions of many of these sources have deigned worthy of mention. Similarly discrepancies bet· been created including the Bible, effectively the whole of ween textual descriptions and diagrams were often not classical literature (Thesaurus Graeeum) and the whole of mentioned. The new edition of Piero della Francesca patristic literature (Patrologiae Graeeae and Latinum). edited by Dalai Emiliani, Grayson and Maccagni is intro· There is every reason to believe that other sources such as ducing a new standard where every diagram in the mao later lives of the saints, post classical literature and fairy nuscript is reproduced and complemented by a critical tales (e.g. Grimm) will become available within the next version that draws attention to errors or discrepancies generation. When this occurs systems such as !conclass obtaining in the original. will help to provide a front end for more ready access to There are different kinds of reconstruction. A simple this vast corpus. type attempts to establish underlying patterns in an exi· Other examples of external analyses which have been sting object. For instance, such a reconstruction may discussed elsewhere are comparison (e.g. copies, ver­ involve the imposition of lines of perspective or propor· sions, related images and other media), development tion onto drawings and paintings. More complex recon­ (both genesis of an individual painting through preparato­ structions typically use patterns at different levels of ry drawings and evolution of styles over time), places and abstraction. Reconstructions in this sense involve many sc.ales (also mentioned below under maps), relationships types, ranging from physical models to Computer Aided between practice and theory, concrete and abstract, uni­ Design and virtual reality. This involves a spectrum versal and particular'. linking concrete and abstract. Many assumed that know· ledge was a function of how close we could get to the 6. Restorations abstract side of the spectrum: i.e. a physical model was better than the original aspect of nature it represented; a Restorations involve a subtle form of analysis and in­ geometrical diagram was better still and an algebraic terpretation the importance of which has only recently form ula was best of all. Some persons are now conscious come into fo cus. Restoration sometimes plays an impor­ that knowledge lies not just in this abstract end but rather tant part in the context of manuscripts. For instance, in the whole spectrum from concrete to abstract. Hence Leonardo's Codiee Atlantica was altered by the process. reconstructions play a central role in our concepts of Some new text and images came to light, while in rare knowledge. cases lines were destroyed. Restoration applies particu­ larly in the case of paintings. Leonardo's Last Supper, In addition to these reconstructions within objects, Masaccio's frescoes in the Brancacci Chapel and Miche­ there can also be reconstructions between Objects in langelo's work on the Sistine Ceiling are three dramatic isolation and among objects in sites, particularly in the examples of how restoration changes our very conception context of architectural ruins. Such reconstructions are of the object of study. In earlier centuries the restorer more complex because they typically involve combina· carried out their task with little documentation. In the past tions of parts of existing objects with objects that no generation restoration has developed complex methodo­ longer exist (and indeed may never have existed physical· logies. The computer plays an important part in these Iy). Such reconstructions are invariably influenced by developments because simulations can now be made national ideals and ideologies. For instance, a Greek prior to interventions and very detailed records made of reconstruction of the Acropolis may look quite different all actual interventions. Perhaps the best example to date from a German, French or American version and as such of these possibilities is a program developed by Menci reconstructions offer unexpected avenues into visuali· and Chimenti in connection with the restoration of Piero zing the consequences of -isms. della Francesca'sLegend of the True Cross (Arezzo). The Using CD-ROM technology we could collect images database for this one fresco is over 600 megabytes. from different cultures and from different times of the same scene and thus make visible the way in which 7. Reconstructions society shapes our views of culture. Rather than telling The idea of reconstructions as an aid to understanding children in abstract terms that they should not accept is an old one. Physical models of wood are perhaps the communism, fascism or other -isms it would be much

50 Knowl.Org. 20(l993)No.! K.Veltman: Electronic Media and Visual Knowledge more effective simply to show them what certain -isms do vinces, provincial maps hotwords for cities, city maps to our views of familiar places and particularly with our hotwords for buildings, buildings hotwords for ground­ cultural heritage. At the momcnt, especially in countrics plans, ground-plans can have hotwords for rooms, rooms such as Canada there is a great concern with teaching can have hOlwords for objects. In this way one can move children multiculturalism. In the United States this term visually from a map of the world to any (significant) has become almost synonymous with relativity, which is objcct in the world in ten simple stages (cf. Fig. 6 below). misleading. If we use computers to show children how At present Geographical Information Systems (GIS) are different cultures image their historical landmarks and being developed particularly in the case of municipal and beliefs (or consciously do not use imagcs for this) we can local government toestablish the locations ofpower lines, help children and adults understand visually the comple­ cables, sewage pipes and other features of the environ­ xities of cultural variety. ment. The challenge is to apply these principles to our cultural heritage, such that the layers can include different 8. Questions levels of archaeological materials and different periods of Such integration of knowledge poses new problems of history. navigation6• How can a user move through vast amounts At present maps are already being used in the Micro­ of facts without getting hopelessly lost? The concept of Gallery at the National Gallery (London) to show visitors levels ofknowledge as discussed above offers one tool for in which room a given painting is hanging and to help this purpose. Four other navigation tools will be conside­ visitors plan an itinerary which will include a number of red briefly here: questions, maps, meters and tracking. In paintings of their choice. Maps offer many other poten­ school we all learned to ask basic questions each of which tials. A person studying Leonardo could trace the itinera­ has corresponding answers or types of knowledge (Fig. ry of his various travels on maps. A map could show the 4). Through author and subjectlis!s, both book catalogues present locations of all paintings by Leonardo and his in libraries and image catalogues in art galleries, mu­ school and also trace the history of locations of a given seums and photo archives have traditionally been limited painting. In the nineteenth century maps were used to to the first two of these questions. Computers will give us illustrate the spread of major movements such as Roma­ access to 'where' questions in terms of maps (see next nesquc or Gothic architecture. With an adaptation of the section) and 'when' questions through both simple chro­ hypertcxt concept this could be developed greatly. nological lists and electronic versions of the universal One of thercg ular objections to such proposals is that history books with their lists of key events in politics, the idea is splendid but since it is not a money making culture etc. 'How' questions can largely be answered proposition, it is entirely utopian to believe that it could through access to how to do it books after distinguishing ever happen. By way of reply, two comments should be whether the interest is as a hobby, a trade, or a profession. made. First, in fields which are thought of as business, the Why questions can be answered through Boolean sear­ esscntial fr amework for these approaches has already ches combining a given subject (what) with terms such as been developed. For example, if onc flies across the reasons and causes. Atlantic on Air Canada, there arc now maps that allow one Each of the questions can be seen as an aid in focussing to see exactly where one is at every pointofone'sjoumcy. or delimiting the scope of that which is being searched. A Similarly, at Rome airport, there are maps that trace person asking only 'who?' will simply be given an alpha­ weather patterns in thc past 24 hours and predict tlwm for betical list of all extant biographical names. A person the next day. In the realm of tourism, computers are being asking for 'who? and typing in the letter 'L' will enter the used to give pictures of hotels. In real est.1te, computers same list at the beginning of this letter. If a person types are being used to give picturesofavailablc houses. So, not Leonardo they are given a list of all Leonardos including only the hardware but also the software is already there. Leonardo Pisano (Fibonnacci) and Leonardo da Vinci. A It "merely" nceds to be integrated and applied to cuhural person typing in Leonardo da Vinci under 'who', flight objects. Second, it should be noted that such seemingly under 'what', and 1490-1500 under 'when' would be uncommercial applications will actually have enormous given the relevant pages of Lconardo da Vinci's Manusc­ commercial potentials in the long term. The experience of ript B (paris, Institutde France). As a resultan expert who television has confirmed that there is a certain amount of begins their search by knowing parameters to a majority interest in cultural and educational programs. Persons oftypcs of questions can avoid a series of steps thal would want to see an excellent tour of the Louvre or the Prado. otherwise be required to define a problem. They arc interested in seeing the great architectural, artistic and cultural monuments of Europe and more 9. Maps exotic countries. This interest will increase when the As was suggested above, physical maps such as those access is potentially interactive and will awake at least fo und in atlases arc particularly useful in answering the two quite different responses. Some will find in these question where (is)? In electronic form physical maps of dcvelopments a greater excuse to stay at home and will the world can have the equivalent of hotwords for each fo cus on getting the best possible images there. This continent, maps of each continent can have hot words for group will bring new sales in equipment and to the each country; country maps can have hot words for pro- communications industries (be they telephone companies

KnowI.Org. 20(l993)No.l 51 K.Veltman: Electronic Media and Visual Knowledge or cable TV, who offer fibre optic or other pipelines). 1. Animation Others will find in these developments new incentives for 2. Diagram ex- and in-tensive travel. Hence this second group will 3. Film also bring new business to travel agents, airlines, hotels 4. Photograph, black-white 5. and the tourist industry at large. Both groups will want Photograph, colour 6. Sound reproductions of their experiences which will aid imaging 7. Television companies (e.g. Kodak and Polaroid) as well as the 8. Text owners whose works are being reproduced (museums, art 9. Video galleries, artists). Thus if a longer view be taken there are 10. Virtual Reality no insuperable obstacles to applications in areas that have traditionally been considered unprofitable. Fig. 5. Mediaometer with len options. Maps are of two kinds, physical and conceptual. By conceptual maps we mean tables which establish rela­ This same idea can be applied to the problem of spatial tions between different elements. Such tables have their orientation using a scaleometer. If reconstruction shows origins in late medieaval scholastic philosophy when how computers can help us see an object in its cultural thinkers were attempting to establish hierarchies of being context, scale illustrates how computers can help us see and knowledge. As Ong has shown (7), during the Renais­ objects in their spatial context. Traditionally scale has sance these structural tables or trees were taken up and been one of our chief crileria for separating objects: small developed by Ramus (Pierre de la Ramee) particularly in piclures or maps go somewhere, large pictures and maps the context of logic. In the nineteenth century such trees go somewhere else. The computer offers a possibility of were applied to the life sciences in order to visualize relating all these images of different scales. Indeed if connections between genus and species. Their modern these images be organized systematically using a scalea­ equivalent in the realm of computers is a tree which shows meter one can move from any object, to the room it is in relationships between directories and contents. At the and finally a map of the world in ten easy steps (Fig.6). frontiers of computational linguistics such trees are being The sceptic may again say that this is a wonderful idea but used to visualize grammatical structures. quite impossible to achieve. Through the development of Facilities Management (FM), methods have already been These conceptual maps can be applied locally (Le. one developed for the systematic cataloguing of objects rela­ level at a time) or globally (all levels together). If I wish tive to walls and ground plans. Older museums have long a local map in terms of classification (level 1), then I am had their own general methods for the same problem. The given the hierarchical relation of my term, or if it be in a location of each museum or other building is already nested system, the level at which it is nested. A local map known through address books. The locations of cities in terms of explanations (level 3) will give me a chart within countries and countries within continents is known showing other concepts with which it is related. A global through atlases and gazeteers. Hence, by co-ordinating map will give me all hierarchical links that have been museum catalogues, address books and atlases, the pro­ proposed. If more than one series of links exists, then the cess of estabishing a spatial orientation system can effec­ alternativeexplanations will be presented. tively be automated.

10. Meters 1. World Another navigation tool is the use of pop-up tables or 2. Continent 3. Country meters with a variety of options that function in a manner 4. Province, State analogous to the toolpalette in Toolbook or the menu 5. City items in Windows environments. For the purposes of this 6. Building paper five such meters will be mentioned. A first incorpo­ 7. Ground Plan rates the basic types of questions and answers outined 8. Room above in the form of a questionometer (Fig.4). 9. Wall 10. Object 1. Who Persons Fig. 6. Scaleometer for spatial orientation and coordination. 2. What Obj ects 3. Where Places The full potentials of such an approach are staggering. 4. When Events A first stage would entail digitizing standard local and 5. How Instructions 6. Why Reasons world atlases. A second stage would entail relating this to digitized satellite images of the world which could (if the Fig. 4. Questionometer for basic types of questions and military permitted it) permit us to view any part of the answers. world in "real time". A third stage would entail digitizing historical maps. With the use of morphing techniques A second incorporates the potential interchangeability these could then be animated such that one could effecti­ of media discussed earlier such that a user can decide the vely watch how cities grow and how borders change with medium in which they wish to see their message (Fig. 5). time. Many paintings since the fo urteenth century depict

52 Knowl.Org. 20(!993)No.! K.Veltman: Electronic Media and Visual Knowledge real places. For example, Ghirlandaio's fresco of the objects (1:1) to maps of the world (1:5,000,000). The Pope giving Saint Francis the Rights to his Order (Santa scaleometer is designed mainly as a tool for orientation. Trinita, Florence, painted 1480showing aneventin 1223) Hence the limit to ten steps. Persons wishing to explore depicts the Palazzo Vecchio and the Piazza della Signoria geographical material in more detail would study interim in the background. Given a historical version of the scales and thus arrive at a deeper understanding of con­ scaleometer one could call up the relevant illustrations text. For astronomy one would wish to have a macro­ and maps around 1480 and in this way gain further scaleometer with scales well above 1:5,000,000. For insights into cultural context. mineralogy, cell-biology and other fields using (electron­ This same principle of different scales can be applied ) microscopes, one would want a micro-scaleometer with to chronology in order to provide temporal orientation downward scales beginning from a maximum of 1:1. A (Fig. 7). For most historical subjects the emphasis will be further resolutionometer could be used to indicate diffe­ on decades, years, months and days. Those concerned rent levels of resolution (ranging from 100 dots per inch with paleontology and related subjects will tend to use the to 4000 dots per inch) for purposes of viewing and scale of millions of years. At the other extreme those printing high level images. concerned with chemical orphysical processes will usual­ ly prefer minutes and seconds. 11. Tracking Tracking offers a third essential tool for navigation. I 1. Millions of years may begin a search looking for a term. While reading the 2. Millenia definition of that term I encounter another term which is 3. Centuries 4. Decades unfamiliar to me. So I search for a definition of that term 5. Years and may go on to search the bibliography of that term. My 6. Months search takes me through a series of terms and levels. 7 Days Suddenly I become conscious that I have forgotten the 8. Hours original purpose of the search. Fortunately each step of 9. Minutes my inquiry has been recorded by a tracker, which I can 10. Seconds now consult and print out if I so wish. This has the added

Fig. 7. Chronometer for different time frames. advantage of making visible for me my own search strategies. In an educational situation a teacher can ask The explosion of available information has made it in­ students to record their searches and suggest how their creasingly apparent that there are different levels of approaches can be improved. discourse needed in the description of an object, a techni­ que, process or other realm of knowledge. Physicists 12. Conclusions explaining a problem to their colleagues will use very Some persons remain sceptical that computers are technical language; explaining the same problem to a merely an expensive technology for seeing on a screen student they will use less technical terms and explaining what we know already. This paper has offered reasons to it to a layperson they will use a quite different method of challenge that view. Whereas earlier innovations in media explanation. These different levels of discourse apply to sought to replace their predecessors, computers introduce visual images as well as mathematical formulae and a) interchangeable media; b) multivalent access via va­ technical terms. Eventually one will wish to have what riant names that function as automated see also referen­ might be termed an accessometer to guide users in choo­ ces, c) systematic access through levels of knowledge sing differing amounts of detail concerning a given level which is made the more efficient through d) navigational of knowledge (Fig. 8). tools such as questions, maps, meters, and tracking. We

1. Pre-School have explored some ways in which computers entail a 2. Junior new integration of visual knowledge. We suggested that 3. Intennediate computers offer new horizons in our understanding of 4. Senior cultural history and ultimately in the interpretation of 5. General knowledge in general. These ideas, partly inspired by the 6. Craftsman intuitive suggestions of McLuhan himself, have grown 7. Professional out of a long term project. In conjunction with Greenfield 8. B.A. Projects, work has begun on two products (Copyright 9. Postgraduate 1992) termed System for Universal Media Searching 10. Research (SUMS) and Knowledge Engine. As is so often the case Fig. 8. Accessometer for different levels of discourse, these do not fit into any of the familiar cubbyholes of the university and hence remain underfunded. It is our hope These are but some instances of a principle that could that the power of these ideas will be recognized in time to readily be extended. For instance the scaleometer is ensure their continuity, and make our vision of visual designed specifically for the co-ordination of cartogra­ knowlcdge a new reality. phical or geographical scales. These range from original

KnowI.Org. 20(1993)No.l 53 K.Veltman: Electronic Media and Visual Know1edge Notes 1 This project would not have been possible without long tcnn support from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Reports and Council of Canada (Ottawa) and foundations including Volks­ wagen, Humboldt. Thyssen, Getty, whose contributions are Communications gratefully acknowledged. The project also serves as a test site for software packages. These include Autodesk products such as AutoCAD, Animator Pro and TIrree-DStudio, those of third The CODART-System party developers such as Cartologix and Softdesk and products A Computerized System for Registration, Docu­ by other companies such as Freebase and Superbase). 2BSO/Origin: the Dutch software finn: Burovoor Systeemont­ mentation and Information of East-Christian Art wikkeling) de Jongb Leendert D.Couprie 3 CHIN: The Canadian Heritage Information Network by Frank and 4 See, for instance (5) Around the world there are several long-term artistic 5 CAD: Computer Aided Design 6 There are other projects in this direction. See, for instance (6). developments for which a great amount of iconographic It is noteworthy that such projects apply nwnber CTllllching standardization is characteristic; in which, overthecentu­ techniques to words with no attention to historical experience ries, themes and subjects remain more or less the same. gained in the library world. This applies to East-Christian art to a high degree: in icons, mosaics, mural paintings, and in decorative art as well, the same motifs and scenes are repeated over and References over again. (1) Stursberg, R.: Lecture in new Media and Policy Series, Another feature of standardized art forms is that, at least McLuhan Program, 4 January 1993. at first sight, stylistic changes tend to be very subtle and (2) Brilliant, R.: Visual Narratives, Storytelling in Etruscan and unobtrusive. Roman Art. Ithaca: Cornell University Press 1984. These two observations lay at the basis of a plan to (3) Kaftal, O. Iconography of the Saints, Florence: Sansoni develop a computerized documentation system for East­ 1952-1965. 4 vols. (4) Aronberg Lavin, M.: The Place of Narrative. Chicago: Christian art. The acronym CODART refers to 'Chri­ University of Chicago Press 1990. stian-Orthodox Data of Art', the sub-title of CODART (5) Can musewn computer networks change our views of explains the developers' intention to build a threefold knowledge? In: Museums and Infonnation. New technological implementation, that may serve the needs of a variety of Horizons. Proceedings. Ottawa: Canadian Heritage Infonna­ audiences. tion Network 1992. p.IOI-108. For persons engaged in documentary activities concer­ (6) Clarkson, M. A.: The Infonnation Theatre. Byte 17(1992)No. ning Christian-Orthodox art, CODART's registration 12, p.145-152. module should be an indispensable aid, as the system's (7) Ong, W.: Ramus, Method and the Decline of Dialogue. data can serve as a blue-print for object records. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press 1958. Scholarly publications may profit from a set of compute­ rized 'productivity tools': authority files, thesauri, and Prof.Dr.Kim H. Veltman, McLuhan Program, University of Toronto, 39A Queen's Park Crescent East, Toronto M5S lAl, bibliographical data. Interested laymen may have access Canada to those parts of CODART's data which constitute an 'electronic encyclopedia'. The information is presented both in textual and in visual form. Of foremost importance is the development ofIhe envisa­ ged set of productivity tools, which have been called 'CODART-Thesauri'. The most comprehensive one, which is presently under construction, has been named 'Iconoc­ latura'. This indication refers to its function as 'name­ giver of icons': it will contain authorized, unique titles for all representations known in Christian-Orthodox art, and to each of these titles a score of supplementary data: feastday(s) in the ecclesiastical calendar, infonnation about the represented holy persons, visualization of typi­ cal examples, and so on. Scholars of East-Christian art will find this !conoclatura useful to arrive at unequivocal standardized titles of iconographical entities - in a field of study where thus far it is liberty above all things. As the titles are supplied in seven languages (Russian, Church Slavic, Greek, French, English, German, and Dutch), the !conoelatura can be used as a translation tool.

54 Knowl.Org. 20(1993)No.1 K.Veltman: Electronic Media and Visual Knowledge I Reports and Communications Another informative part of CODART's 'Thesauri' will Symposium on 'Research and Technical Scien­ consist of organized surveys of art-historical data which tific Terminology' are relevant for the study of East-Christian art: technical Rome, Sept 27, 1992, organized by ASSJ.TERM under terms, artist's names, definitions and circumscriptions of CNR's Patronage styles, and so forth_ Partially these surveys are meant as an The Italian Association for Terminology (ASS.I.TERM) enhancement of the J .Paul Getty Trust's Art and Architec­ faced the necessity - for a long time perceived by the Thesaurus, as this publication is not complete with ture whole Halian scientific community -of gathering, compa­ regard to the terminology used for the study of East­ ring, and homogenizing the methods of work and the Christian art. experience of many research institutes engaged in stu­ Other authoritative listings and surveys that will be made, dying technical terminology with a normative, documen­ deal e.g. with the texts (biblical, apocryphal, and hagio­ tary and lexicographic character. graphic sources) and the visual examples (e.g. in painters' There have been illustrated problems, results and propo­ handbooks) laying at the basis oftherepresentations; with sals analysing and establishing the influence of termino­ the standardized inscriptions of icons; and with detailed logy in scientific research and the necessity of a correct topographic-historical information. use of language planning strategy, in order to get an In the latter case the data will be implemented by means appropriate distribution of the results obtained by the of a Geographic Information System, so that the geogra­ research. phical dimensions of diachronic and synchronic historical It was just the question of a first meeting, a first occasion changes can be demonstrated through animated visuali­ in order to prove the synergism of powers and competen­ zations. ces available in different research institutes and held by The final goal of the CODART project is the worldwide many scholars who assembled under the newly founded registration of all important works of East-Christian art, ASS.I.TERM with the intention to study and to distribute whether in public or in private collections. CODART's knowledge on scientific and technical information in standardized data can serve as a basis for such a registra­ Italy by exploiting special languages and technical termi­ tion. Themostremarkable aspect of these standards is that nology. they are not only textual, but to a high degree also visual, Of special significance was the introduction to the Sym­ in the form of core examples of works of art. Given the posium by Prof.Giovanni NENCIONI, President of the standardized character of East-Christian art - as briefly Association. He underlined the way in which the evolu­ mentioned in the first paragraph of this contribution - the tion of civilisation has acquired features prevalently scien­ 'CODART-System' acts as the referential framework, tific and technological, leading to a process of technifica­ with the help of which registrational work can be restric­ tion of languages which prefers to omit traditional words ted to a minimum. and using technical languages in communication. Computerized datahandling and digitized picture repre­ For the physics sciences, the terminology of the Encic/o­ sentation are areas of research in a permanent state of pedia delle scienze jisiche Treccani was analyzed by development and renewal. The team that is responsible C.DEL BELLO, RGUALDO, C.TARSITANI. This work for CODART aims at a state-of-the-art implementation of constitutes an example of a macrotest realized in alphabe­ each of the successive parts of CODART, and is fully tically ordered monographic items. aware of the necessity to watch over the 'intercompatibi­ G.NEGRINI presented a software system called CLAS­ lity' of these parts. THES, which allows the management of a terminological Development of the CODART package in its entirety is, database. Its most important function is the creation of a in fact, a long-term project. The schedule for production thesaurus which not only manages concepts and their and publication aims at several instalments in the course relationships but also categories of concepts and hierar­ of the next years. chies of categories. An important intermediary stage of completion will be In medicine, the necessity of computerized processing of reached when the 'COD ART-Corpus' is ready - in fact the big quantities of heterogeneous tests has been felt with the 'encyclopedia' mentioned before. The 'CODART-Cor­ problem of how to handle difficult nominal syntagms. pus' will contain all the thesauri and authority files, AGANGEMI, AROSSI MORI and M.GALANTI are several tens of thousands of digitized and extensively trying to create a system to integrate tools for terminolo­ described 'icons', illustrating both the (iconographic) gical medical tests. uniformity and the (stylistic) diversity of East-Christian The automatic processing of natural language for the art. By meansofthe 'CODART-Corpus' ,and the retrieval prod uction, memorization, distribution and retrieval of programs that are being built around it, the most impor­ infonnadon was treated ina contributionby N.CAlZOLARI tant aspects of the development of East-Christian art can and A.zAMPOLLI. They analyzed the relationship bet­ be followed in a way hitherto impossible. ween terminological resources (corpora and lexica) and Additional information may be obtained from: Frank de methods in computational linguistics in order to build up, Jongh, Coordinator. CODARTTask Force, P.O.Box 625, structure, manage and enter various types of terminologi­ NL-250l CPThe Hague, Netherlands, Tel. 070 3465892; cal tools. Fax 070 3460239.

KnowI.Org. 20(1993)No. l 55 Reports and Communications The widely described ISFA language is a language for an at a special price of $2,450. The workstation includes easier processing of documents with their scientific terms ELECTRONIC DEWEY plus a stand-alone Wyse 386sxl and anagraphic indications. A.MARINI presented this 25 personal computer, an internal Hitachi CD-ROM dri­ language which allows to perform calculations and to ve, and a color monitor. organize selective check-up structures and to perform For further information call Peter Paulson at Forest Press operations on strings and files synthetically. It provides a OCLC, USA (518)489-8549. useful help in activities of analysis and standardization of bibliographic and anagraphic lists. Progress on Next Edition of the DDC C. Rosa PUCCI dealt with telecommunication problems The Dewey Classification Editorial Policy Committee which are connected with the creation and use of Italian (EPC) met in October 1992 to discuss the 21st edition of technial terms. Researchers working in this area have the DDC, scheduled for publication in 1996. described the phase of gathering and selecting such a At their three-day meeting at the Library of Congress in terminology in Italian with their corresponding English Washington, DC, revisions to the following tables and terms in specified application fields. schedules were approved for inclusion in DDC 21: The multilingual thesaurus of the earth sciences is at Tables 1,2, and 5. Schedules: 130 Paranormalphenomena; 150 present undergoing modifications of structure and con­ Psychology; 290 Comparative religion; 310 Statistics; 320 tents. Methods used for terminological updatings and Political science; 340 Law; 398 Folk literature; 630*635 Agri� principles modifying the structure towards an efficient culture; 660 Chemical engineering; 670-680 Manufacturing; means of integration in documentary systems with diffe­ 796 Generalities of sports and games; 900 Geography and rent functions were shown by R.POTENZA. history. Also, the Pilot Edition of a Thesaurus for Environmental The three major areas under consideration for extensive Studies was presented as a result of a translation of the revision in DDC 21 are: 350-354 Public administration; Dutch Milieuthesaurus into English and Italian. 370 Education; and 560-590 Life sciences. B.FELLUGA, S.LUCKE, and M.PALMERA are wor­ king on this project for the realization of a "strongly British Classification Society faceted" metaclassaurus, to include more terminological A Joint Meeting between the British Classification Socie­ tools than already in use in this field. ty and the Neural Computing Applications Forum was to Last but not least, C. SALA spoke on numerical elabora­ take place on March 3, 1993 at the School of Electronic tions on databases related to research projects. These and Electrical Engineering, University of Birmingham. experiences will be tested by AGREP, an information Under the theme Statistical and Neural Network Approa­ system of the European Community for research pro­ ches to Classification the following four papers have been grams in agriculture. announced, with an Introduction by Andrew Webb (DRA) and Closing Remarks by Brian Everitt: L.Tarassenko, Dewey Turns 120 and Goes High Tech St.Roberts: The use of multi-layer networks with spatial One hundred and twenty years after Melvil Dewey intro­ organisation for a medical classification problem. - duced his decimal classification system at Amherst Col­ B.Henery : Empirical results in the aplication of modern lege, OCLC Forest Press publishes a high-tech version of statistical, neural network and machine learning algo­ the Dewey Decimal Classification. ELECTRONIC rithms to large-scale classification (supervised learning) DEWEY, a CD-ROM version of DDC 20, was demon­ problems. - RRohwer: Neural networks for classifica­ strated at the American Library Association Midwinter tion. - D.Lowe: Clustering techniques for radial basis Conference 1992 in Denver. function networks. - Further information: Andrew Webb, ELECTRONIC DEWEY features advanced online search DRA, St.Andrews Road, Malvern, Worcestershire WR14 and windowing techniques, full-text indexing, a personal 3PS, England. notepad, LC subject headings linked to DDC numbers, and a database that includes all the latest DDC changes. Users can view and browse headings displayed in the context of the DDC hierarchy and see a sample cataloging record for the most frequently occurring subject heading associated with a classification number. Along with the compact disc and system software, the ELECTRONIC DEWEY package contains a user guide, which explains and illustrates the use of the software in the context of Dewey. A set of hands-on exercises teaches three basic approaches to using ELECTRONIC DEWEY. Also included are a setup guide, which provides informa­ tion on installation and setup, and a quick reference guide. For libraries which do not have the necessary equipment, an ELECTRONIC DEWEY workstation will be available

56 Knowl.Org.20(1993)No.l Reports and CommWlications Biological Engineering discussed the problems of know­ ledge. The conference was opened by keynote paper of a ISKO News 12 prominent Spanish information scientist, Emilia CUR­ RAS, who spoke on the problems of knowledge organiza­ tion in the present world and its connections with the world of information science. Thereafter, the philosopher Russian Regional ISKO Conference 1993 Ignacio IZUZQUIZA spoke on "Information as an ill­ Our first Regional Conference in Moscow, May 10-14, ness", considering the problems that the exponential 1993 is taking shape. As of Jan. 1993 some 40 colleagues growth of information is posing on social scientists. The have expressed their interest in participation, however, so bio-engineer Petero MARIJUAN presented a summary of far only 7 from abroad. Knowledge Organization - Pro­ the recent research on cellular information processes, and blems and Trends is the overall theme. Conference lan­ considered their implications for social information scien­ guages are Russian and English. The abstracts will be tists and actual organization of science. The cognitive available in Russian and English before the conference; psychologist Juan Antonio BERNARD considered the proceedings volumes will be published after the event. "Contributions of Cognitive Psychology to the Analysis Among the chairmen of sessions are Profs. V. V.Nalirnov, the and Representation of Knowledge". The mathematician Moskva and A.I.Sokolov, St.Petersburg. The registration and computer engineer Petro M. AGUADO presented a feeforfo reign participants is US$ 150.-. Accommodation general scope of the evolution of human-machine interfa­ is offered by Moscow librarians in their appartments for ces towards intelligent user-oriented retrieval aids. US$ 30.- per night (hotel rooms cost US$180.-1). For FcoJavier GARCIA MARCO considered the need of further information, please tum to Dr. Eduard Sukiasyan, working on a comprehensive model of knowledge acqui­ Russian State Library, UI.Vozdvizhenka,3, Moscow sition and transfer processes for improved informational 101000, Russia. and scientific transfer practice. Bonifacio MARTIN, a physicist, and Carlos SERRANO, economist, presented System-oriented, Cognitive and Model-Rela­ their work on "Connectionist Systems for Financial ted Aspects of Knowledge Organization Decision-Making". Migual Engal ESTEBAN spoke on This is the topic of the 3rd Conference of the German the "Epistemological Bases of the Documentary Classifi­ ISKO Chapter to take place in Weilburg, Germany, cation Systems of Scientific Knowledge". Fernando Oct.26-29, 1993. The Call for Papers has already been GALINDO, a teacher of law and Pilar LASALA presen­ announced in the previous issue of this journalbut will be ted their work on expert systems for law-related informa­ repeated shortly with the 7 general topics to be treated: tion retrieval. Finally, Antonio GARCIA ended the panel Epistemology and Knowledge Organization - Neural with a conference on the "Need for an Interdisciplinary Networks as Systemsof Knowledge Organization -Know­ Adjustment in Documentary Research". ledge Acquisition and Knowledge Representation -Prac­ The proceedings of the conference are to be published in tice and Systems of Knowledge Organization - KO in Spanish. Forfurther information please tum to: Fco.Javier Libraries - KO and its Teaching - KO in Sp ecial Applica­ GARCIA MARCO, Facultad de Filosofia y Letras, E- tionAreas. 50009 ZARAGOZA, Spain. In the Call brochure each topic is described by 5-8 subtopics. Abstracts of proposed papers should be sent by CRG 289 to Discuss Arts and Fine Arts March 31, 1993 to the second address below. Please ask The 289th Meeting of the British Classification Research for your copy from the ISKO General Secretariat, Group was held at University College London on Dec.1O, Woogstr.36a, D-6OOO Frankfurt 50, Germany or from 1992 with 9 members present. It was agreed that the Prof. Dr.N.Meder, Universitllt Bielefeld , PMagogische meeting to commemorate the Ranganathan Centenary, Fakultllt/AG9, PF 8640, D-4800 Bielefeld. held on Oct. 15th, had been a great success and it was hoped that the papers would be published in due course. Spanish Conference on Knowledge Organi­ Paragraphs 2568-2572 of the minutes of this meeting zation report on the vivid discussions concerning the outline (circulated) of Class V ("Arts, Fine Arts") in the Bliss On November 18-20, 1992, the "Ijomadas sobre Organi­ Classification, 2nd ed. The discussions took into conside­ zaci6n del Conocimiento", a meeting on Knowledge ration the Art and Architecture Thesaurus as well as also Organization and Scientific Information was held at the the Oxfo rd Companion to the Decorative Arts. University of Zaragoza, Spain. The aim was to exchange The dates of the next meetings were fixed for Fe br.25, ideas on the way in which knowledge is represented, April 29, July 8, Oct.21 , Dec.9, always at 2 PM except for organized and transferred from different disciplinary the April meeting at 4PM. For further information please perspectives, in order to enlighten the problem of scienti­ turn to Dr.I.C.Mcllwaine, School of Library, Archive, fic information. Scholars from Cognitive Psychology, and Information Studies, University College London, Information Science, Computer Science, Philosophy and Gower Street, London WCIE 6BT, England.

KnowI.Org. 20(1993)No.1 57 ISKO News 12 Electronic Imaging at AS IS Midyear Meeting Schemes; Interfaces for Displayi'lg Classification Sche­ 1993 mes; Data Structures and Programming Languages fo r Classification Schemes; Applications such as Subject This year's Midyear Meeting of the American Society for Analysis, Natural Language Understanding, Information Information Science (ASIS) will take place from May 23- Retrieval, Expert Systems. 27, 1993 at Knoxville, Tennessee. A 20-pages bulletin as Submissions should be made bye-mail or diskette accom­ of Jan.l7, 1993 has been released with the preliminary panied by paper copy. or paper copy only (fax or postal). program on the very many events planned. Its introducto­ to arrive by May 15. 1993 to: Phil Smith. 210 Baker rysection , headed Electronic Imaging: Clip Art to Virtual Systems. 1971 Neil Ave.,Cognitive Systems Engineering Reality reads as follows: Laboratory, Ohio State University. Columbus. OH. 432210 " This important conference will address current issues in USA. Tel: 614)292-4 120. Fax: (614)292-7852, e-mail: imaging for information management. When do you need [email protected] full text versus the image of the text? How well does database software handle mixed images and text? Has Yukio Nakamura Received FID Award automated indexing of imamges been explored and per­ of fected? To what extent and when does the image need to Our Japanese coordinator and member ISKO's Scien­ To­ be entirely accurate? tific Advisory Council. Prof.Yukio NAKAMURA. As networks become increasingly a necessity rather than kyo, was given the first FID Distinguished Information a luxury, integrating imaging with national and interna­ Professional Award in recognition of his outstanding tional networks takes on added urgency, including deve­ contribution to the information profession. The award is lopment of compatible standards and adequate bandwidth given biennially during the FID Conference and Con­ capacity. Imaging's potential as an alternative to film- or gress. We wish to congratulate our dear colleague on this paper-based image utilization and management requires a fine recognition of his professional work in Japan and his basic understanding of vision and how the brain and eye international cooperation. work together to analyze information. Born on 1 Jan. 1917. Yukio Nakamura graduated in The ASIS 1993 Mid-Year meeting will explore all this Physics from the University of Tokyo in 1940. He was and more, with over 30 technical sessions and plenary involved in R&D electronics for 20 years in the Nippon sessions featuring John GAGE of Sun Microsystems, Telegraph and Telephone Public Corporation. During Donna COX of the National Center for Supercomputer this period he noticed the usefulness of the UDC and Applications, and Daniel MASYS of the National Library became one ofthe fo unding members of the UDC Society of Medicine. Combined with excellent pre- and post­ of Japan (1950). meeting seminars, th is meeting offers a comprehensive Prof. Nakamura was also a member of the FID Central introduction and exploration of imaging and imaging Classification Committee until it was dissolved in 1986. systems for information management. Since 1991. he has been the representative ofINFOSTA For registration write to AS IS Conference Registrar, and has attended six preparatory meetings of the UDC P.O.Box 554, Washington, DC,20044-0554. Fax (301)495- Consortium. After 1992 he was nominated by INFOSTA 0810, Phone (301) 495-0900 (9 AM -5 PM). as a member of the Executive Committee of the UDC.

ASIS/SIG/CR Important Last Minute Info: Congratulations are in order for the Special Interest Group on Classification Research of the American Socie­ Third International ISKO Conference ty for Information Science. It has been named "SIG of the Copenhagen, 21-24 June 1994 Year" for its exceptional contribution to the work and Preparations for ISKO's Third International programmes of ASIS. Conference on the general topic Knowledge ASIS SIG/CR invites submissions for the 4th ASIS Clas­ Organization and Quality Management have started in Denmark. It will be held at the Royal School of sification Research Workshop to be held at the 56th Librarianship. Ms. Hanne ALBRECHTSSEN was Annual Meeting of AS IS in Columbus, Ohio, Oct.24, appointed Conference Commissioner and is about to 1993. 8:30 AM - 5 PM. (ASIS continues until Oct.28. organize three Program Committees, one for the 993). Topics include, but are not limited to: United States (Chair: Prof.Pauline A.Cochrane, Urbana, IL), one for Europe (Chair: Dr. Susanne Warrant fo r Concepts in Classification Schemes; Con­ Oernager, Copenhagen), and one for the other cept Acquisition; Basisfor Semantic Classes; Automated countries (Chair: Dr.Ingetraut Dahlberg). She has Techniques to Assist in Creating ClassificationSchemes; worked out a time table according to which the Calls Statistical Techniques Used fo r Developing Explicit for Papers should be distributed by April 15, 1993. Please, reserve the dates to participate in this Semantic Classes; Relations and their Properties; Inheri­ important event. ISKO members will receive the Call tance and Subsumption; Kn owledge Representation Sche­ for Papers directly from Copenhagen. Anybody else mes; Classification Algorithms; Procedural Knowledge interested should please turn to Ms. Hanne in ClassificationSchemes; Reasoning with Classification Albrechtsen, Royal School of Librarianship, Schemes; Software fo r Management of Classification Birketinget 6, DK-2300 Copenhagen S, Denmark.

58 Knowl.Org. 20(1993)No.l ISKO News 12 Ranganathan's work and personality presented in Part 2 entitled "The Intellect". This is a psycho-analytical study Book Reviews of the man and the social environment he worked in. The analysis is incisive, and the interpretations are deep and convincing. The topics covered are Ranganathan's place Girja KUMAR: S.R.Ranganathan: an Intellectual Bio­ in world library science history, his value system, the graphy. New Delhi: Har-Anand Publ. 1992. 327 p. ISBN make-up of his mind, the working of his intellect and his 81-24-005-5 holistic approach, and his creativity - the latter he viewed It is to Ranganathan that the profession owes the best it as a mystic experience. Lastly, the author discusses has. His contributions to library science, especially to Ranganathan's colonial background or intellect, acade­ classification, are of the order of creating a new paradigm. mics in the Third World in general, as well as hisrelevan­ On the intemationallevel, he received full recognition, as ce for today and tomorrow. Many may not agree with was manifested in the designation of his era as the what he has to say. Itmay even offend a few. He is indeed "Ranganathan Age". We will remain forever in his debt. opinionated. However, he has taken care not to offend the Yet after his death he has mostly been paid only lip living bigwigs while some of Ranganathan's associates sympathy. Not much has been done to implement and have been given no place in this study. further the legacy he bequeathed to us all. As a result most Nevertheless, the book is thought-provoking and provi­ of it smells stale, not being reinterpreted or updated as it des food for thought and reflection. Girja Kumar has is to suit present-day needs. By holding IFLA 1992 on the earned a reputation as an iconoclast, and through this centenary of his birth, or a lecture, or a conference here study he has tried to keep this impression intact. The and there we have only paid off an infinitesimally small language as usual is lucid and idiomatic. Girja Kumar has part of the debt we owe eternally to him. The book under been regularly writing on Ranganathan, so his regular review is a real and lasting tribute to Ranganathan, readers may find some repetition of his ideas here. Again, although it by no means tends to only glorify him. within the book itself, there is repetition of ideas and His life was absolutely dedicated to work and profession. phrases. Nevertheless the book is absorbing and throws To quote from the book (p. 1l4-5): ample light on contemporary India's social ethos and Work without reward was his motto ... He hadno vices. He never academic milieu. The author's wide reading in sociology, took tea or coffee ... The question of imbibling alcoholic drinks psychology, history, and Marxism and his intimate know­ must be considered far-fetched. Like Melvil Dewey, he did not ledge of Ranganathan shines throughout the book. Bril­ approve smoking in his presence. Work, work and more work liance is its hallmark. It is an outstanding and unmatched was his lifelong motto. He used to tcnn it as work chastity in his contribution to Indian library history and literature. It will picturesque Indian English. He worked all his working hours, help to understand Ranganathan: the man, his place in seven days a week and 365 days a year. He practised his in history, his creativity, and the Indian academic milieu of regiment for 20 years. He took no leave. He lived and dressed his times and of today. Mohinder Partap Satija simply. He went barefoot most of the time (a comfortable habit in hot climate). He was mostly clad in dhoti without shirt while at home. Dr.M.P.Satija, Guru Nanak Dev University. Department of Library and Infonnation Science. Anuitsar-143 005, India. His life was library science and its history in action. Many of his colleagues and admirers toyed with the idea of playing Boswell to him. Lack of archival resources and DIETZE, Joachim: Einfiihrung in die Informationslin­ the controversial nature of the subject deterred them from guistik. (Introduction to Information Linguistics). Leip­ entering the cobweb. Girja Kumar, who worked with zig 1989. Munchen: K.G.Saur Verlag 1991. 194p. Ranganathan and admired him critically, has courageous­ The contents and potential readership of this book are ly undertaken and successfully completed this book, clearly indicated by its subtitle: Linguistic data proces­ which was released in the year of Ranganathan's birth sing in information science. centenary celebrations in New Delhi. "Linguistic Data Processing" has been for many years The book is divided into two parts of almost equal length. already a firmly established term indicating not only the Part I, entitled "The Man", is an account of Rangana­ special application field for computerized procedures, Le. than's life, activities and achievements beginning from that of human language, but also pointing to a specific childhood to his last days even at DRTC Bangalore. This methodical principle, namely that of non-numerical part is at best fragmentary; gaps are visible. It reminds us computing technology, a branch of Artificial Intelligen­ that much more needs to be unearthed about Rangana­ ce. For, while all procedures to be executed by a computer than's life, especially his childhood and youth. Not much of the 1st to 5th generation can be described in strictly has been disclosed concerning the author's resources: His determined fa shion, the elements of natural languages do research is based on Ranganathan's fragmentary reminis­ not on any level obey exclusively logical rules. This point cences in "A Librarian Looks Back", on his letters to of intersection of natural sciences and the humanities has friends and colleagues, and on the author's corresponden­ already fo und the interest of many a researcher. The one ce with Ranganathan's only son T.R.Yogeshwar. The now trying his hand at it, however, Joachim DIETZE, is author has concentrated much more on an evaluation of a linguist of repute with several publications on applied

Knowl.Org. 20(1993)No.l 59 Book Reviews computer linguistics to his credit. It is therefore a most defined knowledge representation (KR) scheme distinct fortunate circumstance that the author is one of the library from the alternatives based on logic, frames, rules etc. directors who possess profound knowledge of scientific Virtually all state-of-the-art systems can be viewed as information theory as well. Thus, all prerequisites are graphs consisting of labelled nodes (concepts, indivi­ fulfilled for the coming into being of a scientifically duals, etc.) and labelled arcs (relations, roles etc.). - A reliable work, whose practical usefulness now only de­ comprehensive book on semantic network theory would pends on the structuring of the subject matter and the probably tend to be a general book on all kinds of KR. clearness of its presentation. The book is divided into three parts: Part I Issues in DIETZE deals in a very able manner with the 3 develop­ knowledge representation provides the theoretical back­ mental series - those of language, of computer analysis ground, Part II Formal analyses discusses mathematical and of information - that must be related to each other on and computer science aspects of research in KR and various levels. The linguistic problems of course come reasoning, and Part III Systemsjor knowledge representa­ first, here briefly summarized as phonetics, morphology, tions deals with a number of implemented systems and lexics, syntax and semantics; they are linked up step by projects. There is no necessity to read the parts (and step with information functions, whereupon the automa­ chapters) in any particular sequence. The first 43 pages tic analysis (parsing) methods are considered which must ("Issues in knowledge representation" and "Panel discus­ be interpolated between linguistically formulated text sion with all participants (of the workshop at Catalina)"), and retrieval knowledge on this text. As the investigation however, can be recommended as a briejintroduction to continues, the linguistic questions develop quite logically the basic problems and terminology. into text theory, the computer questions into production The applications of AI have shown the necessity to systems and the questions of information activities into concentrate on the intensional (as opposed to extensional) representation of knowledge. properties of concepts. To analyze concepts, several The book is intended for linguists desirous of becoming representation methods are proposed: SOWA's concep­ familiar with problems of information science. Lingui­ tual graphs (based on graph notations of C.S.Peirce - stic, or rather: philosophical knowledge is therefore re­ Chapter 5: Toward the expressive power oj natural lan­ quired on the part of the reader. However, this knowledge guage), BRACHMAN's KL-One language and its deriva­ is - summarily - but nevertheless completely - set forth in tives (cf. Chapter 14, Living with CLASSIC: When and the book itself, with due reference to the aspect it is to how to use a KL-ONE-like language), WOODS' concep­ serve. It is clearly oriented to its application to problems tual descriptions (Chapter_I) and some others. Generally of information using the instruments of informatics. The speaking, the notations try to make the semantic structure book also derives its importance, however, from the fact of the concepts explicit and formally analyzable. that DIETZE succeeded in making his book useful for two One of the fundamental concepts of knowledge organiza­ categories of well-informed readers: an expert in the tion in libraries and documentation is concept hierarchy. fields of information or informatics will profit from it ifhe In this book, the terms 'subsumption' (defined in terms of or she has sufficient basic linguistic knowledge, and any the particular method of concept representation) and philologist wishing or needing to occupy him- or herself 'taxonomy' are used to deal with the problem. with automatic language processing will value this book Chapter 1 by W.A. WOODS (Understanding subsump­ as a most useful aid. Erich Mater tion and taxonomy) is typical. All concepts are described in terms of composite conceptual descriptions (p.50-51) Prof.Dr.E.Mater, Jiigerstr. 63B/401, D-1080 Berlin, Germany as cl ... ck / (r,:v,), ...(r n,v.):(pl .. p,) ' ' where SOW A, John.F (Ed.): Principles of semantic networks c, - primary conceptual descriptions (in a simplified - Explorations in the representation of knowledge. San case: a conjunction of properties), Mateo, California: Morgan Kaufmann Pub!. 1991, 582p., (r, :v,) - relational modifiers (relation : value pairs) to ISBN 1-55860-088-4 describe relations to other concepts The book, a collection of 19 chapters by different authors, P, - general conditions is intended to bring together the most important results in This is a very general framework with great expressive the theory and applications of semantic networks, hither­ power. If all relational modifiers and general conditions to scattered throughout the literature on Artificial Intelli­ were dropped and the list of primary conceptual descrip­ gence (AI). The authors - mostly professors of computer tions were interpreted as a conjunction of properties we science - tried to organize the material as they would like would get a taxonomy, the familiar lattice-like traditional to present it to their students. monohierarchical scheme based primarily on the is-a The resuIt is highly interesting but hardly readable for relation and its extensional interpretation. novices to computer science and AI. The scope of interest However, the fu ll apparatus of semantic networks can cannot be sharply delineated: As convincingly explained accommodate much more: poly hierarchy (in the sense by Lenhard K.SCHUBERT (Chapter 2), "semantic nets used in documentation), the differences between the are in the eye of the beholder". In other words, it is structural (i.e. permanent) vs. assertional (Le. temporary, misleading to talk about semantic networks as an exactly situational) links, defaults, quantifications, exceptions

60 KnowI.Org. 20(1993)No. l Book Reviews from a more general concept can be overruled, "defeated" standard works, e.g. the rounding-up of ten attempts at in the case of an exception), etc. deciphering the engravings on Dighton Writing Rock As far as the concept of sUbsumption is concerned a near the Taunto river in Southeastern Massachusetts considerable generalizationof the traditional approach is (p.72/73): depending on their different theoretical pre­ achieved . If any instance of the subsumed concept must conceptions, the viewers from the 17th, 18th and 19th necessarily bean instanceof the subsuming concept in a centuries construe the most varied inscriptions, thus also model-theoretic sense (any cow is necessarily an animal), proving indirectly, among other things, how difficult it is we obtain the traditional extensional subsumption (and to infer a mental representation from any given structure taxonomy). found in our environment. In addition to this, there are several alternative subsump­ Such epistemological questions are as far removed, however, lionvariants (seep. 68- 69): structural, recorded, axiomalic, from Tufte's interests as the formulation of clear rules of

anddeduced.- In Chapter I I by B. NEBEL (Terminologi­ graphic representation. While showing himself convin­ cal cycles: Semantics and Computational Properties) a ced that the principles of information design are universal further approach to subsumption based the mapping of - like mathematics - and are not tied to unique features of concepts onto their (semantic) models is demonstrated. a particular language or culture (p.IO), he does not spell Even though natural language modelling issues are men­ out these formulae for us. Nor does he as much as use them tioned superficially in most of the chapters, we would like for the arrangement of his book into chapters. No, for the to point out Chapter 18 by Paul S. JACOBS onIntegrating ordering and understanding of the material the reader Language and Meaning in Structured Inheritance Net­ remains dependent on such knowledge as he or she worksas an example of fine analysis of conceptual roles already has. While reference is made to an adequate body of the indirect object in English in terms of labelled of relevant semiotic and psychological literature, Tufte graphs. does not rely on what this literature has to offer. Percep­ It is an interesting advanced-level book with bias for tion psychology, for example, has reformulated Tufte's computer science and AI issues. Otto Sechser aforecited initial question and asks it in the form: 'How does the human brain process the information it receives Dr.O.Sechser, In der Ey 37, CH-8047 ZUrich concerning shape, color, space and motion?' Margaret S.Livingstone and David H.Hubbel - to mention only one approach -. reply 'that visual signals are not processed TUFTE, Edward R.: Envisioning Information. Cheshi­ within a single hierarchical system in the brain, but rather re, CT: Graphics Press )Box 430, Cheshire, CT 06410) simultaneously in at least three mutually independent 1990. systems' (Spektrum der Wissenschaft, March 1988, p.l14 '''The world is complex, dynamic, multidimensional; paper seqq), with one of them being in charge of the perception is static, flat. How are we to representthe rich visual world of form, a second one ofthat of color and a third one of that of experience and measurement on mere flatland?" (p.9). of motion and spatial structures. Starting out from these Edward Tufte, a teacher of statistics, graphic design and neurological findings they then try to decide why some political economy at Yale University, seeks to answer this graphic representations are more clearly identified inter­ question by describing the structures of the 'flatland'. subjectively than others -and how such representatins can In the six chapters 'Escaping Flatland', 'Micro/Macro be optimized. That is a possible path for a systematic Readings' , 'Layering and Separation', 'Small Multiples', approach to Tufte's questions. 'Color and Information', and 'Normatives of Space and Personally I already mistrust the very form in which the Time' he develops the perspectives under which 'two­ problem is presented: I do not believe that it is the dimensional' representations - mainly in books . can be transformation of 'multidimensional worlds' into 'two­ systematized. On 126 pages he unfolds a host of examples dimensional' ones which is at issue. We can read Tufte's of graphic representation techniques which the reader book only because it is not a two-dimensional medium. will vainly seek elsewhere in such abundance and such We see the letters and pictures because ink or color was excellence of printing: maps of countries and cities accor­ deposited there - by whatever technological procedure. ding to a wide variety of projection techniques, sectional Maybe we regret the disappearance of intaglio printing drawings of spaces and bodies, micro- and macroscopic precisely for the reason that the 'three-dimensionality' of models and photographs, construction plans and design the printed matter has thereby been so greatly reduced drawings, timmetables, calendars, calculating tables, that our fingers can no longer feel the letters. And of computer diagrams, etc. He discusses the legends of maps course we love the painting of the old masters precisely and schemes, the grammar of the art of dancing and other because of the many layers of paint they successively notational systems such as e.g. flag and sign language. It spread onto the canvas, e.g. to produce an illusion of is in this collection and systematic listing of the represen­ depth. No, although there certainly are differences bet­ tation possibilities that the strength ofthe book lies. What ween the 'territory' and the 'map' - as G.Bateson expres­ makes it particularly valuable is the host of examples sed it, whom Tufte briefly invoked when presenting his from various historical epochs and practically all cultures definition of 'information' (p.65) - they assuredly do not of the world. Itr reflects pinnacles of collectioner's dili­ consist in the former being wide, long and high and the gence well worth of finding acceptance into relevant latter only wide and long. Information is tied to material

Knowl.Org. 20(l993)No.1 61 BookReviews media, and these, without exception, are multimedia in or colloquial terms. If there is a rule that goes with nature. But in addition it is also tied to the observers - as absolute deprecation, it is: Do not use this term anywhere. the "Writing Rock' example shows -, and inasmuch ask these observe and represent their environmental informa­ 2. Synonymous deprecation applies to a term which tion according to a culture-specific 'software', one will might be commonly used (for better or worse) as a probably look out in vain for 'universal principles of synonym for the preferred term but which is deprecated to information design'. Michael Giesecke achieve mononymy (i.e. one preferred term). For exam­ ple, the word attribute has a number of synonyms: cha­ Dr.M.Giesecke, Department of Linguistics and Literature, racteristic,property, aspect,jeature, quality, etc. Whate­ University of Bielefeld, Gennany ver the concept is called, to achieve mononymy all synonyms must be deprecated but one. Short of this, the recognition of admitted synonyms is often an acceptable Deprecation of Terms compromise in the consensus process.

By Charles T. Gilreath 3. Reserved deprecation applies to a term which is formally assigned (reserved) as the preferred term for a The preference and deprecation of terms is inherent in different referent. Here are two examples. If my defini­ every nomenclature, whether it be a controlled indexing tions are lacking, perhaps the examples are still clear. vocabulary, a terminology standard such as ISO 1087, a standard nomenclature of a science or technology, or even I. dictionary: A compilation of definitions which the individual vocabulary of a particular person. reflect polysemous term usage in a given The practice of preferring and deprecating terms is the domain. means by which communicators pursue the ideals of Deprecated term : glossary - Reserved f. concept 2. mononymy (one term per referent) and monosemy (one referent per term). Since these ideals are rarely achieved, 2. glossary: A compilation of largely monosemous we might say that this practice helps to minimize synony­ terms and their definitions in a given domain. my (several terms per referent) and polysemy (several Deprecated term: dictionary - Reserved for referents per term). concept 1. Here are some formal definitions from the International Note that deprecation does not necessarily mean that a Standard: Terminology - Vocabulary [ISO 1087: 1990](1): term is unacceptable in a given vocabulary. In fact reser­ deprecation applies only topreferred terms. Instead, preferred term: Term recommended by an ved authoritative body. deprecation (in general) means only that a given term is admitted term: Term accepted as a synonym for a rejected for a particular sense. preferred term by an authoritative body. Let us consider two remaining questions: (a) How do we identify terms to be deprecated? (b) Should we deprecated term, Syn: rejected term: Term rejected by explicitly an authoritative body. not give reasons for deprecation? Explicit deprecation involves singling out particular terms When there is a consensus that a given term is the best and marking them with caveats such as deprecated or do name for a given concept, that term is recommended as not use. Obviously, there are many terms that are implicit­ the preferred one. When another term is recognized as an ly deprecated for a given referent. So the key to explicit acceptable synonym, it is called an admitted term. An deprecation seems to be the extent to which the depreca­ example is shown in the third entry, where rejected term ted term is being misused in the given language commu­ is an admitted synonym for deprecated term. nity. (By misused, I mean: misused from the standpoint of Going beyond the treatment given in ISO 1087, let us the given nomenclature, because designations which may focus on the meaning of deprecation and identify three be deprecated in one nomenclature may be acceptable in basic types. I suggest the following names for these types: another.) Whereas "frequently" misused terms need to be explicitly deprecated, terms rarely used for the referent I. Absolute deprecation need not be. Of course, there is no fine line between 2. Synonymous deprecation frequently and rarely, so it is often a judgment call. 3. Reserved deprecation Not all standardizing authorities cite reasons for term 1. Absolute deprecation applies to terms which are deprecation. On this issue, I come down on the side of "flawed" in some way. In the Compilation of ASTM explicitness. If a term is important enough to be explicitly Standard Definitions (2), for example, the term fireproof deprecated, I am curious about the reason. Like most term is deprecated because it is "an inappropriate and mislea­ users, I am more inclined to accept a controlled vocabulay ding term". Trademarks and other proprietary name.s knowing such reasons. (although not flawed per se) generally fall in this catego­ ISO 1087: Tenninology - Vocabulary. Geneva: ry, being deprecated in favor of preferred generic names. (I) Intem.Org.f.Standardization (ISO) 1990. ISp. Emotionally charged words such as profanities and epi­ (2) Compilation of ASTM Standard Definitions (7th Ed.). thets.also tend to be absolutely deprecated, as do obsolete Philadelphia: Amer.Soc.for Testing and Materials 1990. 554p.

62 Knowl.Org. 20(1993)No.1 Book Reviews