10-Perry-Gloss.qxd 5/14/12 10:07 PM Page 839 GLOSSARY OF PHILOSOPHICAL TERMS z Some of the bolded words in the text are mere cognates to the words that appear in this glossary, so if you are unable to find the precise word that was bolded in the text, try looking for cognate words. absolutism The view that there are some types of could turn into a cockroach, so having a human action that are strictly prohibited by morality, no body isn’t one of his essential properties. Some matter what the specific facts are in a particular philosophers argue that the metaphysical idea case. Some have held, for example, that the inten- that underlies the accidental–essential distinction tional torturing or killing of an innocent person is is wrong. Things belong to many kinds, which morally impermissible no matter what bad con- are more or less important for various classifica- sequences could be prevented by such an action. tory purposes, but there is no kind that is more Absolutism is an especially strict kind of deonto- fundamental than all others apart from such pur- logical view. It is discussed by Thomas Nagel in poses. Quine, a leading skeptic, gives the example “War and Massacre.” of a bicyclist: If Fred is a bicyclist, is he necessar- ily two-legged? accidental and essential A property is essential for an object if the object must have the property to affirming the consequent Affirming the conse- exist and be the kind of thing that it is. A property quent is the logical fallacy committed by argu- is accidental if the object has the property, but ments of the following form: doesn’t have to have it to exist or be the kind of thing that it is. If P, then Q. Suppose Fred has short hair. That is an acci- Q. dental property of his. He would still be Fred, Therefore, P. and still be a human being, if he let his hair grow long or shaved it off completely. An essential This is an invalid argument form. Consider property is one that a thing has to have to be the this argument, which affirms the consequent: thing that it is, or to be the kind of thing it fun- damentally is. As a human being, Fred wouldn’t If Jones is 20 years old, then Jones is exist unless he had a human body, so having a younger than 50 years old. human body is an essential property of his. Jones is younger than 50 years old. Statements about which properties are essen- Therefore, Jones is 20 years old. tial tend to be controversial. A dualist might dis- agree about our last example, arguing that Fred is Clearly, this argument is a bad one: Jones fundamentally a mind that might exist without could be any age younger than 50. any body at all, so having a body isn’t one of his When someone affirms the consequent, often essential properties. Someone who has been read- he or she is mistaking his or her inference as a ing Kafka’s Metamorphoses might argue that Fred harmless instance of modus ponens. 839 . 10-Perry-Gloss.qxd 5/14/12 10:07 PM Page 840 840 GLOSSARY agent-causation Agent-causation is a (putative) from analogy needs to defend the relevance of the type of causation that can best be understood by known analogies to the argued for analogies. contrasting it with event-causation. When a ball analytic and synthetic Analytic statements are hits and breaks a window, one may think of the those that are true (or false) in virtue of the way causal relationship here in terms of one event the ideas or meanings in them fit together. A causing another, namely, the ball’s hitting the win- standard example is “No bachelor is married.” dow causing the window’s being broken. In an in- This is true simply in virtue of the meanings of stance of agent causation, it is not one event that the words. “No bachelor is happy,” on the other causes another. Rather, an agent—a persisting hand, is synthetic. It isn’t true or false just in substance—causes an event. Some philosophers, virtue of the meanings of the words. It is true or such as Roderick Chisholm (see Chisholm, false in virtue of the experiences of bachelors, and “Human Freedom and the Self”) have argued these can’t be determined just by thinking about that agent-causation is required for genuine free the meanings of the words. will. Agent-causation is also (see Chisholm) The analytic/synthetic distinction is closely re- sometimes referred to as immanent causation, and lated to the necessary–contingent distinction and event causation sometimes referred to as transe- the a priori–a posteriori distinction; indeed, these unt causation. three distinctions are often confused with one an- ampliative/nonampliative inference See deductive other. But they are not the same. The last one has argument. to do with knowledge, the middle one with pos- sibility, and the first one with meaning. Although analogy An analogy is a similarity between things. some philosophers think that the three distinc- In an argument from analogy, one argues from tions amount to the same thing, others do not. known similarities to further similarities. Such Kant maintains that truths of arithmetic are a arguments often occur in philosophy. In his Dia- priori and necessary but not analytic. Kripke logues Concerning Natural Religion, David Hume maintains that some identity statements are nec- considers an argument from analogy that pur- essary, but not analytic or a priori. ports to show that the universe was created by an intelligent being. The character Cleanthes claims analytical philosophy The term analytical philoso- that the world as a whole is similar to things like phy is often used for a style of doing philosophy clocks. A clock has a variety of interrelated parts that was dominant throughout most of the twen- that function together in ways that serve ends. tieth century in Great Britain, North America, The world is also a complex of interrelated parts Australia, and New Zealand. This way of doing that function in ways that serve ends, such as pro- philosophy puts great emphasis on clarity, and it viding food for human consumption. Clocks are usually sees philosophy as a matter of clarifying the result of intelligent design, so, Cleanthes con- important concepts in the sciences, the humani- cludes, probably the world as a whole is also the ties, politics, and everyday life, rather than pro- product of intelligent design. Hume’s character viding an independent source of knowledge. Philo criticizes the argument. In “The Argument Analytical philosophy is often contrasted with from Analogy for Other Minds,” Bertrand Rus- continental philosophy, the sort of philosophy that sell uses an argument from analogy to try to jus- has been more dominant in France, Germany, tify his belief that other conscious beings exist. Spain, Italy, and some other European countries. Arguments from analogy are seldom airtight. The term was first associated with the move- It is possible for things to be very similar in some ment initiated by Bertrand Russell and G. E. respects, but quite different in others. A loaf of Moore early in the twentieth century to reject the bread might be about the same size and shape as a idealistic philosophy of F. H. Bradley, which had rock. But it differs considerably in weight, texture, been influenced by the German idealism of Hegel taste, and nutritive value. A successful argument and others. Moore saw philosophy as the analysis 10-Perry-Gloss.qxd 5/14/12 10:07 PM Page 841 GLOSSARY 841 of concepts. Analytical philosophy grew out of the side. One couldn’t figure out whether it was rain- approach and concerns of Moore and Russell, ing or not by just reasoning about it. Now con- combined with the logical positivist movement sider the following questions: (1) Are there any and certain elements of pragmatism in America. married bachelors? (2) What is the sum of 38 and However, the term analytical philosophy now 27? After a bit of thought, you should conclude refers to many philosophers who do not subscribe that there are no married bachelors, and 38 + 27 to the exact conceptions of philosophy held by the = 65. You know these things a priori. You didn’t analysts, logical positivists, or pragmatists. need to make any observations about what was Indeed, there are really no precise conceptual happening. You just needed to reason. or geographic boundaries separating analytical One important question about a priori truths and continental philosophy. There are many is whether they are all analytic, or whether there analytical philosophers on the continent of are some synthetic a priori truths. The philoso- Europe and many who identify themselves pher Kant thought that (1) above was a priori and with continental philosophy in English-speaking analytic, whereas (2) was a priori and synthetic. countries. And there are important subgroups See analytic and synthetic for further discussion. within each group. Within analytical philosophy, An a priori argument is one that uses no empir- some philosophers take logic as their model, and ical premises. An a priori concept is one that is in- others emphasize ordinary language. Both ana- nate or could be acquired just by using one’s lytical and continental philosophers draw inspi- reason. ration from the great philosophers of history, See also analytic and synthetic; contingent from the pre-Socratics, Plato, and Aristotle to and necessary; matters of fact and relations of Hume, Kant, Hegel, Marx, Mill, Frege, Husserl, ideas.