Provenance and Geochronology of Cenozoic Sandstones of Northern Borneo ⇑ M.W.A

Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 76 (2013) 266–282

Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect

Journal of Asian Earth Sciences

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jseaes

Provenance and geochronology of Cenozoic sandstones of northern Borneo ⇑ M.W.A. van Hattum a, , R. Hall a, A.L. Pickard b, G.J. Nichols a a SE Asia Research Group, Department of Earth Sciences, Royal Holloway University of London, Egham, Surrey TW20 0EX, United Kingdom b University of Western Australia, Crawley, WA 6009, Australia article info abstract

Article history: The Crocker Fan of Sabah was deposited during subduction of the Proto-South China Sea between the Available online 15 March 2013 Eocene and Early Miocene. Collision of South China microcontinental blocks with Borneo in the Early Miocene terminated deep water sedimentation and resulted in the major regional Top Crocker Unconfor- Keywords: mity (TCU). Sedimentation of fluvio-deltaic and shallow marine character resumed in the late Early Mio- Borneo cene. The Crocker Fan sandstones were derived from nearby sources in Borneo and nearby SE Asia, rather Palawan than distant Asian and Himalayan sources. The Crocker Fan sandstones have a mature composition, but Provenance their textures and heavy mineralogy indicate they are first-cycle sandstones, mostly derived from nearby Heavy minerals granitic source rocks, with some input of metamorphic, sedimentary and ophiolitic material. The discrep- Zircon geochronology ancy between compositional maturity and textural immaturity is attributed to the effects of tropical weathering. U–Pb ages of detrital zircons are predominantly Mesozoic. In the Eocene sandstones Creta- ceous zircons dominate and suggest derivation from granites of the Schwaner Mountains of southern Borneo. In Oligocene sandstones Permian–Triassic and Palaeoproterozoic zircons become more important, and are interpreted to be derived from Permian–Triassic granites and Proterozoic basement of the Malay Tin Belt. Miocene fluvio-deltaic and shallow marine sandstones above the TCU were mostly recycled from the deformed Crocker Fan in the rising central mountain range of Borneo. The provenance of the Tajau Sandstone Member of the Lower Miocene Kudat Formation in north Sabah is strikingly different from other Miocene and older sandstones. Sediment was derived mainly from granitic and high- grade metamorphic source rocks. No such rocks existed in Borneo during the Early Miocene, but potential sources are present on Palawan, to the north of Borneo. They represent continental crust from South China and subduction-related metamorphic rocks which formed an elevated region in the Early Miocene which briefly supplied sediment to north Sabah. Ó 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction 2004; van Hattum et al., 2006). The Early Miocene was a period of collision of micro-continental fragments with the western edge The Eocene–Lower Miocene Crocker Fan of northern Borneo of Borneo, and cessation of deep marine sedimentation. Shortly (Fig. 1) represents one of the largest Paleogene sedimentary depos- after, and throughout the Neogene, vast amounts of siliciclastic its of SE Asia. Despite preservation of several kilometres of silici- sediments, estimated to be up to 12 km in thickness, were depos- clastic turbidite sandstones and shales, their provenance is ited in marginal basins on and around Borneo (Hamilton, 1979; largely unknown. Sedimentation of Crocker Fan in the Eocene be- Hall and Nichols, 2002). These sedimentary basins host important gan at about the same time as collision of India and Asia. Previous hydrocarbon occurrences. The provenance of these sediments is studies of SE Asia have suggested material may have been derived also poorly understood. from distant sources which could have included the eastern Although there has been work on the sedimentology of the Himalayas (Hamilton, 1979; Hall, 1996; Hutchison, 1996; Métivier Crocker Fan sediments, these have been concerned mainly with et al., 1999), whereas other studies have suggested that nearby depositional environment, and there have been few studies of source areas, possibly Borneo itself, may have been important composition and textures. The provenance characteristics of the (Hutchison et al., 2000; William et al., 2003; Hall and Morley, northern Borneo sandstones are discussed here based on analysis of detrital modes, heavy minerals, as well as determination of detrital zircon U–Pb ages. Neogene formations including the ⇑ Corresponding author. Tel.: +60 123313872. E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected] Meligan and Setap Shale Formations of SW Sabah and the Kudat (M.W.A. van Hattum). Formation (Fig. 2) of northern Sabah were also studied. Although

Fig. 1. Simpliﬁed regional geological map of Borneo and nearby SE Asia.

these formations were deposited at the same time (Early Miocene) 2012). Sundaland was an extensive continent during the Cenozoic in a similar depositional environment and climate, their sandstone and was largely emergent land during eustatic lowstands and gla- characteristics are very different, and reflect important differences cial intervals. Despite the present flat surface and shallow seas cov- in provenance. ering the Sunda Shelf it has been a tectonically active area, and The identification of source areas for the Crocker Fan and Neo- includes many deep sedimentary basins containing large volumes gene sandstones helps to constrain sediment availability and path- of clastic sediment (Hall and Morley, 2004). ways, and provides new insights in the tectonic setting of northern The Indochina Block forms much of Indochina and extends from Borneo between the Eocene and Miocene. A unique feature of Bor- the continental shelf of Vietnam westwards across Cambodia to neo is that it experienced a humid tropical climate throughout the the western uplifted margin of the Khorat Basin of Thailand Cenozoic. Tropical weathering during source erosion and sediment (Hutchison, 1989). Granites and granodiorites occur throughout transport was found to have a more profound influence on the the Indochina block (Metcalfe, 1996), and span a wide age range. characteristics of sandstones than is often assumed. This study Palaeozoic granites in NE Indochina have ages which are predom- has identified some of the limitations of provenance studies on inantly Silurian, but other batholiths are younger, at 250–190 Ma. sandstones that have experienced tropical weathering. In the southern part of the Indochina block there are Jurassic and Cretaceous plutons (Hutchison, 1989). 2. Geological background Lower Palaeozoic sediments are generally absent from Indo- china. The Indochina Block was emergent during the Devonian Northern Borneo (Fig. 1) lies in an area of complex Cenozoic and Carboniferous, and locally continental sediments were depos- convergence at the Eurasian margin influenced by relative motions ited. Carboniferous–Permian limestones were deposited to the of the Indian–Australian, Pacific and Philippine Sea plates north and west of the Kontum Massif, and Permian shallow marine (Hamilton, 1979; Hutchison, 1989; Hall, 1996, 2002, 2012). The clastic sediments were deposited at the peripheries of the Indo- continental core of SE Asia, consisting of peninsular Malaysia, china landmass. Mesozoic sediments are widespread in Indochina, Thailand, SW Borneo and Sumatra, and shallow marine shelf areas often within fault-bounded grabens, where they include between, is referred to as Sundaland (Fig. 1), and includes sandstones, mudstones and volcaniclastics. Cenozoic sediments abundant granitic rocks. This composite region of continental are typically continental and coal-bearing, and are developed in blocks is formed of fragments that separated from Gondwana at local depressions. Widely distributed Cenozoic basalts indicate various times, drifted northward across the Tethys, and accreted episodes of rifting (Hutchison, 1989). to the Eurasian continent in successive stages during the Late The eastern Himalayas contain continental blocks that were Palaeozoic and Mesozoic (Metcalfe, 1996; Hall and Sevastjanova, once part of Gondwana, prior to Carboniferous–Permian separa- 268 M.W.A. van Hattum et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 76 (2013) 266–282

Fig. 2. Onshore stratigraphy of NW Borneo and interpreted equivalent major unconformities offshore. tion. These terranes are characterised by platform Palaeozoic suc- and Cenozoic (Krähenbuhl, 1991; Kwan et al., 1992; Cottam cessions, in places covering Precambrian basement, which is usu- et al., in press). ally not exposed (Hutchison, 1989). The eastern Himalayas, like Borneo is suggested to be the product of Mesozoic and some areas in Indochina, have a high concentration of rift-, subduc- Cenozoic accretion of ophiolitic, island arc and microcontinental tion- and collision-related granite batholiths (Mitchell, 1979). The fragments onto Sundaland (Hamilton, 1979; Hutchison, 1989; major magmatic arc of the Himalayas is the Gandise or Transhima- Metcalfe, 1996; Hall et al., 2008; Hall, 2012; Hall and layan batholith system. It contains a variety of granites with ages Sevastjanova, 2012). Extensive granitoid plutons and associated from Cretaceous to Eocene (Maluski et al., 1983). volcanics form the Schwaner Mountains in southern Borneo. The India–Asia collision is widely considered to have initiated in They intrude metamorphic rocks of the Pinoh Group. The igneous the Eocene although the exact timing remains controversial (e.g. rocks yield radiometric ages ranging throughout the Cretaceous Tapponnier et al., 1986; Besse and Courtillot, 1991; Rowley, (Williams et al., 1988). In western Sarawak smaller Cretaceous 1996; Aitchison et al., 2007; Najman et al., 2010; van Hinsbergen granitoids form relatively small, isolated intrusions in an arcuate et al., 2011; Ali and Aitchison, 2012; White and Lister, 2012) and belt from the Indonesian border in the west to the Nieuwenhuis large volumes of sediment must have been transported from the Mountains in the east (Tate, 2001). A thick succession of Upper collision zone to the south or east. It has been suggested that the Cretaceous–Lower Miocene deep marine sediments of the Rajang large SE Asian rivers draining from eastern Tibet to the Indochina Group and the Crocker Formation form much of the main moun- coast had different routes prior to the onset of the India–Eurasia tain range of western, central and northern Borneo. There was collision, and that before the late Miocene drainage in Asia was sig- southward subduction of the Proto-South China Sea beneath niﬁcantly different from the present day (Clark et al., 2004). Prior the north Borneo margin from the Eocene to the Early Miocene. to the uplift of the Tibetan plateau (Clark et al., 2005) the Mekong The Crocker Fan sediments were deposited at an active subduc- and Salween may have been less important rivers than they are to- tion margin on the south side of the Proto-South China Sea. day, and much of the sediment from eastern Tibet was shed into Subduction ceased in the Early Miocene when there was collision the Gulf of Tonkin by the palaeo-Red River. of extended continental crust (Palawan, Reed Bank and Peninsular Malaysia includes rocks typical of a Palaeozoic con- Dangerous Grounds blocks) and the NW Borneo margin (e.g. tinental margin, which are intruded by abundant tin-bearing Hamilton, 1979; Holloway, 1982; Taylor and Hayes, 1983; Tan Permian–Triassic and minor Cretaceous granites (Cobbing et al., and Lamy, 1990; Hazebroek and Tan, 1993; Hall, 1996, 2002; 1992). The granites are part of what is known as the SE Asian Tin Hutchison et al., 2000). This episode is referred to as the Sabah Belt (Garson et al., 1975; Beckinsale, 1979; Cobbing et al., 1992) Orogeny (Hutchison, 1996). Deep marine sedimentation stopped, which extends from Myanmar southwards to the Thai-Malay Pen- but sedimentation resumed in the Early Miocene in a ﬂuvio- insula and further south into the Indonesian Tin Islands (Fig. 1). deltaic to shallow marine setting. During the Miocene the central Liew and Page (1985) showed that the granites were derived from, mountains of Borneo became elevated and rapid removal of and intrude, Proterozoic continental crust. Thermochronological material by erosion in a humid tropical setting generated great studies show exhumation of Tin Belt granites in the Cretaceous volumes of sediment (Hall and Nichols, 2002). M.W.A. van Hattum et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 76 (2013) 266–282 269

Sediment provenance studies from Borneo are few and have and the Eocene to Lower Miocene Crocker Fan (Trusmadi, Crocker concentrated on the Neogene strata (Tanean et al., 1996). There and Temburong Formations). The thickness of the Crocker are two main lines of thought regarding the provenance of the Formation in Sabah may locally exceed 10 km (Collenette, 1958; Paleogene Crocker Fan: (1) sediments were derived from distant Hutchison, 1996) and the main palaeocurrent direction is NNE source areas, probably exposed by the India–Eurasia collision, (Stauffer, 1967) suggesting a source area in the SSW. (2) Fluvio- and were either transported over the Sunda Shelf by major rivers deltaic to shallow marine sedimentation resumed in the Early such as the proto-Mekong (Hutchison, 1989, 1996; Hall, 1996; Miocene and continued until at least the end of the Miocene. The Métivier et al., 1999) and/or from mainland SE Asia longitudinally Top Crocker Unconformity (TCU) separates deep marine deposits along the Borneo deep water margins into a subduction complex from younger sedimentary rocks (van Hattum, 2005; Hall et al., (Hamilton, 1979) or alternatively (2) the characteristics of the sed- 2008). Drainage patterns became similar to the present day from iment, and traps and obstructions on the Sunda Shelf, are inter- the late Early Miocene. preted to indicate that material was derived from nearby sources, The age and stratigraphy of the Crocker Fan are still relatively possibly Borneo itself, exposed by local tectonics and quickly poorly known. Dating of the Crocker Fan based on biostratigraphy eroded in a tropical setting (Hall, 2002; Morley, 2002; William is difﬁcult due to the paucity of age-determining fossil assem- et al., 2003). These two scenarios do not necessarily contradict blages (Liechti et al., 1960) and the internal stratigraphy is often each other, and a combination of the two is possible. not clear. All available biostratigraphic ages from western Sabah (Rutten, 1915, 1925; van der Vlerk, 1951; Stephens, 1956; Collenette, 1958, 1965; Liechti et al., 1960; Wilson, 1961; Wilson 3. Stratigraphy and Wong, 1964; Jasin, 1991; Jasin et al., 1995) were compiled and were used to produce a contoured age map of the Upper The onshore stratigraphy of northern Borneo is shown in Fig. 2, Cretaceous–Lower Miocene sedimentary rocks of western Sabah based on published literature, new ﬁeld studies (van Hattum, (Fig. 3). There is a distinct trend of westward younging within 2005), and interpretation of the provenance and geochronological the Crocker Fan, away from land at the time. results of this study. Cenozoic sedimentary deposits in northern The TCU has previously been correlated in different ways with Borneo can be divided into two parts: (1) Deep marine rocks of unconformities offshore, typically in sequences deposited above the Upper Cretaceous to Eocene Rajang Group (Sapulut Formation)

Fig. 3. Sample locations and contoured map with approximate ages inferred from microfossils for the Upper Cretaceous to Miocene sedimentary rocks of western Sabah. 270 M.W.A. van Hattum et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 76 (2013) 266–282

Fig. 4. Onshore traces of the Middle Miocene Deep Regional Unconformity (DRU) and the Lower Miocene Top Crocker Unconformity (TCU) in Sabah interpreted from SRTM image and field mapping of the Meligan Formation by Wong (1962). the Crocker Fan. On land it marks the termination of deep marine anges to fluviatile and shallow marine sediments. Offshore, this sedimentation and a change from deep water sediments and mel- unconformity was identified by earlier workers (e.g. Bol and van M.W.A. van Hattum et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 76 (2013) 266–282 271

Fig. 5. Simpliﬁed geological map of Kudat Peninsula, Sabah, after Lim and Heng (1985).

Hoorn, 1980; Levell, 1987; Hazebroek and Tan, 1993) as an uncon- ing deep marine turbiditic deposition, but the Setap Shale Forma- formity below the Miocene hydrocarbon-producing strata of NW tion contains shallow-marine Skolithos burrows. Borneo, but was left unnamed. Most studies of the offshore region The Meligan Formation (Fig. 2) is a relatively uniform sandstone have paid little attention to this important unconformity although succession and resembles the Oligo-Miocene Nyalau Formation of younger unconformities are widely discussed, for example, the Sarawak (Liechti et al., 1960). Lower Miocene pelagic foraminifera well-known Middle Miocene Deep Regional Unconformity (DRU) were found in dark grey shales within the Meligan Formation which has commonly been correlated (e.g. Levell, 1987) with Early (Wilson and Wong, 1962). The arenaceous microfauna, significant or Middle Miocene collision, we believe incorrectly (Hall et al., changes of thickness and presence of large foresets, in combination 2008; Hall, in press). Younger regional unconformities, such as with widespread carbonaceous matter, ripple marks and crossbed- the Intermediate and Shallow Regional Unconformity (IRU and ding, indicate a littoral environment and very shallow marine SRU) are best known offshore (Hazebroek and Tan, 1993). Although conditions. Towards the top of the formation, paralic conditions difficult to observe in the field, because of the difficulties of pene- are indicated by brackish-water faunas and an increase in lignites. trating into the rainforest interior of Sabah and Sarawak in deep The base of the Meligan Formation is generally conformable with river valleys, both the TCU and DRU can be clearly separated on the partly older Setap Shale Formation, and locally the two forma- SRTM (Shuttle Radar Topography Mission) images (Fig. 4). tions interfinger. The maximum thickness is reported to reach Neogene fluvio-deltaic to shallow marine sediments overlie the 4500–5500 m, but these are composite figures and in any vertical TCU. The Setap Shale Formation of SW Sabah (Fig. 2) is a monoto- column the thickness does not exceed 3000 m (Liechti et al., 1960). nous marine succession of dark clay and shale with minor interca- The Lower Miocene Kudat Formation (Fig. 2) also overlies the TCU lations of thin-bedded sandstone and siltstone (Wilson and Wong, and is a thick succession of predominantly sandy paralic to shallow 1964). Towards the east the proportion of sand increases, and the marine sediments covering almost the entire Kudat Peninsula and Setap Shale Formation occasionally interfingers with the sandy parts of the Bongaya Peninsula in northern Sabah (Fig. 5). The Kudat Meligan Formation. Their age is Early Miocene. The lithology of Formation is the only formation in Sabah which can be subdivided the Setap Shale Formation resembles that of the older Temburong into members (Stephens, 1956). The lowest Tajau Sandstone Formation of SW Sabah (Fig. 2), which is the upper part of the Member consists of very proximal sandy debris flows that have Crocker Fan. The Setap Shale and the Temburong Formations are occasionally been reworked as storm beds with hummocky cross often difficult to tell apart in the field. However, the Temburong stratification. The overlying Sikuati Member contains paralic sand- Formation is deformed together with the Crocker Formation and stones with layers of lignite. The formation was originally dated as has experienced low-grade metamorphism. The Setap Shale For- Eocene–Miocene (Stephens, 1956) but Clement and Keij (1958) later mation is non-metamorphic and generally less deformed. In the showed that the Eocene and Oligocene ages were based either on Temburong Formation Bouma sequences can be observed indicat- benthic microfauna that are not age-determining, or reworked 272 M.W.A. van Hattum et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 76 (2013) 266–282

Fig. 6. (A) QFL plot of framework detrital modes showing compositions of the Lower Miocene sandstones of western Sabah and the average composition of the Crocker Fan sandstones. The western Sabah sandstones generally have a quartzose mature composition. The least mature sandstones belong to the Tajau Sandstone Member of the Kudat Formation. (B) QmFLt plot of framework detrital modes showing compositions of the Lower Miocene sandstones of western Sabah, and the average composition of the Crocker Fan sandstones. The highest compositional maturity is found in the sandstones of the Meligan Formation. The least mature sandstones belong to the Tajau Sandstone Member of the Kudat Formation. larger foraminifera. They used numerous larger pelagic foraminifera provenance interpretations, as long as the provenance signal is to determine an Early Miocene age. The Kudat Formation is a time- successfully distinguished from the effects of hydraulic sorting equivalent of the Meligan and Setap Shale Formations of SW Sabah and chemical destruction. Heavy mineral fractions in sandstones but unfortunately the unrevised ages of Stephens (1956) are often can also be used to identify sediment pathways, sediment dispersal quoted as depositional ages (e.g. Lim and Heng, 1985; Tongkul, patterns, sedimentary environments and for correlation of barren 1995; Petronas, 1999), leading to confusion over the origin and age strata (Mange and Maurer, 1992). of the Kudat Formation. Provenance analysis requires the freshest possible samples but exposure in Sabah can be poor because a humid tropical climate and lush vegetation cause outcrops to be eliminated or com- 4. Methods pletely overgrown within a matter of years. Fresh samples of Cenozoic sandstones were collected from river sections and coast- Analysis of detrital constituents is routinely used to interpret al outcrops, and new outcrops were discovered at sites of road the provenance and palaeotectonic setting of sandstones (e.g. Dick- construction and urban development during ﬁeldwork in 2001 inson et al., 1983). Heavy mineral analysis is useful for making and 2002. M.W.A. van Hattum et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 76 (2013) 266–282 273

The Gazzi-Dickinson method of point counting was used for tain abundant K-feldspar and lithic clasts that suggest derivation light mineral modal analysis in order to reduce grain size influence from a nearby acid (meta)plutonic source. No potential source (Tucker, 1988) and 300 grains were counted per sample. Grains lar- rocks are found in Sabah and the nearest potential source rocks ger than 30 lm were counted as mineral constituents, and smaller are further north on Palawan. Limited palaeocurrent data from grains were counted as matrix. Heavy mineral fractions were sep- the Kudat Formation suggest that a source area to the north is arated by methods similar to the funnel separation method of likely. More mature sandstones of the Sikuati Member of the Kudat Mange and Maurer (1992). The heavy mineral grains were counted Formation, like the Setap Shale and Meligan Formation sandstones, in permanent grain mounts using the ribbon count method yield- resemble recycled Crocker sandstones. ing number frequencies of minerals. Zircons were separated from the heavy mineral fractions for 5.2. Textures varietal studies and SHRIMP (sensitive high-resolution ion micro- probe) U–Pb dating was carried out at the SHRIMP II facility at Cur- The textures of the Crocker sandstones are strikingly immature, tin University of Technology, Australia where we attempted to resembling first-cycle sandstones. The shape of the grains is angu- analyse sufficient grains characterise the principal age populations lar to subangular, and there are few clasts with signs of sedimen- in sandstone samples (Dodson et al., 1988; Cawood et al., 1999). tary recycling. The sandstones tend to be poorly sorted, have a SHRIMP experimental techniques are discussed in detail by Smith muddy matrix and very low porosity, making them of little interest et al. (1998). as hydrocarbon reservoir sands. This is in contrast to their quartzose, compositionally mature character, which suggests a more ad- 5. Mineralogy vanced degree of sedimentary recycling. The low-grade metamorphic quartzites of the Trusmadi Formation are dense 5.1. Light mineral detrital modes and quartz-cemented. The QFL and QmFLt plots (Dickinson et al., 1983; Dickinson and The sandstones of the Crocker Fan have a mature quartzose Suczek, 1979) suggest that most of the Crocker sandstones have a composition (Fig. 6), and the most abundant clasts are plutonic recycled orogenic source (Fig. 6) but an important limitation of quartz. Metamorphic and volcanic quartz are much less common, these plots is that they mostly disregard climatic influence on and volcanic quartz occurs only in the oldest samples of the Crock- sandstone composition; throughout the Neogene there has been er Fan. When feldspar is present, K-feldspar is the most abundant a humid tropical climate on Borneo leading to high weathering type. It is most likely that the Crocker Fan sandstones have a and erosion rates (Hall and Nichols, 2002). The interpretation of mostly acid plutonic source. Of the lithic fragments, radiolarian standard modal plots can be misleading for tropical sandstones be- chert is never abundant but always present, forming up to 5% of cause light mineral compositions can be strongly altered by humid the modal volume. This suggests that rocks of the ophiolitic base- tropical weathering during erosion, transport and alluvial storage ment were available for erosion. Other recognizable lithic frag- of sand (Suttner et al., 1981; Johnsson et al., 1988). This occurs ments include schistose fragments, rare acid volcanic fragments by the preferential destruction of feldspar and unstable lithic frag- and granite fragments in the coarser sandstones, and polycrystal- ments relative to chemically stable quartz, therefore altering or line quartzose grains that could have an igneous or metasedimen- destroying the tectonic modal character. Tropical weathering can tary origin. Carbonate clasts are rare. Other detrital constituents account for the discrepancy between textural and compositional include opaque grains, chlorite, muscovite and biotite. data of the Crocker Fan sandstones. The textural immaturity will During the Early Miocene quartzose sandstones of the Lower be further highlighted by varietal zircon studies. Miocene Setap Shale and Meligan Formations were deposited in The Lower Miocene sandstones have a higher degree of grain SW Sabah above the Top Crocker Unconformity (TCU). These sand- rounding than the Crocker sandstones, consistent with sedimen- stones are similar to the Upper Cretaceous–Lower Miocene Rajang tary recycling. The Miocene sandstones are better sorted and have and Crocker sandstones, but are more mature in composition and higher porosities than those of the Crocker Fan. texture (sorting and clast rounding). Their most important component is monocrystalline plutonic quartz and they appear to be 5.3. Heavy minerals recycled from the Crocker and Rajang sandstones. The compositions of some sandstones of the Lower Miocene Ku- The heavy minerals of all Crocker Fan sandstones are predomi- dat Formation of northern Sabah are quite different. Sandstones of nantly those that are chemically stable. A summary of the contents the Tajau Sandstone Member are compositionally and texturally of detrital heavy minerals in the Crocker Fan sandstones is shown immature, with a mixed magmatic arc character (Fig. 6). They con- in Table 1. The heavy minerals are dominated by zircon and

Table 1 Average heavy mineral contents of the main formations of western Sabah. The Tajau Sandstone Member is listed separately from the other members of the Kudat Formation due to its distinctive composition.

Mineral Average heavy mineral contents (%) Trusmadi Fm Crocker Fm Setap-Meligam Fm Kudat Fm (Tajau) Kudat Fm (other) Eocene Eocene–L Miocene Lower Miocene Lower Miocene Lower Miocene Zircon 27.2 36.9 46.9 24.4 42.8 Tourmaline 46.7 38.5 33.2 7.8 25.9 Rutile 6.7 6.0 7.0 2.3 10.4 Cr-Spinel 2.2 1.1 4.4 0.0 2.0 Garnet 2.8 7.0 3.2 34.0 4.6 Apatite 5.2 3.9 1.0 9.8 7.4 Pyroxene 0.7 0.8 0.6 7.6 1.6 Amphibole 0.4 0.2 0.0 0.1 0.3 Monazite 0.1 0.3 0.2 1.1 0.4 Others 8.0 5.2 3.5 12.9 4.6 274 M.W.A. van Hattum et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 76 (2013) 266–282 tourmaline. Other common minerals are rutile, garnet, chromian spinel and apatite. There are also minor quantities of pyroxene, amphibole and monazite. Authigenic heavy minerals include brookite and anatase. It is striking that detrital zircon and tourmaline usually show few signs of abrasion. Apatite, a common mineral in acid igneous rocks, is not always present, and many apatite grains that do occur are often pitted or partially dissolved, even in the freshest sandstone samples. Apatite is unstable under conditions of acidic weathering (Morton, 1984), especially humid tropical conditions, and apatite dissolution may have occurred at any stage of source erosion, transport and deposition. Some samples of the Trusmadi Formation that contain no apatite do contain relatively fresh pyroxene, suggesting that the ophiolitic material was less weathered than acid igneous material. Chromian spinel is nearly always present, but never exceeds 4% of the total heavy mineral fraction. It shows very little abrasion, indicates that a local ophiolitic source must have been important. This was most likely the basement of northern Borneo, which consists mostly of Mesozoic ophiolites (Hutchison, 1978; Hall and Wilson, 2000). Less stable ferromagnesian minerals are absent although clinopyroxenes and amphiboles are sometimes Fig. 7. Chrome spinel-zircon (CZi) vs garnet-zircon (GZi) index value diagram of preserved. western Sabah sandstones. CZi indicates the amount of ophiolitic material relative to acid igneous material, GZi, indicates the amount of metamorphic material The abundance of garnet is very variable but is usually subordi- relative to acid igneous material. Throughout the Crocker Formation a small but nate to zircon and tourmaline. The garnets rarely show signs of steady input of ophiolitic material, but a rather variable input of metamorphic chemical destruction. The provenance of the garnet is not certain. material. Potential source rocks are the Pinoh Metamorphics of southern Borneo, intruded by the granites of the Schwaner Mountains (Pieters and Sanyoto, 1993), or the basement of the Tin Belt In contrast, the Tajau Sandstone Member of the Lower Miocene (Krähenbuhl, 1991). Kudat Formation of northern Sabah contains the compositionally The presence of detrital cassiterite, although rare, indicates that and texturally least mature sandstones of western Sabah. The hea- the Tin Belt probably supplied material to the Crocker Fan. Despite vy mineral assemblages are the most diverse of the Sabah sand- being chemically stable, cassiterite is a very brittle and dense stones (Table 1). They are dominated by garnet, which can make mineral. It is hydraulically separated from lower density sediment up nearly half of the entire heavy mineral fraction. Other minerals at an early stage of transport (Hosking, 1971), and does not get include mostly unabraded zircon, tourmaline, unweathered apatite re-entrained. and rutile, and appreciable amounts of chrome spinel, epidote, It is notable that volcanic material is absent in most of the pyroxene, kyanite, and sillimanite, as well as small amounts of Crocker Fan sandstones. The poorly dated Oligocene Labang staurolite, corundum, sphene, monazite and olivine. Examples of Formation contains relatively large amounts of pyroxene and horn- heavy minerals are shown in SEM images in Supplementary Docu- blende, which suggest a greater input from intermediate and basic ment 1. The Tajau Sandstone Member is the only sedimentary unit source rocks than to other sediments of western Sabah. It contains on Sabah to include appreciable amounts of kyanite, suggesting a some of the least mature sandstones of Sabah, with a possible high-grade metamorphic source, and the assemblages include magmatic arc provenance based on their modal compositions, many other metamorphic minerals. The high proportion of zircon, and was probably deposited in a forearc position but closer to tourmaline and apatite shows that acid plutonic source rocks were the arc than the Crocker Fan. also important. The Tajau Sandstone Member heavy mineral Despite the compositional maturity of the heavy mineral assemblages could not be derived by recycling of Crocker sand- assemblages of the Crocker Fan sandstones, their grain shapes indi- stones. Grains show very few signs of transport, and limited indicate a low textural maturity, with a high proportion of unabraded, cations of chemical destruction. probably first cycle, zircons. Tourmalines have a similar character. A small proportion of strongly coloured zircons, mostly purple 5.4. Heavy mineral indices varieties, are usually well rounded and probably have a polycyclic history. The dominance of unabraded zircon and tourmaline sug- Indices of mineral pairs with similar hydraulic and diagenetic gests a proximal acid plutonic source. There are no Paleogene or behaviour may reflect provenance, provided that they are stable older granites in northern Borneo itself. The nearest potential within the diagenetic and weathering context of the study, and source areas are the Cretaceous granites of the Schwaner Moun- that they have similar densities and grain sizes, which are the main tains (southern Borneo) and the mainly Permian–Triassic granites controls on hydrodynamic behaviour. Morton and Hallsworth of the Malay-Thai Tin Belt. (1994) proposed a number of mineral indices that largely reflect The heavy mineral assemblages of the Lower Miocene Setap provenance characteristics. Of these indices, the apatite- Shale and Meligan Formations are also compositionally very ma- tourmaline index (ATi) is likely to be affected by tropical weather- ture and dominated by zircon and tourmaline (Table 1). Other min- ing during erosion, transport and sedimentation, and may erals include rutile, chrome spinel, garnet, apatite and pyroxene. therefore be unsuitable for provenance interpretations in this The relatively high proportion of chromian spinel and the preser- study. The index values of GZi (garnet-zircon) and CZi (chromian vation of pyroxene in otherwise highly mature sandstones suggest spinel-zircon) are the most useful for provenance interpretations a fresh ophiolitic source in addition to recycled sedimentary mate- of the western Sabah sandstones. The CZi index provides an indica- rial. The similarity of the heavy mineral assemblages to those of tion of the amount of ophiolitic material relative to acid igneous the Crocker Fan and their slightly more rounded character suggests material, and the GZi index gives an indication of the amount of recycling. metamorphic material relative to acid igneous material. M.W.A. van Hattum et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 76 (2013) 266–282 275

CZi values of the Crocker and Trusmadi Formations are typically of turbidite sandstones and mudstones, one at Lok Kawi Heights 2–7 (Fig. 7), indicating a minor but consistent input of ophiolitic (17 km south of Kota Kinabalu) and one at Sepangar Bay (12 km material. The GZi values vary from 0 to 61. The large variation in NE of Kota Kinabalu). The sandstones all have a quartzose compo- garnet contents in the Crocker Formation, suggests changing input sition. The two outcrops are briefly described below and illustrated from metamorphic sources. CZi and GZi indices are not correlated in Supplementary Document 1 with composite diagrams that show implying ophiolitic and metamorphic source rocks in different lithostratigraphy, palaeocurrent measurements, abundance of the areas. most prominent heavy minerals (zircon, tourmaline, rutile, chro- CZi values of the Setap Shale and Meligan Formations, which mian spinel, apatite and garnet), provenance-sensitive heavy min- were interpreted above to be largely recycled from the Crocker For- eral indices, and zircon varieties. mation, are generally higher than those of the Crocker sandstones, Both sections are dominated by zircon and tourmaline, and con- suggesting that they had an additional supply from a ophiolitic tain relatively small amounts of rutile and chromian spinel. There source. The Setap Shale and Meligan Formations show relatively are significant differences between the abundance of apatite and low GZi-values which can be accounted for simply by recycling garnet in the two sections. The Sepangar Bay section is overall con- of Crocker sandstones (Fig. 7). siderably richer in apatite than the Lok Kawi Heights section. Both CZi values of the Kudat Formation sandstones are variable but sites were sampled below the modern-day weathering profile tend to be low, especially in the Tajau Sandstone Member, suggest- within months of excavation, so recent destruction of apatite is un- ing a limited input of ophiolitic material. However, GZi values of likely. The difference in apatite contents probably indicates differ- the Kudat Formation sandstones show a large variation with the ent amounts of chemical weathering in the source areas of the two highest values in the Tajau Sandstone Member (GZi = 73), confirm- sections. In contrast, the difference in garnet contents is more ing an important metamorphic source. In contrast, there is little likely to indicate differences in source rocks. The garnet contents garnet in the mature quartzose and younger Sikuati Member of in the Lok Kawi Heights section increase up section in sandstones the Kudat Formation, which is interpreted to have been recycled of similar grain size, and this probably records an increasing influx from the Crocker Fan. of metamorphic detritus. The sandstones of the Sepangar Bay section appear to be derived mostly from acid plutonic rocks, a smaller proportion of 5.5. Zircon varietal studies ophiolitic rocks, and a small and variable proportion of metamorphic rocks. The sandstones of the Lok Kawi Heights section have Zircon morphology is widely used in provenance studies to been derived primarily from acid igneous source rocks, but over determine the nature and genesis of the source rocks. Varietal time (the time span the sections represent is unclear) an increasing studies are helpful in low-diversity, ultramature heavy mineral amount of metamorphic source rocks became available. Small assemblages, where conventional species-level heavy mineral amounts of ophiolitic material were available throughout. studies prove inconclusive because zircon is chemically ultrastable The index values ATi (apatite-tourmaline), GZi (garnet-zircon), and is not affected by weathering or diagenesis. Zircons were stud- RuZi (rutile-zircon) and CZi (chrome spinel-zircon) show a large ied for shape, colour and, if present, internal structure. SEM images variation within the outcrops, especially GZi in the Lok Kawi sec- of typical morphologies with proportions of morphological types in tion, suggesting a variable but increasing input of metamorphic the Crocker, Meligan and Kudat Formations are shown in Supple- detritus throughout the section. The ATi index may be influenced mentary Document 1. by weathering. Hurst and Morton (2001) point out that sediment The zircon varieties in different parts of the Crocker Fan are homogenisation is more likely to occur on a shallow marine shelf, mostly similar. Sandstones contain a high proportion of euhedral especially above the wave base, than in an alluvial basin, or in a and subhedral colourless zircons mixed with smaller amounts of deep marine basin. Deep-water sandstones with variable heavy rounded colourless and sometimes purple zircons. They probably mineral indices of pairs of minerals with similar hydraulic behav- all endured a comparable transport history. The high proportion iour and chemical stability may have been derived directly from of unabraded zircons makes it unlikely that they have travelled alluvial basins, bypassing any contemporaneous marine shelf, very far by fluvial transport, and it is likely they have been derived while deep-water sandstones with homogeneous heavy mineral- from relatively nearby source areas such as the Cretaceous granites ogy are inferred to be fed by sediment that originally accumu- of the Schwaner Mountains and the Permian–Triassic granites of lated on shallow marine shelves where it was mixed. The the Tin Belt rather than far away source areas such as the eastern variable heavy mineral indices of the deep-marine Oligocene Himalayas or Indochina. Crocker Formation at Sepangar Bay and Lok Kawi suggest that The zircon varieties in the Neogene formations of western Sa- the sediments of the Crocker Formation have been derived by bah are also similar, except for the Kudat Formation. Although it shelf bypass directly from an alluvial basin. Before collisions be- seems likely from light and heavy mineral studies that the Meligan tween micro-continental blocks and western Borneo the shallow Formation has been recycled from the Crocker Formation, the zir- shelf area of northern Borneo may have been much more limited cons from the Meligan Formation are not significantly more than at present. rounded than those of the Crocker Formation, probably indicating The zircon varieties in the Sepangar Bay section show very little a short transport path and/or rapid recycling. variation throughout the section. The zircon varieties suggest that The zircon varieties of the Tajau Sandstone Member of the Ku- the sediment has been derived from a mixed plutonic and sedi- dat Formation contain many more euhedral and subhedral zircons mentary origin, indicated by the presence of both fresh euhedral than other Lower Miocene sandstones, and very few subrounded and subhedral zircons as well as a relatively high proportion of and rounded zircons. This suggests a nearby acid plutonic or meta- subrounded and rounded zircons. The zircon varieties in the Lok morphic source, rather than sedimentary recycling. Kawi Heights section are more varied than those of Sepangar Bay, and there are more euhedral and subhedral zircons. The high- 6. Example sections est proportions of unabraded zircons coincide with high proportions of garnet. It is possible that the peaks of garnet and Provenance characteristics of the Oligocene part of the Crocker unabraded zircons represent first-cycle provenance pulses from Formation near the west coast of Sabah were studied at outcrop the Pinoh Metamorphics and Schwaner Granites of southern scale. Two outcrops had fresh continuous exposure of over 150 m Borneo. 276 M.W.A. van Hattum et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 76 (2013) 266–282

Fig. 8. Probability plots of detrital zircon SHRIMP U–Pb ages from 6 Cenozoic western Sabah sandstone samples, with pie diagrams showing simpliﬁed source compositions of the Paleogene sandstones, based on heavy mineral characteristics and a principal component analysis of zircon age abundances. Provenance categories are Schwaner: Cretaceous granites of Schwaner Mountains; Tin Belt: Permian–Triassic granites of Malay-Thai Tin Belt; YB: Young basement; OB: Old Basement; Ophiolites: ophiolitic basement.

7. Geochronology be a possible source area, were dated to compare their zircon ages with detrital zircons. Detrital zircon U–Pb ages aid identiﬁcation of the source area Zircon U–Pb ages can be obtained from both 206PbÃ/238U and and its age, and were determined for zircons from six Cenozoic 207PbÃ/206Pb ratios. The amount of 207Pb in Phanerozoic zircons sandstones. Samples were selected to represent a large area of can be very small, and 206PbÃ/238U ages are preferred to the western Sabah, and to represent the Eocene to Miocene age of stra- 207Pb/206Pb ages. In contrast, 207PbÃ/206Pb ages are considered ta. An important selection criterion was a reasonable constraint on to be more accurate for Precambrian zircons (Pickard et al., the sample depositional age. Detrital zircon ages were obtained 2000). Cathodoluminescence images were used to select grains. primarily from the Crocker Fan (Crocker and Trusmadi Forma- Few display internal zoning or later overgrowth. There were no tions), but ages were also obtained from one older Rajang Group differences between core and rim ages, and no indication of sample from the Sapulut Formation and strata overlying the TCU metamorphic resetting. Zircons appear to be igneous, and from the Kudat Formation (Fig. 8). In addition, two samples from their ages can be compared to potential igneous source the Sukadana Granite of the Schwaner Mountains, considered to rocks. M.W.A. van Hattum et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 76 (2013) 266–282 277

Fig. 9. Detrital zircon age groups based on all concordant SHRIMP ages from Paleogene western Sabah sandstones.

The Crocker Fan detrital zircon ages range from Eocene (50 Ma) Carboniferous–Early Permian and Ordovician. The most important to Archaean (2532 Ma). The different Paleogene samples display group of concordant Precambrian zircons is Palaeoproterozoic. In similar age populations (Fig. 9). The most prominent is Cretaceous this sample an Archaean zircon was encountered (2531.6 ± (Group A: ca. 77–130 Ma), the second is Permian–Triassic (Group 11.2 Ma), which is the oldest radiometric age reported from B: ca. 213–268 Ma) and there is a conspicuous Palaeoproterozoic Borneo. The oldest zircons tend to be coloured and/or rounded, (Group C: ca. 1750–1900 Ma). Smaller age groups include Jurassic and the younger Mesozoic zircons are mostly unabraded and and Silurian-Ordovician zircons. The Miocene Kudat sample was colourless. The youngest age (49.9 ± 1.9 Ma) is very important in dominated by Jurassic-Cretaceous zircons, with a signiﬁcant num- an area where biostratigraphical evidence is nearly absent and ber of Palaeoproterozoic zircons. The individual samples are brieﬂy indicates the maximum depositional age to be Early Eocene. described below and a complete listing of age data is in Supple- mentary Document 2, Tables 1–6. 7.3. MVH02-271, Crocker Formation, Late Eocene

7.1. MVH02-264, Sapulut Formation, Early Eocene This sample is a texturally and compositionally immature Crocker Formation sandstone. Of the 72 ages from this sample, This sample is from the Eocene part of the Sapulut Formation, 59 are concordant (Fig. 8). The most important age group is Early the youngest part of the Rajang Group. 55 U–Pb zircon ages were Cretaceous, which account for 44% of the ages. There is also a sig- obtained and 45 zircons yielded concordant ages (Fig. 8). The most nificant number of Late Cretaceous zircons. Other age groups are important age group is Cretaceous. Other Phanerozoic populations Jurassic, Triassic and Palaeoproterozoic. Mesozoic zircons are are Carboniferous, Devonian and Silurian. Jurassic zircons are ab- mostly colourless and unabraded. Older Proterozoic zircons tend sent. There are few Precambrian zircons, but the most important to be coloured and/or rounded. age group is Palaeoproterozoic. The Cretaceous zircons are colourless and the least abraded. The Palaeozoic zircons display a higher 7.4. MVH02-115, Crocker Formation, Oligocene degree of rounding. The Precambrian zircons are often coloured, and tend to be the most rounded. The youngest age This sample was from one of the most northern outcrops of the (56.1 ± 0.9 Ma) is of stratigraphical significance as it indicates the Crocker Formation. Of the 70 ages 61 were concordant (Fig. 8). The maximum depositional age of the rocks cannot be older than latest Permian–Triassic is represented by 20 ages. Other significant age Paleocene. groups are Ordovician, Jurassic, Carboniferous and Devonian. Cre- taceous ages are nearly absent. There is a relatively large number 7.2. MVH02-142, Trusmadi Formation, Middle Eocene of Precambrian zircons, especially Palaeoproterozoic; 15 zircons are older than 1600 Ma. This sample is from the Trusmadi Formation, the oldest part of the Crocker Fan. 66 ages were obtained from this sample, of which 7.5. MVH02-116, Crocker Formation, Late Oligocene 48 were concordant (Fig. 8). The majority of the zircons yielding discordant ages are Proterozoic. The most prominent age group is This is the best-dated sample of the Crocker Formation based on Cretaceous. Other significant age groups are Triassic, Late Oligocene nannofossils (NP24-NP25) found nearby (E. Finch, 278 M.W.A. van Hattum et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 76 (2013) 266–282

2002, pers. comm.) and represents the youngest part of the Crocker et al., 1992). Late Cretaceous zircons, which are more abundant Fan. Of the 66 zircon ages 52 are concordant (Fig. 8). There is a rel- than Early Cretaceous zircons in the oldest sandstones, are similar atively wide spread of ages compared to other samples, and there to zircon ages from the Schwaner Mountains Sukadana Granite. is also a high proportion of anhedral zircons. Cretaceous-Permian Early Cretaceous zircons become more abundant than Late Creta- zircons form the main age group with a peak in the Late Permian. ceous zircons in the Upper Eocene–Oligocene sandstones, similar Other signiﬁcant groups are Early Cretaceous, Carboniferous, Ordo- to the present-day distribution of Schwaner Mountains granites vician and Palaeoproterozoic. (Williams et al., 1988). In the Oligocene sandstones Cretaceous zircons cease to domi- 7.6. MVH02-087, Kudat Formation, Tajau Sandstone Member, Early nate and Permian–Triassic ages become more common (Fig. 8). Miocene These zircons show slightly more rounding than Cretaceous zircons, probably reﬂecting a longer and/or higher energy transport The sample is a medium- to coarse-grained sandstone that con- path. Ages of Permian–Triassic zircons resemble those of volumi- tains 28% K-feldspar. The heavy mineral suite is relatively diverse, nous granites in the Malay-Thai Tin Belt, suggesting the main and is dominated by zircon, tourmaline, apatite and pyroxene, and source of the Crocker Fan sandstones shifted from the Schwaner contains minor amounts of rutile, garnet, monazite, kyanite, silli- Mountains to the Tin Belt during the Oligocene. manite, staurolite, chloritoid, sphene, serpentine, corundum and The proportion of usually well-rounded and coloured Palaeo- olivine. Of the 57 U–Pb zircon ages, 50 are concordant (Fig. 8). proterozoic and Neoarchaean detrital zircons strongly correlates The majority of the zircons are Jurassic-Cretaceous. Major peaks with the abundance of Permian–Triassic zircons, and they are are Early Cretaceous (ca. 121 Ma) and Early Jurassic (ca. 181 Ma). interpreted to represent metasedimentary continental basement Jurassic zircons are relatively rare in other Sabah sandstones. A of the Permian–Triassic Tin Belt granites of the Malay Peninsula. minor peak is Palaeoproterozoic (ca. 1867 Ma). The oldest zircon Ages of detrital zircons in the Crocker Fan do not match those of is dated at 2488.5 ± 16.3 Ma. The Mesozoic zircons are predomi- plutonic rocks in the eastern Himalayas or Indochina. Magmatic nantly unabraded and colourless. Coloured and/or rounded zircons ages in the eastern Himalayas older than the Crocker Fan are are mostly Precambrian, but occur throughout the age spectrum. 400–500 Ma, ca. 160 Ma, ca. 120 Ma and 40–70 Ma. The 400– 500 Ma ages occur in zircon cores, and younger ages are thought 7.7. RT.C and RT.D, Sukadana Granite, Kalimantan, Cretaceous to be related to Andean-style Gandise arc plutonism preceding In- dia-Asia collision (e.g. Maluski et al., 1983; Ding et al., 2001; Booth Cretaceous granitoids and related volcanic rocks are widely dis- et al., 2004). If Indochina had been an important source more abun- tributed in the southern part of the Schwaner Mountains of Kali- dant Precambrian and Palaeozoic zircons would be expected but it mantan. The main component of the Schwaner batholith in the is possible that some of the Palaeozoic zircons were ultimately de- Ketapang area is the Sukadana Granite which includes a range of rived from Indochina. rock types from monzonite to granite, with Cretaceous ages of Ages of detrital zircon from the Tajau Sandstone Member are 127–79 Ma based on K–Ar dating of hornblende and biotite and mostly Jurassic and Cretaceous. Jurassic zircons are very uncom- U–Pb dating of zircons (Haile et al., 1977; de Keyser and Rustandi, mon in other Sabah sandstones. This supports the idea that the 1993). The results from the two samples analysed are summarised sandstones were derived from the Palawan block, which was orig- below and described with a complete listing of age data in Supple- inally part of South China, a region rich in Jurassic and Cretaceous mentary Document 3. granites. Provenance studies of Cretaceous-Eocene Palawan sand- Samples RT.C and RT.D were collected about 16 km apart in the stones of similar composition to the Tajau Sandstone Member sug- same medium- to coarse-grained monzogranite in the Ketapang gest that South China may have been the ultimate source (Suzuki area. 30 zircons were dated from sample RT.C. They are nearly all et al., 2000). Although at present there are no exposures of Juras- Late Cretaceous, with two age peaks at 87.0 ± 0.8 Ma and sic-Cretaceous granites on Palawan, they may well be submerged 83.8 ± 0.7 Ma, and a mean age of 84.7 ± 1.3 Ma. Most of the grains offshore of Palawan or in the area between Palawan and northern have a simple internal structure. There is one Jurassic grain Borneo. Zircon cores from the Miocene Capoas granite in northern (151.9 ± 1.5 Ma) which the SEM cathodoluminescence image sug- Palawan are Palaeoproterozoic, indicating melting of South China gests is a core; no other inherited ages were found. 13 zircons were continental crust (Encarnación and Mukasa, 1997). The core ages dated from sample RT.D. They were all Late Cretaceous and slightly are similar to the Palaeoproterozoic zircon ages in the Tajau Sand- younger than those in sample RT.C with two age peaks at stone Member, supporting derivation from Palawan. There are no 84.0 ± 1.0 Ma and 79.7 ± 0.9 Ma, and a mean age of 81.7 ± 1.0 Ma, zircons younger than Cretaceous in the Tajau Sandstone Member. excluding one grain with a large error. SEM cathodoluminescence High-grade subduction-related metamorphic rocks of Palawan images of dated zircons from the sample show no older cores. suggested above to have provided kyanite and garnet to the Kudat Formation sandstones are of Early Oligocene age, based on horn- 7.8. Age trends and provenance blende and muscovite Ar–Ar dating, and there are no zircon ages reported from the metamorphic rocks (Encarnación et al., 1995). There is a relationship between zircon ages, morphology and colour. Cretaceous colourless zircons are the least abraded, suggesting limited transport. Permian–Triassic zircons are more 8. Principal component analysis abraded than Cretaceous zircons, but colourless and unabraded zircons dominate, also suggesting a nearby source. The older, in Hypotheses about sources of the zircons were tested with prin- particular Palaeoproterozoic, zircons are generally coloured and cipal component analysis. The zircon ages of the Sapulut, Trusmadi well-rounded, suggesting a long history of recycling. and Crocker Formations were subdivided into age categories and a In the Eocene sandstone samples unabraded Cretaceous zircons principal component analysis was performed. The sample from the dominate (Fig. 8). Their ages are similar to those of Cretaceous Kudat Formation was excluded because of its potential Palawan granites of the Schwaner Mountains of southern Borneo (Fig. 1), source. A strong positive correlation between proportions of which are the closest abundant granites. More distant Cretaceous Permian–Triassic and Palaeoproterozoic zircons supports granites are probably currently submerged in the Sunda Shelf derivation of Palaeoproterozoic zircons from the Tin Belt. A strong (Pupilli, 1973) and are known from the Malay peninsula (Cobbing negative correlation between the proportions of Cretaceous and M.W.A. van Hattum et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 76 (2013) 266–282 279

Permian–Triassic zircons supports the suggestion of two indepen- first-cycle sandstones of the Crocker Fan lack good reservoir prop- dent sources which were Cretaceous granites of the Schwaner erties due to the relatively large amounts of clay-sized material Mountains and Permian–Triassic granites of the Tin Belt. The heavy reducing porosity, the Miocene sandstones produced from recy- mineral assemblages and correlations were used to construct a cling the Crocker Fan sandstones are highly quartzose sandstones simple model of five provenance groups. The relative proportions with excellent reservoir properties. as they appear in the individual samples are shown in Fig. 8. It is suggested here that most material of the Crocker Fan was derived from Borneo and nearby areas of SE Asia, rather than (1) Cretaceous zircons show a weak positive correlation with distant sources in mainland Asia exposed as a results of the Cenozoic zircons, and they most likely represent Borneo India–Eurasia collision (van Hattum et al., 2006). Fluvial transport sources. Cenozoic zircons were probably derived from from distal Indochina and eastern Himalayan sources would have nearby volcanic activity, and Cretaceous zircons from gran- produced greater rounding of material, including zircons, rather ites in the Schwaner Mountains. than the abundant unabraded grains that are observed. Further- (2) Jurassic zircons show a strong positive correlation with more, detrital zircon ages of igneous origin do not match with Permian–Triassic zircons. The Permian–Triassic zircons rep- igneous ages from these distant source areas. In contrast, the most resent the Tin Belt granites. Jurassic igneous rocks are not prominent detrital age groups do match well with Cretaceous known from the Tin Belt, but it is possible that some acid granites of the Schwaner Mountains of southern Borneo and volcanic activity continued into the Early Jurassic. Permian–Triassic granites and Precambrian basement of the (3) The proportions of Palaeozoic, Neoproterozoic and Mesopro- Malay-Thai Tin Belt. terozoic zircons show strong positive correlations with each During deposition of the lower part of the Crocker Fan in the Eo- other. The source of this group is not clear. Although the cene Cretaceous granites (Schwaner Mountains and adjacent Sun- metamorphic Pinoh Group of southern Borneo may have da Shelf) contributed the majority of sediment. AFT data show that supplied some of these zircons, there is no strong correlation granites of the Schwaner Mountains were exhumed in the Late with Cretaceous zircons from the Schwaner Granites, which Cretaceous (Sumartadipura, 1976), and could have produced large intrude the Pinoh Group. amounts of sediment in the Eocene. Cretaceous AFT ages were also (4) The proportion of coloured and rounded Palaeoproterozoic reported from Crocker Formation sandstones (Hutchison et al., and Archaean zircons strongly correlates with the propor- 2000). Hall and Nichols (2002) suggested that northern Borneo tion of Permian–Triassic zircons, and they probably repre- sediments were mostly derived from Borneo itself throughout sent metasedimentary continental basement rocks of the the Neogene, and this study suggests that Borneo may have sup- Tin Belt (Liew and Page, 1985). plied large amounts of sediment since at least the Eocene. A depo- (5) Ophiolitic material is always present but its abundance can sitional and provenance model of the Crocker Fan at the end of the be estimated only from light and heavy mineral studies. Eocene based on the results of this study is shown in Fig. 10. In the upper part of the Crocker Fan (Oligocene) the proportion 9. Discussion of Permian–Triassic zircons increases, with ages corresponding to those of the Tin Belt granites, as well as Palaeoproterozoic coloured Both the light and heavy mineral fractions of the Eocene–Lower and rounded zircons, probably from the Tin Belt basement. Zircons Miocene deep marine Crocker Fan indicate the importance of first- of similar ages are relatively common in modern river sediments cycle granitic source rocks. The light minerals are dominated by from the Malay peninsula (Sevastjanova et al., 2011, 2012). The angular and poorly sorted igneous quartz and K-feldspar when Tin Belt is further away from northern Borneo than the Schwaner feldspar is present. The heavy mineral fractions are dominated by Mountains, which may account for the slightly higher degree of unabraded zircon and tourmaline, suggesting limited sediment zircon rounding. AFT ages from the Tin Belt granites indicate a transport and a nearby source. The small but consistent presence major phase of exhumation in the Oligocene (ca. 24–33 Ma; of chert fragments and unabraded chromian spinel indicates a con- Krähenbuhl, 1991; Kwan et al., 1992), and it is at this time that tribution from the ophiolitic basement of northern Borneo. The the Tin Belt granites probably became available for erosion and variable amounts of garnet indicates supply from metamorphic material was transported to the Crocker Fan. rocks, which fluctuated with time. Volcanism, indicated by volca- The heterogeneous character of indices of provenance-specific nic quartz and zircons of ages similar to the depositional age of heavy mineral pairs (Morton and Hallsworth, 1999; Hurst and the sandstones, contributed small volumes of sediment in the Eo- Morton, 2001) at outcrop scale suggests sediment supply into the cene. After the TCU sedimentation changed to shallow marine deep marine basin directly from an alluvial/fluvial system, by- and fluvio-deltaic, and sediment recycling from the Crocker Fan be- passing any shallow marine shelf, which was probably much more came important. limited in width before Early Miocene closure of the Proto-South There is a conspicuous discrepancy between the mature compo- China Sea. Large volumes of sediment derived from the Schwaner sition and the immature texture of the Crocker Fan sandstones. The Mountains of southern Borneo were being deposited in the Pro- textures and zircon ages strongly suggest that the sandstones were to-South China Sea. The main drainage divide in southern Borneo derived from nearby sources in Borneo and the Tin Belt. The ma- was probably located considerably further south than its present ture composition can be explained by tropical weathering in a hu- position in the central Borneo mountains, which consist mainly mid climate that prevailed in Borneo and nearby SE Asia of Rajang Group and Crocker Fan deep marine sedimentary rocks. throughout the Cenozoic (Morley, 1998). Thus, modal analysis of The history of emergence of this mountain range is poorly known, sandstone composition (Dickinson et al., 1983) may be of limited but followed Early Miocene collision of continental fragments with value for sandstones eroded and transported under humid tropical Borneo. Deep marine sedimentation of the Crocker Fan terminated conditions, because of the rapid preferential destruction of feldspar in the Early Miocene, during the final closure of the Proto-South and unstable lithic fragments (Suttner et al., 1981). More reliable China Sea and collision of micro-continental fragments with provenance interpretations of tropical sandstones can be achieved Borneo. by studies using combined petrographic (composition and Collision produced a major unconformity, the Top Crocker texture), heavy mineral and zircon age analysis. The intensity of Unconformity, incising sediments of the Crocker Fan. Subsidence weathering in tropical climates can produce good quality and sedimentation resumed in the Early Miocene, with a drainage hydrocarbon reservoir sandstones in a short time. Although the pattern similar to the present day. Fluvio-deltaic to shallow marine 280 M.W.A. van Hattum et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 76 (2013) 266–282

Fig. 10. Depositional model for the Crocker Fan during the Late Eocene, showing the main source areas and transport paths. siliciclastic sediments were deposited in western and northern Oligocene in a subduction setting, followed by rapid cooling and Sabah in a similar depositional and climatic setting, but with dif- exhumation in the Early Miocene related to collision of the Reed ferent compositions reflecting different sources. The sandstones Bank and North Palawan continental fragments with northern Bor- of the Lower Miocene Meligan and Setap Shale of SW Sabah are neo and Palawan. In the Early Miocene Palawan started to supply primarily a product of sedimentary recycling. The characteristics sediment to northern Borneo in the Kudat area after the deep mar- of the quartzose sandstones are similar to those of the Upper ine basin between the areas was eliminated. The mature character Cretaceous–Eocene Rajang Group and the Eocene–Lower Miocene of the Sikuati Member of the Kudat Formation suggests that the Crocker Fan, but are compositionally and texturally more mature. Palawan source area was short-lived and recycling of the Crocker The Crocker Fan started to supply large amounts of sediment to Fan became more important from later in the Early Miocene the Lower Miocene basins. Local ophiolitic sources also continued onwards. to supply sediment. The local generation of large amounts of sediment is consistent with the ideas of Hall and Nichols (2002) 10. Conclusions that since the start of the Neogene Borneo itself supplied most of the material deposited in the basins on and around Borneo. The The voluminous Eocene–Lower Miocene deep marine Crocker sandstones of the Meligan and Setap Shale Formation are poten- Fan sediments were mostly derived from nearby acid plutonic tially excellent hydrocarbon reservoirs, and tropical weathering sources on Borneo, the Malay Peninsula and the Sunda Shelf, by a probably had a very important role in producing these highly drainage system different from today. Distant source areas in quartzose sandstones. mainland Asia did not play a significant role. During the Eocene In contrast, sandstones of the Tajau Member of the Kudat mostly Cretaceous material was deposited, probably from the Formation are unlike any of the other Lower Miocene western Schwaner Mountains and adjacent areas of the Sunda Shelf, and Sabah sandstones. They are proximal debris flows and storm beds, during the Oligocene an increasing amount of material was derived and they are compositionally and texturally immature. The main from the Permian–Triassic Tin Belt granites and its Proterozoic sources were granitic and high-grade metamorphic rocks from a metasedimentary basement. Microcontinent collisions with Bor- nearby area with smaller amounts of ophiolitic material. There neo in the Early Miocene terminated deep marine sedimentation, were no fresh plutonic or metamorphic rocks exposed in northern and changed the drainage pattern of Borneo and nearby SE Asia. Borneo during the Early Miocene. Potential metamorphic source After closure of the Proto-South China Sea and cessation of deep rocks have been described by Encarnación et al. (1995) on Palawan, marine deposition of the Crocker Fan fluvio-deltaic to shallow mar- north of Kudat, where there are high-pressure subduction-related ine deposition occurred in basins on and around Borneo. Sand- and high-temperature sub-ophiolitic metamorphic rocks. These stones of the Lower Miocene Setap Shale and Meligan Formations rocks contain garnet, kyanite, apatite, epidote, and abundant of SW Sabah were mostly recycled from sediments of the Rajang K-feldspar, which fits well with the detrital mineral assemblages Group and Crocker Fans on Borneo, now exposed in the main in the Tajau Sandstone Member. The metamorphic rocks on mountain range of Borneo. A smaller amount of material was sup- Palawan experienced peak metamorphic conditions in the earliest plied by local ophiolitic sources. M.W.A. van Hattum et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 76 (2013) 266–282 281

The lowest Tajau Sandstone Member of the Lower Miocene Ku- Collenette, P., 1965. The geology and mineral resources of the Pensiangan and dat Formation was mostly derived from fresh granitic and high- Upper Kinabatangan area, Sabah. Malaysia Geological Survey Borneo Region, Memoir 12, 150 pp. grade metamorphic rocks, from a nearby Palawan source. Palawan Cottam, M.A., Hall, R., Ghani, A.A., in press. Late Cretaceous and Paleogene tectonics includes rocks that rifted from South China and collided in the of the Malay peninsula constrained by thermochronology. Journal of Asian Early Miocene; high-grade metamorphic rocks subducted in the Earth Sciences. de Keyser, F., Rustandi, E., 1993. Geology of the Ketapang Sheet Area, Kalimantan Oligocene became available for erosion at this time. This Palawan 1:250,000. Geological Research and Development Centre, Bandung 42 pp. source was short-lived and sandstones of the overlying Sikuati Dickinson, W.R., Suczek, C.A., 1979. Plate tectonics and sandstone composition. Member of the Kudat Formation are more similar to the Meligan American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 63, 2164–2182. Dickinson, W.R., Beard, L.S., Brakenridge, G.R., Erjavic, J.L., Ferguson, R.C., Inman, Formation and they were probably recycled from the Crocker K.F., Knepp, R.A., Lindeberg, F.A., Ryberg, P.T., 1983. Provenance of North Formation. American Phanerozoic sandstones in relation to tectonic setting. Geological Tropical weathering can strongly influence the composition of Society of America Bulletin 94, 222–235. Ding, L., Zhong, D., Yin, A., Kapp, P., Harrison, T.M., 2001. Cenozoic structural and sandstones, and requires special attention when performing prov- metamorphic evolution of the eastern Himalayan syntaxis (Namche Barwa). enance studies. A wide array of different methods should be used Earth and Planetary Science Letters 192, 423–438. in order to achieve reliable provenance interpretations. Detrital Dodson, M.H., Compston, W., Williams, I.S., Wilson, J.F., 1988. A search for ancient geochronology and heavy mineral analysis (including varietal detrital zircons in Zimbabwean sediments. Journal of the Geological Society, London 145, 977–983. studies) yield valuable results, but detrital modes should be used Encarnación, J., Mukasa, S.B., 1997. Age and geochemistry of an ‘anorogenic’ crustal with caution in tropical settings. melt and implications for I-type granite petrogenesis. Lithos 42, 1–13. Encarnación, J.P., Essene, E.J., Mukasa, S.B., Hall, C.H., 1995. High-pressure and - temperature subophiolitic kyanite-garnet amphibolites generated during Acknowledgements initiation of Mid-Tertiary subduction, Palawan, Philippines. Journal of Petrology 36, 1481–1503. This project was sponsored by the SE Asia Research Group of Garson, M.S., Young, F.B., Mitchell, A.H.G., Tait, B.A.R., 1975. The geology of the tin belt in peninsular Thailand around Phuket, Phangnga and Takua Pa: Institute of Royal Holloway University of London, which is supported by a con- Geological Sciences, London, Overseas Memoir 1, 112 pp. sortium of oil companies. The Economic Planning Unit of Malaysia Haile, N.S., McElhinny, M.W., McDougall, I., 1977. Palaeomagnetic data and allowed us to collect samples in Sabah, and Allagu Balaguru helped radiometric ages from the Cretaceous of West Kalimantan (Borneo), and their significance in interpreting regional structure. Journal of the Geological Society to conduct the fieldwork. Mark Barley’s help at the University of of London 133, 133–144. Western Australia is greatly appreciated. Discussions with John Hall, R., 1996. Reconstructing Cenozoic SE Asia. In: Hall, R., Blundell, D.J. (Eds.), Encarnación helped a lot in reconstructing the provenance of the Tectonic Evolution of SE Asia, Geological Society of London Special Publication 106, pp. 153–184. Kudat Formation. We thank Theo van Leeuwen, D. Hendrawan Hall, R., 2002. Cenozoic geological and plate tectonic evolution of SE Asia and the and Rio Tinto Exploration Indonesia for help in obtaining granite SW Pacific: computer-based reconstructions, model and animations. Journal of samples from Kalimantan. Asian Earth Sciences 20, 353–434. Hall, R., 2012. Late Jurassic–Cenozoic reconstructions of the Indonesian region and the Indian Ocean. Tectonophysics 570–571, 1–41. Appendix A. Supplementary material Hall, R., in press. Contraction and extension in Northern Borneo driven by subduction rollback. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences. Hall, R., Morley, C.K., 2004. Sundaland basins. In: Clift, P., Wang, P., Kuhnt, W., Supplementary data associated with this article can be found, in Hayes, D.E. (Eds.), Continent–Ocean Interactions within the East Asian Marginal the online version, at http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2013. Seas, Geophysical Monograph. American Geophysical Union 149, pp. 55–85. 02.033. Hall, R., Nichols, G.J., 2002. Cenozoic sedimentation and tectonics in Borneo: climatic influences on orogenesis. In: Jones, S.J., Frostick, L. (Eds.), Sediment Flux to Basins: Causes, Controls and Consequences, Geological Society London References Special Publication 191, pp. 5–22. Hall, R., Sevastjanova, I., 2012. Australian crust in Indonesia. Australian Journal of Earth Sciences 59, 827–844. Aitchison, J.C., Ali, J.R., Davis, A.M., 2007. When and where did India and Asia Hall, R., Wilson, M.E.J., 2000. Neogene sutures in eastern Indonesia. Journal of Asian collide? Journal of Geophysical Research 112, B05423. http://dx.doi.org/ Earth Sciences 18, 787–814. 10.1029/2006JB004706. Hall, R., van Hattum, M.W.A., Spakman, W., 2008. Impact of India–Asia collision on Ali, J.R., Aitchison, J.C., 2012. Comment on ‘‘Restoration of Cenozoic deformation in SE Asia: the record in Borneo. Tectonophysics 451, 366–389. Asia and the size of Greater India’’ by D.J.J. van Hinsbergen et al. Tectonics 31, Hamilton, W., 1979. Tectonics of the Indonesian Region 1078, U.S. Geological Survey TC4006. Professional Paper, 345 pp. Beckinsale, R.D., 1979. Granite magmatism in the tin belt of Southeast Asia. In: Hazebroek, H.P., Tan, D.N.K., 1993. Tertiary tectonic evolution of the NW Sabah Atherton, M.P., Tarney, J. (Eds.), Origin of Granite Batholiths: Geochemical Continental Margin. Bulletin of the Geological Society of Malaysia 33, 195–210. Evidence. Shiva Publishing Limited, Orpington, UK, pp. 34–44. Holloway, N.H., 1982. North Palawan block – its relation to Asian mainland and role Besse, J., Courtillot, V., 1991. Revised and synthetic polar wander maps of the in evolution of South China Sea. American Association of Petroleum Geologists African, Eurasian, North American and Indian Plates, and true polar wander Bulletin 66, 1355–1383. since 200 Ma. Journal of Geophysical Research 96, 4029–4050. Hosking, K.F.G., 1971. The offshore tin deposits of Southeast Asia. United Nations Bol, A.J., van Hoorn, B., 1980. Structural style in western Sabah offshore. Bulletin of ECAFE CCOP Technical Bulletin 5, 112–129. the Geological Society of Malaysia 12, 1–16. Hurst, A., Morton, A.C., 2001. Generic relationships in the mineral–chemical Booth, A.L., Zeitler, P.K., Kidd, W.S.F., Wooden, J., Liu, Y., Idleman, B., Hren, M., stratigraphy of turbidite sandstones. Journal of the Geological Society of Chamberlain, C.P., 2004. U–Pb zircon constraints on the tectonic evolution of London 158, 401–404. southeastern Tibet, Namche Barwa Area. American Journal of Science 304, 889– Hutchison, C.S., 1978. Ophiolite metamorphism in northeast Borneo. Lithos 11, 929. 195–208. Cawood, P.A., Nemchin, A.A., Leverenz, A., Saeed, A., Ballance, P.F., 1999. U/Pb dating Hutchison, C.S., 1989. Geological Evolution of South-East Asia, 13, Oxford of detrital zircons: implications for provenance record of Gondwana margin Monographs on Geology and Geophysics, Clarendon Press, 376 pp. terranes. Geological Society of America Bulletin 111, 1107–1119. Hutchison, C.S., 1996. The ‘Rajang Accretionary Prism’ and ‘Lupar Line’ problem of Clark, M.K., Schoenbohm, L.M., Royden, L.H., Whipple, K.X., Burchfiel, B.C., Zhang, X., Borneo. In: Hall, R., Blundell, D.J. (Eds.), Tectonic Evolution of SE Asia, Geological Tang, W., Wang, E., Chen, L., 2004. Surface uplift, tectonics, and erosion of Society London Special Publication 106, pp. 247–261. eastern Tibet from large-scale drainage patterns. Tectonics 23. http:// Hutchison, C.S., Bergman, S.C., Swauger, D.A., Graves, J.E., 2000. A Miocene dx.doi.org/10.1029/2002TC001402. collisional belt in north Borneo: uplift mechanism and isostatic adjustment Clark, M.K., House, M.A., Royden, L.H., Whipple, K.X., Burchfiel, B.C., Zhang, X., Tang, quantified by thermochronology. Journal of the Geological Society of London W., 2005. Late Cenozoic uplift of the southeastern Tibet. Geology 33, 525–528. 157, 783–793. Clement, J.F., Keij, J., 1958. Geology of the Kudat Peninsula, North Borneo Jasin, B., 1991. Some larger foraminifera and radiolaria from Telupid olistostrome, (Compilation). Annual Report of the Geological Survey Department, GR783. Sabah. Warta Geologi, Geological Society of Malaysia Newsletter 17, 225–230. Cobbing, E.J., Pitfield, P.E.J., Darbyshire, D.P.F., Mallick, D.I.J. (Eds.), 1992. The Jasin, B., Tahir, S., Harun, Z., 1995. Some Miocene planktonic foraminifera from Granites of the South-East Asian Tin Belt. Overseas Memoir of the British Bidu-Bidu area, Sabah. Warta Geologi, Geological Society of Malaysia Geological Survey, 10, 369 pp. Newsletter 21, 241–246. Collenette, P., 1958. The geology and mineral resources of the Jesselton-Kinabalu Johnsson, M.J., Stallard, R.F., Meade, R.H., 1988. First-cycle quartz arenites in the area, North Borneo. Malaysia Geological Survey Borneo Region, Memoir 6, 194 Orinoco River basin, Venezuela and Colombia. Journal of Geology 96, 263–277. pp. 282 M.W.A. van Hattum et al. / Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 76 (2013) 266–282

Krähenbuhl, R., 1991. Magmatism, tin mineralization and tectonics of the Main Sevastjanova, I., Hall, R., Alderton, D., 2012. A detrital heavy mineral viewpoint on Range, Malaysian Peninsula: consequences for the plate tectonic model of sediment provenance and tropical weathering in SE Asia. Sedimentary Geology Southeast Asia based on Rb–Sr, K–Ar and fission track data. Bulletin of the 280, 179–194. Geological Society of Malaysia 29, 1–100. Smith, J.B., Barley, M.E., Groves, D.I., Krapez, B., McNaughton, N.J., Bickle, M.J., Kwan, T.S., Krahenbuhl, R., Jager, E., 1992. Rb–Sr, K–Ar and fission-track ages for Chapman, H.J., 1998. The Sholl Shear Zone, west Pilbara: evidence for a domain granites from Penang Island, West Malaysia – an interpretation model for Rb–Sr boundary structure from integrated tectonostratigraphic analyses, SHRIMP U– whole-rock and for actual and experimental mica data. Contributions to Pb dating and isotopic and geochemical data of granitoids. Precambrian Mineralogy and Petrology 111, 527–542. Research 88, 143–171. Levell, B.K., 1987. The nature and significance of regional unconformities in the Stauffer, P.H., 1967. Studies in the Crocker Formation, Sabah. Geological Survey of hydrocarbon-bearing Neogene sequences offshore west Sabah. Geological Malaysia, Borneo Region Bulletin 8, 1–13. Society of Malaysia Bulletin 21, 55–90. Stephens, E.A., 1956. The geology and mineral resources of the Kota Belud and Liechti, P., Roe, F.W., Haile, N.S., 1960. The Geology of Sarawak, Brunei and the Kudat area, North Borneo. Malaysia Geological Survey Borneo Region, Memoir Western Part of North Borneo. Geological Survey Department, British Territories 5, 137 pp. of Borneo, Bulletin 3, 360 pp. Sumartadipura, A.S., 1976. Geologic Map of the Tewah Quadrangle, Central Liew, T.C., Page, R.W., 1985. U–Pb zircon dating of granitoid plutons from the west Kalimantan – 1:250,000. Geological Survey of Indonesia, Directorate of coast of Peninsular Malaysia. Journal of the Geological Society of London 142, Mineral Resources, Geological Research and Development Centre, Bandung. 515–526. Suttner, L.J., Basu, A., Mack, G.H., 1981. Climate and the origin of quartz arenites. Lim, P.S., Heng, Y.E., 1985. Geological Map of Sabah, 1:500,000. Geological Survey of Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 51, 1235–1246. Malaysia. Suzuki, S., Takemura, S., Yumul Jr., G.P., David Jr., S.D., Asiedu, D.K., 2000. Maluski, H., Proust, F., Zuchang, X., 1983. Age du magmatisme calco-alcalin trans- Composition and provenance of the Upper Cretaceous to Eocene sandstones himalayen du Tibet meridional: premiers resultats obtenus par la methode in Central Palawan, Philippines: constraints on the tectonic development of 39Ar–40Ar. In: Mercier, J.L., Guangcen, L. (Eds.), Mission Franco-Chinoise au Tibet Palawan. The Island Arc 9, 611–626. 1980. CNRS, Paris France, pp. 335–339. Tan, D.N.K., Lamy, J.M., 1990. Tectonic evolution of the NW Sabah continental Mange, M.A., Maurer, H.F.W., 1992. Heavy Minerals in Colour. Chapman & Hall, margin since the Late Eocene. Bulletin of the Geological Society of Malaysia 27, London, 147 pp. 241–260. Metcalfe, I., 1996. Pre-Cretaceous evolution of SE Asian terranes. In: Hall, R., Tanean, H., Paterson, D.W., Endarto, M., 1996. Source provenance interpretation of Blundell, D.J. (Eds.), Tectonic Evolution of SE Asia, Geological Society London Kutei Basin sandstones and the implications for the tectono-stratigraphic Special Publication 106, pp. 97–122. evolution of Kalimantan. In: Proceedings Indonesian Petroleum Association Métivier, F., Gaudemer, Y., Tapponnier, P., Klein, M., 1999. Mass accumulation 25th Annual Convention, pp. 333–345. rates in Asia during the Cenozoic. Geophysical Journal International 137, Tapponnier, P., Peltzer, G., Armijo, R., 1986. On the mechanism of collision between 280–318. India and Asia. In: Coward, M.P., Ries, A.C. (Eds.), Collision Tectonics, Geological Mitchell, A.H.G., 1979. Rift-, subduction- and collision-related tin belts. Bulletin of Society of London Special Publication. Geological Society London Special the Geological Society of Malaysia 11, 81–102. Publication 19, pp. 115–157. Morley, R.J., 1998. Palynological evidence for Tertiary plant dispersal in the SE Asian Tate, R.B., 2001. The Geology of Borneo Island. Geological Society of Malaysia. region in relation to plate tectonics and climate. In: Hall, R., Holloway, J.D. Taylor, B., Hayes, D.E., 1983. Origin and history of the South China Sea Basin. In: (Eds.), Biogeography and Geological Evolution of SE Asia. Backhuys Publishers, Hayes, D.E. (Ed.), The Tectonic and Geologic Evolution of Southeast Asian Seas pp. 211–234. and Islands, Part 2. American Geophysical Union, Geophysical Monographs Morley, C.K., 2002. A tectonic model for the Tertiary evolution of strike-slip faults Series 27, pp. 23–56. and rift basins in SE Asia. Tectonophysics 347, 189–215. Tongkul, F., 1995. The Paleogene basins of Sabah, East Malaysia. Bulletin of the Morton, A.C., 1984. Stability of detrital heavy minerals in Tertiary sandstones from Geological Society of Malaysia 37, 301–308. the North Sea Basin. Clay Minerals 19, 287–308. Tucker, M., 1988. Techniques in Sedimentology. Blackwell Scientific Publications, Morton, A.C., Hallsworth, C.R., 1994. Identifying provenance-specific features of Oxford, 394 pp. detrital heavy mineral assemblages in sandstones. Sedimentary Geology 90, van der Vlerk, I.M., 1951. Tabulation of determinations of larger foraminifera. In: 241–256. Reinhard, M., Wenk, E. (Eds.), Geology of the colony of North Borneo British Morton, A.C., Hallsworth, C.R., 1999. Processes controlling the composition of heavy Territories of Borneo, Geological Survey Department, Bulletin 1, pp. 137–146 mineral assemblages in sandstones. Sedimentary Geology 124, 3–29. (Appendix II). Najman, Y., Appel, E., Boudagher-Fadel, M., Bown, P., Carter, A., Garzanti, E., Godin, van Hattum, M.W.A., 2005. Provenance of Cenozoic Sedimentary Rocks of Northern L., Han, J., Liebke, U., Oliver, G., Parrish, R., Vezzoli, G., 2010. Timing of India–Asia Borneo. PhD Thesis, University of London, 457 pp. collision: geological, biostratigraphic, and palaeomagnetic constraints. Journal van Hattum, M.W.A., Hall, R., Pickard, A.L., Nichols, G.J., 2006. SE Asian sediments of Geophysical Research 115, B12416. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2010JB007673. not from Asia: provenance and geochronology of North Borneo sandstones. Petronas, 1999. The Petroleum Geology and Resources of Malaysia, Petronas, Kuala Geology 34, 589–592. Lumpur, Malaysia, 665 pp. van Hinsbergen, D.J.J., Kapp, P., Dupont-Nivet, G., Lippert, P.C., DeCelles, P.G., Pickard, A.L., Adams, C.J., Barley, M.E., 2000. Australian provenance for Upper Torsvik, T.H., 2011. Restoration of Cenozoic deformation in Asia and the size of Permian to Cretaceous rocks forming accretionary complexes on the New Greater India. Tectonics 30. http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2011TC002908. Zealand sector of the Gondwanaland margin. Australian Journal of Earth White, L.T., Lister, G.S., 2012. The collision of India with Asia. Journal of Sciences 47, 987–1007. Geodynamics 56–57, 7–17. Pieters, P.E., Sanyoto, P., 1993. Geology of the Pontianak/Nangataman Sheet area, William, A.G., Lambiase, J.J., Back, S., Jamiran, M.K., 2003. Sedimentology of the Jalan Kalimantan: 1:250,000. Geological Research and Development Centre, Bandung, Selaiman and Bukit Melinsung outcrops, western Sabah: is the West Crocker Indonesia. Formation an analogue for Neogene turbidites offshore? Bulletin of the Pupilli, M., 1973. Geological evolution of South China Sea Area: tentative Geological Society of Malaysia 47, 63–75. reconstruction from borderland geology and well data. In: Proceedings Williams, P.R., Johnston, C.R., Almond, R.A., Simamora, W.H., 1988. Late Cretaceous Indonesian Petroleum Association 2nd Annual Convention, pp. 223–242. to Early Tertiary structural elements of West Kalimantan. Tectonophysics 148, Rowley, D.B., 1996. Age of initiation of collision between India and Asia: a review of 279–298. stratigraphic data. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 145, 1–13. Wilson, R.A.M., 1961. The geology and mineral resources of the Banggi Island and Rutten, L.M.R., 1915. Studien über Foraminiferen aus Ost-Asien. 9. Tertiäre Sugut River area, North Borneo. British Territories Borneo Region Geological foraminiferen von den Inseln Balambangan und Banguey, nördl. von Borneo.: Survey Department, Memoir 15, 143 pp. Sammlungen Geologischen Reichsmuseums, Leiden, Series I, v 10. Wilson, R.A.M., Wong, N.P.Y., 1962. Labuan and Padas Valley Area, North Borneo Rutten, L.M.R., 1925. Over fossielhoudende tertiaire kalkstenen uit Britsch Noord (Memoir 17) – progress report. British Borneo Geological Survey Annual Report Borneo. Verhandelingen Koninklijk Nederlands Geologisch en Mijnbouwkundig 1962, 191–208. Genootschap, Geologische Serie 8, 415–427. Wilson, R.A.M., Wong, N.P.Y., 1964. The geology and mineral resources of the Sevastjanova, I., Clements, B., Hall, R., Belousova, E.A., Griffin, W.L., Pearson, N., Labuan and Padas Valley areas, Sabah. Geological Survey of Malaysia, Borneo 2011. Granitic magmatism, basement ages, and provenance indicators in the Region, Memoir 17, 150 pp. Malay Peninsula: insights from detrital zircon U–Pb and Hf-isotope data. Wong, N.P.Y., 1962. Progress Report. British Geological Survey Borneo Region, Gondwana Research 19, 1024–1039. Annual Report 1962, 200–207.