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MONITORING OF THE REMEDIATION OF HALIFAX HARBOUR AFTER 250 YEARS OF CONTAMINATION USING FORAMINIFERAL PROXIES by Saad A. Mohamed Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at Dalhousie University Halifax, Nova Scotia December 2012 © Copyright by Saad A. Mohamed, 2012 i DALHOUSIE UNIVERSITY DEPARTMENT OF EARTH SCIENCES The undersigned hereby certify that they have read and recommend to the Faculty of Graduate Studies for acceptance a thesis entitled “MONITORING OF THE REMEDIATION OF HALIFAX HARBOUR AFTER 250 YEARS OF CONTAMINATION USING FORAMINIFERAL PROXIES” by Saad A. Mohamed in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Dated: December 14, 2012 External Examiner: _________________________________ Research Supervisor: _________________________________ Examining Committee _________________________________ _________________________________ _________________________________ Departmental Representative: _________________________________ ii DALHOUSIE UNIVERSITY DATE: December 14, 2012 AUTHOR: Saad A. Mohamed TITLE: MONITORING OF THE REMEDIATION OF HALIFAX HARBOUR AFTER 250 YEARS OF CONTAMINATION USING FORAMINIFERAL PROXIES DEPARTMENT OR SCHOOL: Department of Earth Sciences DEGREE: PhD CONVOCATION: May YEAR: 2013 Permission is herewith granted to Dalhousie University to circulate and to have copied for non-commercial purposes, at its discretion, the above title upon the request of individuals or institutions. I understand that my thesis will be electronically available to the public. The author reserves other publication rights, and neither the thesis nor extensive extracts from it may be printed or otherwise reproduced without the author’s written permission. The author attests that permission has been obtained for the use of any copyrighted material appearing in the thesis (other than the brief excerpts requiring only proper acknowledgement in scholarly writing), and that all such use is clearly acknowledged. _______________________________ Signature of Author iii TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES……………………………………………………..…...……….....viii LIST OF FIGURES..…………….……………………………….…………………......ix ABSTRACT………………………………………………………………..…...……....xiv LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS USED…………………………..………..…...………...xv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS..…………………………….………………....................xvi Chapter 1: Introduction……………………………………………...…………...……..1 1.1 Contamination in coastal areas.…………..……………...……………..………….1 1.2 Study area (Halifax Harbour)………………………………………....…………....2 1.3 Environmental setting of Halifax Harbour...………………………..……………..4 1.3.1 Natural environmental conditions…………………………………………….4 1.3.2 Pollution in Halifax Harbour………………………………………………….8 1.3.3 Timeline and treatment history of Halifax Harbour……………………….….9 1.4 Benthonic foraminifera as pollution proxies……………………………………...13 1.4.1 Importance of foraminifera as bioindicators……………….………….........13 1.4.2 History of use of benthonic foraminifera as proxies………………………...13 1.4.3 Foraminiferal parameters that can be used as proxies…..…………...……..14 1.4.4 Foraminifera in polluted environments……………………………………...15 1.5 Previous work related to this study…………………………………..……….….18 1.6 Statement of problem……………………………………………………….……20 1.7 Objectives and research questions of the present work…………………..….......21 1.8 Hypotheses’ assumptions and approach………………………...………..….......21 1.9 Research strategy……….………………………………………………..…........23 1.10 Challenges and limitations………………………………...…………….….......24 1.11 Dissertation structure………………………………………...……….....….......25 Chapter 2: Short-Term Monitoring of Halifax Harbour (Nova Scotia, Canada) Pollution Remediation Using Benthonic Foraminifera as Proxies………..28 2.1 Abstract.……………………………………………………………...…………...29 2.2 Introduction……………………………………………………..………………...30 iv 2.3 Study area (Halifax Harbour).…………………………………..………………..30 2.4 Objectives………………………………………………………………………...31 2.5 Methods…………………………………………………………………………..32 2.5.1 Sampling……………………………………………………………………..32 2.5.2 Laboratory…………………………………………………………………...32 2.6 Results……………………………….……………………………………………36 2.6.1Generalites........................................................................................................36 2.6.2 Outer Harbour.................................................................................................37 2.6.3 Northwest Arm.................................................................................................43 2.6.4 Inner Harbour.................................................................................................46 2.6.4.1 Before the treatment process...................................................................47 2.6.4.2 Foraminiferal response to the treatment process....................................48 2.6.4.3 Foraminiferal decline due to treatment failure.......................................52 2.6.4.4 Seasonal variability in foraminiferal assemblage………………………53 2.6.5 Bedford Basin....................................................................................................59 2.7 Discussion………………………...…………………………………………...….59 2.7.1 Distribution pattern of benthonic foraminifera...............................................59 2.7.2 Shell deformities……………………………………………………………...63 2.7.3 Foraminiferal trends vs. chemical data….…………………………………....65 2.8 Conclusions……………………………………...………………………….…..….72 2.9 Taxonomy………...………………………...…………………………….…………74 Chapter 3: Benthonic Foraminifera as Proxies for Reconstruction of the Pre-European Settlement Environment of Halifax Harbour, Nova Scotia, Canada…………………………………………………………………....83 3.1 Abstract……………………………………………………………………………84 3.2 Introduction……………………………………….……………….........................84 3.3 Importance of the present work…………………………………………………...86 3.4 Materials and Methods..…………………………………….……………………..88 3.4.1 Choice of sampling locations………………………………………………...88 3.4.2 Sampling procedure and data analysis……………………………………..….89 v 3.4.3 Sedimentation rate and chronological dating………………………..………....91 3.5 Results…………………………………………………………………………..……92 3.5.1 Core 2 (near Mill Cove, Bedford Basin)…………..………………………..…92 3.5.2 Foraminiferal trends vs. OC and Cu, Pb, Zn metals in Core 2………….....…94 3.5.3 Core 3 (near Mill Cove, Bedford Basin)…………………………………..…...98 3.5.4 Foraminiferal trends vs. OC and Hg in Core 3…………………………...…...98 3.5.5 Core 5 (Outer Harbour)..…………………………………………..................101 3.5.6 Core 6 (Outer Harbour, west of McNab’s Island)...…………...……..............102 3.5.7 Foraminiferal trends vs. OC and Hg in Core 6………..…………..…..............104 3.5.8 Core 7 (mouth of Northwest Arm).…………………........................................108 3.5.9 Foraminiferal trends vs. OC and Hg in Core 7….............................................111 3.5.10 Core 8 (Inner Harbour, off Halifax waterfront)...……………………...........113 3.5.11 Foraminiferal trends vs. OC and Cu, Pb, Zn metals in Core 8………............117 3.6 Discussion………………….………………………….............................................119 3.6.1 Core 2………………………………………………………………………....119 3.6.2 Core 3…………………………………………………………………………121 3.6.3 Core 5…………………………………………………………………………122 3.6.4 Core 6…………………………………………………………………………123 3.6.5 Core 7…………….…………………………………………………………...124 3.6.6 Core 8………………..………………………………………………………...126 3.6.7 Foraminiferal trends vs. OC and metals in the core sediments…………..…...128 3.7 Conclusions…………………..………………………………………..………......129 Chapter 4: Historical Reconstruction of Two Estuaries in Atlantic Canada Impacted with Two Kinds Of Pollution: Domestic (Halifax Harbour) vs. Industrial (Sydney Harbour) Using Foraminiferal Proxies………………………...137 4.1 Abstract…………………………………………………………..........................138 4.2 Introduction………………………………………………………………………139 4.3 Study areas……………………………………………………….…....................140 4.3.1 Sydney Harbour…………………..………………………….….....................140 4.4 Materials and methods…………………………………………………………...147 vi 4.4.1 Sample collection……………….…………………………….…..………….147 4.4.2 Laboratory techniques……………….…………………………….……...….147 4.4.3 Sedimentation rate and chronological dating……………….…………..…....148 4.5 Results…………………….…………………………..……………………...……150 4.5.1 Core 4…………………………………..………………………………………150 4.5.1 Core 15………………………………..………………………………..………153 4.6 Discussion………….………….………………………...........................................156 4.6.1 Foraminiferal assemblages in Sydney Harbour.................................................156 4.6.2 Comparison between Sydney Harbour and Halifax Harbour.............................166 4.7 Conclusions…………………………………………………………………………169 Chapter 5: Conclusions...………..………………..…………………………………..171 5.1 Foraminiferal distribution in surficial samples of Halifax Harbour..........................171 5.2 Historical reconstruction of pollution in Halifax Harbour based on foraminifera in sediment cores……………………………………………………………………….174 5.3 Comparison of Halifax Harbour to Sydney Harbour…………...………………......176 References…………………………………………………………………...................179 Appendix 1 —Copyright Permission Letters..............................................................199 Appendix 2 (A-F)—Foraminiferal Data For Halifax Harbour Grab Samples........200 Appendix 3 (A-F)—Foraminiferal Data For Halifax Harbour Grab Samples........201 Appendix 4 (A-B)—Foraminiferal data for Sydney Harbour Cores........................202 vii LIST OF TABLES Table 2.1: Sampling stations, geographic coordinates, water depth, and sampling cycles for each sample station....................………………………………………….…...33 Table 2.2: Percntages of live individuals through
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