Interpreting François Couperin's Pièces De Clavecin
Adapting French harpsichord repertoire to the piano: Interpreting François Couperin’s Pièces de clavecin
Sarah Louise Stranger MPhil(Music) BMus(Hons)
A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at The University of Queensland in 2021 School of Music Abstract
This research examines the translation of French harpsichord repertoire to the piano, with a specific focus on the interpretation of François Couperin’s Pièces de clavecin. Couperin’s keyboard music is considered highly idiomatic to the harpsichord and as a result, is not often performed on the piano. There are only a small number of pieces that are found in pianists’ repertoire with any frequency. The discourse among pianists on the performance of this repertoire on piano reveals a level of uncertainty. Where there is discussion of issues relating to interpretation, there is little attention given to the utilisation of harpsichord techniques and to how these affect the translation of this repertoire to a piano context. This project explores ways in which the translation of
Couperin’s harpsichord repertoire to the piano is enhanced by increased expertise and experience on the harpsichord.
This study combines practice-led research with a historically informed performance framework, and draws on autoethnographic and musicological methods to investigate two research questions:
1. For a pianist, how does the experience of learning this repertoire on the harpsichord guide
and influence subsequent performance on a modern grand piano?
2. How does that experience specifically affect the transferral of more overtly harpsichord-
idiomatic repertoire by Couperin to the piano?
This research contributes to the understanding of contemporary performance practice of this repertoire by exploring the harpsichord’s sound, as well as a range of technical, physical, and kinaesthetic factors that relate to harpsichord technique. It then systematically explores the translation of those performance elements to a modern pianistic context. The research findings are displayed through embodied musical knowledge in performance and inform an interpretation of
Couperin's keyboard music, documented by an audio recording. The exegesis culminates in a set of
i recommendations for the interpretation of this music on the piano, exemplified through studies of three of François Couperin’s ordres. The research suggests that carefully calibrated use of the piano’s capabilities, such as dynamic and tonal variation, combined with the subtle articulations and agogic accentuation used when playing the harpsichord, produce a nuanced interpretation. This thesis makes a case for the translation of Couperin’s harpsichord repertoire to the piano and provides a contextualised exemplar upon which other pianists can model their own practice.
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Declaration by author
This thesis is composed of my original work, and contains no material previously published or written by another person except where due reference has been made in the text. I have clearly stated the contribution by others to jointly-authored works that I have included in my thesis.
I have clearly stated the contribution of others to my thesis as a whole, including statistical assistance, survey design, data analysis, significant technical procedures, professional editorial advice, financial support and any other original research work used or reported in my thesis. The content of my thesis is the result of work I have carried out since the commencement of my higher degree by research candidature and does not include a substantial part of work that has been submitted to qualify for the award of any other degree or diploma in any university or other tertiary institution. I have clearly stated which parts of my thesis, if any, have been submitted to qualify for another award.
I acknowledge that an electronic copy of my thesis must be lodged with the University Library and, subject to the policy and procedures of The University of Queensland, the thesis be made available for research and study in accordance with the Copyright Act 1968 unless a period of embargo has been approved by the Dean of the Graduate School.
I acknowledge that copyright of all material contained in my thesis resides with the copyright holder(s) of that material. Where appropriate I have obtained copyright permission from the copyright holder to reproduce material in this thesis and have sought permission from co-authors for any jointly authored works included in the thesis.
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Publications included in this thesis
No publications included.
Submitted manuscripts included in this thesis
No manuscripts submitted for publication.
Other publications during candidature
Conference abstracts
1. Stranger, Sarah. “Piano versus harpsichord: Can one inform the other?.” London International Piano Symposium, London, UK, 2018.
Contributions by others to the thesis
No contributions by others.
Statement of parts of the thesis submitted to qualify for the award of another degree
No works submitted towards another degree have been included in this thesis.
Research involving human or animal subjects
Ethics approval was granted by the School of Music Ethical Review Panel under the approval number: SoM-ETH17-04/SS.
An amendment was approved by the University of Queensland Humanities and Social Sciences Low and Negligible Risk Ethics Sub-Committee under the approval number: 2018001756.
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Acknowledgments
Many thanks to my advisors, Dr Liam Viney and Dr Anna Grinberg, for providing support and insight throughout the duration of the PhD. Your advice during lessons and meetings was invaluable in the development of this project. I am thankful for the generosity of the Griffith University Conservatorium of Music and Peter Roennfeldt who provided me access to a harpsichord to practice on during 2018. Without this, experience on the harpsichord would have been much more difficult to obtain. I will be forever grateful to my family and friends. Thank you for your love, prayers and support during my study, and for putting up with my seemingly endless talk about the PhD. Finally, thank you to my partner, Huy, for being patient and understanding while I spent a considerable amount of time working on this study. I could not have completed this project without your constant support and encouragement.
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Financial support
This research was supported by an Australian Government Research Training Program Scholarship and an Australian Government Research Training Living Stipend Scholarship.
Research overseas was funded by the Nancy Jones Travelling Scholarship (University of Queensland). Additional funding to obtain research-related services was supported by the HDR Student School Scholarship.
Keywords françois couperin, piano, harpsichord, artistic research, historically informed performance
Australian and New Zealand Standard Research Classifications (ANZSRC)
ANZSRC code: 190407, Music Performance, 70% ANZSRC code: 190409, Musicology and Ethnomusicology, 30%
Fields of Research (FoR) Classification
FoR code: 1904, Performing Arts and Creative Writing 100%
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Contents
List of Tables ...... x
List of Figures ...... x
List of Examples ...... x
Chapter 1 — Introduction ...... 1 1.1 Exegesis Structure ...... 3
Chapter 2 — Context Review ...... 6 2.1 Historically Informed Performance ...... 6 2.2 Opinions on adapting harpsichord repertoire to the piano ...... 10 2.3 Recordings ...... 13 Different Approaches on the Piano ...... 16 2.4 Literature ...... 19 Primary Sources ...... 19 French Baroque Literature ...... 20 Harpsichord repertoire on the Piano ...... 22
Chapter 3 — Methodology and Framework...... 25 3.1 Methods ...... 27
Chapter 4 — Understanding the French Baroque Sound ...... 31 4.1 Historical Background ...... 31 4.2 Couperin and his Works ...... 32 4.3 Couperin’s Harpsichords ...... 35
Chapter 5 — Elements of Performance for Couperin’s Repertoire...... 38 5.1 French Baroque Performance Practices ...... 38 Rhythmic Inequality ...... 39 French Baroque Ornaments ...... 41 Rhythmic Freedom ...... 45 5.2 Harpsichord and Piano Technique ...... 46 5.3 Harpsichord and Piano Sound ...... 48
Chapter 6 — Influence of the Harpsichord...... 51 6.1 The Evolving Interpretation ...... 52
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Harpsichord Experience ...... 52 Harpsichord Influence ...... 54 Character ...... 55 Impact on Interpretation ...... 56 6.2 Harpsichord Influence...... 58 Technique on the harpsichord ...... 58 Technique on the piano ...... 61 Articulation on the harpsichord ...... 65 Articulation on the piano ...... 67 Ornaments ...... 72 Fingering ...... 76 Notes Inégales ...... 79 Dynamics ...... 82 Tone ...... 85 Tempo ...... 88 Flexibility ...... 88
Chapter 7 — Reflections on Performance ...... 91 7.1 Performing the Repertoire ...... 91 7.2 Harpsichord-Idiomatic Pieces ...... 93 7.3 Recommendations for Performance ...... 96
Chapter 8 — Couperin’s Pièces de clavecin ...... 100 8.1 Sixième Ordre ...... 100 8.2 Neuvième Ordre ...... 107 8.3 Dixhuitième Ordre ...... 113
Chapter 9 — Conclusion ...... 118 9.1 The Study ...... 118 9.2 The Harpsichord Influence ...... 119 9.3 Applications ...... 122
List of Works Cited ...... 124
Bibliography ...... 132
Appendix A — Piano Recordings ...... 148
Appendix B — Harpsichord-Idiomatic Pieces ...... 154
Appendix C — Ethics Approval ...... 156
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Appendix D — Interview Questions ...... 158
Appendix E — Couperin’s Table of Ornaments ...... 160
Appendix F — Recital Program Notes ...... 162
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List of Tables
Table 1. Recordings of keyboard music by J.S. Bach, D. Scarlatti and F. Couperin on harpsichord and piano...... 14 Table 2. Total number of piano recordings of each piece from the sixième, neuvième, and dixhuitième ordres...... 94
List of Figures
Figure 1. Total number of recordings of each of Couperin's pieces, grouped according to ordre...... 16
List of Examples
Ex. 1. Couperin, Pièces de Clavecin, Ornament Table ...... 40 Ex. 2. Couperin, Pièces de clavecin, vingt-cinquième ordre, “La Visionaire”, bar 1–2 ...... 41 Ex. 3. Couperin, Pièces de clavecin, seizième ordre, “Les Graces incomparables ou La Conti”, bar 1 ...... 43 Ex. 4. Couperin, Pièces de clavecin, seizième ordre, “La Distraite”, bar 7 ...... 43 Ex. 5. Couperin, Pièces de clavecin, dixhuitième ordre, “Le tic-toc-choc ou Les Maillotins”, bar 30 ...... 43 Ex. 6. Couperin, Pièces de clavecin, sixième ordre, “Les langueurs-tendres”, bar 1 ...... 44 Ex. 7. Couperin, Pièces de clavecin, dixhuitième ordre, “Le gaillard-boiteux”, bars 12–14 .... 45 Ex. 8. Couperin, Pièces de clavecin, Ornament Table ...... 46 Ex. 9. Couperin, Pièces de clavecin, sixième ordre, “La commére” (piano) ...... 57 Ex. 10. Couperin, Pièces de clavecin, sixième ordre, “La commére” (piano) ...... 57 Ex. 11. Couperin, Pièces de clavecin, dixhuitième ordre, “La Verneüilléte” (harpsichord)..... 59 Ex. 12. Couperin, Pièces de clavecin, sixième ordre, “Le moucheron” (harpsichord) ...... 60 Ex. 13. Couperin, Pièces de clavecin, seizième ordre, “La Distraite”, bars 1–3 ...... 64 Ex. 14. Couperin, Pièces de clavecin, dixhuitième ordre, “Le tic-toc-choc, ou Les maillotins” (harpsichord) ...... 65 Ex. 15. Couperin, Pièces de clavecin, vingt-cinquième ordre, “La Monflambert”, bars 17–18 ...... 69 Ex. 16. Couperin, Pièces de clavecin, dixhuitième ordre, “Le tic-toc-choc, ou Les maillotins”, bars 11–12...... 70 Ex. 17. Couperin, Pièces de clavecin, Ornament Table ...... 71 Ex. 18. Couperin, Pièces de clavecin, sixième ordre, “Les moissonneurs”, bar 1 ...... 72 Ex. 19. Couperin, Pièces de clavecin, neuvième ordre, “L’insinüante”, bar 32–36 ...... 74 Ex. 20. Couperin, Pièces de clavecin, sixième ordre, “Le moucheron”, bar 20 ...... 79 Ex. 21. Couperin, Pièces de clavecin, sixième ordre, “Les moissonneurs”, bars 1–4 ...... 81 Ex. 22. Couperin, Pièces de clavecin, sixième ordre, “Les moissonneurs” (harpsichord) ...... 81
x Ex. 23. Couperin, Pièces de clavecin, sixième ordre, “Les moissonneurs”, bars 8–9 ...... 82 Ex. 24. Couperin, Pièces de clavecin, sixième ordre, “Les baricades mistérieuses”, bars 1–2...... 84 Ex. 25. Couperin, Pièces de clavecin, ornament table ...... 85 Ex. 26. Couperin, Pièces de clavecin, sixième ordre, “Les moissonneurs” (harpsichord) ...... 86 Ex. 27. Couperin, Pièces de clavecin, dixhuitième ordre, “Allemande La Verneuil”, bars 18–20 ...... 89 Ex. 28. Couperin, Pièces de clavecin, neuvième ordre, “La Princesse de Sens” (harpsichord) ...... 90 Ex. 29. Couperin, Pièces de clavecin, sixième ordre, “Les langueurs-tendres”, bars 1–2 ..... 101 Ex. 30. Couperin, Pièces de clavecin, sixième ordre, “La Bersan”, anacrusis and bar 1 ...... 102 Ex. 31. Couperin, Pièces de clavecin, sixième ordre, “La Bersan”, bars 5 and 6 ...... 103 Ex. 32. Couperin, Pièces de clavecin, sixième ordre, “Les bergeries”, anacrusis and bars 1–2 ...... 104 Ex. 33. Couperin, Pièces de clavecin, sixième ordre, “Les bergeries”, bars 10–11 ...... 104 Ex. 34. Couperin, Pièces de clavecin, sixième ordre, “La commére”, bars 13–15 ...... 105 Ex. 35. Couperin, Pièces de clavecin, sixième ordre, “La commére”, bar 19 ...... 105 Ex. 36. Couperin, Pièces de clavecin, sixième ordre, “Le moucheron”, bar 15 ...... 106 Ex. 37. Couperin, Pièces de clavecin, sixième ordre, “Le moucheron”, bar 19 ...... 106 Ex. 38. Couperin, Pièces de clavecin, sixième ordre, “Le moucheron”, bars 22–24 ...... 107 Ex. 39. Couperin, Pièces de clavecin, neuvième ordre, “Allemande à deux clavecins”, bar 1–4 ...... 108 Ex. 40. Couperin, Pièces de clavecin, neuvième ordre, “La rafraîchissante”, bar 7 ...... 109 Ex. 41. Couperin, Pièces de clavecin, neuvième ordre, “La rafraîchissante”, bar 10 ...... 109 Ex. 42. Couperin, Pièces de clavecin, neuvième ordre, “L’insinüante”, bar 32–36 ...... 111 Ex. 43. Couperin, Pièces de clavecin, dixhuitième ordre, “Le tic-toc-choc, ou Les maillotins”, bar 13 ...... 116 Ex. 44. Couperin, Pièces de clavecin, dixhuitième ordre, “Le gaillard-boiteux”, bar 3–5 ..... 117
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Chapter 1 — Introduction
Performing Baroque repertoire on modern instruments, in ways which are stylistically
appropriate and informed, requires a transferral of knowledge. It asks performers to rethink
the repertoire as they discover how their instrument can convey character and the spirit of
the work to today’s audiences. Specific to the harpsichord and the grand piano, the structure
and mechanism of each instrument differs, creating significant variations in tone, dynamic
capabilities, and the technique required of the performer. The process of transferring
harpsichord music to the piano involves a consideration of the differences in technique,
sound, and capabilities of each instrument, as well as the implications for interpretation.
Navigating these cross-instrument differences is one challenge among many in the field of
historically informed performance (HIP).
This project focuses on the transferral of French clavecin repertoire to the piano
(clavecin being the French term for harpsichord), with a particular focus on the repertoire of
François Couperin. Couperin was chosen as the focus of this study because of his prominence as a composer of the French Clavecin School, but despite his prominence, his harpsichord works are rarely performed on the piano. To address this, my findings from the study were used to inform a performance of Couperin's keyboard music, contributing new understanding and insight into the repertoire.
The need for deeper insight into the performance of French clavecin repertoire became evident during a previous research project. The study explored how to capture the spirit of the French Clavecin School in an interpretation of Couperin’s Pièces de clavecin, vingt- cinquième ordre and Ravel’s Le Tombeau de Couperin. Studying Couperin’s vingt-cinquième
1 ordre drew my attention to the deficit of information available to pianists about the transferral of French clavecin repertoire to the modern grand piano. While there are numerous performances of this music on the harpsichord, there are far fewer to be heard on the piano. This can be partially attributed to the perception, among pianists and harpsichordists alike, that the harpsichord-idiomatic nature of Couperin’s music allows for only a selection of pieces to be successfully performed on the piano. Commentary by performers indicates that there are some pianists who do not believe all French clavecin music can be successfully interpreted on the piano. Noted concert pianist, Angela Hewitt, has recorded a portion of Couperin’s repertoire on the piano. In her commentary on the repertoire, Hewitt provides some insight into how she chose her pieces. She writes, “having initially read through all 226 pieces, I chose those which I felt translated the best to the modern piano” (Hewitt, François Couperin 1: 7). To provide further insight, Hewitt states that out of all Couperin’s pieces, “some were obviously pure harpsichord material” (“Orders, ordres” n. pag.). Hewitt’s views reinforce the perception that this repertoire does not always translate well to the piano.
Albert Cohen, a widely recognised musicologist, states that the “French Baroque
Musical style does not transfer well to today’s instruments or aesthetic” (10). Regarding the harpsichord, Boris Berman, a pianist with extensive harpsichord experience, states that “so much wonderful music has been written for this instrument, and it does not really transplant well to the piano, especially French music. I have not yet heard a convincing performance of
Couperin or Rameau on the piano” (Berman qtd. in McLachlan 6). Most opinions about this repertoire link back to its harpsichord-idiomatic nature and a belief that the music loses its character when it is performed on the piano (Anthony 313; Warlock 57; Brown, n. pag.;
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Tureck, “Bach — Piano” n. pag.). In response to these views, this study explored how
experience on the harpsichord can influence an interpretation of the repertoire on piano.
Performing Couperin on the piano provides the opportunity to hear the music through a different medium, bringing a range of new affordances to the interpretive framework.
Existing studies that address a piano performance of harpsichord repertoire do not specifically focus on the influence harpsichord experience has on a piano interpretation nor the practical application this has on the performance of Couperin’s works. The most comprehensive insight into the performance of the repertoire is documented in the recordings themselves. As a result, the development of a piano interpretation of Couperin’s solo harpsichord repertoire has not been extensively documented in written form. There is little information available pertaining to practice on the harpsichord and the impact of this on interpretation.
This study intended to fill the gap in current scholarship. It investigated this repertoire from a practical perspective and offers recommendations for performers to utilise when approaching French clavecin repertoire on the piano. The results of the research show that there was no precise formula which could be used to adapt Couperin’s repertoire to the piano.
Each piece was different and required varying levels of compromise when using harpsichord and piano techniques. The recordings of the repertoire, which were the main outcome of the study, do not display the interpretive difficulties encountered throughout the process. It is this which provided evidence of the successful translation to piano.
1.1 Exegesis Structure
The primary outcomes of this study are the two recorded performances of Couperin’s
pieces, accompanied by this exegesis. It is this written document that “makes explicit the
implicit decision-making that has attended the creative act of performance” (Forbes 278). In
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this exegesis, I propose a set of recommendations for the performance of Couperin’s
repertoire on the modern grand piano which is demonstrated in a performance of Couperin’s
two most performed ordres (sixième and dixhuitième ordres) and one of his least performed
ordre (neuvième ordre — section 2.3 details how the most and least performed ordres were determined). Couperin used the term ordre, instead of a “suite”, to refer to a collection of
pieces (Kroll, “French Masters” 131). The focus on these particular ordres enables a
comparison of his most readily adaptable repertoire with his most harpsichord-idiomatic
repertoire, informing analytical insights into the idiomatic elements of Couperin's harpsichord
music. This is examined in relation to the embodied knowledge gained from a range of
harpsichord-based practice, including lessons with harpsichord specialists. The findings of
which are applicable to cross-instrument interpretation in the broader context.
The preliminary chapters of this exegesis are a context review and methodology.
Instead of a literature review, I have opted to use the term “context review”. This is based on
Robin Nelson’s suggestion to include a combination of both literature and practice in the
review (102–3). This is one of the ways in which artistic research is differentiating itself from
science-based studies. The inclusion of a review of practice in the form of recordings and
performances, in addition to written literature, assists in assessing current views on this topic
and the extent to which it has been explored. Following this, the study addresses two primary
research questions:
1. For a pianist, how does the experience of learning this repertoire on the harpsichord
guide and influence subsequent performance on a modern grand piano?
2. How does that experience specifically affect the transferral of more overtly
harpsichord-idiomatic repertoire by Couperin to the piano?
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To answer these questions, I investigated the aesthetic preoccupations and idiosyncrasies of
French clavecin repertoire (chapter 4). Following this, I addressed the relevant performance practices and the differences between the harpsichord and piano (chapter 5). After these foundational aspects were considered, I was then able to provide a discussion of my harpsichord experience and how this influenced the development of my interpretation
(chapter 6). The recommendations for the performance of this repertoire are presented in chapter 7 and the application of this in chapter 8, where my interpretation of the sixième, neuvième, and dixhuitième ordres is discussed.
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Chapter 2 — Context Review
Current literature pertaining to the interpretation of harpsichord repertoire on the
piano provides some insight into the issues involved when translating music from one
instrument to the other. These studies, however, are not based on the music of François
Couperin and do not address the influence of the harpsichord, the development of an
interpretation, or the practical application of this information. There is substantial focus on
explanations of performance practice and suggestions for applying this to the piano without
consideration of the harpsichord. The most comprehensive insight into the performance of
Couperin’s keyboard repertoire is documented in commercial recordings. However, the
recorded performance only allows the listener to hear the final product, without insight into
the process of developing an interpretation.
This review explores the piano interpretation of French Baroque repertoire further.
To begin, an overview of the development of HIP provides insight into the foundational
aspects of the study. Following this, a survey of piano recordings, commonly held opinions on
the performance of this repertoire, and relevant literature provides an overview of the
current understanding of French clavecin repertoire on the piano.
2.1 Historically Informed Performance
The performance of Baroque repertoire is a topic that has divided musicologists,
performers, and audiences throughout the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. Performing
this repertoire requires the performer to consider the instrument it was composed for, its performance practices, and the historical context, as well as ideas and opinions on the
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performance of repertoire which have shaped our view of the music in the twenty-first
century. These variables point to the issue of “authenticity”, a contentious subject,
particularly in the second half of the twentieth century. An explanation of the concept was
provided by Mary Cyr (1992):
When applied to musical performance, authenticity may be regarded as an attempt to perform within a context of historical faithfulness, either by adhering closely to the composer’s wishes (if they are known), or by considering the conventions and historical circumstances of performances associated with the composer. (Performing Baroque Music 22)
The authentic performance practice movement was a reaction to the overtly
expressive qualities of Romanticism and was embraced by musicians who were interested in
early music (Leonhardt qtd. in Sherman 197; Sadie, “The Idea of Authenticity” 435). In
comparison to Romantic repertoire, Baroque repertoire was viewed as being dispassionate,
clean, precise, and having a comparatively small range of dynamics and tonal variation (Sadie,
“The Idea of Authenticity” 435). This view resulted in the standardisation of Baroque
performance practices, which pianists adhered to when interpreting the repertoire. Elements
of interpretation included strict adherence to the score, lack of expression, limited dynamic
levels, the use of terraced dynamics, and metronomic rhythm (Ahlgrimm 14; Leonhardt qtd.
in Sherman 197; Cooke 12; Anthony 439; Tang 14). These standardised performance practices
were used in an attempt to imitate the harpsichord, arising from a lack of knowledge about
the instrument. Rather than viewing the harpsichord and piano as instruments with different
voices and capabilities, pianists limited the capabilities of their instrument.
The emphasis on authentic performance practice dominated early music performance until the 1980s, when the importance placed on it began to be questioned by scholars and
7 musicians (Cyr, Style and Performance 4). David Schulenberg highlights some of these questions:
Should a performance reflect the composer’s intentions, or at least the conventions and conditions of performance that the composer might have originally anticipated? If the answer is yes, is this because the performer bears a moral duty to the composer, or is it because a historically informed performance is potentially richer than one based solely on present-day assumptions and intuitions? (9)
Cyr notes that through research and observations of performances, musicologists realised that the goal of authentic performance practice may “obscure rather than enhance the objectives of studying music of the past” (Style and Performance 4). The main objectives were re-evaluated, and historically informed research was used to bring the performer closer to understanding the work as a whole (Cyr, Style and Performance 4).
In the absence of recordings from earlier eras, musicians of today are not able to completely comprehend the style and expressive qualities of Baroque music in the same way as musicians from that era (Walls xiii). Our perception of early music has been influenced and conditioned by the changing styles of the nineteenth, twentieth, and twenty-first centuries.
At the start of the twentieth century, a so-called Romantic style of playing was kept alive throughout the “golden age” of pianists (Hamilton 4). As the twentieth century progressed, a reaction against Romanticism emerged, where precision and accuracy were increasingly favoured over bravura and spontaneity (Haynes 50). In addition to this, the perspective of the audience and their responses are not comparable to those from the seventeenth and eighteenth century (Badura-Skoda, “Aspects of Performance Practice” 57). Paul Hindemith was aware of this, stating “our spirit of life is not identical with that of our ancestors, and therefore their music, even if restored with utter technical perfection, can never have for us precisely the same meaning it had for them” (170).
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Today, the early music movement has evolved into the large area of study known as historically informed performance (HIP). This field generally uses authentic performance practice as a guide, rather than a primary aim, and allows for the exploration of individual expression while still allowing historical research to influence artistic decisions (Cyr, Style and
Performance 4). On the evolution of the early music movement, David Kjar notes, “the change in emphasis — from being producers of the definitive old sound to ones who think about what an old sound might be and how it could be produced — has significantly altered the movement’s internal and external persona” (14). Some credit for the change in emphasis can be given to Richard Taruskin, whose writings can be found in Text and Act: Essays on Music and Performance (1995). Taruskin’s main arguments throughout these essays, as summarised by John Butt, are:
that very little historical performance is, or can be, truly historical — much has to be invented; that the actual styles of historical performance we hear accord most strikingly with modern taste; that the movement as a whole has all the symptoms of 20th century modernism, as epitomized by the objectivist, authoritarian Stravinsky in his neoclassical phase. (324)
Taruskin’s writings on the subject, while at times controversial, provide thought provoking views on the state of early music. In a review of Text and Act, Butt emphasised the central point that can be drawn from the essays, which is “that there is no such thing as a literal, single interpretation; that the interpreter needs to engage with the text on a variety of levels, and, most of all, be true to his own beliefs” (332). Today, one prevailing thought on the performance of early music is that the musician’s interpretation should be influenced by what has been discovered from historical studies, rather than striving for the goal of complete authenticity (Cyr, Schulenberg, Peres Da Costa and Brown).
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In the early stages of the early music movement, pianists in general did not play early
repertoire on modern instruments. However, as the movement moved towards HIP, pianists
relaxed in their views towards this (see section 2.2). Interestingly, the growth HIP has not
resulted in an increased number of piano performances of Couperin’s repertoire. It has,
however, enabled more informed performances which take into consideration Baroque
performance practices without simplistic attempts to emulate the harpsichord. For this study,
working in a HIP framework set a foundation for the interpretation of the repertoire. When
this was applied alongside artistic research, through practice on the piano and harpsichord,
the process provides new insight through exploration of the sound and idiosyncrasies of each
instrument.
2.2 Opinions on adapting harpsichord repertoire to the piano
In the current era, there is little debate in relation to the use of the piano for the
performance of J.S. Bach or D. Scarlatti; it is a core repertoire requirement for the vast majority of piano students. French harpsichord music, however, is not frequently encountered in the repertoire of pianists (see section 2.3 — Recordings). While less
controversial today, use of the harpsichord or piano in the performance of Baroque repertoire
was a contested issue throughout the twentieth century. Musicians including Clifford Curzon
and Claudio Arrau believed that a performer should only play Baroque repertoire on the
harpsichord (Norris, n. pag.). In particular, the French clavecin style was seen as one style that did not transfer well to the piano and there was the belief that the repertoire was not able to be convincingly interpreted unless it was played on the harpsichord (Cohen 10; Mellers,
“Present and Past” 928). With a similar view, Peter Warlock notes, “music written for the
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harpsichord cannot but lose a great deal of its character when it is transferred to the
pianoforte” (57).
In contrast to this, a number of both pianists and scholars have challenged the notion
that these works can only be performed on the harpsichord. Those who favoured the piano
included Glenn Gould, Marcelle Meyer, Wilhelm Kempff, Alexander Tharaud, and Angela
Hewitt. Rosalyn Tureck states that the piano is an instrument that “speaks with the most
immediacy to us today” and so advocates for the use of it in her performances of Bach (Tureck
and Ampolsk n. pag.). However, in regard to playing François Couperin on the piano, she does not feel the same way. Tureck explains Couperin’s writing for the harpsichord:
He developed its possibilities to the utmost: the very structure, figure and ornament of his works are so intrinsically developed from harpsichord technique and its possibilities of sonority that I would be the first to say, "this is harpsichord music, and is best on the harpsichord". I would never play Couperin on the piano. (“Bach — Piano” n. pag.)
Even when the piano has been chosen, albeit less controversially, for the performance of repertoire by Bach, Scarlatti and Handel, there are still differing views on how the music should be transferred to the piano. Most scholars and musicians agree that attempting to imitate the harpsichord’s sound will not achieve the best results (Gustav Leonhardt, Paul
Badura-Skoda, Thurston Dart, Murray Perahia). Paul Badura-Skoda emphasises the
importance of not imitating the harpsichord, stating that it “often leads to musically
unsatisfactory and indeed quite ugly results” (qtd. in Kahlstorf 129). Thurston Dart advocates
for the use of all the piano’s capabilities, saying, “the performances must be idiomatic; each
instrument must be true to itself, and it must not try to ape the others” (164). Also in
agreement is Murray Perahia, who believes “it is crucial not to imitate a harpsichord…because
that’s not part of the spirit of the music. If tonal colouring can enlighten the music, it should
11 be used so that the listener gets what’s underneath the notes when he’s listening to a piece”
(Norris, n. pag.).
Opinions vary on the use of the piano’s capabilities. These include touch, technique, and dynamic variation. Max Cooke encourages a generally warm, cantabile touch with clear articulation rather than a precise, articulated touch (10), while Yin-Chun Tang advocates for a generally non-legato touch where the fingers stay on the surface of the key, with the use of a legato touch for cantabile passages (10). Iwona Kaminska prefers a lighter technique which aims to “widen the spectrum of touch” (59). In regard to the colouristic and dynamic possibilities found in the repertoire, Angela Hewitt has a preference for the piano over the harpsichord (“Five Bach Pieces” n. pag.). Similarly, Stephen Gutman believes that the tonal colours available on the piano add more depth to the pieces and assist in accentuating melodic lines (12). Opinions regarding the use of the piano’s dynamic range vary, from utilising its full potential to limiting the dynamics to the mid-range (Kong 52; Kaminska 59;
Cooke 10–11; Gaussin, n. pag.; Hewitt and Reich, n. pag.).
Ornaments play an integral role in French clavecin pieces and there are varying views on the performance of them on the piano. Hewitt states that “leaving them out is not an option!” (François Couperin Vol.1 6). Tharaud opts to keep the ornaments light, so not to burden the musical line (“Baroque and Beyond” n.p.), while Tzimon Barto leaves out ornaments whenever necessary, so as not to disrupt a cantabile line (4). In his Jean-Philippe
Rameau recordings, Gutman simplified the ornaments, particularly when they occur in the middle register of the piano (13). Ornaments are a stylistic trait of French clavecin repertoire, many of which play an integral role in the melodic line. In general, recorded performances have shown that pianists elect to execute the majority of ornaments in their original form or only slightly altered.
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In summary, views on the performance of harpsichord repertoire on the piano vary
and many of these are based on assumptions about the repertoire. There have been some
attempts by pianists to interpret Couperin’s repertoire. However, pianists who recorded the
repertoire have not indicated if they had experience on the harpsichord. If they did have
experience on the instrument, they have not discussed how it affected their playing. My study addresses this gap in understanding by documenting my experience with this repertoire on both the harpsichord and piano, providing insight into interpretive decisions.
2.3 Recordings
The harpsichord repertoire of J.S. Bach and D. Scarlatti is more frequently performed
and recorded on the piano than that of any other Baroque composer. A comparison of Bach,
Scarlatti and Couperin recordings is displayed in table 1 below. This data was collected from discogs.com. The website documents a large number of recordings and while this is not an
exhaustive list, it does have enough information to allow for a fair comparison of the number
of the piano recordings of each composer’s works. From information available in the
discographies, it was interesting to find that the number of Couperin and Bach harpsichord
recordings was not too dissimilar, while the number of Scarlatti recordings on the harpsichord
outweighs them both. In comparison to this, the number of recordings of Bach’s and
Scarlatti’s repertoire on the piano far surpasses the number of Couperin recordings. From the
data collected, there were only sixteen recordings of Couperin’s repertoire on piano. In
comparison to this, there were 250 piano recordings of Bach’s preludes and fugues and 470
piano recordings of Scarlatti’s sonatas (based on the search criteria used on the website). The
limited recordings of Couperin’s music on piano suggests that pianists, other musicians, and
even audiences view his repertoire as being more suited to the harpsichord.
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Harpsichord Piano Recordings Recordings
J.S. Bach (“Well-tempered”) 105 250
D. Scarlatti (“Sonata”) 279 470
F. Couperin 116 16 (“Pièces de clavecin”)
Table 1. Recordings of keyboard music by J.S. Bach, D. Scarlatti and F. Couperin on harpsichord and piano.
While the commonly held view is that Couperin’s repertoire is highly idiomatic to the harpsichord, there are certain pieces which are viewed as being readily transferrable to the piano. Those which can be more readily adapted will naturally be the most recorded on the piano. To give an indication of the pieces by Couperin which are viewed as being the most adaptable, another survey of online discographies was done, allowing for a comparison of the number of pieces recorded. For this survey, the discographies were discogs.com, classicalarchives.com, naxos.com, and allmusic.com. From this, the number of piano recordings for each of Couperin’s pieces was tallied (see appendix A). In total, there are seventy-three recordings by fifty-seven different pianists. Of the seventy-three recordings, there were forty-two which included only one of Couperin’s pieces. These were compilations of Baroque repertoire. There is only one pianist who has recorded Couperin’s complete twenty-seven ordres — Pierre Etcheverry, in 2012. In addition to this, only six other recordings contained a full performance of a complete ordre. Three of these were recorded by Angela
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Hewitt and the remaining three by Constantin Lifschitz, Cédric Pescia and Marika Nagasaki. In total, the sixième, vingt-cinquième, and vingt-sixième ordres have been recorded in their entirety three times each and the huitième, treizième, dixhuitième, vingt-unième, and vingt- septième ordres have been recorded twice.
Figure 1 is a summary of the total recordings of each piece on piano, grouped according to ordre (the number of pieces in each ordre ranges from four to twenty-three).
Etcheverry’s complete recording was not included in the table. The number of recordings for each ordre differs and as a result, including Etcheverry’s recording skewed the results and did not provide a true reflection of recording numbers. Over time, favourites within Couperin’s repertoire have emerged. These are the most frequently recorded pieces: “Les baricades mistérieuses” (sixième ordre), “Le tic-toc-choc, ou Les maillotins” (dixhuitième ordre), and “Le carillon de Cithére” (quatorzième ordre) with twenty-two, eighteen, and fifteen recordings respectively (see appendix A). From this data, it was found that the most recorded ordres are the sixième, quatorzième, and dixhuitième. Of the 226 pieces, ninety-eight were not recorded by any pianist (with the exception of Etcheverry’s complete recording) (see appendix B). The omission of these ninety-eight pieces in recordings points to the lack popularity of these pieces on the piano. They are not as well-known and so may not be as readily received in a piano performance.
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Number of Piano Recordings
9th ordre 11th ordre 16th ordre 22nd ordre 4th ordre 7th ordre 10th ordre 12th ordre 23rd ordre 3rd ordre 20th ordre 1st ordre 27th ordre* 24th ordre 21st ordre* 26th ordre* 2nd ordre 5th ordre 15th ordre 17th ordre 19th ordre 25th ordre* 13th ordre 8th ordre* 18th ordre* 14th ordre 6th ordre*
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Figure 1. Total number of recordings of each of Couperin's pieces, grouped according to ordre. *Indicates the ordres which were recorded in their entirety.
Different Approaches on the Piano
In addition to Etcheverry’s complete recording, other pianists who have performed and recorded these works are Angela Hewitt, Ray McIntyre, and Alexandre Tharaud. Hewitt, a prominent Bach pianist, published three recordings of Couperin’s ordres (two in 2003 and
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one in 2005). These recordings contain performances of complete ordres, as well as a
selection of single pieces. Prior to Hewitt’s Couperin recordings, McIntyre released Couperin:
45 Selected Pieces for Piano: In Order of Progressive Difficulty (2000). This contains a selection
of Couperin’s pieces interpreted from the point of view of both a pianist and harpsichordist.
Another recording of note is Tharaud’s Tic, Toc, Choc: Alexander Tharaud joue Couperin
(2007), which contains a selection of pieces from Couperin’s ordres.
In these recordings, the specific decisions regarding the score are diverse and, in some cases, point to the uncertainty surrounding the interpretation of this repertoire. The influence of harpsichord sound and technique, however, cannot be accurately discerned by listening to pianists’ recordings. The interpretive decision-making embodied in the majority of Couperin
recordings on the piano seem to arise from the outdated view that harpsichord practices
cannot be effectively transferred to the piano. By reading Hewitt’s notes which accompany
her recording, we learn that she focused her research on historical context and Baroque performance practice. There is, however, no mention of harpsichord influence. In an
interview about her Bach pieces, Hewitt said “although some things by Bach I think can sound
marvelous on the harpsichord, it's just that for me personally, after 10–15 minutes, I miss the
sounds I can get on the piano. And I am getting a bit fed up with the more monotone sound”
(“Five Bach pieces” np). There is no discussion of her looking to the harpsichord for inspiration
for her interpretation.
The recorded performances of Couperin’s repertoire vary in the choice of tempo,
amount of rubato, types of articulation and variations in dynamics. The tempo of one of
Couperin’s most well-known pieces, “Les Barricades Mistérieuses” (sixième ordre), varies
greatly between performers. Hewitt’s tempo is 78bpm (minim beats), while Tharaud’s tempo
is a faster moving 110bpm (minim beats). Etcheverry fluctuates between these two tempos
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and he applies the most rubato. The tempos are more consistent in “Le tic-toc-choc, ou Les
maillotins” (dixhuitième ordre); Etcheverry’s tempo is 70bpm (minim beats), Hewitt’s is
75bpm (minim beats), and Tharaud’s is 67bpm (minim beats).
Despite how thoroughly ornaments are documented in writings on early music and performance practice (see section 5.1 — French Baroque Ornaments), there are a variety of
ornament realisations in recorded performances of Couperin’s music, not just on the piano,
but on the harpsichord as well. For example, ornaments on the harpsichord are generally longer, while ornaments on the piano are often shorter, altered or omitted. Hewitt often executes her ornaments before the beat. Etcheverry and Tharaud, however, generally play ornaments on the beat. In “La commére” (sixième ordre), Hewitt plays the ornaments so that the final note ends on the beat, while Etcheverry varies between ending on the beat and beginning the ornament just before the beat and continuing through the note’s duration. In terms of articulation, Etcheverry played “La commére” and “Les moissonneurs” (sixième
ordre) with a generally legato touch. Hewitt, on the other hand, uses a wider range of
articulation in general.
Notes inégales, which is an unmarked form of rhythmic alteration, was widespread in
France during the Baroque period and is an integral element of the French style (see section
5.1 — Rhythmic inequality). It is used in performances of Couperin’s repertoire on the
harpsichord. In piano recordings and performances, however, some pianists do not employ
notes inégales, while others do. An example is in Hewitt’s recording of “Les moissonneurs”.
Here she does not apply inégales; recordings of this piece by harpsichordists regularly include
inégales. Similarly, Etcheverry does not use the practice in his interpretation of the piece. In
her CD liner notes and interviews pertaining to the recordings, Hewitt discusses the intricacies
of notes inégales (Hewitt, François Couperin 12). She states that when deciding when to use
18 the technique, “musical judgment plays a big role” (Hewitt, François Couperin 12). In particular, she uses notes inégales in the two courantes from the huitième ordre. The omission of the practice from other pieces stems from her view that “to apply it everywhere indiscriminately seems wrong and sounds like a student practising a piece in rhythms”
(Hewitt, François Couperin 12). The omission of the technique in many interpretations of
Couperin’s repertoire stems from the view that it does not adapt well to the piano. It could also suggest that pianists have not spent the time required for it to feel natural on the piano.
This is one of the areas of Baroque performance practice which I investigate through practice on the harpsichord and piano to determine how to effectively apply the technique.
2.4 Literature
Primary Sources
The treatises written by Baroque composers provided rules and suggestions for musicians of the day to assist in the performance of compositions. Today, these treatises also give general insight into the music and performance practices of the Baroque period.
Treatises by French clavecin composers are particularly relevant to my study. They include
Couperin’s L'art de toucher le clavecin (1716), Michel de Saint-Lambert’s Les principes du clavecin (1702), and writings by Jean-Philippe Rameau. Couperin’s L’art de toucher provides information about his teaching methods, harpsichord technique, and fingering, as well as some explanation for the execution of ornaments.
In addition to these sources, Dennis Shrock’s Performance Practice in the Baroque Era:
As related by Primary Sources (2013) draws together primary source material and categorises it into different aspects of performance practice (sound, tempo, articulation, metric
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accentuation, rhythmic alteration, ornament realisation, and expression). This allows for ease
of comparison when researching specific elements of Baroque practice. There are instances
when primary sources may contradict each other or lack clear explanations. This can be seen
in the differing explanations for the execution of ornaments or notes inégales. In these cases,
secondary sources that draw all the available information together can provide more
definitive answers on how to perform the music.
French Baroque Literature
There is a large body of literature that focuses on the history, culture and aesthetics
surrounding Baroque repertoire. The Cambridge Companion to French Music (2015) and
Wendy Heller’s Music in the Baroque (2014) both provide a comprehensive overview of the
Baroque era. They also examine the influence of the French monarchy on the progress of
French music, including Louis XIV’s endeavour to create the “state style”. The literature also
discusses, to varying degrees, the evolution of harpsichord music in France, noting the strong
influence of François Couperin on the development of the French clavecin style and his
influence on future generations of composers. While the primary aim of this literature is not
to provide a guide for performance practice, it does assist in building the picture of French
Baroque aesthetics, sound, and history. This contextualisation of the French Baroque creates a foundation for an interpretation which is grounded in HIP.
Books specifically on Baroque or French Baroque performance include Mary Cyr’s
Style and Performance for Bowed String Instruments in French Baroque Music (2012) and
Performing Baroque Music (1992), Frederick Neumann’s Performance Practices of the
Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries (1993), and Interpretation of French Music from 1675
to 1775: For Woodwind and Other Performers by Betty Bang Mather and Dean Karns (1973).
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These sources cover Baroque performance practices and hold similar views on each element.
However, views differ regarding the specific application of some aspects.
On the execution of ornaments, the views expressed by musicologists vary. Neumann,
whose views on some aspects of performance practice are generally in opposition to his
contemporaries, argues that ornaments did not always begin on the beat and that trills could
start on either the written note or the note above (Neumann, Ornamentation in Baroque
262). This contradicted the accepted practice at the time. In The Interpretation of Early Music
(1974), Robert Donington discusses Neumann’s thoughts on Baroque ornaments, concluding that while some ornaments can begin before the beat, obligatory ornaments (those which are integral to the melodic line) must always start on the beat (622). Cyr does not mention the possibility of ornaments occurring before the beat and instead simply states that trills begin on the beat from the note above (Style and Performance 107). Roland Jackson opts for a freer view and writes, “a modern performer should not apply elements found in the tables too rigidly, but adapt them to the context of the piece being played” (291). Jackson’s viewpoint on adapting the ornaments to suit various situations is important to note, particularly when adapting these ornaments to the piano. Being aware of the various views on ornament realisation will allow for a thorough understanding of an element which is integral to the
French clavecin style.
Another aspect of performance practice where views differ is in the application of notes inégales. This is because there is no exact ratio for the extent of inequality. Mark Kroll writes, “the proper application of inégales…defies a strict or simple arithmetical realization; rather, it varies subtly according to the character of a piece” (“French Masters” 130). Cyr summarised the practice, writing, “because the inequality was an integral part of the expressive character of the music, it was considered obligatory in many circumstances, yet
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the actual degree of inequality was left to the performer” (Performing Baroque Music 117).
Aside from some general rules of inequality quoted by all Baroque writers, determining when
and how to incorporate this element of performance practice is left up to the performer.
Disputes or disagreements over ornaments and notes inégales are just two examples
of the uncertainty that surrounds French Baroque performance practice. It reminds us of the
fact that while we can get close to understanding the repertoire, a performance will never be
the same as it was when the piece was composed. The further displaced music is from our
own time and culture, the harder one needs to work to perform it effectively (Donington, The
Interpretation 50–51). Each of the writers on this topic believe that in addition to the
incorporation of specific performance practices, personality and intuition also play a role in
interpretation. However, the extent to which individual expression influences the repertoire
needs to be considered as the interpretation is developed.
Harpsichord repertoire on the Piano
Sandra Mangsen’s essay “Pièces de clavecin au piano: The Pianistic Afterlife of French
Harpsichord Music” (2009) investigates how the music of the clavecinistes was kept alive
while the piano gained popularity. She surveys the published editions of Baroque keyboard
works and discusses the extent to which they were transcribed for the piano. This assists in
understanding each edition and provides the reader with information on the different scores
available. Some editions are more pianistic, with added dynamics, articulation markings, and expressive indications, while others attempt to remain as close to the original as possible.
Some of the more pianistic scores give an indication of what might be desirable in a piano performance, while others focus only on what feels comfortable technically on the piano, seemingly without any consideration for the character that is being portrayed. While scores
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with these markings can provide some reference points for a piano interpretation, this study
utilised urtext edition scores for practice on both the harpsichord and piano. The two editions were: Le Pupitre edition edited by Kenneth Gilbert and Éditions de l’oiseau Lyre edited by
Maurice Cauchie.
Recent research on the performance of Baroque music on the piano has primarily focused on the performance of J.S. Bach’s repertoire with minimal to no discussion about the
French Baroque style. While Iwona Kaminska’s dissertation focuses on J. S. Bach’s Ouverture in B Minor BWV 831, it does contain some information on the French overture and some
French performance practices. Kaminska focuses on the sound and articulation required for the performance on the piano and believes that “a pianist should be encouraged to experiment with the dynamic and colouristic possibilities of the instrument which, when used in conjunction with historical knowledge, will result in a more meaningful performance” (106).
Similarly, in their dissertations on J.S. Bach, Joanne Lan-Funn Kong and Delano Kahlstorf advocate for the utilisation of all the piano’s capabilities and stress the need to compromise to ensure the pieces work on the piano (Kong 164; Kahlstorf 127).
Studies that specifically focus on the performance of French clavecin repertoire on the piano include Yin-Chun Tang’s 1990 study Harpsichord Music of George Frideric Handel, Jean-
Philippe Rameau and François Couperin Played on the Modern Piano and Natal’â Mihajlovna
Smirnova’s 2011 article “Piano technique in the context of harpsichord art: On the example of pieces by F. Couperin” (translated from Russian to English). Tang’s study includes a brief description of how to play harpsichord music on the piano and suggests the use of a light touch, where the pianist stays on the surface of the keys, to provide the clarity desired for
Baroque music (10). The author also expresses the opinion that exaggerated dynamics are not useful in the performance of harpsichord music (Tang 12). Beyond these descriptions, which
23 do not advocate for the full utilisation of all the piano’s capabilities, there is no discussion regarding the performance of specific pieces on the piano. Smirnova’s study also describes how to play harpsichord music on the piano, but again, there is not a comprehensive discussion of the application in specific works by the French clavecinistes or consideration of how the harpsichord influences the interpretation.
My Master’s study, Capturing the Spirit of the French Clavecin School: Interpreting
Couperin’s Pièces de clavecin, vingt-cinquième ordre and Ravel’s Le Tombeau de Couperin
(2016), investigated the influences of the French Clavecin School in Ravel’s Le Tombeau and aimed to bring out the spirit of the French Clavecin School in the interpretation of both works.
While I did perform Couperin’s vingt-cinquième ordre on the piano, adapting harpsichord repertoire to the piano was not the primary focus of my study. Due to a variety of unavoidable circumstances (including lack of access to a harpsichord), I did not have experience on the harpsichord. If I had done so, the interpretation would have differed. This current research project features harpsichord practice and formal expert instruction as a central feature of the methodology, aiming to provide a comprehensive and accurate look at the performance of
French clavecin music on the piano.
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Chapter 3 — Methodology and Framework
In order to explore and document the influence of harpsichord experience on a piano interpretation of Couperin’s repertoire, I worked within an artistic research and historically
informed performance (HIP) framework. Approaching the study as an artistic research project
ensured that my experience with the repertoire was central. Henk Borgdorff defines artistic
research as “an endeavour in which the production of art is itself a fundamental part of the
research process and whereby art is partly the result of research” (31). Artistic practice was
an integral element in my study and it is a concept that Borgdorff explains, stating that “art
practice qualifies as research if its purpose is to expand our knowledge and understanding by
conducting an original investigation in and through art objects and creative processes” (205).
The outcome of such a study is displayed in an artwork or, in the case of this project, a
performance. The emphasis on practice as the main mode of data collection enabled the
development of the interpretation to be viewed from a first-person perspective, providing
the reader with insight into repertoire that has not been extensively explored.
The development of this study’s methodological framework was influenced by studies
by Mine Doğantan-Dack, Tormod Dalen, and Stephen Emmerson, all of which are based in
both artistic research and HIP. Doğantan-Dack’s The Role of the Musical Instrument in
Performance as Research: The Piano as a Research Tool (2015) investigates “the relationship
between embodied artistic knowledge and music analytical thinking” (202), with a specific
focus on a cantabile touch. The study addresses technical and interpretive questions related
to the artistic process of a musical performance on the piano and enables the exploration of
embodied knowledge (Doğantan-Dack 201). Embodied knowledge is one aspect of practice
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that artistic research investigates. Focusing on this element enables the researcher to analyse
embodied technique and musicality which, in turn, create a deeper understanding of
performance and interpretation. Identifying my own embodied knowledge on the piano
assisted with practice on both the harpsichord and piano.
Dalen’s Zum Spielen und zum Tantzen: A Kinaesthetic Exploration of the Bach Cello
Suites through Studies in Baroque Choreography (2014) explores the relationship between
dance and instrumental music in the Cello Suites of J.S. Bach and investigates what effect this
has on his interpretation of the pieces (“Project and Methods” n. pag.). Dalen draws on
practice-based methods which include dance lessons and experimenting with the knowledge
gained from those lessons during his cello practice. Dalen’s use of practice-based research
provided some guidance for the framework of my study, where I utilised practice on the
harpsichord to then provide a catalyst for experimentation in the development of my piano
interpretation.
Emmerson’s Around a Rondo (2004) explores the process of how a pianist developed
an interpretation of a work for fortepiano. The aim was to provide insights into the
development of interpretation and preparation for a performance (“Apologia” n. pag.).
Emmerson attempts to get inside the process from a performer’s perspective, investigating how the interpretation developed over time and whether the unfamiliar fortepiano would alter the approach to the piece (“The Project” n. pag.). Some of Emmerson’s methods, which
I incorporated in my own study, included recording the work at various stages during the research process, writing down thoughts, ideas and interpretive decisions, and having lessons on the original instrument.
In addition to artistic research, the other area of research that I draw on is HIP.
Approaching the music from a HIP perspective guides the development of a piano
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interpretation that considers all the elements involved in the performance of early music. To
draw together both the artistic research and HIP areas of study, my experience on the
harpsichord was central in the research design. Referencing his study on the fortepiano,
Emmerson observes that “acquiring the new skills required to master different versions of his or her instrument — sometimes even learning a new instrument altogether — brings a new understanding to the music and opens new potentials for creativity” (“Project and Methods” n. pag.). The potential for new understanding and creativity when performing this repertoire on the piano was the fundamental rationale for the project and an integral element of the interpretation.
3.1 Methods
This study’s HIP and artistic research basis called for a methodological framework that
drew on musicological and autoethnographic research approaches. The musicological
approach encompasses the HIP aspect of the study, where relevant literature was studied to
provide context for the interpretation of the pieces. This laid a foundation that provided
understanding of the style and aesthetics of the French Clavecin School, as well as the
performance practices used at the time.
An autoethnographic approach ensured my experience with the repertoire was at the
centre of this project. Tony Adams et al. explains that an autoethnographer’s role involves
“studying and practicing the methods and means for conducting research, as well as studying
and practicing the mechanisms and means for making art” (32). Adams et al. also explains
that “questions about research practice and craft require autoethnographers to be invested
in — and accountable to — the creation of insight and knowledge and the engagement of
compelling aesthetic practices” (25). Throughout the study, I used a practice journal to
27 document new knowledge gained during practice and experimentation. This included my thoughts, ideas, and questions, as well as video and audio recordings of my progress. This allowed me to refer to certain progress points when necessary. The analysis of the practice journal was divided into four categories: harpsichord sound, harpsichord technique, piano performance, and piano interpretation. These categories allowed me to easily focus on each aspect of interpretation development. Within these categories, a form of reflective practice was used to analyse the statements. This was based on John Bain’s model for self-assessment
(14–15). The process required me to investigate five categories for each topic encountered: reporting, responding, relating, reasoning, and reconstructing. This analysis resulted in the emergence of important themes and experiences. These have been used to organise the structure of the discussion (see chapter 6). In addition to reflective practice, the discussion was written using a narrative style of writing to describe my creative experiences on the harpsichord and piano. This particular method enabled me to effectively articulate my own methods, strategies and embodied knowledge. The result of this was clearer insight into the development of my interpretation.
Borgdorff notes that within artistic research, “the research design incorporates both experimentation and participation in practice and the interpretation of that practice” (52). To account for each of these areas, I incorporated three elements which played an integral role in my project: experimentation, mindful practice and reflexive observation. Adams et al. observes that “reflexivity consists of turning back on our experiences, identities, and relationships in order to consider how they influence our present work” (38). Practice and lessons on the harpsichord were crucial elements as they allowed me to engage with this music on a deeper level on the instrument it was composed for. Prior to this study, I had limited experience playing the harpsichord and while I had heard harpsichord recordings of
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French Baroque repertoire, I anticipated that having first-hand interaction with the
instrument, immersing myself in its sound and idiosyncrasies, would provide new understanding of the repertoire. Regular practice on the harpsichord began in January 2018
(second year of the project) where I had access to the instrument twice a week until October
2018 (no access in May). Throughout this period, I rarely played Couperin’s repertoire on the piano. This was a conscious decision to enable full immersion in the harpsichord’s sound and technique.
In addition to my harpsichord practice, I had six lessons on the instrument at various intervals throughout 2018, five with one teacher and one with another (Ethics Approval was
obtained for this form of data collection. See appendix C). These teachers are prominent
harpsichordists in Australia and were chosen because of their proficiency on the instrument
and their teaching experience. Each of these lessons included a short discussion of the
repertoire and each was video recorded. This provided the opportunity for accurate
documentation of the experience and provided the option to view the lessons from a more
objective perspective at a later date. In addition to this, I had one piano lesson with a pianist
who had extensive experience with Couperin’s repertoire. The pieces selected for the
harpsichord and piano lessons included some of Couperin’s most commonly performed on
the piano (“Soeur Monique”, dixhuitième ordre) as well as some of the least performed (“La
Princesse de Sens”, neuvième ordre).
Interviews were conducted during each of the lessons. Additionally, I conducted a
separate interview with a pianist who had experience with the repertoire. These interviews
helped to understand both the harpsichordists’ and pianists’ perspectives on the
interpretation of the music. To assist in guiding the discussion, interview questions were
prepared (See appendix D). These pertained to the participants’ experience with the
29 repertoire, the amount of research conducted prior to performing the music, opinions on the interpretation of early music, and their ideas on what makes a piece more transferrable to the piano. These interviews were audio-recorded, transcribed, and analysed by categorising the transcripts into opinions on piano performance, performance practices, and harpsichord sound and technique. To provide greater objectivity, identifying letters and numbers were used for each individual. During the discussion in chapter 6, the harpsichordists and pianists are referred to as:
• H1 — harpsichordist, female (Five harpsichord lessons) • H2 — harpsichordist, male (One harpsichord lesson) • P1 — pianist, male (One piano lesson) • P2 — pianist, male (One interview)
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Chapter 4 — Understanding the French Baroque Sound
4.1 Historical Background
In the various regions of Europe, music of the Baroque period developed distinct styles
with their own specific performance practices and aesthetics. In France, a major influence on
the progress of music can be attributed to Louis XIV’s endeavour to create a “state style”.
Prior to Louis XIV’s reign, Louis XIII began a process which aimed to centralise the arts. Heller
explains that this included the establishment of Royal Academies and aimed to “systematize
intellectual and artistic life” (114). Upon Louis XIV’s succession to the throne, he continued
his predecessor’s efforts. John Hill notes that his aim was to “make France an exporter rather than an importer of arts and scholarship, and to coordinate the imagery, mythology, and language through which the French monarchy was portrayed, directly or through allegory”
(231). The music that evolved during this period, as explained by Susan Lewis, embodied a
“distinctive French style that was recognized and imitated for decades to come” (176).
According to Heller, the music composed during the French Baroque was refined and elegant and, unlike German and Italian compositions, generally embodied the “noble breeding and manners appropriate for the French Court” (116). It avoided the “motoric rhythms, complex polyphony, virtuosity and chromaticism” which were common in Italian and German music of the period (Heller 116). The music of France is described by Sébastien de Brossard in his Dictionnaire de musique (1703) where he writes “the style of Italian compositions is piquant, florid, expressive; that of French compositions is natural, flowing, tender” (qtd. in Schott 410). This distinctive style can also be attributed to the influence of dance forms on metre, gesture, and styles of compositions. The French style of composition
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aimed for naturalness and douceur (softness/gentleness). Edward Higginbottom explains that
it had “a natural and flowing melody, a richly expressive but not excessively chromatic
harmony…and a basic simplicity in musical design that generally avoided virtuosity” (“François
Copuerin” 165–166). James Anthony states that clarity of tone, lightness of touch, and
contrast of timbre were highly prized in French compositions (298).
Jacques Champion de Chambonnières (1602–1672) is widely regarded as the founder
of the French Clavecin School, which emerged during the mid-seventeenth century (Ferguson
6; Anthony 300). Chambonnières’ innovative adaptation of the lute style brisé in harpsichord compositions set his compositional style apart from his contemporaries (Fuller n.p.). This became a stylistic element of French clavecin repertoire. Following Chambonnières, and building on his style, were composers such as François’ uncle, Louis Couperin (1626–1661),
Jean-Henri d’Anglebert (1629–1691) and Nicolas Lebègue (1631–1702). These composers paved the way for Couperin, whose repertoire is considered to be the epitome of the French
Clavecin School. As Kroll explains, Couperin’s music embodied the French national style and the refinement Couperin achieved in his compositions was unequalled; it synthesised all that had come before and would influence all that would follow (“French Masters” 137).
4.2 Couperin and his Works
Couperin began his music studies with his father, Charles, and his uncle, François the
Elder (Ferguson 6). Couperin’s father succeeded Louis Couperin as organist at St-Gervais and
held the post until his death in 1679. Following his death, the post was filled by Michel-Richard
de Lalande on the condition that he would relinquish the position to Couperin once he turned
eighteen. In 1685, Couperin was offered the position at the age of seventeen and by 1693, he
succeeded Jacques Tomelin as one of the organists of the Royal Chapel in Louis XIV’s court.
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The other members were Nicolas Lebègue, Jean Buterne, and Guillaume Nivers (Ferguson 6–
7). In addition to his duties as organist, Couperin taught Louis XIV’s children and was part of the musicians du roi. These musicians composed music for the court (Heller 208; Sadie, “Paris and its environs” 95).
Couperin composed music for both the church and court. However, the instrument for which he wrote his most extensive output of published works is the harpsichord. His Pièces de clavecin consists of over 220 pieces, arranged into twenty-seven ordres and compiled into four books, which were released in 1713, 1717, 1722, and 1730. In addition to these, he also wrote a treatise, L’art de toucher le clavecin, first published in 1716. This was followed shortly by a second edition, which had been revised following the publication of his second book of harpsichord pieces. The treatise provided explanations and guidelines for the performance of his harpsichord music. These included ornament realisations and fingering suggestions, as well as the inclusion of an allemande and eight newly composed preludes.
Instead of using the word “suite” to organise his Pièces de clavecin, Couperin instead used “ordre”. A suite refers to a structured set of dance forms. Couperin’s pieces are not structured in such a way and instead are freer in form (Kroll, “French Masters” 131). Each ordre is unified by tonality. However, the length and form of each varies. The second ordre, found in Couperin’s premiere livre, contains twenty-two pieces without any clear sequence or structure. As the books progress, the ordres start to contain a smaller number of pieces and gain more structure, each portraying a prevailing mood throughout an ordre (Beaussant 258).
While each ordre does contain some dance pieces, the majority are character pieces.
One of Couperin’s compositional goals was to “unite the complementary strengths” of the Italian and French styles (Higginbottom, “Couperin [le grand]” n.p.). An instance where
Couperin had the chance to experience Italian music was at the Châteaux of Saint-Germain-
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en-Laye, where a flourishing music establishment was supported by James II of England and
his Italian wife, Mary of Modena (Heller 202). Couperin referred to the synthesis of the French
and Italian styles as the goûts réunis, meaning “the reunion of tastes”. The style, as explained
by Heller, included “a blend of French politesse (politeness) and Italian exuberance” (202).
Anthony similarly describes the style, stating that the “Italian vivacité co-exists with French douceur” (307). In Couperin’s repertoire, the Italian influence can be heard in the tempo and texture, rather than in the melody and harmony. Elements of the Italian style that were incorporated in his harpsichord pieces include the continuous movement of running semiquavers, the Italian gigue form, and an Italianate rhythmic drive. More broadly, the union of French and Italian styles in Couperin’s repertoire was also evident in the music composed for the theatre and church, as well as in the compositions for chamber ensembles (Heller 208–
212).
This Italian influence became more prevalent with each new book of Pièces de clavecin. For this project, an awareness of which pieces utilise the Italian style results in a more thorough understanding of the repertoire. Additionally, this knowledge assisted in determining which pieces required notes inégales. As a French Baroque practice, notes inégales is not commonly utilised in the performance of Italian pieces. Some pieces which include elements of the Italian style are “La Bersan” (sixième ordre), “Menuet” (neuvième ordre), and “Le turbulent” (dixhuitième ordre). Knowledge of Couperin’s social, cultural, and musical context provided a foundation for my interpretation of the repertoire on both the
harpsichord and piano.
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4.3 Couperin’s Harpsichords
During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the construction and sound of
harpsichords differed by region. There were three main styles of harpsichord construction —
Flemish, Italian, and International (this included French, German, and English harpsichords)
(Kottick, A History of the Harpsichord 156). As a result of the different approaches to construction, each style of harpsichord differed in tone, resonance, and capabilities. François
Couperin owned harpsichords made by Couchet and Blanchet (Montagu 369; Mellers,
François Couperin 330). These were Flemish and French builders respectively. Knowledge of these instruments, their sound quality, and capabilities, provides an understanding of how
Couperin exploited the harpsichord’s colour in his pieces and why his repertoire is so heavily ornamented. This knowledge then assists when determining colour and the level of resonance in the piano interpretation.
The Couchet workshop, which was originally the well-known Ruckers’ workshop, produced Flemish harpsichords until the end of the seventeenth century. The majority of these harpsichords were double manual and had a thick construction with iron strings. The sound of the upper manual had a nasal quality because the strings were plucked close to the nut (Kottick, A History of the Harpsichord 115). In contrast to this, the lower manual had a smoother sound, a result of the strings being plucked further away from the nut (Kottick, A
History of the Harpsichord 115). Despite the nasal tone of the upper register, these harpsichords are described as having an overall singing tone (Ripin 42). When compared to
French or Italian harpsichords, Edwin Ripin stated that these had a “more sustained brilliance and a somewhat less pronounced attack” (42). In France, these harpsichords would have been subject to ravalement during the eighteenth century, a process where French builders refurbished and altered Flemish instruments.
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French harpsichords were built with hardwood, usually walnut, and were “described as achieving a sound that had both clarity and sustaining power” (Kottick, A History of the
Harpsichord 157–159). However, they were not as rich and full as the Flemish harpsichords
(Ripin 57). The distinctive French sound was achieved by the use of a 2x8’ and 1x4’ disposition, meaning there were two sets of eight-foot strings at normal pitch and one set of four-foot strings that were one octave higher than normal pitch. When the eight-foot strings are coupled, the timbres blend together, and the four-foot can be used to add brilliance (Kottick,
A History of the Harpsichord 174). In addition to altering harpsichords by employing the process of ravalement, French builders also adapted elements of the Flemish style of harpsichord building to their own methods of building. This is particularly prevalent in the
Blanchet harpsichords. This new approach to building French harpsichords resulted in a new half-Flemish, half-French instrument which, as described by Edward Kottick, “was a powerful amalgam, creating a lush, complex, highly colored, even romantic timbre” (A History of the
Harpsichord 281).
French Baroque harpsichords, such as those made by the Blanchets, had “clarity of tone, lightness of touch and contrast of timbres” (Anthony 298). These are qualities that helped to shape the French harpsichord style of composition. The French harpsichord was also well-suited to ornaments. Kottick stresses this by saying, “while on a Flemish or Italian instrument ornaments sometimes tend to sound like accented intrusions, on a French harpsichord they lend to the music a sense of rise and fall, of purpose and direction” (The
Harpsichord Owner’s Guide 42). Couperin’s style of harpsichord composition is singled out by
Anthony as being “wed to its instrument as is no other music” (313). Warlock reasons that this is because “the dry, clear-cut tone of the harpsichord…is exactly suited to his precise and polished style” (57). Knowing about the harpsichords that Couperin used, and the sounds
36 created by them, provided an understanding of Couperin’s writing style, which is overtly idiomatic to the harpsichord. This then enabled deeper engagement during my harpsichord practice as I had knowledge of the instrument’s construction and of how one harpsichord’s sound can differ from that of another.
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Chapter 5 — Elements of Performance for Couperin’s Repertoire
This chapter presents the information I synthesised to support my interpretive process
in relation to Couperin’s harpsichord repertoire. Commencing with a discussion of Baroque
performance practices, the chapter then focuses on the differences between the harpsichord and piano in terms of both technique and sound. These are all aspects of performance that I
refer to in the discussion in chapter 6. There were two categories which this study did not
address in detail. These are the influence of dance on French Baroque repertoire and the use
of metre to determine character and tempo. While these are important factors in the
performance of French Baroque repertoire, the scope of the study did not allow for extensive discussion of these vast topics.
5.1 French Baroque Performance Practices
In my opinion, there are faults in our way of writing music, which correspond to the way in which we write our language. The fact that we write a thing differently from the way which we execute it; and it is this which causes foreigners to play our music less well than we do theirs. The Italians, on the contrary, write their music in the true time-values in which they have intended them to be played. (Couperin, L’art de toucher 23)
Interpreting French Baroque repertoire requires knowledge of the performance
practices applied by Baroque performers. These were not often notated on the score and instead, were generally common knowledge. Donington explains that the style of notation typical of Baroque repertoire “was habitually casual and inconsistent to the eye, though by no means to be taken casually or inconsistently in performance” (Baroque Music 48). Each area in Europe had its own distinct performance practices. Performance practices of the
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French Baroque were integral to the style and by incorporating these in a modern
performance, the performance can get somewhat closer to effectively conveying the style
and character of a piece. In my project, these performance practices were used during my
practice on the harpsichord and were then experimented with on the piano.
Rhythmic Inequality
One example of French performance practice, which was mentioned in the quotation
from Couperin above, is notes inégales, a form of rhythmic alteration that was integral to the
performance of French works. According to Bernard Sherman, notes inégales reflects the
accentuations and inflections of the French language, imitating the manner in which syllables
are not spoken equally (262). It was an expressive element of performance and, as Howard
Ferguson explains, was used “to give a feeling of grace and charm and to avoid excessive
squareness” (11). The inequality provides rhythmic variety that ranges from a subtle lilting to
a vivacious dotted rhythm. It was used so extensively that composers did not find it necessary
to mark it consistently on the score. The practice is also referred to in treatises by Saint-
Lambert (1702), Brossard (1703), Hotteterre (1707), Montéclair (1736), and Quantz (1752), to
name but a few. In these treatises, the explanation of the practice varied greatly, and writers
determined that the degree and frequency with which the inequality was applied was up to
the individual’s bon goût (“good taste”) (Byrt 99).
There are three main types of inégales: lourer, couler and pointer. Lourer is the name
given to the inégales in which the first note of a pair is lengthened, taking time away from the
second. This inequality is applied to varying degrees and the character, style and tempo of
the piece will determine how notes inégales is applied. Couler is the opposite — the first note of the pair is shortened and the second is given more time. Couperin notated this technique
39 by putting a slur over the pair of notes and writing a dot above the second note, as can be seen in his ornament table (see ex. 1). This results in a snapped rhythm as opposed to the lourer, which creates a lilting quality. In general, inégales is applied to the smallest note values in the piece, grouped or slurred in pairs, moving in stepwise motion. The technique is not used when melodies have many leaps, if the tempo is either very slow or very fast or if more than two notes are slurred together (Donington, The Interpretation 453).
Ex. 1. Couperin, Pièces de Clavecin, Ornament Table. Couler — the form of notes inégales that is reversed.
The third method of rhythmic alteration is called pointer, which refers to the over- dotting of notes. This is where dotted notes are held for longer than their written value, resulting in the need to play the following note quickly. Johann Joachim Quantz commented on this form of rhythmic alteration, saying “the longer we make the dots, the more flattering and agreeable the expression” (qtd. in Donington, Baroque Music 49). Over-dotting is not suited to every piece. It is most frequently applied in energetic movements, where notated dotted notes dominate the rhythm (Donington, The Interpretation 441). It is also used for the tirades that are characteristic of the French Overture style (see ex. 2). These figures are not played in time and instead are delayed to the end of the beat, rushing up or down quickly to the note on the following beat (Gow Waterman and Anthony n.p.). 40
Ex. 2. Couperin, Pièces de clavecin, vingt-cinquième ordre, “La Visionaire”, bar 1–2. Tirades used in the French overture style.
French Baroque Ornaments
In addition to rhythmic alteration, ornaments are another hallmark of the French
Baroque style. Rarely was a piece performed without an ornament, whether marked on the
score or freely improvised by the performer. The inclusion of ornaments in French Baroque
pieces is viewed as an integral element of the style and performers were encouraged to embellish in performance (Hewitt, François Couperin Keyboard Music 6; Heller 119). On the inclusion of ornaments in French clavecin repertoire, Kroll explains that “without
[ornaments], the expressive power of this music is lost” (Playing the Harpsichord 69). Kottick
summarises the importance of ornaments in relation to the French style by saying “the sound
lends itself so well to the application of agréments that it could almost be said to invite
them.…It is no wonder that ornaments often seem to be something applied to Italian music,
while they are an integral part of the French style” (The Harpsichord Owner’s Guide 42).
It was common practice for performers to improvise ornaments during performance,
but Couperin discouraged this in his music. In the preface of his third book of Pièces de
clavecin, he wrote:
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I am always astonished, after the pains I have taken to indicate the appropriate ornaments for my pieces (of which I have given a fairly intelligible explanation under separate cover in a special Method, known as L’art de toucher le Clavecin), to hear persons who have learnt them without heeding my instructions. Such negligence is unpardonable, the more so as it is no arbitrary matter to put in any ornament one wishes. I therefore declare that my pieces must be performed just as I have written them, and that they will never make much of an impression upon persons of real taste, as long as all that I have marked is not observed to the letter, without adding or taking away anything. (Gilbert, Vol.3, X)
The symbols used for marking ornaments were not standardised during the French Baroque and many composers found it necessary to include their own ornament tables with explanations for the execution of each ornament. Couperin’s ornament table was published in the first book of Pièces de clavecin (see appendix E). This provides realisations for the majority of his ornament markings. Some of the explanations, however, are somewhat vague.
One ornament that does not appear in Couperin’s ornament table is the trill-turn combination
(see ex. 3). C.P.E. Bach explains that this ornament starts by holding the principal note, followed by a brief trill that runs into the turn and comes to rest on the principal note (121–
126). Holding the final note for the remainder of the beat before moving on distinguishes this ornament from another of Couperin’s markings, a trill followed by two quavers which run into the following beat (see ex. 4). In “Le tic-toc-choc, ou Les maillotins” (dixhuitième ordre),
Couperin further distinguishes the trill-turn ornament from a trill followed by two quavers
(see ex. 5). The trill-turn ornament rests on the principal note before playing the two quavers at the end of the bar.
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Ex. 3. Couperin, Pièces de clavecin, seizième ordre, “Les Graces incomparables ou La Conti”, bar 1. Realisation of a trill-turn ornament.
Ex. 4. Couperin, Pièces de clavecin, seizième ordre, “La Distraite”, bar 7. Realisation of a trill followed by two appoggiatura quavers.
Ex. 5. Couperin, Pièces de clavecin, dixhuitième ordre, “Le tic-toc-choc ou Les Maillotins”, bar 30. Realisation of a trill-turn ornament followed by two appoggiatura quavers.
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The commonly held view, that all ornaments should start on the beat, does not apply to all ornaments. Couperin’s mordents (called pincé) were generally executed on the beat.
However, Neumann states that “exceptions can be expected for such cases where the function of the mordent is connective rather than intensifying and where offbeat rendition yields musical benefits” (Ornamentation in Baroque 427). One example of a pre-beat ornament is the appoggiatura between an interval of a third. Rather than being played on the beat, as other appoggiaturas are, this particular variation is played within the time of the preceding note (see ex. 6). This results in an effect that sounds similar to notes inégales. An example of an ornament that is executed after the beat is the trill whose principal note is connected to the preceding note with a slur. C.P.E. Bach noted that this trill is played during the time of the principal note, after the beat, with only one oscillation (110–112). This only occurs if the ornament is marked on a descending second (see ex. 7). The function of an ornament within the harmonic and melodic lines will determine if it is executed before, on, or after the beat. While there are some definitive rules agreed upon by the French Baroque musicians, there will always be cases which are an exception to the rule.
Ex. 6. Couperin, Pièces de clavecin, sixième ordre, “Les langueurs-tendres”, bar 1. Realisation of appoggiaturas between an interval of a third.
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Ex. 7. Couperin, Pièces de clavecin, dixhuitième ordre, “Le gaillard-boiteux”, bars 12–14. Realisation of a trills where the principal note is slurred to the proceeding note.
Rhythmic Freedom
Flexibility and freedom of rhythm are factors that need consideration in the
performance of this repertoire. The notion that this repertoire is to be played metronomically
has long been dispensed with and Barto (5), Badura-Skoda (Interpreting Bach 17), and
Alexander Silbiger (362) each emphasise the importance of flexibility. Quantz also stated that
“the performance should be easy and flexible. However difficult the passage, it must be
played without stiffness or constraint” (qtd. in Donington, The Interpretation 425). There are, of course, forms of flexibility which are not stylistically appropriate. Examples include a
Romantic, exaggerated style of rubato or flexibility that causes the beat and rhythm to completely shift.
The suspension, a symbol included in Couperin’s ornament table, can create flexibility through the slight delay of a note (see ex. 8). This effect has also been referred to as the dislocation of the hands (Peres Da Costa 45). Hand dislocation was not an uncommon practice on the piano in the early twentieth century. It was an effect where the accompaniment was played in time while the melody was able to be played with more freedom. However, the use of the technique became much less common in late twentieth and early twenty-first century
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performance practice. Using this technique, in the form of the suspension, in Couperin’s
repertoire creates subtle and expressive rhythmic freedom.
Ex. 8. Couperin, Pièces de clavecin, Ornament Table. Couperin's symbol for a suspension.
5.2 Harpsichord and Piano Technique
The mechanical differences between the piano and harpsichord requires the player to
use a different technique for each instrument. The piano’s mechanism utilises hammers to
hit the strings, enabling a variation of dynamic and tonal capabilities, whereas the
harpsichord’s mechanism uses a plectrum to pluck the strings. As a result of these differences, the majority of modern piano technique focuses on the use of the hand and arm to support the fingers (Badura-Skoda, Interpreting Bach 178), while harpsichord technique focuses on greater finger independence without the use of much arm weight (Podgayskaya n.p). When playing the harpsichord, the elbows should be hanging loosely with no tension in the forearm and the fingers are independent, without carrying extra weight from the rest of the arm (Kroll,
Playing the Harpsichord 2; Baiano 9). This independent finger movement does not necessarily mean the fingers are lifted very high. Kroll describes this movement by saying the harpsichordist should “let the natural balance of the key and the weight of the jack return
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[their] finger to the starting position rather than using any energy or effort to actively release
it” (Playing the Harpsichord 3). The shorter keys on the harpsichord make it necessary to play
on the tips of the fingers, rather than on the finger pads, as is required on the piano.
When playing the harpsichord, it is not necessary to make gestures with the hands, as is done on the piano. This includes, for example, playing a group of notes in one gesture or motion or approaching a note from above to create a faster attack. Instead, when developing harpsichord technique, it is preferable for the hands to remain close to the keys. A heavy touch on the harpsichord produces a wooden noise and when a pianist plays the harpsichord, technique needs to be altered. The use of arm weight and wrist rotation is not useful on the harpsichord and will result in unwanted percussive sounds and a lack of resonance (Truby 1;
Badura-Skoda, Interpreting Bach 178). The harpsichord has a fast and direct action and is very
responsive (Carver n. pag.). This is a result of the tactile qualities of the mechanism. The
plectrum plucking the string can be sensed with the fingertip as it depresses the key, allowing a direct connection to the instrument (Kong 41).
Kroll summarises harpsichord technique by saying that playing the instrument “is based on the principle of releasing notes” (Playing the Harpsichord 7). The piano affords great variety of attack whereas on the harpsichord, the attack of the note cannot vary greatly.
Instead, the end of a note is the main focus on the harpsichord. Richard Troeger notes, “the ear and fingers should already be aware of the release of each note when beginning it, and conduct the finger motion accordingly” (23). There is a wide variety of articulations that can be utilised on the harpsichord, ranging from a very slight to a large and distinct separation. If notes are to be sustained or played legato, this is to be done with the fingers. On the piano, notes can be more readily sustained, and legato is created by shifting weight from one note
47 to the next. A pianist will use legato as the default articulation and so more attention needs to be given to the variety of detached articulations available on the harpsichord.
5.3 Harpsichord and Piano Sound
Transferring harpsichord repertoire to the piano has been compared to the “change of dialect or accent in the same language” or to the performance of Shakespeare’s plays in modern, instead of old, English (Loesser 14). Compared to the piano, the eighteenth-century harpsichord, in general, had a brighter and more transparent tone (Badura-Skoda,
Interpreting Bach 176). The attack of the plectrum plucking the string allows each note to be heard clearly, despite the limited resonant sonority of the instrument. Schulenberg notes that
“harpsichords seem richer in the upper overtones, as compared to the modern piano, making attacks clearer and inner voices audible even through a complex contrapuntal texture” (12).
This results in an instrument that is capable of subtle expression through a variety of articulation.
The speaking quality of the harpsichord aids in clarity and enables a wide variety of articulations to be expressed. Enrico Baiano explains that “skill in enunciating the slightest details effectively, together with skilful exploitation of agogics and the ability to convey the composition’s architecture, make for a convincing and compelling interpretation” (25). The lower register on the harpsichord is sonorous and produces more sound than the upper register. Kroll recommends the use of more heavily detached articulation in the bass to allow for more clarity in the sound so as to not overpower the treble (Playing the Harpsichord 17).
Arthur Loesser describes the modern piano as “dull and fuzzy by comparison with the bright sharp impacts of a harpsichord” and as a result, the clarity prevalent in harpsichord repertoire is harder to achieve on the piano (15). The piano is capable of a greater sustaining
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power and thicker sonority than the harpsichord, a result of the piano’s hammers striking the
strings, rather than plucking them (Kong 62). The plucking action and texture of the
harpsichord allows the instrument to articulate sound easily whereas on the piano, the
hammer action more easily creates a legato sound (Podgayskaya n.p). In particular, the
piano’s lower register is harder to articulate and, if played too heavily, can make the
repertoire sound muddy and unfocused (Tang 11; Kaminska 45). Care is also needed in the
middle register, which is the point where the strings cross over inside a grand piano. This can
cause the sound can become undefined and unclear because of the sympathetic vibrations
(Mok n.p).
The French clavecinistes aimed to play with la douceur du toucher (“sweetness of
touch”) (Bateman and Rowland 50). This manner of playing was explained by Couperin in his
Pièces de clavecin, book one preface: “the harpsichord is perfect with regard to its compass and its brilliance, but as one can neither swell nor diminish the sound, I am always grateful to those who, by an art sustained by taste, are able to render the instrument susceptible to expression” (Couperin qtd. in Anthony 315). Baiano states that for a harpsichordist to play
expressively, they must be able to control a wide variety of nuances, with subtlety of
articulation, between legato and staccato (12). Differences in registration and the use of stops
allow for some variety of colour and enhance the expressivity of a piece.
The double manual, found on the typical eighteenth-century French harpsichord, is
another avenue for colour variation. The double manual creates more opportunities for
colour variation, where different registration can be used to create expressive playing and
convey character. Each set of eight-foot strings are plucked at a different distance down the
string, which causes them to vary in tone quality. When they are coupled together, they produce a brilliant, full tone. A harpsichordist with the opportunity to play a double manual
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can choose to play solely on the lower or upper manual or move between them. To utilise
the double manual, Couperin composed pieces using a technique called pièce croisée. Using
this technique enables the various lines to cross within the same register. These are intended
to be played on a double manual harpsichord. Harpsichordists with only a one manual
instrument available will need to move one hand up or down an octave. Couperin’s “Le tic- toc-choc, ou Les maillotins” (dixhuitième ordre), is a pièce croisée. When transferring this to
the piano, some pianists opt to stay close to the original sound by keeping the hands in the
same register (e.g. Tharaud and Sokolov), while others play the accompaniment figure one
octave higher (e.g. Hewitt and Etcheverry).
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Chapter 6 — Influence of the Harpsichord
With minimal prior harpsichord experience, I began this project by spending a
considerable amount of time on the instrument, becoming familiar with harpsichord
technique, sound, and other stylistic elements. After completing nine months of harpsichord
practice and lessons, I experimented with the transfer of my new-found knowledge to the
piano. My aim was to investigate two research questions:
1. For a pianist, how does the experience of learning this repertoire on the
harpsichord guide and influence subsequent performance on a modern grand
piano?
2. How does that experience specifically affect the transferral of more overtly
harpsichord-idiomatic repertoire by Couperin to the piano?
This discussion builds on the context provided by the previous chapters and
investigates the questions and issues that arose when transferring this repertoire to the
piano. My time on the harpsichord allowed me to experiment with articulation, sound, and
technique, giving me the opportunity to determine which elements are necessary for the
preparation of a convincing interpretation on the piano. After I completed my
experimentation on the piano, I utilised reflective practice and Bain’s model for self-
assessment to analyse the practice journal (14–15). The themes which emerged from this analysis were divided into two categories: the evolving interpretation (section 6.1) and harpsichord influence (section 6.2). These categories have been used to structure the
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discussion of my interpretation development, which is written in narrative prose to best
convey my experience with the repertoire.
6.1 The Evolving Interpretation
Harpsichord Experience
I began this study with minimal harpsichord experience. Previously, I had played only
for a few minutes on one or two occasions. My initial harpsichord practice was informed by knowledge gathered from reading books on harpsichord technique, watching videos of harpsichord players and listening to harpsichord repertoire to try to better understand the instrument. I had just over a month to practice on the harpsichord prior to my first lesson. At first, I was hesitant with my practice. The technique felt unnatural, the sound was foreign, and to my limited understanding, the lack of expressive capabilities felt restrictive. The harpsichord lessons were beneficial in solidifying my understanding of the instrument’s technique, mechanism, and sound, and they helped me discover how to play expressively on the instrument. Expressive playing on the harpsichord, although difficult to master, is where the beauty of the harpsichord’s sound can be found.
As I worked through the repertoire on the harpsichord, I became increasingly aware of the similarities and differences between the instruments. The following are examples of questions that were noted in my practice journal between January 2018 and October 2018
which draw attention to some of the interpretive issues I was encountering:
• What elements of harpsichord technique, tone, or other effects were utilised in the piano interpretation? • Should I imitate the agogic accents that are used on the harpsichord? 52
• Should I attempt the same tempo as on the harpsichord or do I adjust it? • Should I spread chords like I do on the harpsichord? • Can notes inégales be used effectively on the piano? • Will it suit some pieces to imitate the plucking attack of the harpsichord? • Should I go to the same degree of detail with the articulation on piano as I would on the harpsichord? • Will it be suitable to utilise all the colouristic effects available on the piano? • How has the interpretation changed throughout the process?
These questions are elaborated on and answered in this chapter.
The harpsichordists and pianists who participated in this study had differing opinions in terms of how to transfer this repertoire to the piano and if it can, in fact, be successful. H1 stated that some pieces are not as transferrable to the piano because they are “too intricate and too busy with too many ornaments” (Lesson 1). H2 agreed with this, saying the repertoire’s “hugely codified system of ornaments is designed for an instrument that plucks”.
When using the piano for this repertoire, H1 said, “you have to use the piano as it is and it works extremely well for the music of Bach or of Handel. But I find for the French it sounds a bit too heavy” (Lesson 2). However, she went on to say that “if you use a piano you have to use the facilities of the piano” and recommended clarity of the voices without any heaviness as the goal for my performance (Lesson 2).
H2 has played this repertoire on both instruments, but after trying it on the piano, he felt it was better suited to the harpsichord. He did not, however, discourage my aim to perform this repertoire convincingly on the piano, but rather encouraged a piano transcription that utilises all the piano’s capabilities including the use of pedal and double octaves. H2 also suggested I play the repertoire on a piano with a lighter mechanism, such as
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a Fazioli, to assist in maintaining some clarity of sound, as well as for ease of ornament
execution.
Harpsichord Influence
Following the harpsichord lessons and my time spent practicing on the instrument, I
began to experiment with the repertoire on the piano. I rarely played the repertoire on the
piano during the nine months of harpsichord practice. When I began my piano
experimentation, playing the repertoire on this instrument felt awkward and unusual. I
started by playing exactly how I would on the harpsichord. This was in an attempt to find out
which elements would work on the piano and which elements would need to be adapted to
the different instrument. This was with the exception of technique, where I made a conscious
decision to avoid transferring harpsichord technique to the piano. However, this area of
harpsichord performance proved to be highly influential in the development of my piano
interpretation and this, along with other harpsichord influences, is discussed in greater detail in section 6.2 (Harpsichord influence).
As pianists performing this repertoire, both P1 and P2 advocated for the use of the piano’s capabilities. However, in preparing his piano interpretation, P1 did not practice on the harpsichord. Instead, he consulted books and recordings of harpsichord repertoire. P1 stated that his research involved listening to all the harpsichord and piano recordings of the repertoire to prepare his interpretation. He also read Couperin biographies and researched
Baroque harpsichords. P2 some experience on the harpsichord and stated that he was aware of the specific clarity of sound that was required for this repertoire. He also noted that a pianist should not go overboard but instead should focus on ensuring that the expression of the composer is evoked. P2 also believes that if one is going to play this repertoire on the
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piano, you need to make it sound like a piano. On playing this repertoire, he said “you cannot neglect the instrument on which you’re playing it”. However, he warned against adding double octaves on the piano, saying that the lower notes have a resonance that is not compatible with the repertoire as it “transforms your instrument into a different sound world”. While I was not always in agreement with each participant’s opinions surrounding the repertoire, I was able to use the information gathered from them to inform my interpretation to varying degrees.
Character
It became evident that character was going to be the determining factor for
interpretive decisions on the piano; character being the various feelings and ideas within a
piece expressed through sound. Character was determined by several factors: the title, the
expressive indication at the start of the piece, the rhythms and the texture. The vast majority
of Couperin’s pieces have descriptive titles; some are portrait pieces while others describe a
mood or scene. Couperin’s expressive indications vary widely and include words such as
légèrement (lightly), nonchalamment (nonchalantly), douloureusement (painfully) and
impérieusement, et animé (imperiously and lively). Within the music, there are additional elements which also contribute to character portrayal. These are the rhythmic patterns used, and if applicable, the dance form used. In terms of rhythmic patterns, dotted rhythms can create more energy, while slower rhythms, where the notes move in stepwise movement, can convey lyricism, tenderness or gentleness.
Conveying the character through texture can be achieved utilising various compositional methods. One method is Couperin’s use of style brisé, a compositional technique that was adopted out of necessity by lute composers as a means of conveying
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harmonic lines. It involves the use of an arpeggiated texture, where chords are broken, often
in an irregular pattern. The technique became a marker of French style and, while it was not
necessary on the harpsichord, was adopted by French clavecin composers (Fuller, n. pag).
Couperin’s use of it creates a sense of harmonic uncertainty. In contrast to this, a melody with an accompaniment will generally make the piece feel grounded. Other compositional methods include the use of imitation to create the impression of a conversation or running figures for lively pieces. In general, each of these elements within a piece support the title and create more certainty about the character (see appendix F — the recital program notes contain a description of the character I was trying to capture in each piece). The effective
translation of a piece’s character to the piano creates a convincing interpretation of
Couperin’s repertoire, utilising insights from harpsichord experience, as well as knowledge of performance practices and the piano’s capabilities.
Impact on Interpretation
The experience learning the harpsichord has deepened my understanding of the
French Baroque style and has changed the way I approach Couperin’s repertoire. As a result,
I now play this music on the piano in a different manner than I did previously. Prior to my experience on the harpsichord, my interpretation of this repertoire involved the use of traditional piano technique, accompanied by the incorporation of some French Baroque performance practices (such as attempts at notes inégales and overdotting). Ornaments were, in general, executed according to Couperin’s specifications in his ornament table and some attempt to capture the character of each piece on the piano was made. Examples 9 and
10 are examples of the evolving interpretation. They are a comparison of an early recording of “La commére” (pre-harpsichord experience) and the final recital recording (post-
56 harpsichord experience). Despite the well-intentioned study behind my first attempt at interpreting the repertoire, it did not capture the French clavecin style as effectively as I intended. Harpsichord experience enhanced the interpretation of the pieces, enabling me to better capture the character and style of Couperin’s repertoire.
Ex. 9. Couperin, Pièces de clavecin, sixième ordre, “La commére” (piano, pre-harpsichord experience) (https://youtu.be/8vtHjgHYnyQ)
Ex. 10. Couperin, Pièces de clavecin, sixième ordre, “La commére” (piano, final recital recording) (https://youtu.be/eWrTqXU0-ic)
57 6.2 Harpsichord Influence
Technique on the harpsichord
Understanding harpsichord technique was the main focus for the majority of my early practice sessions, where I actively thought about how it felt to play the harpsichord and if I was using the correct amount of arm weight or finger independence. To begin with, I found it took time to adjust to the harpsichord’s mechanism at the start of each practice session. I was used to adjusting to different pianos but adjusting my technique to suit a keyboard instrument with a different mechanism was foreign to me. As discussed in section 5.2 (Harpsichord and
Piano Technique, p.46), the harpsichord’s key length is shorter than the piano’s, which made it necessary to curve my fingers more than I was used to. At first, adjusting to the harpsichord was frustrating and time consuming, but quick adjustment and a smooth transition became easier as I continued to spend time at the instrument.
Both harpsichordists (H1 and H2) drew parallels to the piano by instructing me to draw the sound out of the instrument, rather than pushing down into the instrument to make the sound. I needed to keep my hands and fingers close to the keys instead of playing from above.
If this was not done, a note would take too long to depress, resulting in an unwanted delay, or it would result in a heavy, percussive sound if the attack from above was too fast or uncontrolled (see section 5.2, p.47). H2 explained another harpsichord technique which required the fingers to stay close to the keys, describing it as a similar movement to “caressing a cat” (see ex. 11). This technique involves a very small, and sometimes imperceptible pulling or sliding motion of the finger back towards the palm. Utilising this caressing motion allowed me to feel more connected to the instrument, with more control over the sounds produced.
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Ex. 11. Couperin, Pièces de clavecin, dixhuitième ordre, “La Verneüilléte” (harpsichord). The video demonstrates the caressing technique (https://youtu.be/GR40DEJS9o8).
As previously discussed in section 5.2 (Harpsichord and Piano Technique), harpsichord
technique requires the player to have active and independent fingers. This was an element of
my technique that needed to be improved, particularly in my left hand. This movement of the
fingers felt unnatural at first, primarily because my piano technique has a basis in the
Taubman and Ortmann approaches. In these approaches, isolated finger movements are discouraged. Instead, the pianist is required to support each movement with the hand and forearm.
Another area where the harpsichord differs from the piano is in the key release mechanism. On the piano, the double escapement mechanism allows the key to be lifted only a small amount before it can be pressed again, whereas on the harpsichord, the key needs to release fully. While the distance for the key to go from neutral to fully depressed is smaller than on the piano, a harpsichordist still needs to work hard to ensure the key returns to the neutral position before playing it again. For the execution of trills on the harpsichord, I worked on moving my fingers independently, allowing them to spring back up after depressing the key so the plectrum was ready to re-pluck the string quickly. The harpsichord mechanism was difficult to get used to because of this difference, especially since any tension in my hand would prohibit my fingers from being as agile as they could be, causing ornaments to become
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uneven. Example 12 is a video from a harpsichord practice session which displays this element
of harpsichord technique.
Ex. 12. Couperin, Pièces de clavecin, sixième ordre, “Le moucheron”. The video shows independent finger movement on the harpsichord (https://youtu.be/DutUtgr6ty4).
Another area of focus for my harpsichord practice was in relation to how it felt to play
the instrument. I considered the tactile sensation of playing the instrument, the movements
and gestures that were utilised, and the physical feeling of the more finger-independent
technique. My fingers maintained more contact with the harpsichord than they did on the
piano. There was also no need to extend any movement past my elbows. This resulted in
harpsichord posture that was more still than piano posture and less visually expressive, giving
a sense of refinement, composure and introspectiveness. As I improved and became more
comfortable playing, it felt as though my fingers were directly connected to the harpsichord’s
mechanism. I could sense the strings being plucked through my fingers. When a note was
depressed, I experienced the build of the plectrum’s resistance before it plucked the string.
When playing a piece on the piano, this direct connection to the instrument was something I
had not experienced.
As my harpsichord technique improved and became automatic and embodied
knowledge, I became concerned that my piano technique would begin to suffer because of it.
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I did not play the piano extensively during this period in order to focus most of my efforts on the harpsichord. When I did practice repertoire by other composers on the piano, I found that because my piano technique was also embodied knowledge, there were no deleterious effects on it. I did find, however, that I needed to be more aware of my hand and finger movements as I played both instruments.
While they do not represent the overall views of pianists, the two pianists who participated in the study were able to provide some insight into the way they approached
Couperin’s repertoire in terms of technique. P2 had some experience on the harpsichord and aimed for harpsichord-like transparency in his interpretation of the music, without any heaviness. He did not, however, notice any difference in his piano technique. Instead, he saw it as only a difference in thinking. P1 did not have experience on the harpsichord. He did, however, spend several years developing a suitable piano technique. His technique incorporated the use of arm weight to ensure that his hands did not pull away from the keyboard. The touch was deep in the keys and focused on the note release. He described it as a similar technique to performing Chopin or Debussy, but with more refinement. My experience on the harpsichord influenced the technique I used when approaching the repertoire on the piano. This area of harpsichord influence, as described below, enabled the clarity prevalent in the French clavecin style to be achieved on the piano.
Technique on the piano
Experimenting with Couperin’s repertoire on the piano brought to the fore a weakness in my piano technique when playing ornaments. I had made a conscious decision to avoid harpsichord technique on the piano. Utilising a more finger-independent technique on the piano will result in a weak, thin tone and possible injury. Despite this knowledge, I began to
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notice that there were some instances where I felt tension in my hand. This had not previously
been noticeable when I played other piano repertoire. A likely explanation for this sudden
change is a direct transferral of harpsichord technique as it had become embodied knowledge
when playing this repertoire. The tension was a result of isolated finger movements without
support from the hand, wrist, and forearm. While the use of harpsichord technique was not
a conscious choice, it did bring to my attention that this was an area that needed to be
investigated, albeit with some caution.
Following on from inadvertently confirming that a direct transferral of harpsichord
technique will not work on the piano, I experimented with varying amounts of arm
engagement, wrist rotation, and finger independence. From my piano experimentation, I
found that most of Couperin’s pieces call for an altered piano technique. A mix of both
harpsichord and piano techniques is often the most suitable option to use. This enabled the
development of a piano technique specifically for Couperin’s repertoire. I incorporated the
harpsichord’s more active finger movement, with support from the hand, wrist and forearm,
into my piano technique. The active movement requires a more independent finger motion, which is not generally used on the piano. The resulting effect is increased clarity of sound, adding an element of transparency. This is particularly important for the execution of ornaments. However, care needs to be taken when using this technique to ensure tension does not build. If it is not attended to, a hand injury will more than likely follow.
The technique used for Couperin’s repertoire on the piano did vary between pieces.
However, in general, a hybrid piano-harpsichord technique was used more frequently than a traditional piano technique. Compared to my embodied piano technique, my posture was more still and composed and my fingers stayed closer to the keys. This closeness is a direct influence from my time on the harpsichord, where large movements and gestures are
62 unnecessary. While it was well-suited to the repertoire of Couperin and other French clavecinistes, the hybrid piano-harpsichord technique is not intended to be used outside of this style.
The development of the hybrid technique took time to become embodied knowledge and there were varying degrees to which it was applied. In terms of the harpsichord elements involved, I found that some pieces require a finger-independent touch to ensure clarity of sound, while other pieces were better suited to the caressing technique. A technique which incorporates a more direct, articulated touch is suited to energetic pieces. These include “La
Bersan” (sixième ordre), “La commére” (sixième ordre), and “Le turbulent” (dixhuitième ordre).
The caressing technique gave me a sense of increased connection with the harpsichord, with greater control over articulation and the release of notes. Carrying this over to my piano playing involved experimenting with different degrees of finger movement, until
I found one which felt natural, while still giving a similar effect to what I had experienced on the harpsichord. The technique enabled me to stay close to the keys and I was able to gently release notes, ensuring the sound was not harsh and had a rounded cut off. This resulted in a tender and gentle style of playing, which was either extremely legato or a little articulated. I have found that this technique suited the more delicate and introspective pieces. Some of these pieces included “Les langueurs-tendres” (sixième ordre), “La séduisante” (neuvième ordre), and “Sœur Monique” (dixhuitième ordre).
There were some pieces which require an approach that is closer to traditional piano technique. Pieces with a majestic or boisterous character require a fuller tone and a touch that would create more resonance. This was achieved with an increased amount of arm weight, with support from the hands and forearm. Pieces which utilised this include
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“Allemande à deux clavecins” (neuvième ordre), “L’olimpique” (neuvième ordre), and “Le gaillard-boiteux” (dixhuitième ordre). Experiencing each of these physical elements of harpsichord technique aided in my understanding of Couperin’s repertoire and gave me unprecedented insight into the transferral of the repertoire between instruments.
A specific example of the use of this hybrid technique is in “La Distraite”, from
Couperin’s seizième ordre. This piece is generally played in the middle register, which can begin to sound muddy and unclear if notes are not articulated well on the piano. The marking at the beginning of this piece directs the performer to play in a tender and connected manner
(tendrement, et tres lié). While this requires a strong sense of legato, this should not be at the expense of clarity, particularly in the fast-moving demi-semiquaver and semiquaver gestures
(see ex. 13). For this piece, my practice on the piano involved experimenting with varying levels of arm weight, finger independence and pedal. I concluded that my aim was to ensure that notes are articulated clearly. Thus, instead of primarily using arm weight to support the fingers, I combined harpsichord and piano techniques by using a lighter touch, with focused, individual finger movements that were supported by a small amount of arm weight.
Ex. 13. Couperin, Pièces de clavecin, seizième ordre, “La Distraite”, bars 1–3. Demi- semiquaver and semiquaver patterns.
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When I prepared “Le tic-toc-choc, ou Les maillotins” (dixhuitième ordre), I experimented with various techniques with differing degrees of success. The fast-moving, repetitive patterns can make it challenging for a pianist. The right-hand patterns consist primarily of oscillating semiquavers and the left hand contains the melody, as well as a constant quaver accompaniment figure. On the harpsichord, this piece required a focused, almost detached touch for the right-hand semiquavers, with some wrist rotation (see ex. 14).
The hybrid technique assisted in capturing the character, where the independent fingers offered a focused attack for each note. This technique, however, did not allow for consistent evenness and endurance over the course of the piece. Increasing the support of the fingers, through hand and wrist rotation, ensures evenness and encourages a more relaxed technique. This is necessary for a piece where fast repetition will make the hand tire easily.
Increasing the support and weight behind each finger also emphasises the melodic bass line, which is played by the left hand.
Ex. 14. Couperin, Pièces de clavecin, dixhuitième ordre, “Le tic-toc-choc, ou Les maillotins”. The video shows slight wrist rotation on the harpsichord (https://youtu.be/U3_2OyjAQL4).
Articulation on the harpsichord
When performing harpsichord repertoire, articulation plays a large role in portraying character and conveying expressive qualities. However, prior to my experience on the
65 harpsichord, I did not realise how extensively this was applied or the subtle differences in the level of separation between notes. In some pieces, Couperin has provided a substantial number of articulation markings. Where he has not marked articulation, performers are free to make their own decisions. In addition to conveying character, articulation on the harpsichord also creates some dynamic variation by providing emphasis to some notes or drawing attention away from others (see section 6.2 — Dynamics, p.82).
During my research on how to play the harpsichord, I had read about the role of articulation, although in my early practice, I did not investigate the variety of articulation or techniques for executing it. In my practice, I attempted to make up my own articulation based on what I thought sounded right to my ear. The result was uniform silences between articulated notes in the faster pieces and constant legato in slower pieces, both of which did not facilitate expressive harpsichord playing. I also focused predominantly on the articulation in the right hand without much consideration for the left hand.
During my harpsichord lessons, each teacher offered suggestions on how to determine articulation. H1 showed me that endless legato would provide little opportunity to feature the inherent expressive qualities. On the other hand, she explained that playing detached notes in a uniform manner would lessen the effect of expressive articulations. The degree of separation between the notes needed to be varied. This ranged from a very slight gap in the sound, to a separation that shortens a note to a quarter of its value. H2 summarised levels of articulation by saying, “as intervals are smaller, they’re gluier and as they’re larger they’re more detached. But then there’s qualities of them aren’t there…and you can’t do a blanket”. Here, H2 notes that when determining the level of detached articulation between a variety of intervals, there is no set rule, and articulation should be based on character, melodic flow, and hierarchy of notes within a phrase.
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After learning about articulation during my harpsichord lessons, I experimented with
it and conducted more in-depth research into the techniques required to execute it. The variation of articulation and how to achieve it is described by Baiano and Kroll in their
harpsichord guides. Baiano’s explanation includes the use of hand staccato (very short, used
for repeated notes), wrist staccato (used to create an almost imperceptible gap) and tocco no
legato (a marked separation between the notes) (16–28). Kroll described various articulations
by referring to them as detaché and legato/overlegato (Playing the Harpsichord 11). During
my time practising on the harpsichord, I became more comfortable incorporating a wider
variety of articulation. It required focused listening to hear the various levels of detaché, an
element which I had not previously listened to as intently. This is because on the piano, colour
and touch had generally been my main priority.
Articulation on the piano
On both the harpsichord and piano, the range of articulation centres around the
release of notes. The harpsichord can execute a large variation of mid-range articulations, a
range that is hard to achieve on the piano, according to H2. A reason for this is because of the piano’s timbre and heavier mechanism. From my own experience on the piano, the large variety of possible articulations and the subtle differences between them had not been approached with the same level of focus as on the harpsichord. One reason for this may be because the piano’s ability to vary dynamics, as well as its capability for tonal variation, give less reason to focus on the subtlety of articulation. However, when used for this repertoire on the piano, they assisted in creating clarity and adding to the character. My main aim for
articulation was to make it more of a focus in my piano interpretation and to transfer as much
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of the harpsichord articulation as possible. While I still utilised the piano’s dynamic and tonal
capabilities, I also wanted to emphasise the importance of articulation in this repertoire.
On the piano, I started by experimenting with the same articulation I used on the harpsichord. I found that imitating this articulation required significantly more effort than I
was required to on the harpsichord and it did not always create the effect desired. The piano’s
heavier mechanism and its use of dampers to silence the strings were the main contributing
factors. While I intended to utilise the large variety of harpsichord articulations on the piano,
the differences in instrument timbre and texture did not allow for every articulation to be
transferred effectively between the instruments. In some cases, articulation that was
executed a certain way on the harpsichord became either too sparse or too long on the piano.
To rectify this, the length of silence between notes was altered slightly to better fit the timbre
of the piano. These changes to articulation depended on the tempo, texture, and character.
Altering the articulation to better suit the piano is a compromise that is necessary when
adapting this repertoire.
An example of compromising on articulation was in the execution of very short notes.
Short articulation on the harpsichord relies on the quick release of notes. As previously
discussed, a harpsichordist must be careful to avoid using a fast or weighty attack, as it will
create a wooden sound (see section 5.2, p.47). When transferring staccatos to the piano, I
found that the harpsichord touch resulted in a sound that lacked energy and did not capture
the character required of each piece. Instead, staccatos were more convincing when played
more strongly on the piano, with a quick release. The piano can execute very short articulation
or a legato touch very well. However, mid-level articulation can sound unenergetic in fast
pieces or too detached in slower pieces. Altering the articulation to utilise a sharper attack
and a more focused, quick release created the character required for faster pieces. Of the
68 pieces I prepared for performance, this is most evident in “La commére” (sixième ordre) and
“Le Gazoüillement” (sixième ordre).
Whenever Couperin required legato, he marked slurs on the score. In saying this, his markings are not exhaustive and by no means imply that everything else needs to be staccato.
In some situations, slurs can be interpreted as an indication for overlegato, where notes are held for longer than their duration specifies. A more specific indication for overlegato is found when Couperin marks a diagonal line between two notes (see ex. 15). On the piano, I experimented with legato and overlegato for the notes with this marking. I found that there was no reason why overlegato should not be used. When more clarity was desired, using overlegato while playing with a focused attack achieved the required sound.
Ex. 15. Couperin, Pièces de clavecin, vingt-cinquième ordre, “La Monflambert”, bars 17–18. Overlegato markings.
The alteration of articulation between the harpsichord and piano occurred in my interpretation of “Le tic-toc-choc, ou Les maillotins” (dixhuitième ordre). The level of separation in the LH patterns differs between the instruments (see ex. 16, bar 12). The articulation I used on the harpsichord assisted to differentiate between the melodic bass line and accompaniment. On the harpsichord, I held the dotted crotchet (melodic bass line) while the following two quavers (accompaniment) were held for three-quarters of their length. The
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final quaver (melodic bass line) was held for half its length to differentiate it from the previous
two quavers and to emphasise the following bass note. On the piano, the texture in this piece
is too crowded to convey the character effectively using the same articulation. During my
experimentation, I found that the character was best captured when the two accompaniment quavers were played staccato (quarter-length) and the third quaver (bass line) was emphasised with a dynamic accent and longer articulation (half-length note).
Ex. 16. Couperin, Pièces de clavecin, dixhuitième ordre, “Le tic-toc-choc, ou Les maillotins”, bars 11–12. Melodic bass line with accompaniment quavers.
The aspiration symbol (see ex. 17) is an articulation marking that is included in
Couperin’s ornament table. This symbol instructs the performer to shorten the note to three- quarters of its value, creating a small separation between notes. On the harpsichord, this results in a hand motion that is gentle and graceful as the fingers lift off the note before moving onto the next. The marking appears in many of Couperin’s pieces, some of these being
“Les moissonneurs” (sixième ordre), “Les bergeries” (sixième ordre), “Le petit-deüil, ou Les trois veuves” (neuvième ordre), and “Le gaillard-boiteux” (dixhuitième ordre). At the piano, I
attempted to play this articulation in the same manner as on the harpsichord. After experimenting with this effect on piano, I found that a note marked with an aspiration is
better suited to a shorter duration, particularly in faster, livelier pieces. One particular example is in “Le gaillard-boiteux”. Holding these notes for three-quarters of their value, as
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Couperin suggests, creates a sense of lethargy and sounds as though the pianist is getting stuck in the keys. Changing the articulation of these notes, to be played as a staccato, suited the character of the piece, which portrays a spritely but limping man.
Ex. 17. Couperin, Pièces de clavecin, Ornament Table. Couperin's symbol for the aspiration.
I came across a similar situation when executing the notes with an aspiration symbol in “Les moissonneurs” (“The harvesters”). This piece is written in the style of a Gavotte, a dance form characterised by a two-beat anacrusis, followed by a strong downbeat. In this piece, beat four of the anacrusis has an aspiration symbol, which then leads to the down-beat of the following bar (see ex. 18). On the piano, the aspiration does not suit the style of this piece if it is held for three-quarters of the beat. It is too long and slows the movement and flow. On the other hand, it should not be too light and delicate, in the manner a pianist would usually play a shortened upbeat note. While this lighter touch does work on the piano, the character required is that of a peasant’s dance, not of the refined nobility. A heavier touch, along with a half-length note duration, better captures the character of the harvesters.
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Ex. 18. Couperin, Pièces de clavecin, sixième ordre, “Les moissonneurs”, bar 1. Aspiration symbol on beat four.
Ornaments
One of the defining characteristics of French clavecin repertoire, particularly
Couperin’s repertoire, is the filigree of ornaments (see section 5.1 — French Baroque
Ornaments). H2 explained that while Couperin’s ornaments can be realised on any
instrument, they are really designed for an instrument that plucks. Their purpose is to
accentuate notes, to create rhythmic drive, or to give the illusion that the harpsichord is
singing. Expressive or melodic ornaments are those which form part of the melodic line with
the intent to create heightened expression. In addition to melodic ornaments, there are also
ornaments with a rhythmic function. These are found most frequently in faster, energetic
pieces.
During my harpsichord practice, I worked on the smooth execution of all ornaments.
I had done my research prior to trying these out on the harpsichord and so was able to incorporate them without too much difficulty. I was surprised how quickly I got used to the ornaments and how easily they could be played, almost as if they rolled off the fingers. As I continued to learn more pieces, the ornaments came more naturally to me, with less effort required to figure out which note or beat to start on or to figure out which notes were to be
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included. Discovering the role ornaments played in each piece gave me a greater
understanding and appreciation for them.
During discussions, the harpsichordists and pianists suggested various ways to work
with, not against, the piano’s capabilities. P2 suggested I should keep the texture clean, with
minimal use of the sustain pedal, so that the music would not get too loud and resonant while
playing the ornaments. In his interpretation, P1 did not omit any ornaments. He noted that
ornaments can be shorter in duration on the piano than on the harpsichord, but he
emphasised, “you still have to develop them”. H2 suggested using measured trills to reduce
the chance of a sudden burst of sound or muddiness. In recordings on the piano, performers
often opt to omit some ornaments. A reason for this is because the pieces have an abundance
of ornaments and may sound too busy for the piano’s texture. However, omitting ornaments creates a clearer texture at the expense of the melodic filigree that is integral to the French clavecin style. This is a result I intended to avoid.
P1 emphasised the importance of Couperin’s ornaments and noted that they are not just for decoration. In my interpretation, it was not necessary to omit ornaments on the piano.
However, there were some cases where it was necessary to alter them. The ornaments that can be altered were those that I used to extend the sound of a long note. Couperin incorporated these to counteract the quick sound decay on the harpsichord. Adding a trill to the note allows the sound to continue for as long as needed, a technique that is not necessary on the piano. One example of this is in “L’insinüante” (neuvième ordre), where the treble
melody has three trills that last for two bars each (see ex. 19). Ornaments were also used to
create emphasis. While emphasis can be created through dynamic inflection on the piano,
omitting ornaments for this reason is not necessary, particularly because many of these
ornaments form part of the melody.
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Ex. 19. Couperin, Pièces de clavecin, neuvième ordre, “L’insinüante”, bar 32–36. Trills on melody notes in the treble.
By experimenting with various ornaments on the piano, I realised that they could not always be executed in the same manner as on the harpsichord. The heavier mechanism and less transparent sound do not lend to the easy execution of ornaments. Unlike the transparent sound of the harpsichord, the piano’s sound builds when keys are pressed repeatedly, especially while the sustain pedal is used. As a result of this, repeated notes, trills and other ornaments can prohibit clarity and lightness. Executing ornaments solely with harpsichord technique is not an option on the piano. This is because the piano’s heavier action requires more physical exertion. Despite experimenting with various levels of wrist rotation and weight, the ornaments suited a lighter touch in many situations. In general, active fingers were used to produce clean and clear ornaments. However, this did not mean the arm was not supporting the fingers. Without the arm’s support, tension built in the hand and it did not allow for the clean execution of ornaments. The use of slightly independent fingers, along with some support from the arm, was my main approach to French Baroque ornaments on the piano.
One issue to overcome, on both the piano and harpsichord, was the large quantity of left-hand ornaments. These are not frequently encountered in the vast majority of piano repertoire and so my left hand had not been given the opportunity to become proficient in 74
this skill prior to playing Couperin’s works. The lack of this skill in my left hand caused the
progress of some pieces to slow as I worked through the required technique. Over time,
however, consistent practice ensured my left hand could fluently execute a range of trills,
mordents, and turns. The most complicated ornament the left hand is required to execute is the trill-turn combination (see section 5.1 — French Baroque Ornaments, p.42). Out of the
twenty-five pieces I prepared, this ornament is found in eleven of them. This includes “Les
languerus-tendres” (sixième ordre), “Allemande à deux clavecins” (neuvième ordre), and “Le
turbulent” (dixhuitième ordre). In Couperin’s pieces, there are some cases where ornaments
are played at the same time in both hands, such as in “Les moissonneurs” (sixième ordre) and
“La Princesse de Sens” (neuvième ordre). These ornaments required evenness and uniformity.
On the piano, I aimed to produce a smooth and gentle sound in the slower and more
lyrical pieces, even when the texture was dense with embellishments. To achieve this, I
ensured the first note of an ornament was not emphasised with a dynamic accent. For these
ornaments, I generally did not use the sustain pedal. If it was used, I utilised either a half or
quarter pedal at the start of the ornament and eased off as I neared the end. To ensure
unwanted sound did not build and to ensure the ornaments blended into the melodic line, I
incorporated a slight decrescendo through long trills. This helped to maintain a more
consistent level of sound and allowed the melody to flow from one note to the next.
In faster moving pieces, trills on the piano often did not involve the same number of
oscillations as on the harpsichord. In “La commére” (sixième ordre), the ornaments are
rhythmic, fast, and driving. When compared to the harpsichord, the trills in these pieces had
fewer oscillations in the piano interpretation. However, this did not detract from the piece’s
character. Each ornament was executed with articulated fingers and with a sense of forward
75 motion. Additionally, these pieces often benefited from a dynamic accent on the first note of the ornament to convey energy and drive.
Fingering
Fingering on the harpsichord, particularly the fingering used in the Baroque period, followed specific practices that are less common today. These harpsichord fingerings are discussed by French clavecinistes in their treatises, as well as by more recent authors of harpsichord technique books. They generally avoided the thumb on the black keys and used grouped fingerings for scale-like passages (e.g. 12342323) (Kosovske 114, 126). This fingering style gave preference to the longer fingers to compensate for the shorter thumb and the short key length of the harpsichord. These are the main factors involved for the avoidance of the thumb on both the white and black keys in Baroque harpsichord fingerings (Saint-Lambert
73). Modern harpsichord fingerings, however, do use the thumb on the white keys.
Prior to practicing Couperin’s works on the harpsichord, I had already learnt the complete sixième ordre on the piano. However, when I began my harpsichord practice, I found
I needed to rework the fingerings to better suit the instrument. I had not extensively played the neuvième and dixhuitième ordres on the piano prior to practising them on the harpsichord and so, was able to easily experiment with Baroque fingerings from the start. It was around this time that I acquired Kenneth Gilbert’s edition of Couperin’s Pièces de clavecin. In this, he includes Couperin’s suggestions for harpsichord fingering (which are also available in L’art de toucher le clavecin). These fingerings created natural articulation through the movement of the hand between positions. This edition became a valuable resource for my practice.
Although these stylistic harpsichord fingerings took some time for me to adjust to, the use of
76 them was invaluable in the execution of a variety of articulation on the harpsichord and ensured that legato was not the default touch.
On the piano, I experimented with harpsichord fingerings to see how they could be useful in the interpretation. Avoiding the thumb when playing scale patterns caused me to frequently move my whole hand between different positions on the keyboard. Without the aid of my thumb to smoothly transition, I found the fingering awkward at first. Moving my hand in this manner had previously been reserved for chord changes or jumps to different registers, not scale-like passages. After some practice, this became easier, although I did not use it frequently in my piano interpretation.
Omitting the thumb provided opportunity to create natural articulation based on the finger groupings. Donington explains that this was done “by enforcing separations where they are musically desirable” (Donington, The Interpretation 746). In reference to Couperin’s fingerings, Ruth Jane Griffith states that “though difficult, it is hoped that the modern performer will adhere to Couperin’s original fingering in order to achieve the proper phrasing which he has indicated with great care” (66). One frequently encountered example of avoiding the thumb is in the fingering for chords; specifically, those which include a black key as the lowest (right hand) or the highest (left hand) note. On the piano, the thumb is frequently used on the piano, even on the black keys. If the thumb is avoided, it is for musical reasons. Avoiding the thumb in this way is not necessary on the piano and so I did not transfer this fingering across.
The fingering used for trills differed on both instruments. On the harpsichord, the finger-independent technique lends itself to the use of adjacent fingers for trills. On the piano, however, utilising these fingerings limits the use of the forearm and wrist rotation as it isolates the fingers too much. In my playing, this resulted in a weaker tone and often, a slower
77 trill, because of the piano’s heavier mechanism. Bearing in mind the differences in technique and mechanism, reworking trill fingering to better suit the piano was necessary. The majority of the time, I used finger numbers one and three or two and four for trills. This resulted in increased support from the forearm and encouraged some wrist rotation.
To summarise, my experimentation with harpsichord fingering on the piano presented me with two opposing views. I came across some situations where the use of harpsichord fingering is beneficial, particularly in small groupings of slurred notes or in scale-like passages of quavers. There were, however, situations where the use of wrist rotation and other hand movements worked much better for creating articulation on the piano. Utilising Baroque harpsichord fingerings allowed for some exploration of the natural articulation that resulted from these fingerings, but they were not always necessary on the piano.
One example of the incorporation of these harpsichord fingerings into my piano interpretation was in “Le moucheron” (sixième ordre). In this piece, grouped fingerings were used for many of the scale-like figures, one of which is illustrated in example 20. When this fingering was used, it ensured that legato is not the default touch for the passage. When I used these fingerings on the piano, however, I needed to be wary of any unwanted accents that might have been caused by moving my hand between the different positions. While beneficial in some situations, such as in “Le moucheron”, grouped fingerings were not always necessary on the piano as the use of arm and hand gestures can assist in creating the articulation.
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Ex. 20. Couperin, Pièces de clavecin, sixième ordre, “Le moucheron”, bar 20. Grouped fingerings in a scale-like passage.
Notes Inégales
As discussed in section 5.1 (French Baroque Performance Practices), notes inégales is
used extensively on the harpsichord in French Baroque repertoire for expressive purposes. I
attempted to incorporate notes inégales into my practice on the harpsichord. At first, this proved a confusing task and it felt unnatural. Having read the rules and guidelines for the application of the technique, I believed incorporating it would be simple. However, I soon realised that while primary and secondary sources provide many guidelines to follow, the application can vary between pieces.
When I first started using the technique, I did not consider the degree of the inequality and applied it uniformly within a piece. In the harpsichord lessons, I learnt that there could be a large amount of variation in how the technique was applied, even within a piece. For fast pieces, the inégales was generally more dotted, whereas in slower pieces the inequality was more subtle. H2 explained that inégales needs to imitate the ebb and flow of the French language, with a variation of inequality within the same piece. When it is applied, the inégales creates emphasis on longer notes by drawing the ear to them. The more unequal the notes are, the more accented the long note appears.
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Experimenting on the harpsichord involved trialling inégales in various pieces to varying extents. This was made all the more confusing by the fact that I was reading notes which were notated equally but I was playing them unequally. I found it necessary to constantly remind myself not to play what was written. Over time, this became more of an ingrained technique which came naturally and did not require too much thought.
On the piano, notes inégales is frequently heard in the swung rhythms of jazz but it is not commonly heard outside this genre of music. When inégales is used for French clavecin repertoire on the piano, it is not often applied to a large degree, as is evident in Hewitt’s and
Etcheverry’s piano recordings of Couperin’s repertoire (see 2.3 Recordings). In the interviews,
I discussed the practice with each pianist. P1 and P2 provided some insight into their use of the practice in their piano interpretations. P1 did not incorporate a large amount of inégales into his performance of the repertoire because he felt that it did not come naturally and so he did not apply it systematically. P2 also did not use the technique extensively because, as a pianist, he was not sure how it would be received by the audience. He also explained that the inégales did not feel natural and so he shied away from it. While the technique is frequently used for this repertoire on the harpsichord, these pianists did not feel comfortable with the technique. They were also concerned that listeners would find the use of notes inégales as out of place on the piano, due to the stigma associated with performing Couperin’s repertoire on this instrument.
During my experimentation with this on the piano, I continued to use notes inégales in the same way as I did during my harpsichord practice. One issue with this was unwanted accents — a result of emphasising the longer note of each pair. In general, these accents were not suited to the pieces and so, my focus was ensuring that I applied equal weight to each note. While at first applying inégales felt unnatural and awkward on piano, further practice
80 ensured that the technique became more ingrained in my playing. After this, it felt as though
I was applying the technique naturally, without the need to overthink it. This reinforced the view that inégales is an integral element of the style and it cannot be overlooked on the piano.
I applied notes inégales in more than half the pieces I studied. One specific example of the application of this is in “Les moissonneurs” (sixième ordre). I used the technique on the majority of the quavers in the piece (see ex. 21 and ex. 22). Additionally, I reversed the inégales (couler) for the pairs of quavers marked by a slur and a dot (see ex. 23). In this piece, the inégales provided a natural flow and added to the lively character, reflecting the gayement marking at the start of the piece.
Ex. 21. Couperin, Pièces de clavecin, sixième ordre, “Les moissonneurs”, bars 1–4. Notes inégales was applied to the quavers.
Ex. 22. Couperin, Pièces de clavecin, sixième ordre, “Les moissonneurs”. Use of notes inégales on the harpsichord (https://youtu.be/Mkun4s8XDKA).
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Ex. 23. Couperin, Pièces de clavecin, sixième ordre, “Les moissonneurs”, bars 8–9. Couler was applied to the quavers joined by a slur.
Dynamics
Unlike a pianist, a harpsichordist is incapable of creating dynamic shading by altering the speed of attack. During my harpsichord practice, my natural instinct was to create dynamic variation as I would on the piano. The resulting sound was percussive with little to no impact on the dynamic level. In theory, I knew this would be the case because I had read about it, but this was an embodied practice from my piano technique. I needed to change my thinking so that I actively acknowledged I was playing a different instrument; it was not the piano and it could not be played the same way. My time on the harpsichord provided further insight into how the instrument compensates for the lack of capacity to create dynamic shading through an altered attack. The instrument can instead create dynamics by illusion.
This can be done through:
• Texture — more notes equal a louder sound • Ornaments — an ornamented note will sound more accented than an unornamented one • Agogic accents — delaying or extending the duration of a note to create emphasis • Coupling the manuals • Articulation
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Articulation can create dynamic variation through several avenues. A silence before a note will cause that note to sound louder than the previous one. Connecting notes by playing legato will result in equal levels of sound, while overlapping or playing over-legato conceals the pluck of the second note, making it sound softer than the first. Anne Bond compared the plectrum’s pluck of the string to “the explosive consonant at the beginning of a word” (55). If a note is to sound weaker than the surrounding notes, the attack needs to be as concealed as possible. During the harpsichord lesson, H2 demonstrated this overlapping effect, showing how the technique could create a sense of decrescendo.
If a pianist relied solely on articulation, agogic accents, and texture to create dynamic variation, it would not result in a convincing interpretation. The piano does not have the harpsichord’s distinct sound and timbre, and playing with a limited dynamic range would vastly underutilise the expressive qualities of the instrument. Dynamics are created by altering touch on the piano and are an integral part of its capabilities. To translate the repertoire effectively, a pianist will need to draw on as many aspects of the piano’s language as possible in order to deliver a convincing interpretation.
When I first experimented with this repertoire on the piano, I found that because I was very focused on technique, I did not actively address dynamic variation in my practice for some months. I was just playing the pieces with dynamics that came naturally to me. As I adjusted my technique to utilise the hybrid harpsichord-piano technique, I noticed that I was not reaching the forte side of the dynamic range to the same extreme as I had previously been. The smaller amount of arm weight and range of movement in this technique did not allow me to easily play with a loud, strong tone. This is the main reason why my approach to dynamics did not frequently enter the forte range. When it did, I used a more piano-based technique.
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In my approach, I utilised dynamic shading within phrases for each piece. While there may be variation of dynamics within a piece, some of the repertoire was more suited to a
generally louder or softer dynamic overall. “La commére” (sixième ordre) and “Le turbulent”
(dixhuitième ordre) are both boisterous and fast-moving pieces which are suited to a louder
dynamic. Pieces that suit a softer dynamic are “Les langueurs-tendres” (sixième ordre) and
“La séduisante” (neuvième ordre). These have a gentle, introspective character. Pieces with
these characters required a softer, more delicate touch to create the dynamic level and tone.
The piano’s dynamic capabilities can be used to shape phrases and bring out voices
which would normally sound more equal on the harpsichord. An example of this is in pieces
composed using style brisé (see section 6.1, p.55). On the harpsichord, it gives a sense of tonal
ambiguity by blending harmonies seamlessly, one into the next (see ex. 24). The use of this
technique in a composition does not create a distinct melodic line. It instead results in a more
consistent balance between the voices. This compositional technique can further be
enhanced on the piano by bringing out different voices when necessary.
Ex. 24. Couperin, Pièces de clavecin, sixième ordre, “Les baricades mistérieuses”, bars 1–2. Composed using the style brisé technique.
While the piano can create dynamics by varying the attack of a note, it can also create
dynamics through illusion, in the same way a harpsichord does. This is done through agogic
84 accents, arpeggiating chords, or by varying articulation. Each of these areas were explored, in addition to utilising the piano’s capability to vary dynamics through touch. Notation to indicate chord arpeggiation is regularly seen in piano music. What is not seen as frequently are indications to specify which direction the chord is to be spread (see ex. 25). Couperin specifies the direction of arpeggiation in many of his pieces. However, chords can be arpeggiated even when they are not marked. Including each of these chord arpeggiations on the piano provided me with another way to emphasise notes and heighten expression.
Ex. 25. Couperin, Pièces de clavecin, ornament table. Couperin's symbols for arpeggiation.
Utilising the full dynamic capabilities of the piano enhanced communication of the character. This occurred through the use of micro-dynamics within a phrase, the creation accents by emphasising the note with a faster attack or by utilising a wide range of dynamics within a single piece. Of course, there were some pieces that required a smaller range of dynamics to capture the desired character but in general, a range of dynamics was be used.
Tone
The piano’s capacity to alter the tone enables exploration and effective portrayal of a variety of characters. The harpsichord can adjust the tone by using stops and changing the
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registration (see ex. 26). Unlike the piano, however, the tone cannot be varied by altering the
attack of the note. When performing this repertoire on the piano, a variation of colour should
be used, not only because it is a primary expressive feature on the harpsichord, but because
it is an integral element of the piano’s capabilities. On the piano, the tone can be mellow or
bright, full or light, singing and resonant, or muted and distant, to name but a few variations
of tone.
Ex. 26. Couperin, Pièces de clavecin, sixième ordre, “Les moissonneurs”. Different manuals used on the harpsichord (https://youtu.be/eJb8DCOLLL8).
I experimented with tone and colour on the piano and found it was effective to alter
it for each piece in order to convey character. This area of the piano’s capabilities can be fully
utilised. For example, in “Le bavolet-flotant” (The Fluttering Ribbons, neuvième ordre) I used
a cantabile touch to produce a singing tone, portraying a young, carefree woman. In “Le
gazouillement” (The Chattering of Birds, sixième ordre) I played in an articulated, direct
manner to capture the chattering of birds. In “L’atendrissante” (The Tender One, dixhuitième
ordre), Couperin has included douloureusement (painfully) as an expressive indication, I
played with a slow attack to produce, what I hear as, a mellow tone. This portrayed the hurt and sadness embodied in this piece. Couperin’s allemandes, such as those from the neuvième and dixhuitième ordres, are often performed on the harpsichord with both manuals coupled.
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This gives an increased sense of grandeur by creating a fuller tone. Transferring this quality to
the piano involved experimenting with a different touch to create a full and resonant tone.
This emphasised each allemande’s grand and majestic character.
Tone can also be altered by incorporating either the una corda or the sustain pedals.
During my piano practice, I experimented with both pedals. I tried a variety of techniques and
altered the frequency of use. The una corda pedal was used to alter the tone quality, creating a distant or muted effect. Utilising the pedal, while altering the touch at the same time, created further variation of tone. A direct, articulated touch created a clear but distant tone.
Whereas a slower attack, using more of the finger pad, created a mellow or muted tone. This was effective in introspective pieces. It could also be used for tone variation if a piece’s structure included a rondeau or reprise.
The piano’s sustain pedal was used more frequently than the una corda, primarily for resonance and colour. The harpsichord is naturally a resonant instrument and it is this aspect of the harpsichord’s sound which I attempted to preserve where possible. In regard to pedal, each practitioner had differing opinions on its use. H1 advised that it “would be very sensible to have a half pedal” and P2 wanted to avoid excessive resonance and so minimised the use of the pedal. P1 believed this repertoire is suited to the use of the pedal and he used it in his recordings to create resonance. In my own practice, I experimented with full, half and quarter pedals to varying degrees within each piece. I found the most effective technique was the quarter pedal, closely followed by the half pedal. Applying bursts of the sustain pedal on chords increased their resonance and light pedalling was used to carry harmony where necessary. However, it was not used to create resonance that would interfere with the clarity of the music. At times, it was better to incorporate finger pedal in order to preserve the clarity.
Finger pedal is closely related to overlegato (see section 6.2 — Articulation on the Piano,
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p.69), where notes are held for longer than their written duration. In general, the difference
between the two is that overlegato is the overlap of two notes whereas finger pedal can
include the overlap of more than two notes, often treating one of the notes as a sustained
bass note.
Tempo
A tempo can generally be determined by the title, dance type, metre, and the
expressive marking at the beginning of the piece. In prior studies about performing
harpsichord repertoire on the piano, it was recommended that pianists play in a slower tempo
because of the piano’s heavier action and less transparent sound (Griffith 66; Kong 62;
Kaminska 45). However, this is not necessary for the performance of this repertoire. Clarity
can be achieved through other means. This may be through a direct touch, clean articulation, and clear pedalling. Ultimately, the tempo will depend on the texture, register, character, instrument, and venue.
Flexibility
When applying flexibility to this repertoire, I found that I approached it differently when I first started experimenting on both instruments than I did after I had spent a considerable period of time at each instrument. I started out with no flexibility on the harpsichord. This decision stemmed from my pre-conceptions about Baroque repertoire. This view was soon challenged and disregarded after experimentation with a large variety of rubato. I had applied it in an attempt to make the harpsichord sound expressive. H1 pointed out that I was incorporating too much at the expense of other expressive devices. As I researched and played the repertoire more, I realised that while it was often necessary to
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apply some flexibility within phrases, there were various avenues for achieving it. It could be
incorporated through the use of agogic accents, a small amount of rubato, or ritardandos at
ends of phrases.
Upon playing the pieces on the piano, I reverted back to over exaggerated rubato and ritardandos. Playing the repertoire in this way took away from the simple elegance embodied
in this repertoire. I experimented with various levels of rubato but in the end, I only included
a small amount. The repertoire benefits from the simplicity of the meter and the subtle
pressing forward or relaxing of a phrase. I utilised this flexibility to emphasise important notes
and harmonic moments in each piece. In addition to this, I took some time whenever Couperin
included a breath mark between phrases or melodic fragments (see ex. 27).
Ex. 27. Couperin, Pièces de clavecin, dixhuitième ordre, “Allemande La Verneuil”, bars 18–20. Couperin’s phrasing indications, which take the form of a breath mark.
The suspension (see section 5.1 — Rhythmic Freedom) is another avenue for providing rhythmic flexibility. This approach involves the dislocation of the hands and was marked on the score by Couperin. On the harpsichord, I found that this technique felt very natural and was suited to the repertoire (see ex. 28). My experimentation with the technique on the piano included playing the suspensions only where they were marked as well as incorporating them more frequently within a phrase. The latter option created too much exaggerated rubato and did not allow the simplicity of the music to speak for itself. Generally, suspensions can be added in as long as they are not overused. They are effective at the start of a phrase in slower 89 movements and at climactic points within a phrase. In my interpretation, the use of the technique assisted in capturing more of the French clavecin style and gave a sense of poise and elegance while also heightening expression.
Ex. 28. Couperin, Pièces de clavecin, neuvième ordre, “La Princesse de Sens”. Playing using suspensions on the harpsichord (https://youtu.be/JKuU4QEBoWg).
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Chapter 7 — Reflections on Performance
7.1 Performing the Repertoire
Despite the time spent experimenting and developing my interpretation, preparing the repertoire for a performance proved a more difficult and time-consuming task than anticipated. The sheer number of complicated, albeit short, pieces required mental stamina quite unlike what was required for the repertoire I had previously performed. Initially, I had planned to incorporate four of Couperin’s ordres into the recital (the two most and two least performed ordres). However, the inclusion of movements from Maurice Ravel’s Le Tombeau de Couperin caused the runtime of the recital to be longer than anticipated and so, omitting one of the ordres was necessary.
The inclusion of Le Tombeau (composed 1914–1917) in the program emphasised the connection between the composers’ works, while creating variety in the program. Written as a tribute to the composers of the French Clavecin School, Ravel drew on the work of his predecessors by combining the grace and elegance of the French Clavecin School with an early twentieth-century harmonic language (Bricard 9). The running order of the recital was as follows:
1. Ravel — Prelude from Le Tombeau de Couperin 2. Couperin — Sixième ordre, Second livre
Short Interval
3. Ravel — Forlane from Le Tombeau de Couperin 4. Couperin — Neuvième ordre, Second livre
Short Interval
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5. Ravel — Menuet from Le Tombeau de Couperin 6. Couperin — Dixhuitième ordre, Troisième livre
The recital was performed on a Yamaha grand piano and on the whole, I felt that the
repertoire embodied my research findings. However, some of the pre-determined and
rehearsed elements were not as evident during the performance. Some of this can be attributed to the performance venue, a room with high ceilings that caused the sound to resonate in the vast space. The acoustics in the room did not allow for articulation to be readily discerned by the listener and so, this needed to be combated by using shallower pedalling, a sharper, more focused attack, and even more attention to articulation. The pedal, for example, was not used to the same extent as what I had used in my practice. Articulation was altered to suit the space. This caused the range of subtle articulation to be less audible and distinct.
During the recital, I noticed I was becoming mentally drained when I neared the end
of the neuvième ordre. While the pieces were not physically taxing, the number of small
details and the amount of unnotated ornaments required me to rely on my memory more so
than expected. I thought most ornaments had become second nature at this point. I became
more easily distracted and not as focused on the finer details in the repertoire. The flow on
effect was a less convincing portrayal of the character of these pieces.
I felt that the character of each piece, while captured effectively in general, was not
always consistently conveyed. In particular, I found the neuvième ordre to be the most
difficult of the three to perform as a complete ordre. Couperin’s sixième and dixhuitième
ordres have a variety of style, character, and scoring, and have eight and seven movements
respectively. The neuvième ordre, however, has ten movements and not all of the pieces in
this ordre readily embody their titles, as the pieces from the sixième and dixhuitième ordres
92 do. The combination of the greater number of movements, the lack of connection between the scoring and title, and the similarities in texture between a number of the pieces, caused the pieces of the neuvième ordre to sound very similar to each other. As a result, the characters were not as effectively portrayed.
The recording of the recital provides evidence of the live performance and while the recording displays some of the interpretive elements that I wanted to be conveyed, the sound quality itself is not of a high standard. The recording equipment used did not capture the sound in great detail. As the main outcome of this project is the recording of the pieces, I found it necessary to re-record the repertoire with higher quality sound equipment, in a room with acoustics better suited to the repertoire. The audio from this recording better captures the interpretation of each piece and is of a higher sound quality than that of the recital. Both recordings accompany this document.
7.2 Harpsichord-Idiomatic Pieces
My second research question related to the pieces by Couperin that are performed least often on piano. These pieces can be viewed as being more idiomatic to the harpsichord and as a result, are less adaptable to the piano. This is often because they are linked to the timbre of the harpsichord, the music is highly intricate and ornamented, or because of the harpsichord-specific compositional style. My research question asked: how did experience on the harpsichord specifically affect the transferral of more overtly harpsichord-idiomatic repertoire by Couperin to the piano? In terms of interpreting these pieces, the harpsichord experience gave me new understanding and clarity about Couperin’s compositional decisions.
During my preliminary research, I investigated which of Couperin’s pieces were the most and least often recorded by pianists (see appendix A). From this, I made a complete list
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of every piece which has not been recorded on the piano, with the exception of Pierre
Etcheverry’s recordings (see appendix B). In total, there were ninety-eight pieces which were
not recorded. Focussing specifically on the ordres I studied, I compiled the data gathered from the online discographies into table 2. This time including Etcheverry’s recordings. Each of the pieces from Couperin’s sixième and dixhuitième ordres has been recorded between two and twenty-two times. However, nine out of the ten pieces from the neuvième ordre have not been recorded more than once. Compared to the more frequently recorded pieces, they were more difficult to interpret.
Sixième Les moissonneurs 7 ordre Les langueurs-tendres 4 Le gazouillement 3 La Bersan 4 Les baricades mistérieuses 22 Les bergeries 4 La commére 4 Le moucheron 6 Neuvième Allemande à deux clavecins 1 ordre La rafraîchissante 1 Les charmes 1 La Princesse de Sens 1 L’olimpique 1 L’insinüante 1 La séduisante 1 Le bavolet-flotant 4 Le Petit-deüil, ou Les trois veuves 1 Menuet 1 Dixhuitième Allemande La Verneüil 2 ordre La Verneüilléte 2 Sœur Monique 9 Le turbulent 2 L’atendrissante 2 Le tic, toc, choc, ou les Maillotins 18 Le gaillard-boiteux 2 Table 2. Total number of piano recordings of each piece from the sixième, neuvième, and dixhuitième ordres.
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When I started to experiment with these pieces on the piano, I noted the struggles I had with interpretation development in my practice journal. These pieces were not “pianistic” in the traditional sense. They embodied the French clavecin style and utilised the harpsichord’s abilities in all facets of the composition. Couperin composed these pieces in such a way that they exploit the harpsichord’s natural timbre and use the clarity of the instrument’s sound to great advantage. The texture and abundance of embellishments also complement the natural capabilities of the instrument. Couperin’s use of these elements necessitated further exploration during my piano experimentation.
Early on, I realised the importance of accepting the qualities in these pieces, without viewing them as a hinderance to interpretation. Instead of working against the various idiomatic elements, I used them to guide experimentation on piano. I found that I spent far more time working through these harpsichord-idiomatic pieces (e.g. the neuvième ordre) than the other, more pianistic pieces. In these, my practice tended to be more focused on the idiomatic elements and how to best translate them. In regard to this, my responses in the practice diary indicated that the incorporation of these elements helped to make sense of the repertoire on piano. Resulting in the incorporation of the hybrid technique, variation of articulation, and variation of tone.
When I was experimenting with “Le petit-deüil, ou Les trois veuves” (neuvième ordre) on the piano, I found it particularly difficult to interpret. This can be attributed to the character ambiguity (see “Le Petit-deüil, ou Les trois veuves”, p.112 and appendix F, p.172) and the harpsichord-idiomatic elements. In this piece, Couperin used an extensive amount of articulation and there are an abundance of appoggiaturas and other ornaments. In terms of the articulation, he indicated finger legato for the majority of the LH notes, as well as including both aspiration and slur markings. The range of this piece is in the mid-low register; the
95 highest note is F#4 and the lowest is A1. Couperin utilised the most resonant register of his instrument and the range included one of the lowest notes on the harpsichord. On the piano, this register is not overtly resonant as it is on the harpsichord. Instead, it can be harder to create clarity as the notes in this register blend well but the sound can become muddy. The combination of the register, ornaments, and articulation required me to work harder at the piano to ensure clarity. Active, focused fingers were used to achieve this and minimal sustain pedal was used. “La séduisante” (neuvième ordre) is composed in the same register as “Le
Petit-deüil”. I encountered the same difficulties in my piano interpretation of this piece.
Another of the harpsichord-idiomatic pieces is “La rafraîchissante” (neuvième ordre).
The main interpretive issue with this piece is the sheer number of ornaments. There are only two bars out of the fifty-six bars that do not contain an ornament, with most bars having at least two ornaments in them. The abundance of ornaments can sound busy on the piano.
After experimenting with them, however, I found that they sounded more natural when they were played lightly and as an integral part of the melodic line. This way, it was not necessary to omit any of the ornaments in this piece.
My positive responses in regard to each element point to the success of the interpretation of these harpsichord-idiomatic pieces. While these pieces are more difficult to interpret, utilising harpsichord elements and allowing for some compromise at the piano results in an effective interpretation. It may, however, take more time to develop an interpretation of these pieces compared to the more readily translatable pieces.
7.3 Recommendations for Performance
On the piano, I attempted to preserve the character and style of each piece by allowing the sound and techniques utilised on the harpsichord to influence and guide my decisions.
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The two most prominent themes that became prevalent throughout the process of
experimentation where the need for compromise and the necessary incorporation of
harpsichord-idiomatic elements for an interpretation on the piano. The defining
characteristics of Baroque instrument sound were explained by Badura-Skoda, where he said,
“in comparison with the tonal ideal of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries all eighteenth- century musical instruments had a brighter, clearer, more transparent, but also thinner and quieter sound than later ones” (Interpreting Bach 176). The harpsichord’s timbre promotes
clarity, a defining trait of this repertoire. Along with this, words such as elegant and intricate
have become synonymous with French clavecin music (Kroll, Playing the Harpsichord xix; Libin
2; Heller 116). Keeping these qualities in mind, I used the full capabilities of the piano
wherever possible. However, compromises were necessary. This took the form of an
alteration of piano technique, a more limited use of the piano’s dynamic range or an
alteration of articulation.
As a result of my experience on the harpsichord, I allowed the harpsichord’s texture, timbre, and character to guide the touch, dynamics, and effects used on the piano. My goal for the performance on the piano was for clarity and a simple flow, without any heaviness, and I did not need to imitate the harpsichord’s timbre to achieve this. Below is a list of recommendations, which were drawn from the discussion in chapter 6, for the performance of Couperin’s repertoire:
Technique
• A hybrid harpsichord-piano technique which incorporates more independent finger
movement is suited to this repertoire
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• Some pieces will need an articulated, focused touch while others will require a more
delicate, caressing touch or a stronger, weightier sound.
Articulation
• Articulation on the harpsichord is an integral element for expressive playing. Applying
wide range of harpsichord articulation helps achieve greater clarity on the piano.
• Aspirations can be shorter on the piano than on the harpsichord. If there is an
aspiration marked in one hand, it often implies that it will be observed in the other
hand as well.
• Unlike the harpsichord, the piano can play very short staccatos well. Utilising this
effect in the appropriate pieces will assist in conveying more energy.
• More work is required to produce the mid-range articulations on the piano.
Ornaments
• Introspective pieces — approach the ornaments gently, without a dynamic accent on
the first note. This will ensure they blend into the melodic line (ornaments will often
have a melodic function).
• Boisterous/faster pieces — approach the ornaments with more energy. The ornament
can start with a dynamic accent (ornaments will often have a rhythmic function).
Expression
• Rhythmic flexibility is needed in the performance.
• Suspensions, or the dislocation of the hands, are effective on the piano and can be
added to accentuate notes and heighten expression.
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• Use notes inégales but to varying degrees of inequality. Do not play them as uniform
dotted notes unless the character requires it.
• Chords should be arpeggiated wherever possible. This can be done at varying speeds
and the notes do not necessarily need to be from bottom to top.
Piano’s Capabilities
• Use the sustain pedal for resonance and colour.
• The una corda pedal can be used for variation of tone.
• Dynamics can assist in portraying character, as well as the expressive qualities of the
pieces. The extremes of dynamics can be used if it suits the character of a work.
In this repertoire, each of these elements should serve the purpose of effectively translating key elements of the harpsichord sound-world to the piano. The piano’s capabilities can be utilised to their full potential and while compromises are necessary, knowledge of harpsichord techniques and sound assist in effectively interpreting Couperin’s repertoire on the piano.
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Chapter 8 — Couperin’s Pièces de clavecin
My interpretation, as demonstrated in the recordings that accompany this exegesis, utilises the recommendations I presented in section 7.3 (Recommendations for
Performance). This chapter further explains how these recommendations crystallised in my mind for the performance of the pieces in Couperin’s sixième, neuvième and dixhuitième ordres. The elements of performance, which were discussed in chapter 6 (Influence of the harpsichord), are dependent on the character of each piece and were applied to various extents based on this.
8.1 Sixième Ordre
“Les moissonneurs” (The harvesters)
To convey the pastoral character of the piece, Couperin composed in the style of a
Gavotte (a peasant’s dance). The character called for a constant, steady tempo which I
played on the back of the beat to prevent too much forward motion. The movement of the harvesters was captured on the piano by emphasising the main beats (beats one and two) in each bar of the Rondeau, while keeping the passing notes light. The constant lilt created by this conveyed the swinging motion of the harvesters’ scythes moving back and forth. I applied notes inégales to varying degrees, as well as Couperin’s reverse inégales (coulés).
The coulés form of inequality was applied to the quavers in the first and second couplets
(e.g b.9 or b.17). In comparison to the Rondeau, the first two couplets are more relaxed, with a lyrical melody. To highlight this difference, I played with a direct touch for the rondeau and then used more of the finger pad, with a slower attack, for the couplets.
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“Les langueurs-tendres” (The Love-lorn Sighs)
I captured the tender character of this piece by using a slow attack, creating a gentle and mellow tone. I played the RH melody with a strong sense of legato to create a cantabile melodic line, drawing on the caressing technique that I used on the harpsichord. Notes inégales was applied to some of the semiquavers (see ex. 29, bar 2). However, the inequality
was only applied to a small degree. The ornaments have a melodic function and so were executed without an accent. This was to ensure they did not intrude on the melodic line, but rather, were heard as an integral element within the melody. In terms of the dynamics, the gentle rise and fall of the phrase was shaped accordingly, with a sense of climax at bar 13.
There are sighing figures which occur throughout the piece. These are pairs of descending notes, generally notated as appoggiaturas (see ex. 29). I played these with a slight decrescendo and a relaxed, not snatched, appoggiatura.
Ex. 29. Couperin, Pièces de clavecin, sixième ordre, “Les langueurs-tendres”, bars 1–2. Sighing figures in the form of descending appoggiaturas.
“Le gazouillement” (The Chattering of Birds)
To capture the chirping and tweeting of birds, I used a focused, quick attack to produce
a bright tone (hybrid technique). Pairs of slurred notes were played legato and the second
note of the pair was articulated distinctly. Couperin composed short phrases in this piece, which assisted in capturing the flighty character of the birds. He also utilised a mid-high 101 register. Ornaments generally had a rhythmic function. However, I only used a slight dynamic accent to emphasise the first note of each ornament, so as not to cause unwanted heaviness.
I did not use notes inégales in this piece.
“La Bersan” (The Bersan — a portrait piece about the Lord of Bersan)
The character of “La Bersan” is light and jovial. To convey this, I used the harpsichord- piano hybrid technique, resulting in an articulated touch. Lightness was achieved by dividing each bar into two beats. Each of these was emphasised with a slight dynamic accent and the following notes were played lightly. Dynamics were shaped to follow the rise and fall of the phrase. The articulation was varied throughout to enhance the character of the scale-like melodic line. In the anacrusis and bar 1, for example, I grouped the notes in twos and fours with slurs (see ex. 30), while in bars five and six, the right-hand semiquavers were played legato, with only a slight break after the G on beat four (see ex. 31). The articulation used in this piece created clarity and lightness. The fast tempo of this piece did not lend itself to the use of notes inégales.
Ex. 30. Couperin, Pièces de clavecin, sixième ordre, “La Bersan”, anacrusis and bar 1. Slurs on the semiquavers have been added to show the articulation used.
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Ex. 31. Couperin, Pièces de clavecin, sixième ordre, “La Bersan”, bars 5 and 6. Slurs on the semiquavers have been added to show the articulation used.
“Les baricades mistérieuses” (The Mysterious Barricades)
Couperin composed this piece in the middle-low register of the harpsichord. This area
of the instrument has a resonant and rich tone. On the piano, this can sound muddy and
unclear, particularly here because of the style brisé texture. To ensure this would not occur, I
used the hybrid touch to create a focused but warm tone. Couperin used style brisé to convey
a sense of uncertainty by overlapping notes to seamlessly transition between harmonies. On
the harpsichord, all four voices have a similar tone, while on the piano, these can be
differentiated through dynamics or tone alteration. Each time the rondeau returned, I
brought a different voice to the foreground, encouraging the listener to focus on the various
melodic lines created by the shifting harmonies. The tempo is marked vivement (fast).
However, I altered the tempo by performing slightly slower on the piano to avoid muddiness of sound.
“Les bergeries” (The Sheep Pens)
To capture the pastoral character and the naïvement expressive instruction, I aimed for simplicity in the accompaniment and a lyrical melodic line. Notes inégales was used to varying degrees to give a sense of ease and natural flow. Couperin marked this piece
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extensively with articulation. All of these markings were adhered to in my interpretation. In
the first two bars, Couperin implied that the performer should play legato by overlapping the
left-hand notes (see ex. 32). The bass notes in the left-hand accompaniment were often
played with finger pedal, even when not marked (see ex. 33). This added harmonic depth
without needing to use the sustain pedal. Ornaments were melodic and were played
delicately with lyricism.
Ex. 32. Couperin, Pièces de clavecin, sixième ordre, “Les bergeries”, anacrusis and bars 1–2. Couperin implied legato by his choice of notation in the left-hand line.
Ex. 33. Couperin, Pièces de clavecin, sixième ordre, “Les bergeries”, bars 10–11. Finger pedal was used in the bass line.
“La commére” (The Gossiping Woman)
This driving, energetic piece uses imitation to capture the gossiping woman alluded to in the title. In general, a staccato touch was used for articulation. However, some legato was
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used. This was primarily for the stepwise semiquavers (see ex. 34) and wherever it was
marked by Couperin (see ex. 35). The tempo was kept consistent throughout the piece to
capture the driving, forward motion. Ornaments held a rhythmic function and were executed
with a dynamic accent and fast oscillations. Notes inégales was not used in this piece.
Ex. 34. Couperin, Pièces de clavecin, sixième ordre, “La commére”, bars 13–15. Slurs on the semiquavers have been added to show the articulation used.
Ex. 35. Couperin, Pièces de clavecin, sixième ordre, “La commére”, bar 19. Articulation marked by Couperin.
“Le moucheron” (The Fly)
I performed “Le moucheron” lightly, dividing the bars into two beats. Couperin
marked some articulation, which I followed. However, I also utilised some of the harpsichord fingering that he recommended in L’art de toucher le clavecin. This encouraged natural articulation and avoided playing passages completely legato. Some of these passages occur
in bars 15, 19 and 25 (see ex. 36 and ex. 37). The character of the fly is directly captured in
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bars 22–24, where Couperin has written constant trills and mordents in the left-hand (see ex.
38). On the piano, the sound can begin to build up too much which compromises the clarity.
To combat this, I limited the trills and mordents to one oscillation each. This enabled the buzzing of the fly to be conveyed while ensuring excess sound was not built up.
Ex. 36. Couperin, Pièces de clavecin, sixième ordre, “Le moucheron”, bar 15. Grouped fingerings used to create natural articulation in a scale-like passage.
Ex. 37. Couperin, Pièces de clavecin, sixième ordre, “Le moucheron”, bar 19. Grouped fingerings used to create natural articulation.
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Ex. 38. Couperin, Pièces de clavecin, sixième ordre, “Le moucheron”, bars 22–24. Trills and mordents in the bass line used to capture the character of the fly.
8.2 Neuvième Ordre
“Allemande à deux clavecins” (Allemande for two harpsichords)
This allemande was written for two harpsichords, with melodic lines interweaving between each instrument. It has been recommended by various editors that if only one harpsichordist is to play the piece, they should play the treble line from the premier clavecin part and the bass line from the second clavecin part. While this ensures the main harmonic structure and melodic line are included, there are other melodic fragments which are missed.
I followed the recommendation of the editors and performed the premier treble and the second bass lines. However, to maintain some of the essence of this two clavecin piece, I included elements from the remaining treble and bass lines in my arrangement. As well as providing a more complete picture of the melody, it also created fuller harmonies by including extra notes to complete chords (see ex. 39).
To differentiate between melodic fragments, I balanced each line with a different dynamic or tone. Overall, I aimed to capture a grand and majestic character. I did this by using a more traditional piano technique which projected a rich, full tone. I also arpeggiated chords and applied notes inégales. The sustain pedal was used frequently to add resonance.
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Ex. 39. Couperin, Pièces de clavecin, neuvième ordre, “Allemande à deux clavecins”, bar 1–4. An arrangement which combines the premier clavecin treble line, the second clavecin bass line and fragments of the remaining treble and bass lines.
“La rafraîchissante” (The Refreshing One)
The nonchalamment marking at the start of the piece suggests that the performer play
in a relaxed, easy-going manner. Couperin seemingly aimed to convey a sense of naturalness and flow, which is alluded to in the title. The articulation was a crucial element in conveying
the character and I utilised a variety of it in both hands. In the left hand, it was particularly
important to differentiate between the implied legato sections (overlapping notes) and those
which had no articulation markings. In these places, I used a combination of legato and
detached articulation.
This piece is composed in two sections — the first in A minor and the second in A
major. The major section is generally brighter, with a more animated character. To convey
the character difference between the sections, I used the caressing technique to create a soft,
mellow tone for the minor section and a finger-independent, direct touch for the major. Notes
inégales was applied to the semiquavers in bars 7 and 10 (see ex. 40 and ex. 41) and was also
108 used in similar places throughout the piece. The dynamics followed the shape of the phrase, but they did not reach either of the dynamic extremes.
Ex. 40. Couperin, Pièces de clavecin, neuvième ordre, “La rafraîchissante”, bar 7. Notes inégales applied to the semiquavers.
Ex. 41. Couperin, Pièces de clavecin, neuvième ordre, “La rafraîchissante”, bar 10. Notes inégales applied to the semiquavers.
“Les charmes” (The Charms)
In this piece, Couperin refers to the charms of the lute, capturing the instrument through his use of the style brisé technique. The interweaving harmonic lines create an air of mystery, allowing for momentary dissonance, closely followed by a resolution. Couperin reinforces the lute character by instructing the performer to play like a lute and in a connected manner (luthé, et lié). The dynamic capability of the piano enabled each voice to be projected at differing levels and for melodic fragments to be brought out. Shallow pedal was used,
109 primarily for the purpose of ensuring legato, and a focused attack assisted in creating a lute- like, plucking tone.
“La Princesse de Sens” (The Princess of Sens — a portrait piece)
The tone set by the music suggests that the princess mentioned in the title was gentle and graceful. To reflect this character, I played with a dance-like simplicity, using a light touch and a sense of poise. Articulation included a combination of legato and detached, and it was applied to varying degrees. The variety of articulation was more difficult to achieve on piano and so, a focused touch (hybrid technique) was used. I was also careful to ensure that the detailed articulation did not inhibit flow and that the overarching phrase was still conveyed.
Dynamics were kept within the middle range and shallow pedal was used sparingly.
“L’olimpique” (The Olympic — a portrait piece)
Couperin’s expressive indication for “L’olimpique” is impérieusement, et animé
(imperiously and lively), which suggests the performer should play in a manner that conveys an arrogant and domineering character. These are traits that this piece portrays through the spirited tempo and the unrelenting dotted rhythms. In my interpretation, I chose to exaggerate the dotted figures, which is effective on both the harpsichord and piano. The sustain pedal was used to varying degrees throughout to add resonance. Ornaments generally have a rhythmic purpose. I played these quickly and rhythmically with a dynamic accent on the first note to ensure the energetic drive was not lost.
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“L’insinüante” (The Insinuating One)
I found the insinuating character of this piece difficult to convey. There is an air of
unease and uncertainty, and I attempted to portray this in my interpretation. I treated the
ornaments melodically and used the caressing touch of the hybrid technique to portray
introspectiveness. Subtly dotted notes inégales was used on the semiquavers, creating a
gentle flow. Bars 25, 33, and 35 include trills that last for nearly two complete bars (see ex.
42). To prevent an overabundance of sound on the piano, I shortened these trills to only last
for two quaver beats. This suited the instrument’s mechanism well.
Ex. 42. Couperin, Pièces de clavecin, neuvième ordre, “L’insinüante”, bar 32–36. Trills lasting two bars in the treble line.
“La séduisante” (The Seductive One)
While at first there seems to be no real link between the music and the title, Philippe
Beaussant’s research found that Couperin viewed tenderness and seduction synonymously
(274). Keeping this in mind, I brought out the tender character by using the caressing touch with a slow attack. The ornaments were treated melodically, and the phrasing followed the shape of the musical line. Notes inégales was used to a moderate extent — not too subtle but not too dotted — and articulation was created through the gentle release of notes.
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“Le bavolet-flotant” (The Fluttering Ribbons)
The title refers to the fluttering of ribbons on a girl’s bonnet, suggesting a carefree and
light-hearted character. To convey these qualities, I played the piece lightly by feeling two in
a bar. Notes inégales was used on pairs of slurred semiquavers. The inequality was
exaggerated (dotted semiquaver and demi-semiquaver rhythm) to encourage simplicity of
rhythm and the forward drive of the piece. Trills and mordents were treated rhythmically
while appoggiaturas were treated melodically.
“Le petit-deüil, ou Les trois veuves” (The half-mourning, or the three widows)
The character conveyed through the music does not seem to reflect the title of the
piece, which refers to the third stage of mourning. Various editors have provided explanations
for the meaning of this piece (see appendix F, p.172). The music is light and cheerful, while
the title suggests a sombre, melancholy, or pensive character. This juxtaposition of title and
musical character causes some problem for an interpretation, as there is no clear way to effectively represent the character Couperin suggested in the title. The performer is left with no choice but to follow the character implied in the music itself. I utilised distinct and short articulation and applied gently dotted notes inégales.
“Menuet”
Couperin composed this light and lively menuet in the Italian style. To ensure this
liveliness was conveyed, I played the piece at a moderate-fast tempo and stressed the 6/8
metre in two. Both hands have scale-like figures which I brought to the fore whenever they
appeared. Couperin’s compositional style in this piece assisted with conveying the dance-like
character by placing many of the ornaments on the two main beats of the bar. The effect is a
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dynamic accent on each beat, as the ornament draws the ear to these particular notes. I
utilised the hybrid technique to project a bright and articulated tone.
8.3 Dixhuitième Ordre
“Allemande La Verneüil” (a portrait piece)
Couperin composed this piece in the style of an allemande. His use of it conveys the
personality of the actor, Verneüil, who was known for both his tragic and heroic roles. A sense
of drama is portrayed by the arpeggiated chords and the use of both the low and higher
registers. On the piano, I used notes inégales to varying degrees throughout. Some of the inequality was very dotted, while some was applied in a gentler manner. To create a resonant and warm tone, I used a piano technique with more arm weight instead of drawing on the hybrid technique.
“La Verneüilléte” (a portrait piece)
The character of this piece is in contrast to the allemande. It is about a woman,
Verneüil’s wife, and is delicate and graceful. The 6/8 time signature encourages the performer to play with a gentle lilt and the légèrement, et agréablement (lightly and pleasantly) expressive indication reaffirms the character. For my piano interpretation, I used the hybrid technique, which drew on the caressing touch to create a warm tone, while allowing for focused articulation. In terms of the articulation, detached notes were shortened to a quarter of their value for larger intervals and I generally used legato for stepwise movement. Notes inégales was used on some of the semiquaver patterns.
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“Sœur Monique” (Sister Monique — a portrait piece)
The direct translation of “Sœur Monique” is a reference to a nun. However, Jane Clark and Derek Connon, Wilfrid Mellers, and David Tunley note that during Couperin’s time, sœur was sometimes used to refer to ‘girls of ill repute’ (Clark and Connon 170; Mellers, François
Couperin 421; Tunley 109). Clark and Connon suggest that this is a parody piece, with the irony being between the title and the character of the music (170). Clark and Connon explain that the couplets are ‘seductive’ and the rondeau is ‘mock-innocent’ (170). For the rondeau,
I relied on articulation to create clarity and a sense of simplicity. This was intermingled with legato to convey lyricism. The articulation ranged from subtle gaps to more overt silences between notes. The third couplet provides opportunity for notes inégales, which I included to varying degrees.
“Le turbulent” (The Turbulent One)
Couperin captured the turbulent character by instructing the performer to play at a
fast-moving pace, as well as writing almost constant semiquavers in the score. I chose to play
this piece at a slower tempo on the piano than on the harpsichord. While this was not
necessary for most of Couperin’s repertoire, I found it was needed to account for the piano’s
heavier mechanism in this faster moving piece. Additionally, I used the hybrid technique to
ensure a focused and articulated attack. The piece is divided into two sections with the first
being in 2/4. I played this with forward drive and at a forte dynamic level to convey a sense
of urgency. The second section is in 3/8, with a dance-like character. For this, I relaxed the
tempo marginally, stressed the first beat of each bar, and played within a more moderate
range of dynamics.
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“L’atendrissante” (The Tender one)
Couperin’s expressive indication is for the performer to play the piece douloureusement (painfully). To capture this character, I used the caressing touch with a slow attack to produce a mellow tone. Along with this, I paid particular attention to the release of notes to ensure the articulation was precise. Some pedal was used to add resonance and assist with legato. I over-dotted the dotted rhythms, rather than playing them more relaxed or as written. This conveyed a sense of yearning and despair.
“Le tic-toc-choc, ou Les maillotins” (symbolises a ticking clock or constant knocking)
This is one of Couperin’s pièce croisée, where both hands are played in the same
register, but with one on the upper manual and one on the lower. In the case of this piece,
the pièce croisée helps to bring out the constant mechanical ticking, knocking, or pulsing of
the semiquavers. This is a result of the clash in timbre between the two manuals, the
occasional slight difference in tuning between them, and the repetitive motions in each hand.
Keeping a generally consistent tempo will assist in portraying this character.
Couperin suggested that a single-manual harpsichordist should play the parts an
octave apart. This is the only option for a single-manual harpsichord because the mechanism
does not allow for the quick repetitions of notes that are necessary if the hands play in the
same register. After experimenting with different registers on the piano, I chose to play both
hands in the same register instead of moving one of the hands an octave lower or higher.
Playing the left hand one octave lower on the piano lacks clarity and does not portray the
same character as it did on the harpsichord. On the other hand, transposing the right hand
up an octave causes the sound to become too resonant and does not imitate the mechanical
ticking or pulsing as closely as I would like. I found that playing both hands in the same octave
115 best captured the mechanical character. However, there is a small compromise. The majority of the sustained bass notes that complement the constant semiquaver patterns are unable to be held for the full value. To make sure the bass line is defined, I intentionally held the bass notes as long as possible. I also added more emphasis to them and shaped the line with slight dynamic inflection.
In my interpretation of “Le tic-toc-choc”, I used the sustain pedal to add resonance.
This was particularly important for the bass notes, which were only able to be held momentarily, such as the dotted crotchet F on beat one in example 43. The piece relies on clarity of texture and a constant mechanical pulse. To ensure these elements were captured, the pedal was only used in small bursts.
Ex. 43. Couperin, Pièces de clavecin, dixhuitième ordre, “Le tic-toc-choc, ou Les maillotins”, bar 13. F in the bass line, closely followed by the same F in the treble line.
“Le gaillard-boiteux” (The Spritely Lame Man— a portrait piece)
Couperin captures the character of a spritely limping man effectively through his scoring. He instructs the performer to play dans le goût Burlesque (in the Burlesque style), suggesting a joking or mocking tone, and he paints the picture of the limping man through the use of dotted rhythms. The piece is composed in 2/6 time, a metre not encountered in piano music today. There are, however, bars which appear to be in 2/4 time (see ex. 44). The
116 rhythm here is to be played with a gentle lilt; the dotted quaver lasts for two semiquavers instead of three. To create a bright, articulated tone, I used the hybrid technique. To create energy and drive, I ensured the articulation was short and strong, particularly on the notes with the aspiration symbol.
Ex. 44. Couperin, Pièces de clavecin, dixhuitième ordre, “Le gaillard-boiteux”, bar 3–5.
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Chapter 9 — Conclusion
9.1 The Study
I began this study with the intention of learning more about interpreting Couperin’s
harpsichord repertoire on piano. I had some prior knowledge of Couperin’s repertoire and
the performance practices of the French Clavecin School. However, my knowledge of
harpsichord performance practice was minimal. I hypothesised that a deficit of harpsichord
experience and knowledge was, for many pianists, a contributing factor to the generally low
engagement they have with Couperin. To investigate this, I addressed two research questions:
1. For a pianist, how did the experience of learning this repertoire on the harpsichord
guide and influence subsequent performance on a modern grand piano?
2. How did that experience specifically affect the transferral of more overtly harpsichord-
idiomatic repertoire by Couperin to the piano?
I addressed these questions through a framework of artistic research and historically
informed performance (HIP). Within this framework, an autoethnographic approach ensured that my own experience of the repertoire played a central role throughout the study. The methods, which included harpsichord lessons, piano experimentation, and reflective practice, enabled me to explore how experience on the harpsichord, under expert guidance, influenced interpretations of Couperin’s repertoire on the piano.
The primary outcomes of the study are my recording of Couperin’s repertoire and the set of recommendations to guide its interpretation on the piano. It is the recorded
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performance which embodies and documents these recommendations. The time spent
developing my knowledge of harpsichord technique and implementing it in practice enabled
me to understand the pieces on an experiential level. Experimenting with this knowledge at
the piano led to new insights. During the process of interpretation development, the overarching themes that emerged were the need to achieve effective character portrayal and the need for compromise. Calibrated compromise was prevalent in all facets of the interpretation development. I did not view compromise negatively. Instead, I embraced it as a valuable tool for finding new ways to utilise the capabilities of the piano in this repertoire.
Couperin’s repertoire embodies the French clavecin style. It demands clarity of texture, elegant lines, and precision, all while navigating the abundance of intricate ornamentation. Each of his pieces has a character which is tied to the harpsichord’s distinct sound and technical requirements. My experience on the harpsichord enabled me to best understand the character and ensured that the spirit of the music was retained. Additionally, the performance practices widely accepted at the time of composition, as well as the historical context, contributed to how character was portrayed. Without an understanding of these areas, it was difficult to translate character.
9.2 The Harpsichord Influence
Implementing harpsichord techniques and elements native to this repertoire on the
piano enhanced the effective translation of all pieces, but in particular, it made the
harpsichord-idiomatic pieces more accessible on piano. The work behind the development of
these pieces on piano took more thought and experimentation than the less harpsichord-
idiomatic pieces. Working through the interpretive difficulties took time. When I listen back
119 to the final recordings, I cannot hear the difficulties I encountered when interpreting the pieces and it is this which points to the success of the interpretation.
When experimenting with the information I gathered during harpsichord lessons, along with the discussions with participants, I discovered that the elements which play an integral role in a convincing interpretation of Couperin’s repertoire stemmed directly from the harpsichord experience. These elements were technique, articulation, ornaments, fingering, notes inégales, dynamics, tone, tempo, and flexibility. When exploring these elements on the piano, compromise and effective character portrayal guided all interpretive decisions. Utilising the piano’s capabilities, by making informed decisions based on harpsichord techniques, increased the effectiveness of character portrayal in Couperin’s pieces. There is, however, no formula for the application of the piano’s capabilities and the pianist will find that compromises are required in order to convey both the character and
French clavecin style effectively.
Incorporating elements of harpsichord technique within my already-established piano technique resulted in a harpsichord-piano hybrid technique. The defining elements of this technique include an increased focus in the fingertips, more independent finger movements, and less incorporation of arm weight. The resulting sound was brighter and more articulated.
The development of this technique was a crucial element for the performance of this repertoire. Without it, Couperin’s style was difficult to capture on the piano. While compromising on embodied piano technique may not be ideal for some pianists, it is more than necessary for this repertoire.
The piano’s dynamic capabilities, while utilised in the form of micro-dynamics, were not utilised to their full potential in regard to the extremes of dynamics — a compromise made necessary by Couperin’s compositional style. The result of this was an increased
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reliance on articulation. The utilisation of a variety of articulation was an integral element of
expressive harpsichord playing and it provided some context for Couperin’s compositional
technique. For pianists approaching this repertoire, the incorporation of it on piano cannot
be overlooked. It enhances other areas of the piano’s capabilities, rather than relying solely
on dynamics and tone for expressive playing. As my ears became more attuned to the subtle
variation of articulation on the harpsichord, the harder I had to work at finding ways to
achieve similar subtlety of articulation at the piano. The application of this precise approach
to articulation required me to focus more on the effective use of the piano’s mechanism and provided an opportunity for increased clarity. This enabled the French style to be better captured and enhanced character portrayal.
The French clavecin style is particularly prevalent in Couperin’s more harpsichord- idiomatic pieces. The compositional style of these pieces does not lend itself to a straightforward interpretation on piano and I found them difficult to understand at first. The texture and ornaments do not sit idiomatically with the piano’s natural capabilities.
Discovering how to convincingly interpret them required more focused practice and resulted in a greater level of compromise for interpretive decisions. It was imperative to acknowledge that the idiomatic nature of these pieces could not be altered and instead of working against the various compositional elements, I needed to take the time to understand how to best translate harpsichord practices to the piano. I did not view the qualities in these pieces as shortcomings or barriers, but as new avenues for discovering how to utilise the piano’s capabilities in new ways.
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9.3 Applications
This study offers pianists, harpsichordists, and listeners the opportunity to gain insight
into the development of an interpretation, as well as the chance to broaden their
understanding of Couperin’s repertoire. In Couperin’s repertoire, the style, instrument, and
performance practices differ greatly from current practice, which contributes to the infrequency of piano performances. This study aims to be of particular use to pianists who would like to perform the repertoire themselves. To learn about the repertoire, I have examined the importance of gaining a degree of harpsichord experience, preferably under the guidance of an expert. While it is beneficial for any pianist to experiment with this repertoire on the harpsichord, an instrument may not always be readily accessible. To assist pianists in this situation, I ensured my harpsichord knowledge gained during the study was well-documented.
More broadly, musicians interested in Baroque performance practice may find the study useful for gaining insight into the process of interpretation development in the context of HIP and instrument translation. This study offers an approach for the performance of this repertoire, with a focus on character adaptation rather than direct imitation of the original.
Elements of the study can be applied in the broader context to cross-instrument interpretation of Baroque repertoire. Emphasis on the need for compromise is a concept that can be carried over into any form of interpretation development as it is an essential tool for finding how to best interpret a score. Regarding this repertoire, the specific areas of performance that are universally applicable are an increased emphasis on articulation and clarity of sound.
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The scope of my study was limited to spending time understanding the harpsichord,
learning Couperin’s repertoire on the harpsichord under expert guidance, and applying this
knowledge to the piano. Expanding on this, there are opportunities for further study. French
language, dance, or metre are all large areas of study which did not fit into the scope of this
project. An investigation of these aspects could include how they were utilised in Couperin’s
compositional writing and the influence they might have on piano interpretation. In a similar
vein to this project, a study could be conducted on other French clavecin repertoire. This could
include repertoire by Rameau, d’Anglebert, Chambonnières, Jacquet de la Guerre, or another
member of the Couperin family. Studies could also be conducted with a more specific focus
on technique, tone variation, or pedalling, for example.
Experience on the harpsichord equips pianists with the knowledge required to convincingly interpret Couperin’s Pièces de clavecin. Without this experience, Couperin’s compositional language and the intricacies of these pieces are more elusive when compared to other Baroque keyboard composers. The study has confirmed the integral role the harpsichord plays in understanding Couperin’s repertoire, while opening up new possibilities for its interpretation, making a case for effective performance on the piano.
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Performance of Music
Dart, Thurston. The Interpretation of Music. 4th ed., Hutchinson & co., 1967. Hamilton, Kenneth. After the Golden Age: Romantic Pianism and Modern Performance. Oxford UP, 2007. Oxford Scholarship Online, oxfordscholarship.com/view/10.1093/a cprof:oso/9780195178265.001.0001/acprof-9780195178265. Haynes, Bruce. The End of Early Music: A Period Performer’s History for the 21st Century. Oxford UP, 2007.
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Baroque Music and Performance Practices
Anthony, James R. French Baroque Music: From Beaujoyeulx to Rameau. Amadeus Press, 1997. ———, editor. The New Grove French Baroque Masters. Norton, 1986. Badura-Skoda, Paul. Interpreting Bach at the Keyboard. Translated by Alfred Clayton, Oxford UP, 1993. Buch, David J. “Style brisé, style luthé, and the Choses luthées.” The Musical Quarterly, vol.71, no.1, Jan 1985. pp.52–67. ResearchGate researchgate.net/publication/2 49240550_Style_brise_Style_luthe_and_the_Choses_luthees. Accessed 30 Oct 2019. Buelow, George J. A History of Baroque Music. Indiana UP, 2004. Butt, John. “Acting up a Text: The Scholarship of Performance and the Performance of Scholarship.” Early Music, vol. 24, no. 2, May 1996, pp. 323–332. JSTOR, jstor.org/sta ble/3128117. Byrt, John. “Some New Interpretations of the Notes Inégales Evidence.” Early Music, vol. 28, no. 1, Feb. 2000, pp. 98–113. Oxford UP Journals, doi-org.ezproxy.library.uq.edu.au/ 10.1093/earlyj/XXVIII.1.98. Chung, David. “Revisiting ‘Le bon goût’: Observations on the Irregularities and
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Frédéric Chopin, translated by Charles Johnston, Lyrinx, 2012. CD. Gotlieb, Heidi and Vladimir J. Konečni. “The effects of Instrumentation, Playing Style, and Structure in the Goldberg Variations by Johann Sebastian Bach.” Music Perception: An Interdisciplinary Journal, vol. 3, no.1, Fall 1985, pp. 87–101. ProQuest, search- proquest-com.ezproxy.library.uq.edu.au/docview/1300611089?accountid=14723. Gow Waterman, George and James R. Anthony. “French Overture.” Grove Music Online, 20 Jan. 2001. Oxford Music Online, oxfordmusiconline.com/grovemusic/view/10.1093/g mo/9781561592630.001.0001/omo-9781561592630-e-0000010210. Heller, Wendy. Music in the Baroque. Norton, 2014. Hefling, Stephen E. "Dotted rhythms." Grove Music Online, 20 Jan. 2001. Oxford Music Online, oxfordmusiconline.com/grovemusic/view/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.00 1.0001/omo-9781561592630-e-0000008054 Hill, John Walter. Baroque Music: Music in Western Europe, 1580–1750. Norton, 2005. Isherwood, Robert M. Music in the Service of the King: France in the Seventeenth Century. Cornell UP, 1973. Jackson, Roland. Performance Practice: A Dictionary Guide for Musicians. Routledge, 2005. Lawson, Colin and Robin Stowell. The Historical Performance of Music. Cambridge UP, 1999. ProQuest Ebook Central, ebookcentral-proquest-com.ezproxy.library.uq.edu.au/lib/u ql/detail.action?docID=201875#. Lewis, Susan. Music in the Baroque World: History, Culture, and Performance. Routledge, 2016. EBSCOhost, search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=nlebk&AN=126 1613&site=ehost-live. Loesser, Arthur. “Bach on Today’s Piano.” Music Journal, vol. 32, no. 6, Jul. 1974, pp. 14–15. ProQuest, search-proquest-com.ezproxy.library.uq.edu.au/docview/740696879?acc ountid=14723. Mather, Betty B. Interpretation of French Music from 1675 to 1775: For Woodwind and Other Performers. McGinnis & Marx, 1973. Mather, Betty B. and Dean M Karns. Dance Rhythms of the French Baroque: A Handbook for Performance. Indiana UP, 1987. Mangsen, Sandra. "Pièces de clavecin au piano: The Pianistic Afterlife of French Harpsichord Music." Coll’Astuzia, Col Giudizio: Essays in honour of Neal Zaslaw, edited by Cliff Eisen, Steglein Publishing, 2009, pp. 286–319.
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Marshall, Robert L, editor. Eighteenth-Century Keyboard Music. Routledge, 2003. Mellers, Wilfred. “Present and Past: Intermediaries and Interpreters.” Companion to Contemporary Musical Thought, edited by John Paynter et. al, Vol. 8, Routledge, 1992, pp. 920–930. Neumann, Frederick. Essays in Performance Practice. UMI Research Press, 1982. ———. “Couperin and the Downbeat Doctrine for Appoggiaturas.” Acta Musicologica, Vol. 41, no. 1/2, Jan–Jun. 1969, pp. 71–85. JSTOR, jstor.org/stable/932375. ———. New Essays on Performance Practice. UMI Research Press, 1989. ———. Ornamentation in Baroque and Post-Baroque Music: With Special Emphasis on J.S. Bach. Princeton UP, 1983. ———. Performance Practices of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries. Schirmer, 1993. ———. “The use of Baroque Treatises on Musical Performance.” Music and Letters, vol. 48, no. 4, Oct. 1967, pp. 315–324. JSTOR, jstor.org/stable/733226. Peres Da Costa, Neal. Off the Record: Performing Practices in Romantic Piano Playing. Oxford UP, 2012. Oxford Scholarship Online, oxfordscholarship.com/view/10.1093/a cprof:oso/9780195386912.001.0001/acprof-9780195386912. Sadie, Julie Anne, editor. Companion to Baroque Music. U of California Press, 1998. Sadie, Stanley, and Howard Mayer Brown, editors. Music after 1600: Performance Practice, Vol. 2, MacMillan, Music Division, 1989. Sawkins, Lionel. "Doucement" and "Légèrement": Tempo in French Baroque Music.” Early Music, vol. 21, no. 3, Aug. 1993, pp. 365–372. Oxford Academic, doi-org.ezproxy.libra ry.uq.edu.au/10.1093/em/XXI.3.365. Schulenberg, David. The Keyboard Music of J.S. Bach. Routledge, 2006. ProQuest Ebook central, ebookcentral-proquest-com.ezproxy.library.uq.edu.au/lib/uql/detail.actio n?docID=291882. Shrock, Dennis. Performance Practices in the Baroque Era: As related by Primary Sources. GIA Publications, 2013. Silbiger, Alexander. “Performance Practices.” Keyboard Music Before 1700: Routledge Studies in Musical Genres, edited by Alexander Silbiger, Taylor & Francis Group, 2003. ProQuest Ebook Central, ebookcentral-proquest-com.ezproxy.library.uq.edu. au/lib/uql/detail.action?docID=200861.
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Smirnova, Natal’â Mihajlovna. “Фортепианная техника в контексте клавесинного искусства (на примере пьес Ф.Куперена).” Problemy muzykal'noj nauki: Rossijskij naučnyj specializirovannyj žurnal/Music scholarship: Russian journal of academic studies, vol. 1, 2011, pp. 225–230. Taruskin, Richard. Text and Act: Essays on Music and Performance. Oxford UP, 1995. ProQuest Ebook Central, ebookcentral-proquest-com.ezproxy.library.uq.edu.au/lib/ uql/detail.action?docID=1591191. Trezise, Simon, editor. The Cambridge Companion to French Music. Cambridge UP, 2015. Cambridge Companions, doi-org.ezproxy.library.uq.edu.au/10.1017/CCO9780511843 242. Vapaavuori, Pekka and Hannele Hynninen. The Baroque Pianist. Translated by Mikko Korhonen, Könemann Music Budapest, 1996. Walls, Peter, editor. Baroque Music. Farnham, Ashgate, 2011. Woolley, Andrew and John Kitchen, editors. Interpreting Historical Keyboard Music: Sources Contexts and Performance. Taylor and Francis, 2013. ProQuest Ebook Central, ebookc entral-proquest-com.ezproxy.library.uq.edu.au/lib/uql/detail.action?docID=1 389015.
François Couperin
Beaussant, Philippe. Francois Couperin. Edited by Pauly G. Reinhard, Amadues Press, 1990. Clark, Jane and Derek Connon. The Mirror of Human Life. Keyword Press, 2002. Higginbottom, Edward. “Couperin [le grand], François (ii).” Grove Music Online, 20 Jan. 2001. Oxford Music Online, oxfordmusiconline.com.ezproxy.library.uq.edu.au/gro vemusic/view/10.1093/gmo/9781561592630.001.0001/omo-9781561592630-e-6 002278203?rskey=BBOqi2. ———. “François Couperin.” The New Grove French Baroque Masters, edited by James R. Anthony, Norton, 1986, pp. 151–204. Kelly, Elaine. “An Unexpected Champion of Francois Couperin: Johannes Brahms and the ‘Pièces de Clavecin’.” Music and Letters, vol. 85, no. 4, Nov. 2004, pp. 576–601. Oxford Academic, doi-org.ezproxy.library.uq.edu.au/10.1093/ml/85.4.576. Mellers, Wilfrid Howard. François Couperin and the French Classical Tradition. Faber, 1987.
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Northcott, Bayan. “Classical — The master miniaturist of the Baroque.” The Independent, vol. 24, Jun. 1999, pp. 17. Factiva, global-factiva-com.ezproxy.library.uq.edu.au/ga/d efault.aspx. Accessed 8 Jun. 2017. Tunley, David. François Couperin and 'the Perfection of Music'. Ashgate, 2004.
Harpsichord and Piano
Bond, Anne. A Guide to the Harpsichord. Amadeus Press, 2001. Baiano, Enrico. Method for Harpsichord: A practical guide for Pianists, Organists and Harpsichordists. Translated by Mark Weir, Ut Orpheus, 2010. Clark, Philip. “Performing the Goldberg Variations on the piano involves too many compromises.” Spectator, 1 Oct. 2016, spectator.co.uk/2016/10/performing-the-gol dberg-variations-on-the-piano-involves-too-many-compromises/. Accessed 29 Jun. 2017. Elste, Martin. "From Landowska to Leonhardt, from Pleyel to Skowroneck: Historicizing the Harpsichord, from Stringed Organ to Mechanical Lute." Early Music, vol. 42, no. 1, 2014, pp. 13–22. Oxford Academic, doi-org.ezproxy.library.uq.edu.au/10.1093/em/c au009. Hinson, Maurice. Guide to the Pianist's Repertoire. 4th ed., Indiana UP, 2013. Project Ebook Central, ebookcentral-proquest-com.ezproxy.library.uq.edu.au/lib/uql/detail. action?docID=1520727. Kosovske, Yonit Lea. Historical Harpsichord Technique Developing La douceur du toucher. Indiana UP, 2011. Project MUSE, muse-jhu-edu.ezproxy.library.uq.edu.au/book/1 2775. Kottick, Edward L. A History of the Harpsichord. Indiana UP, 2003. ———. The Harpsichord Owner’s Guide: A Manual for Buyers and Owners. U of North Carolina Press, 1987. Kroll, Mark. Playing the Harpsichord Expressively: A Practical and Historical Guide. The Scarecrow Press, 2004. Ledbetter, David. Harpsichord and Lute Music in 17th-century France. Macmillan, 1987. Podgayskaya, Luba. “The influence of playing the harpsichord for a pianist.” Research
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Catalogue, 1 Jan. 2014, researchcatalogue.net/view/29649/29650. Accessed 6 Jun. 2017. Ripin, Edwin M. Early Keyboard Instruments. Macmillan, 1989. Troeger, Richard. Technique and Interpretation on the Harpsichord and Clavichord. Indiana UP, 1987. Truby, Roy. “Elementary Harpsichord Technique.” The English Harpsichord Magazine, vol 1, no. 5, 1975. British Harpsichord Society, harpsichord.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/201 5/04/elementary.pdf. Accessed 5 May 2018. Wapnick, Joel, Kristina Keech, and Gina Ryan. "Preferences for Piano versus Harpsichord Performances in Renaissance and Baroque Keyboard Music." Psychology of Music, vol. 40, no. 1, 2012, pp. 5–18. Sage Journals, doi-org.ezproxy.library.uq.edu.a u/10.1177/0305735610376467.
Pianists, Harpsichordists and Composers — Interviews and writings
Ahlgrimm, Isolde. “Current trends in the Performance of Baroque Music.” The Diapason, vol. 73, Apr. 1982, pp. 6, 8, 10, 12, 14. Brown, Ryan. “Celebrating the Legacy of Rameau – An Interview with Ryan Brown, Opera Lafayette.” French Culture, frenchculture.org/music/2599-celebrating-legacy- rameau. Accessed 9 Jun. 2017. Brendel, Alfred. “An A-Z of the piano: Alfred Brendel's notes from the concert hall.” The Guardian, theguardian.com/books/2013/aug/31/alfred-brendel-pianists-a-z. 10 Feb. 2018. Carver, Lucinda. “Playing the Harpsichord.” Artistshouse Music, artistshousemusic.org. Accessed 7 Jun. 2017. Gaussin, Frederic. “Interview: Murray Perahia.” iplaythepiano.com, iplaythepiano.com/ piano-mag/murray-perahia-interview.html. Accessed 10 Jun. 2017. Gould, Glenn. “Glenn Gould: The Rolling Stone Interview (Part One).” Rolling Stone, 15 Aug. 1974, rollingstone.com/music/music-news/glenn-gould-the-rolling-stone-interview- part-one-180448/. Accessed 9 Jun. 2017. Hewitt, Angela. “Five Bach Pieces that Sound better on a Piano than a Harpsichord.” WXQR:
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New York Public Radio, wqxr.org/story/five-bach-keyboard-pieces-sound-best- piano/. Accessed 4 Apr. 2017. ———. “Orders, ordres.” The Guardian, theguardian.com/music/2003/apr/05/classicalmusi candopera.artsfeatures1. Accessed 1 May 2017. Hewitt, Angela and Alan Rusbridger. “Taking time with Bach.” The Guardian, theguardian.co m/music/2008/sep/19/angela.hewitt.bach.alan.rusbridger. Accessed 14 Jun. 2017. Hewitt, Angela and Steve Reich. “A Bach A-Z: H is for Harpsichord vs Piano.” BBC Radio, bbc .co.uk/radio3/bach/bachatozh.shtml. Accessed 4 Apr. 2017. Hindemith, Paul. A Composer’s World. Harvard UP, 1952. Kissin, Evgeny and Frederic Gaussin. “Interview: Evgeny Kissin.” Piano Mag, iplaythepia no.com/piano-mag/evgeny-kissin-interview.html. Accessed 10 Jun. 2017. McLachlan, Murray. “Boris Berman in Conversation.” Piano Journal, vol. 114, 2018, pp. 5–9. Mok, Gwendolyn. “Gwendolyn Mok in Conversation with Thad Carhard.” Gwendolyn Mok, gwendolynmok.com/interviews.php. Accessed 8 Dec. 2020. Norris, Geoffrey. “Why Murray Perahia turned to Bach.” The Telegraph, telegraph.co.uk/cu lture/music/3671958/Why-Murray-Perahia-turned-to-Bach.html. Accessed 22 Apr. 2017. Perahia, Muray and Bruce Duffie. “Pianist Murray Perahia: A conversation with Bruce Duffie.” Bruce Duffie, bruceduffie.com/perahia.html. Accessed 5 Jun. 2017. Tharaud, Alexandre. “Baroque and Beyond: The French Spirit of Pianist Alexandre Tharaud.” Vancouver Classical Music, vanclassicalmusic.com/baroque-and-beyond-the-french- spirit-of-pianist-alexandre-tharaud/. Accessed 9 Jun. 2017. Tureck, Rosalyn. “A View Beyond Reproduction for Authentic Bach Performance.” Curtis Institute of Music, curtis.edu/academics/library/tureck-bach-research-institute-at-cu rtis-institute-of-music/documents/a-view-beyond-reproduction-for-authentic-bach-p erformance/. Accessed 3 Aug. 2020. ———. “Bach in the Twentieth Century.” Curtis Institute of Music, curtis.edu/academics/lib rary/tureck-bach-research-institute-at-curtis-institute-of-music/documents/bach-in- the-twentieth-century/. Accessed 3 Aug. 2020. ———. “Bach — Piano, Harpsichord or Clavichord?.” Curtis Institute of Music, curtis.edu/aca demics/library/tureck-bach-research-institute-at-curtis-institute-of-music/document
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s/bachpiano-harpsichord-or-clavichord/. Accessed 3 Aug. 2020. ———. “Modern Instruments.” Curtis Institute of Music, curtis.edu/academics/library/turec k-bach-research-institute-at-curtis-institute-of-music/documents/modern-instrumen ts/. Accessed 14 Jun. 2017. Tureck, Rosalyn and Alan Ampolsk. “Interview with Rosalyn Tureck.” New York Herald- Tribune, tureckbach.com/publication-documentation/page/interview-with-rosalyn- tureck-and-alan-ampolsk. Accessed 6 Jun. 2017. Warlock, Peter. “Early French Keyboard Music.” The Listener, vol. 2, 10 Jul. 1929, pp. 57–58. The Listener Historical Archive, 1929–1991, Gale Group, tinyurl.galegroup.com.ezpro xy.library.uq.edu.au/tinyurl/8MTMP9. Accessed 9 Jun. 2017.
Recordings
Barto, Tzimon. A Basket of Wild Strawberries: A Selection of Keyboard Jewels by Jean- Philippe Rameau. By Jean-Philippe Rameau, Ondine, 2006. CD. Bateman, Robyn and Rowland, David. “The Difference between Harpsichord and Piano.” 16 Mar. 2009. YouTube, www.youtube.com/watch?v=odSz8buo258. Accessed 7 Jun. 2017. Baumont, Olivier. Couperin: Pièces de Clavecin. By François Couperin, Erato, 2010. CD, 10 Disks. Emmerson, Stephen, et al. Around a Rondo behind the Performance: Preparing Mozart's Rondo in A Minor, K. 511 for Performance on Fortepiano. Griffith U of Queensland Conservatorium Research Centre, 2006. DVD. Etcheverry, Pierre. Couperin: Les 4 Livres de Pièces de Clavecin. By François Couperin, BNL, Dec. 2012. Spotify, spotify:album:7mwAWJtczdVrbmHcCwqGDg. Accessed 20 Oct. 2017. Forte, Vittorio. Couperin — Chopin: affinités retrouvées. By François Couperin and Frédéric Chopin, Translated by Charles Johnston, Lyrinx, 2012. CD. Gilbert, Kenneth. François Couperin: Premier livre de clavecin. By François Couperin, Orion, 1992. CD. ———. François Couperin: Quatrième livre de clavecin. By François Couperin, Orion, 1992.
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CD. ———. François Couperin: Second livre de clavecin. By François Couperin, Orion, 1994. CD. ———. François Couperin: Troisième livre de clavecin. By François Couperin, Orion, 1992. CD. Gutman, Stephen. Jean-Philippe Rameau: The Complete Keyboard Music Volume 1. By Jean- Philippe Rameau, Toccata classics, 2007. CD. ———. Jean-Philippe Rameau: The Complete Keyboard Music Volume 2. By Jean-Philippe Rameau, Toccata classics, 2013. CD. ———. Jean-Philippe Rameau: The Complete Keyboard Music Volume 3. By Jean-Philippe Rameau, Toccata classics, 2014. CD. Hewitt, Angela. Bach Performance on the Piano. Hyperion, 2008. DVD. ———. François Couperin Keyboard Music, Vol. 1. By François Couperin, Hyperion Records, 2002. CD. ———. François Couperin Keyboard Music, Vol. 2. By François Couperin, Hyperion Records, 2003. CD. ———. François Couperin Keyboard Music, Vol. 3. By François Couperin, Hyperion Records, 2004. CD McIntyre, Ray. Couperin, 45 Selected Pieces for Piano. By François Couperin, Palatine Recordings, 2000. CD. Schlosberg, Daniel. Gaul me Maybe: French Baroque Keyboard Music. Centaur Records, 2016. CD. Sokolov, Grigory. Grigory Sokolov Récital Aux Champs-Elysées: Live in Paris. Idéale Audience International: Medici Arts, 2009. DVD. Tharaud, Alexander. Alexander Tharaud Plays Rameau. By. Jean-Philippe Rameau, Harmonia Mundi, 2002. CD. ———. Tic, Toc, Choc: Alexander Tharaud joue Couperin. By François Couperin, Harmonia Mundi, 2007. CD.
Scores
Couperin, François. Œuvres Completes de François Couperin: Musique de Clavecin II. Edited by Maurice Cauchie, Éditions de l’oiseau Lyre, 1932.
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———. Œuvres Completes de François Couperin: Musique des Clavecin III. Edited by Maurice Cauchie, Éditions de l’oiseau Lyre, 1932. ———. Pieces de clavecin composées par Monsieur Couperin, Premiere Livre. Engraved by François Du Plessy, l’Auteur and Le Sieur Foucaut, 1713. ———. Pièces de clavecin second livre. Edited by Kenneth Gilbert, Heugel, 1969. ———. Pièces de clavecin troisième livre. Edited by Kenneth Gilbert, Heugel, 1969.
Ferguson, Howard. Early French Keyboard Music An Anthology. Vol. 1, Oxford UP, 1966. Ravel, Maurice. Le tombeau de Couperin. Edited by Nancy Bricard, Alfred Publishing, 2003.
Dissertations
Boulva, Lysiane. French Harpsichord Music of the Enlightenment: A Study of Jacques Duphly and the Aesthetic Context of his Life and Work. 2015. U of Toronto, DMA dissertation. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, search-proquest-com.ezproxy.libra ry.uq.edu.au/docview/1761573752?accountid=14723. Ceballos, Sara Gross. Keyboard Portraits: Performing Character in the Eighteenth Century. 2008. U of California, Los Angeles, DMA dissertation. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, search-proquest-com.ezproxy.library.uq.edu.au/docview/304654574?accou ntid=14723. Dalen, Tormod. Zum Spielen und zum Tantzen: A Kinaesthetic Exploration of the Bach Cello Suites through Studies in Baroque Choreography. 2013. The Norwegian Academy of Music, Norwegian Research Fellowship for the Art Programme dissertation. Research Catalogue, researchcatalogue.net/view/103350/103351. Dickens, Theodore Pierce. A Brief Overview of Keyboard Technique as Applied to Playing the Harpsichord, the Piano, and the Organ. 2001. U of Alabama, DMA dissertation. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, search-proquest-com.ezproxy.library.uq.edu.au/ docview/304684074?accountid=14723. Griffith, Ruth Jane. The Programmatic Clavecin Pieces of François Couperin. 1964. North Texas State University, MMus dissertation. UNT Digital Library, digital.library.unt.edu /ark:/67531/metadc663056/m2/1/high_res_d/1002774398-Griffith.pdf. Kahlstorf, Delano K. The Two-part Inventions of J. S. Bach: A Performing Edition based upon
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the Keyboard Technique and Performance Practice of Bach and his Circle. 2002. Texas Tech U, PhD dissertation. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, search-proquest-com.e zproxy.library.uq.edu.au/docview/252317873?accountid=14723. Kaminska, Iwona. J. S. Bach: The Ouverture in B Minor, BWV 831: A Discussion of its Origin and Style; Performance Practice Issues and their Application to the Modern Piano. 2002. U of British Columbia, DMA dissertation. ProQuest Dissertations and Thesis, search-proquest-com.ezproxy.library.uq.edu.au/docview/305223311?accountid= 14723. Keffer, Barbara. Michel Pignolet de Montéclair: Principes de musique divisez en quatre parties (Paris, 1936), translation and commentary. 1977. U of Arizona, MMus dissertation. UA Theses and Dissertations, https://repository.arizona.edu/handle/ 10150/348251. Accessed 1 Jun. 2020. Kjar, David. Wanda, Gould, and Sting: Sounding, Othering, and Hearing Early Music. 2015. Boston U, PhD dissertation. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, search-proquest-com .ezproxy.library.uq.edu.au/docview/1735393769?accountid=14723. Kong, Joanne Lan-Funn. A Comparison of the Technical and Interpretive Qualities of the Piano and Harpsichord, Accompanied by Performance Editions of the Chromatic Fantasy and Fugue (BWV 903) by Johann Sebastian Bach. 1986. U of Oregon, DMA dissertation. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, search-proquest-com.ezproxy.librar y.uq.edu.au/docview/303488794?accountid=14723. Lee, Sonia M. The Harpsichord: A Research and Information Guide. 2012. U of Illinois, DMA dissertation. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, search-proquest-com.ezprox y.library.uq.edu.au/docview/1420355097?accountid=14723. Lister, Craig. Traditions of Keyboard Technique from 1650 to 1750. 1979. U of North Carolina, PhD dissertation. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, search-proquest-com. ezproxy.library.uq.edu.au/docview/302944946?accountid=14723. Oehm-Kuehnle, Christoph. Musical Rhetoric in J. S. Bach’s Two-part Inventions and Implications for their Performance on the Modern Piano. 2000. U of Miami, DMA dissertation. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, search-proquest-com.ezproxy.librar y.uq.edu.au/docview/304608496?accountid=14723. Otomo, Ayako. Art, Music and the Harpsichord in Seventeenth- and Eighteenth-Century France. 2004. U of Queensland, MPhil dissertation. UQ eSpace, espace.library.uq.edu
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.au/view/UQ:287557/THE18614.pdf. Park, Misung. Chaconnes and Passacaglias in the Keyboard Music of François Couperin (1668–1733) and Johann Caspar Ferdinand Fischer (1665–1746). 2003. U of Texas at Austin, DMA dissertation. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, search-proquest-com.e zproxy.library.uq.edu.au/docview/305298813?accountid=14723. Accessed 20 Mar. 2017. Stranger, Sarah. Capturing the Spirit of the French Clavecin School: Interpreting Couperin’s Pièces de Clavecin, vingt-cinquième ordre and Ravel’s Le Tombeau de Couperin.” 2016. U of Queensland, MPhil dissertation. UQ eSpace, doi.org/10.14264/uql.2016 .294. Tang, Yin-Chun. Harpsichord Music of George Frideric Handel, Jean-Philippe Rameau and François Couperin Played on the Modern Piano. 1999. U of Maryland, DMA dissertation. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses, search-proquest-com.ezproxy.libr ary.uq.edu.au/docview/304514947?accountid=14723.
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Appendix A — Piano Recordings
Number of piano recordings of each piece in Couperin’s Pièces de clavecin. Data gathered from discogs.com, classicalarchives.com, naxos.com and allmusic.com.
Couperin, Pièces de clavecin Pieces from ordres 1–2
Allemande L'Auguste Première courante Seconde courante Sarabande La majestueuse Gavotte La Milordine Menuet (et double) Les silvains Les abeilles La Nanète Les sentimens, sarabande La pastorelle Les nonètes (Les blondes, Les brunes) La bourbonnoise, gavotte La Manon L'enchanteresse La fleurie, ou La tendre Nanette Les plaisirs de St Germain en Laÿe Allemande La laborieuse Premiere courante Seconde courante Sarabande La prude L'Antonine Gavote Menuet Canaries (avec double) Passe-pied Rigaudon La Charoloise La Diane Fanfare pour la suite de la Diane La Terpsicore La Florentine La Garnier La Babet Les idées heureuses La Mimi La diligente La flateuse La voluptuese Les papillons
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
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Pieces from ordres 3–6
La ténébreuse, allemande Premiere courante Seconde courante La lugubre, sarabande Gavotte Menuet Les pélerines Les laurentines L'Espagnolète Les regrets Les matelotes provençales La favorite, chaconne La lutine La marche des gris-vêtus Les baccanales La pateline Le réveil-matin La logiviére, allemande Premier courante Seconde courante La dangereuse, sarabande Gigue La tendre Fanchon La badine La bandoline La Flore L'Angélique La Villers Les vendangeuses Les agrémens Les ondes Les moissoneurs Les langueurs-tendres Le gazoüillement La Bersan Les baricades mistérieuses Les bergeries La commére Le moucheron
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
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Pieces from ordres 7–11
La Ménetou Les petits âges: La muse naissante Les petits âges: Lenfantine Les petits âges: L'adolescente Les petits âges: Les délices La Basque La Chazé Les amusemens La Raphaéle Allemande L'Ausoniéne Premiere courante Seconde courante Sarabande L'unique Gavotte Rondeau Gigue Passacaille La Morinéte Allemande à deux clavecins La rafraîchissante Les charmes La Princesse de Sens L'olimpique L'insinüante La séduisante Le bavolet-flotant Le petit-deüil, ou Les trois veuves Menuet La triomphante La Mézangére La Gabriéle La Nointéle La fringante L'amazône Les bagatelles La castelane L'etincelante, ou La bontems Les graces-naturéles La Zénobie Les fastes de la grande et ancienne Ménestrandise
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
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Pieces from ordres 12–17
Les juméles L'intîme, mouvement de courante La galante La coribante La Vauvré La fileuse La boulonoise L'Atalante Les lys naissans Les rozeaux L'engageante Les folies françoises, ou Les dominos L'âme-en peine Le rossignol-en-amour Double du rossignol La linote-éfarouchée Les fauvétes plaintives Le rossignol-vainqueur La Julliet Le carillon de Cithére Le petit-rien La régente, ou La Minerve Le dodo, ou L'amour au berceau L'evaporée Muséte de Choisi Muséte de Taverni La douce et piquante Les vergers fleüris La Princesse de Chabeüil, ou La muse de Monaco Les graces incomparables, ou La Conti L'himen-amour Les vestales L'aimable Thérèse Le drôle de corps La distraite La Létiville La superbe, ou La Forqueray Les petits moulins à vent Les timbres Courante Les petites chrémières de Bagnolet
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
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Pieces from ordres 18–23
Allemande La Verneüil La Verneüilléte Sœur Monique Le turbulent L'atendrissante Le tic-toc-choc, ou Les maillotins Le gaillard-boiteux Les Calotins et les Calotines, ou La piéce à tretous Les Calotines L'ingénuë L'artiste Les culbutes Ixcxbxnxs La muse-Palantine L'enjouée La Princesse Marie La boufonne Les chérubins, ou L'aimable Lazure La Croûilli, ou La Couperinéte La fine Madelon La douce Janneton La Sezile Les tambourins La reine des cœurs La bondissante La Couperin La harpée La petite pince-sans rire Le trophée Le point du jour, allemande L'anguille Le croc-en-jambe Menuets croisés Les tours de passe-passe L'audacieuse Les tricoteuses L'arlequine Les gondoles de Délos Les satires, chevre-pieds
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
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Pieces from ordres 24–27
Les vieux seigneurs, sarabande grave Les jeunes seigneurs Les dars-homicides Les guirlandes Les brinborions La divine-Babiche, ou Les amours badins La belle Javotte, autre fois l'infante L'amphibie, mouvement de passacaille La visionnaire La misterieuse La Monflambert La muse victorieuse Les ombres errantes La convalescente Gavote La Sophie L’epineuse La pantomime L'exquise, allemande Les pavots Les chinois Saillie
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
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Appendix B — Harpsichord-Idiomatic Pieces
Pieces from Couperin’s Pièces de clavecin that were not recorded on the piano. Data gathered from discogs.com, classicalarchives.com, naxos.com and allmusic.com.
Pieces that were not recorded on the piano (excluding Etcheverry)
Première ordre • Première courante • Les silvains • Seconde courante • La Nanète • Sarabande La majestueuse • Les sentimens, sarabande • Gavotte • Les nonètes (Les blondes, Les • La Milordine, gigue brunes) Second ordre • Allemande La laborieuse • Fanfare pour la suite de la • Premiere courante Diane • Sarabande La prude • La Terpsicore • L'Antonine • La Garnier • Menuet • La Babet • Passepied • La diligente • Rigaudon • La voluptuese Troisième • Premiere courante • Les pélerines ordre • Seconde courante • Les laurentines • La lugubre, sarabande • L'Espagnolète • Gavotte • Les regrets • Menuet • Les matelotes provençales Quatrième • Les baccanales • La pateline ordre Cinquième • Premier courante • L'Angélique ordre • Seconde courante • La Villers • La dangereuse, sarabande • Les vendangeuses • Gigue • Les agrémens • La Flore • Les ondes
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Septième ordre • L'adolescente • La Chazé • Les délices • Les amusemens • La Basque Neuvième • Allemande à deux clavecins • L'insinüante ordre • La rafraîchissante • La séduisante • Les charmes • Le petit-deüil, ou Les trois • La Princesse de Sens veuves • L'olimpique • Menuet Dixième ordre • La Gabriéle • La fringante • La Nointéle • L'amazône Onzième ordre • La castelane • La Zénobie Treizième ordre • L'intîme, mouvement de • La Vauvré courante • La fileuse • La galante • La boulonoise • La coribante Quatorzième • La Julliet ordre Quinzième • La régente, ou La Minerve • La douce et piquante ordre • L'evaporée • La Princesse de Chabeüil, ou • Muséte de Choisi La muse de Monaco Seizième ordre • Les graces incomparables, ou • L'aimable Thérèse La Conti • Le drôle de corps • Les vestales • La Létiville Dixneuvième • Les Calotines • Les culbutes Ixcxbxnxs ordre • L'ingénuë • L'enjouée Vingtième • La boufonne • La douce Janneton ordre • La Croûilli, ou La Couperinéte • La Sezile Vingt- • Le trophée • Menuets croisés deuxième ordre • Le croc-en-jambe Vingt-troisième • L'audacieuse • Les satires, chevre-pieds ordre • Les gondoles de Délos Vingt- • Les guirlandes • La divine-Babiche, ou Les quatrième amou badins ordre
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Appendix C — Ethics Approval
SCHOOL OF MUSIC
Approval Form for Experiments on Humans Including Behavioural Research
Chief Investigator: Ms Sarah Stranger
Project Title: Performing harpsichord music on the piano: A practice-led research study.
Supervisors: Dr Anna Grinberg (Principal Advisor) and Dr Liam Viney (Associate Advisor)
Discipline: Doctor of Philosophy (Performance)
Project Number: SoM-ETH17-04/SS
Duration: 4 years
Comments
Approved.
Name of Responsible Panel: School of Music Ethical Review Panel
This project complies with the provisions contained in the National Statement on Ethical Conduct in Human Research and complies with the regulations governing experimentation on humans.
Name of School of Music Ethics Review Coordinator
Dr Mary Broughton
Date: 15 May, 2017
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Appendix D — Interview Questions
Interview Questions to guide the discussion with each participant.
H1 (Harpsichordist): • When you first started learning, did you start on the piano or harpsichord? • The technique used on the harpsichord and the technique on the piano are different. Do you find it quite easy to go between the two instruments? • When playing this repertoire on the piano, what do you think causes some of the music not to be as translatable? • What do you think should be avoided when playing this music on the piano? • On the harpsichord, expression can be created through articulation and agogic accents. When translating to the piano, would you try and retain some of the articulation used on the harpsichord or would you find the best way on the piano without following harpsichord articulation? • When you are playing the harpsichord, is the articulation more subtle than when you are playing the piano?
H2 (Harpsichordist): • Did you start on the piano and move to the harpsichord? • Do you often move between the two instruments now or are you primarily a harpsichordist? • When translating this repertoire to the piano, do you think the ornaments are the main issue? • When performing this repertoire on the piano, would you transcribe it in a way that suits the piano, rather than compromising and not using the full extent of the piano’s abilities to perform it? • Can you think of a piece that, in your opinion, does not work at all on the piano?
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P1 (Pianist): • What research did you do to develop a piano interpretation of these pieces? Did you play the repertoire on the harpsichord? • Did you alter the score in any way? Did you omit ornaments? • Does your piano technique change when you are performing this music? If so, how? • Do you use the full extent of the piano’s capabilities or do you find yourself holding back?
P2 (Pianist): • What experience have you had with the French Baroque repertoire? • In your approach to developing your interpretation you made a big effort to try to understand the language, what else did you do in preparation? • Much of Couperin’s repertoire is seen as not being readily translatable to the piano because it is so intricately linked with the harpsichord. Why do you think this is? • Do you think that because there are so many people saying you cannot play Couperin on the piano it has caused people to avoid playing it? • When you were playing these, was your aim to use the full extent of the piano’s capabilities or did you find yourself holding back a little bit? Did you consider omitting any ornaments? Did you consider adding in any octaves? Did you experiment with notes inégales? • When you played this repertoire, was your piano technique different?
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Appendix E — Couperin’s Table of Ornaments
Couperin’s Table of ornaments (Pièces de clavecin composées Monsieur Couperin 74–75)
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Appendix F — Recital Program Notes
These are the program notes which accompanied the performance of Couperin’s repertoire (Customs House, Brisbane — 17th November 2019).
Program
Ravel Prelude from Le Tombeau de Couperin Couperin Pièces de clavecin, Second Livre — sixième ordre Ravel Forlane from Le Tombeau de Couperin Couperin Pièces de clavecin, Second Livre — neuvième ordre Ravel Menuet from Le Tombeau de Couperin Couperin Pièces de clavecin, Troisième Livre — dixhuitième ordre
Program Notes
Over the last three years, I have studied this repertoire on both harpsichord and piano. The aim of my project was to investigate how experience on the harpsichord would influence an interpretation of Couperin’s repertoire on the piano. The outcome of the study, that Couperin’s repertoire can be convincingly played on the piano, is demonstrated in this recital. Movements of Maurice Ravel’s Le Tombeau de Couperin are interleaved throughout the program. This work was written as a tribute to the composers of the French Clavecin School and is based on the eighteenth-century French suite. Having composed the piece between 1914 and 1917, Ravel drew from his predecessors, combining the grace and elegance of the French Clavecin School with an early twentieth-century harmonic language. Pairing Couperin’s ordres and movements of Ravel’s Le Tombeau highlights the connection between them. Additionally, it reinforces the influence Couperin, and other French clavecinistes, had on composers over one hundred and fifty years after the height of the French Clavecin School.
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François Couperin and the French Clavecin School
The published works of the Baroque composer, François Couperin (1668–1733), consist of primarily harpsichord repertoire. He did, however, also compose for organ, chamber ensemble and vocalists in both the church and court setting. His harpsichord works are considered to be the epitome of the French Clavecin School; a time in France where harpsichord composition flourished during the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries. Jacques Champion de Chambonnières (1602–1672), who is regarded as the founder of the French Clavecin School, brought the lute’s style brisé to his harpsichord compositions. This style of composition used an arpeggiated, broken texture which avoids textural pattern and regularity in part writing, as well as an ambiguous melodic line (Buch 53). This composition style was followed and built on by composers such as Louis Couperin (1626– 1661), Jean-Henri d’Anglebert (1629–1691), and Nicolas Lebègue (1931–1702). These composers paved the way for François Couperin (1668–1733), whose music embodied the French national style. The refinement he achieved in his compositions was unequalled; it synthesised all that had come before and would influence all that would follow (Kroll, “French Masters” 137). Descended from a prominent musical family, Couperin began his music studies with his father, Charles, and his uncle, François the Elder (Ferguson 6). Couperin was in line to succeed his father as organist at St-Gervais, a prestigious church in Paris. Charles’ premature death resulted in the need for Michel-Richard de Lalande to hold the church organist position until Couperin was able accept it at age eighteen (he was offered the position in 1685, one year prior). In 1693, Couperin became one of the four organists of the Royal Chapel in the court of Louis XIV. As well as performing duties as an organist, Couperin also taught music lessons to Louis XIV’s children and was a member of the musicians du roi; these were musicians who composed music for the court (Heller 208; Sadie, “Paris and its environs” 95). During his lifetime, Couperin published four books of Pièces de clavecin, these were published in 1713, 1717, 1722 and 1730. In 1716 (and revised in 1717), Couperin published L’art de toucher le clavecin (The Art of playing the harpsichord), a treatise intended to accompany his first book of Pièces de clavecin. Couperin highlighted his reasoning for his treatise in the preface to his second book of Pièces de clavecin:
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I am always astonished, after the pains I have taken to indicate the appropriate ornaments for my pieces (of which I have given a fairly intelligible explanation under separate cover in a special Method, known as L’art de toucher le clavecin), to hear persons who have learnt them without heeding my instructions. Such negligence is unpardonable, the more so as it is no arbitrary matter to put in any ornament one wishes. I therefore declare that my pieces must be performed just as I have written them, and that they will never make much of an impression upon persons of real taste, as long as all that I have marked is not observed to the letter, without adding or taking away anything (Couperin X).
Score alteration and improvisation were common practices during the Baroque; practices which Couperin seemingly did not think appropriate for his pieces. One of Couperin’s pieces, “La Princesse de Sens”, was circulated and published in a manuscript prior to its appearance in Couperin’s second book of ordres in 1717 (Beaussant 273). The performances of this piece, along with his first book of Pieces de clavecin, was motivation enough for Couperin to state that nothing should be added or taken away from his pieces. Couperin organised over 220 harpsichord pieces into, what he calls, ordres. Couperin used this term to describe his collections of pieces instead of a suite because they do not follow a set dance structure. There are twenty-seven ordres divided between four books of Pièces de clavecin. The ordres are made up of pieces which are unified by tonality and each varies in length, mood and form. Couperin’s earlier ordres are generally longer than his later. For example, the second ordre, found in premiere livre, comprises of twenty-two pieces without any clear sequence or structure. As the books progress, the ordres start to contain a smaller number of pieces and gain more structure, each portraying a prevailing mood throughout an ordre (Beaussant 258). Many of Couperin’s Pièces de clavecin are character pieces with descriptive titles. Couperin also utilised dance forms for his pieces; some of these are reflected in the titles, while other pieces are more loosely based on dance.
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Couperin’s works today
Couperin’s Pièces de clavecin are frequently performed on the harpsichord. However,
the repertoire is rarely approached on the piano. In a survey taken of an online discography website, there are 116 recordings of Couperin’s Pièces de clavecin on the harpsichord while on the piano, there are only 16 recordings (discogs.com). The deficit of piano recordings is partially attributed to the perception that Couperin’s repertoire is highly idiomatic to the harpsichord. Angela Hewitt, a pianist who has recorded some of Couperin’s repertoire, said, “having initially read through all 226 pieces, I chose those which I felt translated the best to the modern piano” (Hewitt, François Couperin, Vol.1 7). Some pieces are viewed as being less translatable than others; this can be attributed to the highly intricate and ornamented score writing, the clear link to the timbre of the harpsichord or the harpsichord-specific score writing (extended trills, style brisé etc.). A piano translation of this repertoire has been compared to a “change of dialect or accent in the same language such as the modern performance of Shakespeare’s plays in modern English or American accent” (Loesser 14). Those in opposition to the performance of Couperin’s repertoire on the piano are of the opinion that the music loses its character when it is performed on the piano (Anthony 313; Warlock 57; Brown, n. pag.; Tureck, “Bach — Piano” n. pag.). Musicologist, Albert Cohen, believes the “French Baroque Musical style does not transfer well to today’s instruments or aesthetic” (10). Boris Berman, a pianist with extensive harpsichord experience, believes that harpsichord repertoire “does not really transplant well to the piano, especially French music. I have not yet heard a convincing performance of Couperin or Rameau on the piano” (Berman qtd. in McLachlan 6). Despite the opposing views, my own experience with the repertoire has resulted in the understanding that it can be translated effectively to the piano. I combined historically informed practice with substantial practice and experience on the harpsichord in developing my translation from harpsichord to piano. Important issues that arose include the use of a variety of articulation, the use of notes inégales, and an aesthetic preference for clarity.
Approaching Couperin’s Repertoire
In my piano interpretation of Couperin’s repertoire, I am attempting to preserve the character and style of each piece by allowing the sound and techniques utilised on the 165
harpsichord to influence and guide my decisions. My aim was for character translation, not imitation. Just simply imitating the harpsichord’s sound and technique will not effectively convey the character. Translating the repertoire from the harpsichord to the piano involved identifying which stylistic elements were crucial when conveying the character and then discovering how these could be executed on the piano, an instrument with a different mechanism and sound. Playing these pieces on the harpsichord allowed for an in-depth understanding of the instrument’s texture, timbre and technique, which was used to guide touch, dynamics, and effects on the piano. While I intended to make use of all the piano’s capabilities, it became obvious that this will not work for all pieces and compromises may be necessary. This appeared through an alteration of piano technique, a more limited use of the piano’s dynamic range, or a slight alteration of the score. Aiming for clarity and a simple flow without any heaviness is one of the goals for my performance on the piano and I do not need to directly imitate the harpsichord’s timbre to achieve this. The following summary is a brief description of how I developed my interpretation of Couperin on the piano:
Technique: On the piano, my technique is altered to suit various pieces. While some pieces will require an arm weight-based piano technique, others will require a more focused, finger- based technique or a combination of the two. A harpsichord-piano hybrid technique incorporates a caressing motion into piano technique, a technique used on the harpsichord to maintain a tangible connection to the keys and mechanism. On the piano, this results in more control over the release of notes. The technique required will depend on the character of each piece.
Articulation: Unlike the piano, the harpsichord is unable to produce a wide variety of dynamics. One avenue for expressive playing on the harpsichord is through a wide range of articulations These can vary between subtle, almost imperceptible gaps to overt silences between the notes. Using harpsichord articulation on the piano assists in creating clarity and preserves the spirit of French clavecin music.
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Ornaments: On the harpsichord, ornaments can be used to highlight important notes, heighten expression and extend the duration of notes. On the piano, Couperin’s ornaments work well, if they are played without heaviness. In general, ornaments with a melodic function will often be approached gently, without a dynamic accent. On the other hand, ornaments with a rhythmic function will often be approached with increased energy and a dynamic accent. I do not omit any of Couperin’s ornaments. However, I do adjust the length of some trills to better suit the piano’s mechanism and sound.
Expressive Techniques: Rhythmic flexibility is necessary for the performance. However, a Romantic style of rubato was not common practice during the Baroque. Instead, flexibility was more often created by agogic accents and through the dislocation of hands. In general, this is the style of flexibility my interpretation utilises. Notes inégales, otherwise known as rhythmic inequality, is a French Baroque practice where notes are played unequally. More time is given to the first note of a pair, resulting in the shortening of the second note. The level of inégales can vary widely, ranging from a subtle swing to a strong dotted rhythm, and is determined by the character and tempo of the piece. Other expressive functions that are effective on piano include the arpeggiation of chords and the use of suspensions. Suspensions, or the dislocation of hands is a practice marked by Couperin in several of his pieces. On the piano, this practice works well and more can be added to heighten expression and to highlight important melodic notes.
Piano’s Capabilities: The piano’s sustain and una corda pedals are utilised in the interpretation. While the harpsichord cannot sustain notes for an extended period of time, the resonance produced by the plucking of the harpsichord’s strings has influenced the use of the piano’s sustain pedal; it will be used throughout for colour and resonance. A harpsichord has the opportunity to vary the timbre and octave of notes by using different choirs of strings and engaging the stops. Each of the combinations available created a different effect and I have allowed this to influence the colours created through a variety of touch on the piano. The piano’s capability to produce a variety of dynamics assists with character portrayal. In my interpretation, the dynamics are not executed solely in a terrace- like manner. Instead, a full range of graduated dynamics are used to shape phrases.
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Pièces de clavecin
Couperin provided explanations for most of his ornaments and suggestions for how to approach his repertoire. However, he did not provide explanations for his titles. Some clearly relate to the character of the piece, while others are more obscure; they are character portraits of certain members of the royal court or seem to have to clear meaning at all. Musicologists, such as Philippe Beaussant, Wilfred Mellers, David Tunley, and Jane Clark and Derek Connon, have provided insightful, yet varying, explanations for the titles.
Sixième Ordre
1. Les moissonneurs (The Harvesters) 2. Les langueurs-tendres (The Love-lorn Sighs) 3. Le gazouillement (The Chattering of Birds) 4. La Bersan (The Bersan — a portrait piece) 5. Les baricades mistérieuses (The Mysterious Barricades) 6. Les bergeries (The Sheep Pens) 7. La commére (The Gossiping Woman) 8. Le moucheron (The Fly)
The sixième ordre is Couperin’s first ordre to be unified by a single tonality. It is written in B-flat major, a key regularly used for pastoral pieces. According to Clark and Connon and Mellers, the sixième ordre was inspired by a divertissement at a concert hosted by the Duchesse Du Maine, a subject of several of Couperin’s pieces, at Sceaux in 1714. A divertissement was a set of incidental works added to a ballet or an opera. This particular divertissement featured “shepherds, shepherdesses and reapers” (Clark and Connon 134; Mellers 400). “Les moissonneurs” begins the ordre with a direct reference to the divertissement and through the music, we can hear the swinging of the harvesters’ scythes (Mellers 400). While it is a character piece, it is also written in the style of a Gavotte (Heller 209), a folk dance which, in this piece, has a rustic and naïve character (Beaussant 259). Throughout this piece I use notes inégales for the quavers. 168
The love-lorn sighs, or more literally the tender tongues, captures the “subtlety of sighing for an unattainable lover” (Clark and Connon 135). Clark and Connon suggest that the piece is in reference to Duchesse Du Maine’s search for love (135). The character of the piece is tender and gentle and throughout, the listener can hear the sighs of longing brought about by unrequited love. On the piano, the melody is generally played legato, while the accompaniment utilises harpsichord-style articulation. “Le gazouillement” is a bright, playful piece and again it could be a reference to the Duchesse Du Maine who, along with her friends, was known as les Oiseaux de Sceaux (Clark and Connon 135). The use of the high register and the short melodic fragments in this piece effectively captures both the gossiping of women and the tweeting and chirping of birds. To assist in capturing the character, I use an articulated touch and aim for clarity and lightness. According to Clark and Connon, the Seigneur de Bersan, known as André Bauyn, is the possible subject of the fourth piece (136), “La Bersan”. The Seigneur de Bersan was a tax farmer and owned the Bauyn manuscript. This manuscript was the source containing Louis Couperin’s keyboard music (136). This piece displays Couperin’s interest in uniting both the French and Italian styles, a union which he believed would create perfection in music (Tunley 7). The Italian influence is evident in the use of imitation and scale-like passages (Tunley 117). To capture the energetic character, my technique is articulated and focused. The title for the fifth piece, “Les baricades mistérieuses”, does not have a clear explanation. Couperin’s use of the style brisé technique provides a sense of searching and uncertainty and Mellers sees the use of this as a way to barricade us from a clear harmonic structure (400). The piano’s ability to vary dynamic levels allows for the balance between the style brisé voices to be altered where the pianist feels it necessary. “Les bergeries” is yet another reference to the divertissement, where the Duchesse Du Maine played the role of a shepherdess in love with a shepherd (Clark and Connon 136). The piece has a pastoral character and portrays a sense of gentleness and naivety. My use of a harpsichord-piano hybrid touch is effective in portraying the lyrical melodies while maintaining clarity. “La commére” is a playful piece that alludes to the gossiping of village women (Mellers 401). The imitation between the left and right hand creates the illusion of chatter between two women and the rustic charm of the piece places it more in a peasant’s village setting
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quite unlike the chatter of noble women in “Le gazouillement”. On the piano, using short articulation and maintaining a constant tempo assists in maintaining the energetic drive. The English translation of “La moucheron” is a very small fly and the insect’s buzzing or hovering is effectively captured in Couperin’s score writing. The piece is written in the style of an Italian gigue, characterised by running figures in 6/8 time. This creates a lively, flowing character, further assisting with the imagery of the fly. Near the close of the piece, I have shortened the left-hand trills to maintain clarity and avoid an overabundance of sound.
Neuvième Ordre
1. Allemande à deux clavecins (Allemande for two harpsichords) 2. La rafraîchissante (The Refreshing One) 3. Les charmes (The Charms) 4. La Princesse de Sens (The Princess of Sens — a portrait piece) 5. L’olimpique (The Olympic — a portrait piece) 6. L’insinüante (The Insinuating One) 7. La séduisante (The Seductive One) 8. Le bavolet-flotant (The Fluttering Ribbons) 9. Le Petit-deuil, ou Les trois Veuves (The half-mourning, or the three widows) 10. Menuet
The neuvième ordre opens with an allemande that was composed for two harpsichords. For my solo piano interpretation, I am playing the primo treble line and the secondo bass line, along with important harmonic notes and melodic fragments from the remaining bass and treble lines. This ensures the main melodic line and the harmonic structure can be heard. The pedal will be used to create resonance. In “La rafraîchissante”, Couperin used a 6/8 metre and stepwise movement to evoke flowing water. The nonchalamment (nonchalantly) marking suggests to the performer to play in a calm and relaxed manner, this further enforces the imagery. On the piano, subtle articulation and the use of notes inégales on the semiquavers create a sense of poise and naturalness.
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“Les charmes” refers to the lute and its ability to charm the listener (142). At the start of the piece, Couperin has marked Luthé, et lié, instructing the performer to play like a lute and in a connected manner. The style brisé writing further portrays the lute style. The piano’s capability to adjust the balance between the hands provides the opportunity to bring out melodic fragments where necessary. While we are unsure of the subject of the fourth piece, we do know that Couperin instructs the harpsichordist to play tenderly, which assists in portraying the delicate and graceful twirling movements of a noble lady as she dances a minuet. On the piano, the dense ornamentation is to be kept light and the elegant, dance-like character is captured with a gentle pulse and a variety of subtle articulation. Couperin marks “L’olimpique” with impérieusement, et animé (imperiously and lively), suggesting the performer should play in an arrogant and domineering manner. Both Mellers and Clark and Connon believe that the piece is written about Olympe de Brouilly who was known to be “vain and haughty” (François Couperin 405; Clark and Connon 143); traits that this piece portrays through the spirited tempo and the unrelenting dotted rhythms. On the piano dotted rhythms will be played over-dotted, as was the common practice during the Baroque and the sustain pedal will be used for resonance. “L’insinüante” — We do not know if this was a musical portrait of a shy member of the Bourbon-Condé family “who could only suggest her sentiments with hesitations” (Clark and Connon 143) or if Couperin was simply trying to portray a general character of insinuation. This piece includes extended trills, which can last nearly two bars in duration. Instead of playing the full trill on the piano, the duration is shortened to one bar. Much like the previous piece, there is no clear explanation for the title of “La séduisante”. This is another example of a piece which uses elements of the style brisé technique. Couperin marked the piece tendrement, sans lenteur — meaning tenderly without slowing. On the topic of seduction, Beaussant said, “for Couperin, tenderness was synonymous with seduction; it had that ability to ‘move’ him which he preferred to the ability to ‘merely surprise or beguile’” (274). “Le bavolet-flotant” refers to the ribbons attached to the base of a woman’s bonnet (Clark and Connon 143; Mellers 405). To portray the lady in the hat, the piece is to be played tenderly and the music kept light and carefree. Notes inégales is used in this piece.
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“Le Petit-deüil, ou Les trois veuves” — The first half of the title refers to the third period of mourning in seventeenth and eighteenth-century France (Mellers 405). The second half refers to three widows. However, Clark and Connon suggests that the term veuve (widow) was used ‘to mean someone who is deprived of lovers’ and believes it was probably a reference to three unmarried daughters (Clark and Connon 144). Both Clark and Connon and Mellers suspect this was one of Couperin’s wry jokes because of the cheerful nature of the music (Clark and Connon 144; Mellers 405). Notes inégales is used extensively in this piece. The final piece in the ordre, “Menuet”, is another example of Couperin’s interest in Italian forms and their integration into the French style. This is a light and lively Italian minuet in 6/8 time.
Dixhuitième Ordre
1. Allemande La Verneüil (a portrait piece) 2. La Verneüilléte (a portrait piece) 3. Sœur Monique (a portrait piece) 4. Le turbulent (The Turbulent One) 5. L’atendrissante (The Tender one) 6. Le tic-toc-choc, ou Les maillotins (symbolises a ticking clock or constant knocking) 7. Le gaillard-boiteux (a portrait piece)
The allemande which opens the dixhuitième ordre is most likely dedicated to, or is a portrait of, Achille Varlet (Sieur de Verneuil) who was an actor famous for tragic or heroic roles (Clark and Connon 169). On the piano, the grand and stately character of the piece is conveyed through a rich sonorous tone with added pedal for resonance. Unlike the previous movement, this second piece of this ordre is feminine and light. Clark and Connon suggest it is based on Marie Valèe, the wife of actor, Achille Varlet (170). To assist in capturing the character, Couperin instructs the performer to play légérement, et agréablement (lightly and pleasantly). To capture the simplicity of the piece, I use the harpsichord-piano hybrid technique. “Sœur Monique” — While the title can be translated to mean nun, Clark and Connon, Mellers, and Tunley all emphasise the fact that sœur was sometimes used to refer to “girls of
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ill repute” (Clark and Connon 170; Mellers 421; Tunley 109). Clark and Connon suggest the “seductive” couplets and the “mock-innocent” rondeaus create a parody piece, reflected through the irony of the title and the character of the music (170). On the piano, the lyrical melody is played with a legato touch and notes inégales is used on the semiquavers. “Le turbulent” — Clark and Connon quote Furetière’s Dictionnaire universel (1609), who defined turbulent as “one who is violent, disturbing, impetuous; who is given to making a stir, confusion” (170). The tres viste (very fast) marking and the running passages of semiquavers help to convey this. On the piano, I use a direct, focused touch. In “L’atendrissante”, Couperin’s instruction to play douloureusement (painfully) allows the performer to have a clear image of the character. Clark and Connon again quote Furetière who said, L’atendrissante is “something that makes the heart feel tenderness, affection, compassion for someone” (170). A mellow tone is used to convey the character of this piece. “Le tic-toc-choc, ou Les maillotins” has no direct translation, but it refers to rhythmic knocking or the ticking of a clock. This piece uses a technique called piece croisee, a harpsichord composition where both lines are written in the same register. On a two-manual harpsichord, one hand is on the upper manual and the other on the lower. In the case of this piece, the piece croisee helps to bring out the constant mechanical ticking, knocking or pulsing of the semiquavers. Keeping a generally consistent tempo will assist in portraying this character. On a one manual harpsichord, the right hand can be played an octave higher. For my interpretation, I am playing both hands in the same register. This assists in capturing the mechanical, ticking character. In their explanation of “Le gaillard-boiteux”, both Clark and Connon and Mellers refer to a Burlesque dance where the character has a wooden leg and so would hobble and limp (Clark and Connon 171; Mellers 422). Couperin writes dans le goût Burlesque (in the Burlesque taste) which gives the performer an indication that the character of the piece should be mocking and joking.
List of Works Cited
Anthony, James R. French Baroque Music: from Beaujoyeulx to Rameau. Amadeus Press, 1997. Badura-Skoda, Paul. Interpreting Bach at the Keyboard. Translated by Alfred Clayton, Oxford 173
UP, 1993. Beaussant, Philippe. Francois Couperin. Edited by Pauly G. Reinhard, Amadues Press, 1990. Buch, David J. “Style brisé, style luthé, and the Choses luthées.” The Musical Quarterly, vol. 71, no.1, Jan 1985. pp.52–67. ResearchGate, researchgate.net/publication/24924055 0_Style_brise_Style_luthe_and_the_Choses_luthees. Accessed 30 Oct 2019. Clark, Jane and Derek Connon. The Mirror of Human Life. Keyword Press, 2002. Cohen, Albert. “The Performance of French Baroque Music: A Report on the State of Current Research.” Performance Practice Review, vol. 1, no. 1, 1988. Scholarship@Claremont, scholarship.claremont.edu/ppr/vol1/iss1/3. Accessed 14 Mar. 2017. Couperin, François. pièces de clavecin troisième livre. Edited by Kenneth Gilbert, Heugel, 1969.
Ferguson, Howard. Early French Keyboard Music an Anthology. Vol. 1, Oxford UP, 1966. Heller, Wendy. Music in the Baroque. Norton, 2014. Hewitt, Angela. François Couperin Keyboard Music, Vol. 1. By François Couperin, Hyperion Records, 2002. CD. Hill, John Walter. Baroque Music: Music in Western Europe, 1580–1750. Norton, 2005. Kroll, Mark. “French Masters.” Eighteenth-Century Keyboard Music, edited by Robert L. Marshall, Routledge, 2003. pp.124–153. Loesser, Arthur. “Bach on Today’s Piano.” Music Journal, vol. 32, no. 6, Jul. 1974, pp. 14–15. ProQuest, search-proquest-com.ezproxy.library.uq.edu.au/docview/740696879?acco untid=14723. McLachlan, Murray. “Boris Berman in Conversation.” Piano Journal, vol. 114, 2018, pp. 5–9. Mellers, Wilfrid Howard. François Couperin and the French Classical Tradition. Faber, 1987. Schott, Howard. “National Styles.” Companion to Baroque Music, edited by Julie Anne Sadie, U of California Press, 1998, pp. 409–416. Tunley, David. François Couperin and 'the Perfection of Music'. Ashgate, 2004. Tureck, Rosalyn. “Bach — Piano, Harpsichord or Clavichord?.” Curtis Institute of Music, curtis.edu/academics/library/tureck-bach-research-institute-at-curtis-institute-of-mu sic/documents/bachpiano-harpsichord-or-clavichord/. Accessed 3 Aug. 2020. Warlock, Peter. “Early French Keyboard Music.” The Listener, vol. 2, 10 Jul. 1929, pp. 57–58. The Listener Historical Archive, 1929–1991, Gale Group, tinyurl.galegroup.com.ezpro
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